International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics 22 (1998) 67—71
Work/rest: Part I — Guidelines for the practitioner1
Stephan Konz!,*
! Department of Industrial and Manufacturing Systems Engineering, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
1. Audience
The practitioner is assumed to be an ergonomist
or a person who use ergonomics as a part of their
job responsibilities.
2. Context of use
The Guidelines is a guideline, not a law or regu-
lation. The accompanying knowledge base (Part II,
Konz, 1998) gives the literature supporting the
guidelines.
3. Glossary
None.
* Corresponding author. E-mail: sk@taylor.ie.ksu.edu.
1 The recommendations provided in this guide are based on
numerous published and unpublished scientific studies and are
intended to enhance worker safety and productivity. These rec-
ommendations are neither intended to replace existing stan-
dards, if any, nor should they be treated as standards.
Furthermore, this document should not be construed to repres-
ent institutional policy.
The following individuals participated in the discussion of the
earlier version of this guide. Their suggestions (written or verbal)
were incorporated by the authors in this version: A Aaras,
Norway; J.E. Fernandez, USA; A. Frelivalds, USA; T. Gallwey,
Ireland; M. Jager, Germany; S. Kumar, Canada; H. Krueger,
Switzerland; K. Landau, Germany; A. Luttmann, Germany; A.
Mital, USA; J.D. Ramsey, USA; M-J. Wang, Taiwan.
0169-8141/98/$19.00 Copyright ( 1998 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved
PII S 0 1 6 9 - 8 1 4 1 ( 9 7 ) 0 0 0 6 8 - 1
4. Problem identification/recognition
The ergonomist will recognize the fatigue prob-
lem from the job/task. It is unlikely that illness/
injury reports will be the impetus for an investiga-
tion. However, there may be a serious accident and
then, upon investigation, fatigue and the work/rest
situation may be recognized as a problem. Fatigue
probably will be related to long daily work hours
— especially if there is a lack of sleep. Occasionally,
fatigue will be due to long weekly work hours,
perhaps combined with shiftwork.
Performance effects of fatigue are more likely to
be reflected in errors than in changes in units/h.
5. Data collection/analysis
Data needs to be collected on errors and near
errors. It is critical to identify when the error occur-
red so the connection with fatigue and work/rest
can be identified. Subjective evaluation/self-report
(if quantifiable) can be useful.
6. Solutions
From a financial viewpoint, some rest time is
paid and some is not paid, but, from a fatigue
viewpoint, a rest is a rest. In addition to the coffee
break, there are three types of at-work breaks: (1)
microbreaks (short breaks of a minute or less), (2)
68 S. Konz / International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics 22 (1998) 67—71
informal breaks (work interruptions, training) and
(3) working rest (a different task using a different
part of the body, such as answering the phone vs.
keying data). Most tasks do not require maximum
capacity continuously. In particular, the work may
be automatic or semi-automatic and the operator
may rest during machine time. In addition, there
are meal breaks and off-work breaks (evenings/
nights, weekends, holidays, vacations).
(1) Ideally, the ergonomics of the job/environ-
ment are such that no rest breaks are needed be-
yond the standard breaks for coffee and meals.
(2) Work breaks are the first choice since they not
only provide a break but have output during the
break. However, work breaks may not have max-
imum recovery value.
(3) Improve recovery value of a break by:
a. Minimizing the fatigue (“dose”) before the
break.
b. Maximizing the recovery rate (minimize
half-life of fatigue).
c. Have a sufficient length of a break.
(4) Fatigue can affect different parts of the body:
(1) cardio-vascular system, (2) skeletal—muscular
system and (3) the brain.
The cardio-vascular system primarily is affected
by heavy work such as manual material handling.
The skeletal—muscular system is primarily affected
by postural static work (e.g. standing), VDT work,
and manipulative work. The brain is affected by
information overload (concentration and attention)
jobs. However, a serious problem is information
underload (boredom). Another serious problem for
the brain is lack of sleep.
Note that jobs (e.g. nurses, truck drivers, ma-
chine operator, VDT operators) usually have a
combination of physical and mental fatigue.
The following seven guidelines are divided into
(1) fatigue prevention and (2) fatigue reduction.
7. Fatigue prevention
7.1. Guideline 1: Have a work-scheduling policy
The problem is insufficient rest. Two aspects are:
(1) too many work hours and (2) work hours at the
wrong time.
7.1.1. Too many hours
Count all the hours in “duty time”. For example,
jobs such as train crews and flight crews often have
preparation time required before and after the “pri-
mary” job. Watchkeepers at sea often have other
duties assigned besides watchkeeping. There may
be “shift turnover” time in which the old shift
stays to communicate with the new shift. In
addition, people may work overtime. Overtime
can occur when the entire group works more hours
but also can occur when specific individuals have
to be replaced (illness, absenteeism). In such
cases, very long shifts can occur for individuals.
There probably should be restrictions on pro-
longed overtime, especially over 12 h/day and over
55 h/week.
Lack of sleep can increase if the individual moon-
lights or has a long commute time.
See Tables 4—8 in Part II for some recommenda-
tions.
7.1.2. Work hours at wrong time
Lack of sleep can be due to sleeping at the
“wrong time” and due to irregular hours of work.
This circadian rhythm problem affects both health
and social life. See Tables 11—13 in Part II for some
recommendations.
7.2. Guideline 2: Optimize stimulation during work
The problem for the brain is too much stimula-
tion (overload) or too little stimulation (boredom).
Stimulation comes from both the task and the
environment.
7.2.1. Too much stimulation
The usual solution is to reduce environmental
stimulation. For example, for office tasks, increase
visual and auditory privacy.
7.2.2. Too little stimulation
Increase stimulation for either or both the task
and the environment. Tasks are more stimulating if
there is physical activity. For example, if truck
drivers are sleepy, have them stop and walk (say
150 m), or have them eat or drink. Add variety
within the task; another option is a variety of tasks
done by the same person.
 S. Konz / International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics 22 (1998) 67—71
Add environmental stimulation by (1) encourag-
ing conversation with others (this may require
a two-way radio for those physically isolated), (2)
varying the auditory environment (talk radio, stimu-
lating music), (3) varying the visual environment (e.g.
windows with a view), (4) varying the physical envir-
onment (change temperature, air velocity).
Chemicals (e.g. caffeine) also stimulate the indi-
vidual. See Table 9 in Part II.
7.3. Guideline 3: Minimize the fatigue dose
The problem is the “dose” of fatigue becomes too
great to overcome easily. Two aspects are intensity
and work/rest schedule.
7.3.1. Intensity
Good ergonomics practice reduces high stress
levels on the person. For example, use machines
and devices to reduce hold and carry activities.
Static work is especially stressful as specific muscles
are activated continuously and there is not the
alternation of muscles that occurs in dynamic
work.
7.3.2. Work/rest schedule
The “dose” of fatigue increases exponentially
(not linearly) with time. Thus, it is important to get
rest before the fatigue level becomes too high. (If
piece-rate incentives are used, insist that workers
take their breaks.)
The normal approach is to schedule a break but
another approach is to use part-time workers.
8. Fatigue reduction
8.1. Guideline 4: ºse work breaks
The problem with a conventional break is that
there is no productivity during the break. A solu-
tion is to use a different part of the body to work
while resting the fatigued part.
If a machine is semi-automatic, the operator may
be able to rest during the automatic part of the
cycle (machine time). (Machine time may decrease
physical fatigue but increase boredom.) Fatigue
recovery is best if the alternative work uses a dis-
69
tinctly different part of the body. For example,
loading/unloading a truck could be alternated with
driving a truck. Word processing could be alter-
nated with answering a telephone.
Nor quite as good (but still beneficial) is alternat-
ing similar work, as there would be differences in
body posture, force requirements, mental activity,
etc. One example is inspectors inspecting items on
a belt conveyor; they shift jobs with other inspec-
tors every hour. An assembly team of 6 rotates jobs
every 30 min. In a packaging operation with 14
products on 14 different lines, workers shift lines
every 60 min. Checkout clerks could use a left-hand
station and then a right-hand station.
Job rotation, in addition to reducing fatigue,
reduces the feeling of inequity among workers as
everyone shares the good and bad jobs. Job rota-
tion requires cross-trained people (able to do more
than one thing); cross-training gives management
scheduling flexibility.
8.2. Guideline 5: ºse frequent short breaks
The problem is how to divide break time. The
key to the solution is that fatigue recovery is ex-
ponential; see Table 1 and Figs. 1 and 2 in Part II. If
recovery is complete in 60 min, then it takes only
4 min to drop from 100% fatigue to 75% fatigue
but it takes 42 min to drop from 25% fatigue to no
fatigue. Thus, give break time in small segments. As
an additional benefit of frequent breaks, the fre-
quent break may reduce the exponential growth of
fatigue (see Guideline 3 above).
Machine-paced work does not allow for indi-
vidual differences between people (Mary vs. Betty)
and within people (Mary on Monday vs. Mary on
Tuesday). Operator-controlled breaks are better.
However, people may not take enough break time
so reminders may be beneficial.
There is some production time lost for each
break. Consider minimizing this loss by not turning
the machine off and on, by taking the break near
the machine, etc.
8.3. Guideline 6: Maximize the recovery rate
The problem is to recover as quickly as possible.
In technical terms, reduce the half-life of the fatigue.
70 S. Konz / International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics 22 (1998) 67—71
For environmental stressors, reduce contact with
the stressor. For heat stress, use a cool recovery area;
for cold stress, use a warm recovery area. Use a quiet
area to recover from noise, no glare to recover from
glare, no vibration to recover from vibration.
For muscle stressors, good blood circulation
carries away fatigue products and brings nutrients.
Athletes use heat (hot showers, hot tubs, saunas,
whirlpools) and massage. Workers do not have the
time or facilities available during their break for
these approaches. Muscles elevated above the heart
(e.g. when the arm is raised) recover more slowly
then when the muscle is below the heart. In general,
blood circulation should be best for prone postures,
then sitting, and then standing. Active rest seems
better than passive rest. The active rest may be just
walking to the coffee area (blood circulation in the
leg improves dramatically within 20—30 steps). For
exercises done at the workstation (during short
breaks), consider their social acceptability (some
people may be embarrassed to do some exercises).
It helps to have a good circulation system. That
is, a person in good physical shape will recover
from muscle fatigue faster than a person in poor
shape. People with heat-acclimatization recover
from heat faster than people without heat-acclimat-
ization.
8.4. Guideline 7: Increase recovery/work ratio
The problem is insufficient time to recover. The
solution is to increase the recovery time or decrease
the work time. See Table 1 in Part II. For example,
if a specific joint is used 8 h/day, then there are 16 h
to recover; 2 h recovery/1 h of work. If the work of
the two arms are alternated so one arm is used
4 h/day , then there are 20 h to recover; 5 h recov-
ery/1 h of work. However, overtime or 12 h shifts or
moonlighting can cause problems. Working
12 h/day gives 12 h for recovery so there is 1 h
recovery/1 h of work.
Consider all break time, both paid and unpaid.
In particular, consider machine time and job rota-
tion as well as lunch and coffee breaks. Holidays,
weekends and vacations are valuable for reduction
of long-term fatigue (long half-life) where there is
still a fatigue effect at the start of the day.
References
Konz, S., 1998. Work/rest: Part II — the scientific basis (know-
ledge base) for the guide. International Journal of Industrial
Ergonomics 22: 73—99.
 S. Konz / International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics 22 (1998) 67—71 71

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