R & A 500L Note (New)

REFRIGERATION
AND AIR-
CONDITIONING
BY
M.O.IBIWOYE
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
KWARA STATE UNIVERSITY, MALETE,
P.M.B.1530, ILORIN, KWARA STATE
COURSE OUTLINE
 Application of thermodynamic theory and design principles to comfort cooling, food
refrigeration and cryogenic systems.
 Characteristics of refrigerants and coolants.
 Principles of Thermoelectric refrigeration.
 Refrigeration control systems.
 Economic aspects and optimization criterion (3 Credit unit) PR – MEE 353
REFERENCES
1. B.D. Wood – Application on Thermodynamics
2. Stoecker, W.F. and Jones, J.W. – Refrigeration and Air-conditioning, 2nd Edition.
3. Holman, J.P., Thermodynamics, 2nd ed., McGraw Hill Book Company,
New York, N.Y, 1974.
4. Joel. R. Basic Engineering Thermodynamics in SI. Units, 3rd ed.,

Longman Group Ltd., London, 1971.
5. Rogers, G. F. C., and Mayhew, Y. R., Engineering Thermodynamics (Work and Heat
Transfer), 5th Edition, Longmans, Green and Co. Ltd. , London, 2007.
6. Spalding, D. B., and Cole, E. H., Engineering Thermodynamics, 3rd ed., Edward Arnold
Ltd., London 1973.
7. Van Wylen, G. J., and Sonntag, R. E., Fundamental of Classical Thermodynamics. John
Wylen and Sons, Inc., New York, N. Y., 1965.
8. Eastop, T.D. and McConkey, A.. Applied Thermodynamics for Engineering

Technologists, 5th ed. 2006.
9. Cengel, Yunus A. and Boles, Michael A., Thermodynamics, An Engineering Approach in

S.I. Units, 5th ed. 2005.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE– INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS OF REFRIGERATION AND AIR-
CONDITIONING
1.0 Introductory Concepts of Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning …………………….. 5
1.1 Refrigeration ……………………………………………………………………...….. 5
1.2 Air-Conditioning ………………………………………………………………….… 11
1.3 Relationship between Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning ……...………………... 12
1.4 Application of Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning …………………..…….……... 13
CHAPTER TWO – REFRIGERANTs and coolants
2.0 Refrigerants and Coolants ……………………………………………….…………. 14
2.1 Refrigerants …………………………………………………………….…………… 14
2.2 Coolants ………………………………………………………………….…...…….. 16
CHAPTER THREE – REFRIGERATION CYCLES
3.0 Refrigeration Cycles ……………………………………………………….…………17
3.1 Reversed Carnot Cycle ………………………………………………………………. 18
3.2 Practical Refrigeration Cycle …………………………………...…………………… 22
CHAPTER FOUR – VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS
4.0 Vapour Compression Refrigeration Systems............................................................ 23
4.1 The Ideal Vapour Compression Refrigeration Cycles............................................... 23
4.2 TheActual Vapour Compression Refrigeration Cycles.............................................. 28
4.3 One Stage Vapour Compression Refrigeration Cycle................................................ 32
4.4 Multi Stage Vapour Compression Refrigeration Cycles ………................................. 33
4.4.1 Cascade Refrigeration Systems ……………………………………………………….. 33
4.4.2 Multi Stage Compression Refrigeration System with flash chamber …….…..............37
CHAPTER FIVE – VAPOUR ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS
5.0 Vapour Absorption Refrigeration................................................................................ 46
5.1 Introduction……………………….............................................................................. 46
5.2 Absorption Refrigeration System ………………………………………………….…. 46
5.2.1 Ammonia-Water Absorption Refrigeration System.....................................................47
5.2.2 Lithium Bromide-Water Absorption Refrigeration System …………......................... 52
CHAPTER SIX – CRYOGENICS
6.0 Cryogenics…………………………………………..................................................... 59
6.1 Introduction………………………................................................................................59
6.2 Limitations of Vapour-Compression Refrigeration Systems.........................................10
6.3 Liquefaction of gases …………………….………....……...........................................10
6.4 Separation of gases ………………………………………………………………..… 10
6.5 Joule-Thomson Effect.…………......……….................................................................10
6.6 Problems at very low temperatures ………………………………………………… 10
6.7 Applications of Cryogenics …………………………………………………………. 11
6.7.1 Applications of Cryogenics in the oil and gas industry ……..………………………. 11
CHAPTER SEVEN – AIR-CONDITIONING
7.0 Air-conditioning ........................................................................................................... 10
7.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................10
7.2 Psychrometry ………………………………….............................................................10

CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS OF REFRIGERATION AND
AIR-CONDITIONING
1.1 REFRIGERATION
Refrigeration is the process of heat removal from a substance under controlled conditions. It is
also the process of cooling a body below the temperature of the surrounding. This simply implies
that refrigeration means a continued removal of heat from a body whose temperature is already
below the temperature of the surrounding.
Refrigerator is a system in which heat is virtually being pumped from lower temperature to a
higher temperature. According to the Clausius statement of the second law of thermodynamics: It
is impossible to design a cyclic system will transfer heat from a cooler to a hotter body without
any work done to accomplish the heat transfer. Thus, regular supply of power is needed to drive
refrigerator as shown in Figure 1.1. Theoretically, refrigerator is a reversed heat engine or a heat
pump. The main components of a refrigerator are the compressor, condenser, evaporator and
expansion valve.
Figure 1.1: Refrigeration and heat pump

Refrigerant is the working fluid which extracts heat from a cold body and discharges it to a hot
body.
History of refrigeration can be broadly divided in to two:
1) Age of natural refrigeration
Natural refrigeration begins with the pre historic times to the beginning of nineteenth
century. During this period people rely on nature for provision of refrigeration. The
oldest and most well-known among refrigerants are ice, water, and air. In the beginning,
the sole purpose was to conserve food. The Chinese were the first to find out that ice
increased the life and improved the taste of drinks and for centuries Eskimos have
conserved food by freezing it.
At the beginning of eighteenth century, the growths of bacteria were discovered to be
temperature-dependent. Bacteria growth declines as temperature falls, and that growth
becomes very slow at temperatures below -10 °C. As a consequence of this knowledge, it
was now possible to use refrigeration for food preservation and natural ice came into use
for this purpose.
2) Age of mechanical refrigeration
The first mechanical refrigerators for the production of ice appeared around the year
1860. In 1880 the first ammonia compressors and insulated cold stores were put into use
in the USA. Electricity began to play a part at the beginning twentieth century and
mechanical refrigeration systems became common in some fields such as breweries,
slaughter-houses, fishery and ice production.
After the Second World War the development of small hermetic refrigeration
compressors evolved and refrigerators and freezers began to take their place in the home.
Today, these appliances are regarded as normal household necessities.
1.1.1 Applications of Refrigeration Systems
Amongst the numerous applications of refrigeration systems are:
1. Domestic refrigeration – It includes the household fridges or freezers. The power of the
electric motor driving the compressor is 0.5h.p.
2. Commercial refrigeration – These are found in stores, supermarkets, hotels, cold rooms.
3. Industrial refrigeration – These are found in ice plants, large food parking plants. It
involves large scale refrigeration.
4. Marine and Transportation refrigeration – These are refrigeration that are found in fishing
boats and ship.
5. Freeze drying – This are used for food processing. An example is the freeze dryer in FAB
lab.
6. Air conditioning plants – Comfort cooling which involves cooling a space, humidity
control, air filtering, motion of conditioned air in the space, e.t.c.
7. Industrial air-conditioning – These may involve:
a) Providing comfort for workers in hostile working environment. For example, the spot
cooling in steel mill.
b) Controlling conditions to make them favourable to processing some objects or
materials.
In fact, it is difficult to imagine life without refrigeration air conditioning – their impact on our
existence is much greater than most people imagine.
1.1.2. Refrigeration System and Cycle

The basic parts of refrigeration system as shown in Figure 1.2 are:
 Compressor
 Condenser
 Expander
 Evaporator
Figure 1.2: Simple refrigeration diagram
Compressor: The job of the compressor is to suck vapour from the evaporator and force it into
the condenser. The most common type is the piston compressor, but other types have won
acceptance, e.g. centrifugal scroll and screw compressors
Condenser: The purpose of the condenser is to remove the amount of heat that is equal to the
sum of the heat absorbed in the evaporator and the heat produced by compression. There are
many different kinds of condenser.
Expander: The main purpose of the expansion valve is to ensure a sufficient pressure differential
between the high and low pressure sides of the plant. The simplest way of doing this is to use a
capillary tube inserted between the condenser and evaporator.
Evaporator: The function of the evaporator is to absorb heat from the surrounding location or
the medium which is to be cooled, by means of refrigerant.
1.1.3 Unit of Refrigeration
Refrigeration systems are rated in tonne of refrigeration which is briefly written as TR. One
tonne of refrigeration is defined as the refrigerating effect (amount of heat extracted) produced
by melting 1 tonne of ice at 0°C in 24 hours.
Figure 1.3: Melting ice
One tonne of ice requires 335 kJ/kg to melt. When this is accomplished in 24 hours, it is known
as a heat transfer rate of 1 tonne of refrigeration (1TR).
Based on the latent heat of fusion of ice being 335 kJ/kg, therefore, one tonne of refrigeration
1 TR = 1000×335 kJ in 24 hours
1000×335
=3 . 877
= 24×3600 kW
In actual practice, 1 TR is taken as 210 kJ/min = 3.5 kJ/s = 3.5
1 ton = 288,000 Btu/day = 12,000 Btu/hr = 200Btu/min.
Similarly, 1 U.S. ton = 2000 lb (1 imperial ton 2240 lb)
ΔHfusion for water = 144 Btu/lb
1 metric ton of refrigeration = 3000 kcal/hr
= 50 kcal/min
= 211 kJ/min = 3.52 kW
1 U.S. ton of refrigeration = 1 metric ton of refrigeration
1.1.4. Coefficient of Performance of a Refrigerator

The coefficient of performance (C.O.P) is a dimensionless parameter used to indicate the
criterion of performance of the thermodynamic cycle of a refrigerator. The coefficient of
performance of a refrigerator is defined as the ratio of the heat extracted at the evaporator
(refrigerating effect or capacity of refrigerator) to the work done on the compressor.
Mathematically,
Q
W
C.O.P. =
where, Q = amount of heat extracted in the refrigerator

W = amount of work done
N.B:
q
1. The per unit mass C.O.P = w
2. C.O.P. is the reciprocal of thermal efficiency of a heat engine. Hence, the magnitude of
C.O.P can be greater than 1.
C .O .P . Actual
3. The relative coefficient of performance (relative C.O.P.) = C .O .P .Theoritical
1.1.5. Differences between a Heat Engine, Refrigerator and Heat Pump
All the three systems, heat flows from one body to another.
In a heat engine, heat is transferred from a hot body (called source) to a cold body (called sink)
and work is done by the system on the surrounding in the process.
WE Q 2 −Q1 Q1
1−
ηTh = Q2 = Q2 = Q2
The working principle of both Refrigerator and Heat pump is exactly the same. In both the cases
heat is transferred from a cold body to a hot body on account of Input work (Exactly opposite of
Heat Engine where Heat flows from High Temperature to low temperature and Work is Output).
A refrigerator is a reversed heat engine. Heat is transferred from the lower temperature level to
higher temperature by applying external work to maintain the temperature below atmospheric
temperature.
Q1 Q1
(C.O.P.)R = W R = Q 2 −Q 1
A heat pump is similar to a refrigerator. The main difference between the two is in their
operating temperatures. The refrigerator works between cold body temperature and the
atmospheric temperature. On the other hand, heat pump works between hot body temperature
and atmospheric temperature.
Q2 Q2 Q1
+1
(C.O.P.)P = W P = Q 2 −Q 1 = Q 2 −Q 1 N.B:
Q2 =Q1 +W P
Thus, (C.O.P.)P = (C.O.P.)R + 1

Figure 1.4: Difference between a Heat Engine, Refrigerator and Heat Pump
1.1.6. Classification of Refrigeration Systems

Refrigeration systems are classified into:
1. Natural refrigeration: It relies on nature for provision of refrigeration. Natural

refrigeration methods involve:
 Use of natural ice, that is

a) Transported from Polar Regions
b) Harvested in winter and stored for summer
c) Produced by nocturnal cooling
 Use of evaporative cooling
 Use of salt solution

The main limitations of natural refrigeration are:
 Depend on local conditions
 Uncertainty due to dependence on weather
 Difficult to produce large amount of refrigeration using any of these natural

methods, and
 Available to everybody.
These limitations coupled with the advent of electricity in the nineteenth century pave
way for mechanical refrigeration systems.
2. Mechanical refrigeration: It employs artificial mean for provision of refrigeration.

Mechanical refrigeration has four basic components namely evaporator, compressor,
condenser and an expansion valve. The common mechanical refrigeration includes:
 Air refrigeration systems: air is used as the refrigerant
 Vapour compression systems
 Vapour absorption refrigeration systems
1.2 AIR CONDITIONING

Air conditioning is the process of simultaneous control of temperature, humidity, cleanliness, air
motion, and sound level within predetermined limit for the comfort of human beings and animals
and for the proper performance of some industrial or scientific process.
The acronym HVAC&R stands for Heating, Ventilating, Air-Conditioning, and Refrigerating.
The combination of these processes is equivalent to the functions performed by air-conditioning.
The four important factors for comfort air-conditioning are:
1. Temperature of air; In air conditioning

2. Humidity of air
3. Purity of air
4. air motion, and
5. attenuation of unpleasant sound level
1.2.1 Air-Conditioning Systems
An air-conditioning or HVAC&R system consists of components and equipment arranged in
sequential order to heat or cool, humidify or dehumidify, clean and purify, attenuate unpleasant
equipment noise, transport the conditioned outdoor air and recirculate air to the conditioned
space, and control and maintain an indoor or enclosed environment at optimum energy use.
The types of buildings which the air-conditioning system serves can be classified as:
 Institutional buildings, such as hospitals and nursing homes
 Commercial buildings, such as offices, stores, and shopping centers

 Residential buildings, including single-family and multifamily low-rise buildings of three
or fewer stories above grade
 Manufacturing buildings, which manufacture and store products
1.2.2. Types of Air-Conditioning Systems

In institutional, commercial, and residential buildings, air-conditioning systems are mainly for
the occupants’ health and comfort. They are often called comfort air-conditioning systems. In
manufacturing buildings, air-conditioning systems are provided for product processing, or for the
health and comfort of workers as well as processing, and are called processing air-conditioning
systems. Based on their size, construction, and operating characteristics, air-conditioning systems
can be classified as the following.
Individual Room or Individual Systems. An individual air-conditioning system normally employs

either a single, self-contained, packaged room air conditioner (installed in a window or through a
wall) or separate indoor and outdoor units to serve an individual room, as shown in Figure 1.5.
“Selfcontained, packaged” means factory assembled in one package and ready for use.
Figure 1.5: An individual room air-conditioning system
1.3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING
Generally, refrigeration and air conditioning are treated in a single subject due to the fact that
one of the most important applications of refrigeration is in cooling and dehumidification as
required for summer air conditioning.
In the form of heat pump, a refrigeration system can also be used for winter heating.
1.4 APPLICATIONS OF REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

The various applications of refrigeration includes:
1. Domestic applications: – Food preservation is one of the most important applications of
refrigeration. It is well known that food products stored at lower temperature in fridges
and freezers can be preserved for a longer time. Also, medicine can be preserved for
longer time using in fridges and freezers.
2. Commercial applications: – These are found in stores, supermarkets, hotels, cold rooms.
3. Industrial applications: – These are found in ice plants, large food parking plants. It
involves large scale refrigeration. Drug production. Drug storage; vaccines, medicines in
remote and rural areas. Manufacture of ice, ice cubes, flakes, etc.
4. Marine and Transportation applications: – These are refrigeration that are found in
fishing boats and ship.
5. Comfort air-conditioning applications: – It involves cooling a space, humidity control,
filtering, motion of conditioned air in the space, e.t.c.
6. Industrial air-conditioning applications: – These may involve:
i. Providing comfort for workers in hostile working environment. For example, the
spot cooling in steel mill.
ii. Controlling conditions to make them favourable to processing some objects or
materials.
The relationship of air-conditioning and refrigeration is shown in the Venn diagram below
Figure 1.6 Refrigeration/Air-conditioning Relationship

CHAPTER TWO
2.0 REFRIGERANTS AND COOLANTS
2.1 REFRIGERANTS
Refrigerant is a medium which absorbs heat when evaporated at the temperature necessary for
cooling purposes, and transfers it to the environment during condensation at a temperature
sufficient to perform this process. It is the working fluid in which during their cycle (i.e.
compression, condensation, expansion and evaporation) in a refrigeration system extracts heat at
low temperature and low pressure during evaporation and rejects heat at high temperature and
pressure during condensation.
The first used refrigerants were natural ice and a mixture of ice and salt. Later in seventeen
century, ammonia, sulphur dioxide, methyl chloride and carbon dioxide came into use as
refrigerants. Most of the early refrigerants are no longer in use for safety reasons and/or for lack
of chemical and thermal stability. Modern refrigeration and air-conditioning applications use
hydrocarbon compound, halogenated hydrocarbons named halocarbons and some inorganic fluid
as their refrigerant. The suitability of a refrigerant for certain application depends on its physical,
chemical and thermodynamic properties and on various practical factors. There is no ideal
refrigerant in the sense that one refrigerant cannot be used for all types of application.
The desirable properties of a good refrigerant for commercial use are:
 Low boiling point
 Safe nontoxic
 Easy to liquefy at moderate pressure and temperature
 High latent-heat value
 Operation on a positive pressure
 Not affected by moisture
 Mixes well with oil
 Noncorrosive to metal.
There are other qualities that all refrigerants have. These qualities are molecular weight, density,
compression ratio, heat value, and temperature of compression. These qualities will vary with the
refrigerants. The compressor displacement and compressor type or design will also influence the
choice of refrigerant. The following are some common refrigerants:
 Refrigerant 12 (R12): It is made of a combination of elements: carbon (C), chlorine (Cl),

and fluorine (F). Its molecular formula is CC12F2. The first synthetic refrigerant to be
used and non-toxic in nature. Used in a large number of reciprocating machines operating
in the air-conditioning range.
 Refrigerant 22 (R22) is made of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), chlorine (Cl), and fluorine (F).
Its molecular formula CHClF2 is slightly different from that of R-12. It is used in many of
the same applications as R-12. It has lower boiling point and higher latent heat which
permit the use of smaller compressors and refrigerant lines. It is nontoxic.
 Ammonia (R717): The oldest commonly used refrigerant, still used in some systems. It is
very toxic.
 Sulphur dioxide (R764): First to replace ammonia and to be used in small domestic
machines. It is very toxic.
 Refrigerant 40 (R40): Methyl chloride is used in the commercial refrigeration field,
particularly in small installations. Today it is no longer used. It will explode when
allowed to combine with air. It is nontoxic.
Other refrigerants include
 Water (R718)
 Air (R729)
 Carbon dioxide (R744)
 Refrigerant 11(R11)
 Refrigerant 13 (R13)
 Refrigerant 134a (R134a)
 Refrigerant 502 (R502)
Each of these manufactured refrigerants has its own characteristics, such as odor and boiling
pressure. Refrigerants are the vital working fluids in refrigeration systems. They transfer heat
from one place to another for cooling air or water in air-conditioning installations. Many
substances can be used as refrigerants, including water under certain conditions.
2.1.1 Classification of Refrigerants

Refrigerants are classified according to their manner of absorption or extraction of heat from
substances to be refrigerated.
There are two major classes of refrigerants. These are
1. Primary refrigerants – These are used in vapour compressor systems.

2. Secondary refrigerants – These are liquids used for transporting low temperature heat
energy from one location to another. They carry cooling effects without change of phase.
Examples in this class include water, antifreezes, brines, etc.
2.1.2 Requirements of ideal refrigerant

An ideal refrigerant must possess some or all the following requirements to be suitable for use:
 It must be non-explosive, non-flammable, non-poisonous and non-corrosive.
 It must have high latent heat of vaporization.
 The critical temperature of an ideal refrigerant should be above the atmospheric
temperature.
 The saturation pressure of an ideal refrigerant should be above the atmospheric pressure
at the lowest evaporator temperature likely to be required. This helps to ensure that any
leakage in the circuit leads to an efflux of refrigerant that must be easily detectable but
not an influx of atmospheric air.
2.2 COOLANTS
A coolant is a liquid with a freezing point below the evaporation temperature of refrigerant. It
takes part in the transfer of heat from the cooled substance to the evaporating refrigerant.
A coolant is a medium that has the tendency to absorb heat due to its specific heat which gives
rise to increase in temperature. It is important to note that liquids that do not change their liquid
state are commonly used as coolants. In big air-conditioning plants, and cases where the
refrigerant cannot be introduced into the cooled room for simple control system, coolants are
applied. Water is one of the most suitable media used as coolants due to (1) its high specific heat
and (2) its low viscosity. This is only suitable when the temperature of water is above 0°C. At a
temperature below 0°C, anti-freeze solution of salt, called brines and glycol are used as coolants.
The solution of these substances have the eutectic points where the whole mass of the liquid
freezes at constant temperature as a pure liquid.
Common coolants are the water solution of sodium chloride, calcium chloride, ethanol, ethylene
glycol and propylene glycol. To prevent the corrosion of coolant pipes, anti-rust inhibitors are
added to these substances.
The table below shows the properties of some coolants
COOLANT Eutectic temperature Concentration

TE (°C) me
φE= %
me +m w
Sodium chloride (NaCl) -21.2 23.1
Calcium chloride (CaCl2) -55 29.9
Ethylene glycol -52.3 69.0
Ethylene glycol Tfr = -11.5 Pure
Propylene glycol Tfr = -50.0 Pure
Ethanol -70 Pure
Where me = mass of agent and mw = mass of water
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 REFRIGERATION CYCLE
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Refrigeration cycle is one which transfer heat from one substance or space at one temperature
and dispose off that same energy elsewhere at a higher temperature. This process is either
continuous or intermittent.
The principle of refrigeration is rooted in Clausius statement of the Second law of

Thermodynamics, which states that “It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle
and produces no effect other than the transfer of heat from a cooler to a hotter body’. This
statement implies that a system that transfers heat from a cooler source to a hotter sink requires
the input of some additional work or energy.
Figure3-1 Refrigeration Cycle
If the purpose of the refrigeration cycle is to deliver heat energy to a body or sink, then such a
system is called a heat pump. Thermodynamically, a heat pump and a refrigerator are the same.
Applying the First law of Thermodynamics to the refrigeration cycle, then
∮ δQ=∮ δW … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .( 3.1)
( Q L−QH ) =−W … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (3.2)
Or (Q H −Q L )=W … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … ….( 3.3)
Both equations (3.2) and (3.3) are the same and from any of these equations, then
Q H =QL +W … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .(3.4)
Considering energy transfer per unit time, then
q H =q L +w=q L + P … … … … … … … … … … … … … … ...(3.5)
Where P = Mechanical power
The temperature range of interest in industrial refrigeration extends to about -60ºC. Another
field, CRYOGENICS, cover low temperatures. Cryogenics has applications in gas industry in the
area of separation of air into nitrogen and oxygen, liquefied natural gas and the pursuit of
temperatures approaching absolute zero.
3.2 REVERSED CARNOT CYCLE

The T-s diagram of a Reversed Carnot Cycle is shown in Figure 3.2 below and the
processes involved in the cycle
Figure 3.2 Reversed Carnot Cycle using wet vapour as working fluid
The processes of the cycle are

1-2: Vapour compressed isentropically to saturated vapour
2-3: Constant Pressure condensation to saturated liquid (Isothermal Heat Rejection)
3-4: Liquid expands isentropically
4-1: Constant Pressure evaporation to vapour (Isothermal Heat Extraction process)
Similarly, Figures 3.3 and 3.4 are the Refrigerator cycle and Heat pump cycle respectively. The
comparison of these cycles follows how their working principle is similar to that of the reversed
Carnot Cycle.
Figure 3.3 : Refrigerator Cycle Figure 3.4: Heat Pump Cycle
The analysis of the cycles is given below:

The criterion of performance of the cycle is also called the Coefficient of Performance which is
given by:
Work output
C . O . P .= … … … … … … … … … … … …..( 3.6).
Work input
 For Refrigerator:
The coefficient of performance is given by
Work output −Q41
(C . O . P .)ref .= = … … … … … … .(3.7).
Work input W
Where Q41 = Heat extracted from the evaporator
W = Net work expended
Note that the C.O.P. is positive as Q41 is negative as it is defined.
 For Heat Pump:
Work output Q23
(C . O . P .)hp= = … … … … . … … … ..(3.8).
Work input W
Where Q23 = Heat transfer into hot water
Note that the coefficient of performance of heat pump is greater than one. The coefficient of
performance is not the same as efficiency as efficiency is expressed in percentage and must be
less than 100%. The C.O.P., however may be less than or equal to or even greater than one.
From the First Law of Thermodynamics i.e
Q=U+W
It can be applied to the cycle as
Q23 + Q41 = W ............................................................................................. (3.9)
As Internal energy, U is zero, then dividing through by W, we have
Q23 Q41
+ =1
W W
Q23 Q 41
=1− … … … … … … … … … . … … … … … … … … … … … ..(3.10)
W W
Hence, it can be concluded from equation (3.10) that
(C . O . P .)hp=(C .O . P.)ref +1 … … … … … … … . … … … … … … ....(3.11)
Note that Q41 is positive while Q23 is negative.
For Carnot cycle, the direction of the cycle is clockwise.
Making a comparison of the efficiency of the Carnot cycle with the coefficient of performance of
the refrigerator and heat pump, it can be deduced that the efficiency of the Carnot cycle is
Net Work done 1 T1

ηc = = =1− … … … … … … … .. … …(3.12)
Heat supplied (C .O . P.)hp T2
T2
(C . O . P .)hp= … … … … … … … … … …. … … … … … … … .. … …(3.13)
T 2−T 1
From equation (3.11) above, then the (C.O.P)ref is given by

T1
(C . O . P .)ref =(C .O . P .)hp−1= … … … … … … . … … …(3.14)
T 2−T 1
The coefficient of performance, C.O.P. decreases as the term in the denominator, (T 2 – T1)
increases and vice versa. It shows that the coefficient of performance of a refrigerator varies
inversely as the difference in temperature between the hot and cold region.
It must be noted that T2 must be greater than Tatm. Or TH (Temperature of hot water) so that the
required rate of heat transfer can be accomplished in a condenser of economic size. Similarly, T 1
must be lower than ambient temperature or evaporator, T L to enable the evaporator to be of
economic size. However, for the reversed Carnot cycle, TH = T2 and TL = T1 for reversible heat
transfer from source to sink.
WORKED EXAMPLE 3-1

The operating temperature limits of a reversed Carnot cycle are 27ºC and - 23ºC. Determine the
(i) Coefficient of performance of refrigerator if it operates as a refrigerator;
(ii) Coefficient of performance of heat pump if it operates as a heat pump;
SOLUTION
TH = T2 = 27ºC = 300K
TC = T1 = - 23ºC = 250K
(i) Required: Coefficient of performance of refrigerator, (C.O.P.)ref

The coefficient of performance of the refrigerator is given by
T1 250 K 250 K
(C . O . P .)ref = = = =5.0
T 2−T 1 300 K −250 K 50 K
(ii) Required: Coefficient of performance of heat pump, (C.O.P.)hp
The coefficient of performance of the heat pump is given by
T2 300 K 300 K
(C . O . P .)hp= = = =6.0
T 2−T 1 300 K −250 K 50 K
3.3 PRACTICAL REFRIGERATION CYCLE

In practical refrigeration cycle, one can dispense with an expansion machine and use a simple
throttle valve to obtain the reduction in pressure. The throttling process is an isentropic process
i.e. it is irreversible. It implies that h3 = h4 as in the figures shown
The net work required is equal to the compression work while Q 23 is unaffected but Q41 is
reduced. In practical refrigeration cycle, Q41 is called the “Refrigeration Effect”. The “duty” of a
refrigerator is the heat extracted from the evaporator per unit time and is given by
Heat extracted Q41 (

kJ s ∨kW ) … … … … … … … … … … … … .. …(3.15)
−1
Duty= =
Time t
The throttling process introduces irreversibility in the cycle. However, the coefficient of
performance of the refrigeration cycle is no longer independent of the working fluid as in the
reversed Carnot cycle.
The substitution of a throttling device does not result in significant change in performance of the
real cycle and it constitutes a worthwhile mechanical simplification of the plant. The throttling
process is considered to be adiabatic when it is accomplished in a short distance as a valve or
orifice.
A practical ideal cycle differs from the reversed Carnot cycle in two other ways:
(i) Compression is carried out in the superheat region. The reason for this, is to prevent
liquid refrigerant from passing into the compressor and wash away the lubricating oil.
The oil carried along in the refrigerant into the evaporator may form a film on the
surface of the tubes and improve heat transfer process there.
(ii) The refrigerant is subcooled before throttling to within a few degree of ambient
temperature. This has to be done to increase the refrigeration effect and consequently
increases the compression work.
Note that in practical cycle, compression is neither adiabatic nor reversible while throttling
process is not perfectly adiabatic. The processes of condensation and evaporation are
accompanied by small pressure drop due to friction in the pipes. These deviations in the ideal
cycle lead to a reduction in the coefficient of performance.
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0VAPOUR-COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS
4.1THE IDEAL VAPOUR-COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION CYCLE

Many of the impracticalities associated with the reversed Carnot cycle can be eliminated by
vaporizing the refrigerant completely before it is compressed and by replacing the turbine with a
throttling device, such as an expansion valve or capillary tube. The cycle that results is called the
ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle, and it is shown schematically and on a T-s
diagram in Fig. 4–1 and Fig. 4.2 respectively
The vapor-compression refrigeration cycle is the most widely used cycle for refrigerators, air-
conditioning systems, and heat pumps. It consists of four processes:
1-2 Isentropic compression in a compressor
2-3 Constant-pressure heat rejection in a condenser
3-4 Throttling in an expansion device
4-1 Constant-pressure heat absorption in an evaporator
In an ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant enters the compressor at state 1
as saturated vapor and is compressed isentropically to the condenser pressure. The temperature
of the refrigerant increases during this isentropic compression process to well above
thetemperature of the surrounding medium. The refrigerant then enters the condenser as
superheated vapor at state 2 and leaves as saturated liquid at state 3 as a result of heat rejection to
the surroundings. The temperature of the refrigerant at this state is still above the temperature of
the surroundings
The saturated liquid refrigerant at state 3 is throttled to the evaporator pressure by passing it
through an expansion valve or capillary tube. The temperature of the refrigerant drops below the
temperature of the refrigerated space during this process. The refrigerant enters the evaporator at
state 4 as a low-quality saturated mixture, and it completely evaporates by absorbing heat from
the refrigerated space. The refrigerant leaves the evaporator as saturated vapor and reenters the
compressor, completing the cycle.
In a household refrigerator, the tubes in the freezer compartment where heat is absorbed by the
refrigerant serves as the evaporator. The coils behind the refrigerator, where heat is dissipated to
the kitchen air, serve as the condenser (Fig.4.1).
Remember that the area under the process curve on a T-s diagram represents the heat transfer for
internally reversible processes. The area under the process curve 4-1 represents the heat absorbed
by the refrigerant in the evaporator, and the area under the process curve 2-3 represents the heat
rejected in the condenser. A rule of thumb is that the COP improves by 2 to 4 percent for each
°C the evaporating temperature is raised or the condensing temperature is lowered.
Another diagram frequently used in the analysis of vapor-compression refrigeration cycles is the
P-h diagram, as shown in Fig.4.3. On this diagram, three of the four processes appear as straight
lines, and the heat transfer in the condenser and the evaporator is proportional to the lengths of
the corresponding process curves. Note that unlike the ideal cycles discussed before, the ideal
vapor compression refrigeration cycle is not an internally reversible cycle since it involves an
irreversible (throttling) process. This process is maintained in the cycle to make it a more
realistic model for the actual vapor-compression refrigeration cycle. If the throttling device were
replaced by an isentropic turbine, the refrigerant would enter the evaporator at state 4 instead of
state 4. As a result, the refrigeration capacity would increase (by the area under process curve 4-4
in Fig. 11–3) and the net work input would decrease (by the amount of work output of the
turbine). Replacing the expansion valve by a turbine is not practical, however, since the added
benefits cannot justify the added cost and complexity. All four components associated with the
vapor-compression refrigeration cycle are steady-flow devices, and thus all four processes that
make up the cycle can be analyzed as steady-flow processes. The kinetic and potential energy
changes of the refrigerant are usually small relative to the work and heat transfer terms, and
therefore they can be neglected. Then the steady flow energy equation on a unit–mass basis
reduces to
( q ¿ −qout ) + ( w ¿−wout ) =he −h i … … … … … … .(4.1)
The condenser and the evaporator do not involve any work, and the compressor can be
approximated as adiabatic. Then the COPs of refrigerators and heat pumps operating on the
vapor-compression refrigeration cycle canbe expressed as
Work output
C . O . P .= … … … … … … … … … …..( 4.2).
Work input
 For Refrigerator:
Work output −q 41
(C . O . P .)ref .= = … … … … .( 4.3).
Work input W
h −h
(C . O . P .)ref .= 1 4 … … … … .. … … … . … … .(4.4).
h2−h 1
Where q41 = Heat extracted from the evaporator
W = Net work expended
Note that the C.O.P. is positive as q41 is negative as it is defined.
 For Heat Pump:
Work output q 23
(C . O . P .)hp= = … … … . … … ..(4.5).
Work input W
h −h
(C . O . P .)ref .= 2 3 … … … … ..… … … . … … .( 4.6).
h2−h1
where h1 = hg at P1 and h3 = hf at P3 for the ideal case.
Vapor-compression refrigeration dates back to 1834 when the Englishman Jacob Perkins
received a patent for a closed-cycle ice machine using ether or other volatile fluids as
refrigerants. A working model of this machine was built, but it was never produced
commercially. In 1850, Alexander Twining began to design and build vapor-compression ice
machines using ethyl ether, which is a commercially used refrigerant in vapor-compression
systems. Initially, vapor-compression refrigeration systems were large and were mainly used for
ice making, brewing, and cold storage. They lacked automatic controls and were steam-engine
driven. In the 1890s, electric motor driven smaller machines equipped with automatic controls
started to replace the older units, and refrigeration systems began to appear in butcher shops and
households. By 1930, the continued improvements made it possible to have vapor-compression
refrigeration systems that were relatively efficient, reliable, small, and inexpensive.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4-1
A refrigerator uses refrigerant-134a as the working fluid and operates on an ideal vapor
compression refrigeration cycle between 0.14 MPa and 0.80 MPa. If the mass flow rate of the
refrigerant is 0.08 kg/s, determine the:
(a) rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space and the power input to the compressor;
(b) rate of heat rejection to the environment;
(c) coefficient of performance of the refrigerator.
SOLUTION
A refrigerator operates on an ideal vapor-compression refrigerationcycle between two specified

pressure limits. The rate of refrigeration, thepower input, the rate of heat rejection, and the COP
are to be determined.
The T-s and P-h diagrams of the refrigeration cycle are shown below.
Assuming that the steady operating conditions exist and the kinetic and potential energy changes
are negligible, then
The mass flow rate , ṁ=0.08 kg/ s
kJ
When P1=0.14 MPa ,then h1=h g=239.16 ∧s =s =0.94456 kJ /kgK
kg 1 g
State 2 is a superheated region
When P2=0.80 MPa ,∧s 1=s2 (isentropic process), then h 2=275.39 kJ / kg
When P3=0.80 MPa , then h3=h f =95.47 kJ / kg
Stage 3-4 is a throttling process, hence an isenthalpic process and therefore
h 4=h 3∧thenh 4=95.47 kJ /k g
(a) Required: The rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space, QL, and the power input,
Win, to the compressor.
The rate of heat removal, QL from the refrigerated space is
Q̇ L= ṁ ( h1 −h4 ) =0.08 kg /s (239.16 – 95.47) kJ/kg
¿ 0.08 kg /s (143.69) kJ/kg = 11.4952 kJ/s
= 11.50 kW
The power input, Win to the compressor is
W ¿ =ṁ ( h2−h1 )=0.08 kg /s (275.39−239.16)kJ /kg
¿ 0.08 kg /s (36.23)kJ /kg=2.8984 kJ / s
¿ 2.90 kW
(b) Required: The rate of heat rejection, QH, from the refrigerant to the environment.
Q H =ṁ ( h2−h3 ) =0.08 kg /s (275.39−95.47)kJ / kg
¿ 0.08 kg /s (179.92) kJ /kg=14.3936 kJ /s
¿ 14.40 kW
It could also be determined from the relation i.e.
Q˙ H −Q̇L = Win
and Q˙ H =Q̇L +W ¿ =11.50+2.90=14.40 kW
(c) Required: The coefficient of performance (C.O.P.), of the refrigerator.

Q̇ 11.50 kW
( C . O . P . )ref = L = =3.9655=3.97
W ¿ 2.90 kW
That is, this refrigerator removes about 4 units of thermal energy from the
refrigerated space for each unit of electric energy it consumes.
4.2THE ACTUAL VAPOUR-COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION CYCLE
An actual vapor-compression refrigeration cycle differs from the ideal onein several ways, owing
mostly to the irreversibilities that occur in various components. Two common sources of
irreversibilities are fluid friction(causes pressure drops) and heat transfer to or from the
surroundings. TheT-s diagram of an actual vapor-compression refrigeration cycle is shown in
Fig.4.5
In the ideal cycle, the refrigerant leaves the evaporator and enters the compressor as saturated
vapor. In practice, however, it may not be possible to control the state of the refrigerant so
precisely. Instead, it is easier to design the system so that the refrigerant is slightly superheated at
the compressor inlet. This slight overdesign ensures that the refrigerant is completely vaporized
when it enters the compressor. Also, the line connecting the evaporator to the compressor is
usually very long; thus the pressure drop caused by fluid friction and heat transfer from the
surroundings to the refrigerant can be very significant. The result of superheating, heat gain in
the connecting line, and pressure drops in the evaporator and the connecting line is an increase in
the specific volume, thus an increase in the power input requirements to the compressor since
steady-flow work is proportional to the specific volume.
The compression process in the ideal cycle is internally reversible and adiabatic, and thus
isentropic. The actual compression process, however, involves frictional effects, which increase
the entropy, and heat transfer, which may increase or decrease the entropy, depending on the
direction. Therefore, the entropy of the refrigerant may increase (process 1-2) or decrease
(process 1-2) during an actual compression process, depending on which effects dominate. The
compression process 1-2 may be even more desirable than the isentropic compression process
since the specific volume of the refrigerant and thus the work input requirement are smaller in
this case. Therefore, the refrigerant should be cooled during the compression process whenever it
is practical and economical to do so.
In the ideal case, the refrigerant is assumed to leave the condenser as saturated liquid at the compressor
exit pressure. In reality, however, it is unavoidable to have some pressure drop in the condenser as well as
in the lines connecting the condenser to the compressor and to the throttling valve.Also, it is not easy to
execute the condensation process with such precisionthat the refrigerant is a saturated liquid at the end,
and it is undesirable toroute the refrigerant to the throttling valve before the refrigerant is completely
condensed. Therefore, the refrigerant is subcooled somewhat before it enters the throttling valve. We do
not mind this at all, however, since therefrigerant in this case enters the evaporator with a lower enthalpy
and thuscan absorb more heat from the refrigerated space. The throttling valve andthe evaporator are
usually located very close to each other, so the pressuredrop in the connecting line is small.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4-2
A refrigerator uses refrigerant-134a as working fluid. The refrigerant enters the compressor of
the refrigerator as superheated vapourat 0.14 MPa and -10°C at a rate of 0.08 kg/s and leaves at
0.80 MPa and50°C. The refrigerant is cooled in the condenser to 26°C and 0.72 MPa andis
throttled to 0.15 MPa. Disregarding any heat transfer and pressure dropsin the connecting lines
between the components, determine the:
(a) rate ofheat removal from the refrigerated space and the power input to the compressor;
(b) isentropic efficiency of the compressor;
SOLUTION
A refrigerator operating on a vapour-compression cycle is considered. The rate of refrigeration,
the power input, the compressor efficiency,and the COP are to be determined.
The T-s diagrams of the refrigeration cycle is shown below

We note that the refrigerant leaves the condenser as a compressed liquid and enters the
compressor as superheated vapor. The enthalpies of the refrigerant at various states are
determined from the refrigerant tables.
are negligible, then
The mass flow rate , ṁ=0.08 kg/ s
When P1=0.14 MPa∧T 1=−10 °C , then h1=246.36 kJ /kg
When P2=0.80 MPa∧T 2=50° C , then h2=286.69 kJ /kg
When P3=0.72 MPa∧T 3 =26 ° C ,then h3=h f =87.83 kJ /kg
Stage 3-4 is a throttling process, hence an isenthalpic process and therefore
h 4=h 3∧thenh 4=87.83 kJ /kg
(a) Required: The rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space, QL, and the power input,
Win, to the compressor.
The rate of heat removal, QL from the refrigerated space is
Q̇ L= ṁ ( h1 −h4 ) =0.08 kg /s (246.36 – 87.83) kJ/kg
¿ 0.08 kg /s (158.53) kJ/kg = 12.6824 kJ/s
= 12.68 kW
W ¿ =ṁ ( h2−h1 )=0.08 kg /s (286.69−246.36)kJ /kg
¿ 0.08 kg /s (40.33) kJ / kg=3.2264 kJ /s
¿ 3.23 kW
(b) Required: The isentropic efficiency, ηc of the compressor.

The isentropic efficiency of the compressor is given by
h 2 s−h1
ηc =
h2−h1
The enthalpy at state 2s is h2s = 284.21 kJ/kg since P2s = 0.80 MPa and s2s = s1 =0.9724 kJ/kgK.
Thus,
284.21−246.36
ηc = =0.939=93.9 %
286.69−246.36
(c) Required: The coefficient of performance (C.O.P.), of the refrigerator.

Q̇L 12.68 kW
( C . O . P . )ref = = =3.9256966=3.93 That is, this refrigerator removes about 4 units
W ¿ 3.23 kW
of thermal energy from the
4.3 ONE STAGE VAPOUR-COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION CYCLE
The simple vapour-compression refrigeration cycle discussed above is one-stage or single-stage

vapour-compression refrigeration cycle and is the most widely used refrigeration cycle. It is
adequate for most refrigeration applications. The ordinary vapour-compression refrigeration
systems have the following characteristics:
1. They are simple and inexpensive.

2. They are reliable, and practically maintenance-free
However, for large industrial applications efficiency, not simplicity, is what is needed and pose a
major concern. Also, for some applications the simple single-stage vapour-compression
refrigeration cycle is inadequate and needs to be modified. The modifications and refinements
are discussed in the next section. Both the ideal and actual vapour-compression refrigeration
cycles described above are one –stage vapour-compression refrigeration cycles. The schematic of
operation as well as T-s and P-h diagrams are shown below.
4.4 MULTI-STAGE VAPOR-COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION CYCLE
4.4.1 CASCADE REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS
Some industrial applications require moderately low temperatures, and the temperature range
they involve may be too large for a single vapour-compression refrigeration cycle to be practical.
A large temperature range also means a large pressure range in the cycle and a poor performance
for a reciprocating compressor. One way of dealing with such situations is to perform the
refrigeration process in stages, that is, to have two or more refrigeration cycles that operate in
series. Such refrigeration cycles are called cascade refrigeration cycles.
A two-stage cascade refrigeration cycle is shown in Fig.4.9. The two cycles are connected
through the heat exchanger in the middle, which serves as the evaporator for the upper cycle
(cycle A) and the condenser for the lower cycle (cycle B). Assuming the heat exchanger is well
insulated and the kinetic and potential energies are negligible, the heat transfer from the fluid in
the lower cycle should be equal to the heat transfer to the fluid in the upper cycle. Thus, the ratio
of mass flow rates through each cycle should be
m A ( h5 −h8 ) =ṁ B ( h2−h3 ) … … … … … … … … … …(4.7)

ṁ A h2−h 3
And =
ṁ B h5−h 8
Also,
Q̇ L
(C . O . P .)R , cascade=
ṁB (h1−h 4 )
Ẇ net ,∈¿ = … ..(4.8) ¿
ṁ A ( h 6−h5 ) + ṁB (h2 −h1)
In cascade refrigeration system, the refrigerants are assumed to be the same in both cycles. In
practice, the working fluid in the lower cycle is at a higher pressure and temperature in the heat
exchanger for effective heat transfer. It is evident in the T-s diagram that the compressor work
decreases and the amount of heat absorbed from the refrigerated space increases as a result of
cascading. Therefore, cascading improves the coefficient of performance of a refrigeration
system. Some refrigeration systems use three or four stages of cascading.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4-3
A two-stage cascade refrigeration system operates between the pressure limits of 0.80 MPa and
0.14 MPa. Each stage operates on an ideal vapour-compression refrigeration cycle with
refrigerant-134a as the working fluid. Heat rejection from the lower cycle to the upper cycle
takes place in an adiabatic counterflow heat exchanger where both streams enter at about 0.32
MPa. Disregarding any heat transfer and pressure drops in the connecting lines between the
components. If the mass flow rate of the refrigerant through the upper cycle is 0.08 kg/s,
determine the:
(a) mass flow rate of the refrigerant through the lower cycle;
(b) rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space and the power input to the compressors;
(c) coefficient of performance of the cascade refrigerator.
SOLUTION
A refrigerator operating on a two-stage vapour-compression cycle is considered. The mass flow
rate through the lower cycle, the rate of refrigeration, the power input, and the COP are to be
determined.
The T-s diagrams of the refrigeration cycle is shown below
are negligible. Also, assume that the heat exchanger is adiabatic, then
The mass flow rate ,m ̇ A=0.08 kg/s
When P1=0.14 MPa ,then h1=h g=239.16 kJ /kg∧s1=s g=0.94456 kJ /kgK
But s 1=s 2 ,
When Pm =0.32 MPa∧s 1=s2 , thenh2=255.93 kJ /kg
Whe n P m=0.32 MPa ,then h3=h f =55.16 kJ /kg∧h5=h g=251.88 kJ /kg
kJ
When P2=0.80 MPa , thenh 7=h f =95.47 ∧at P=0.32 MPa , s5 =s g =0.93006 kJ /kgK
kg
But s 5=s6 ,
When P2=0.80 MPa∧s 5=s6 , thenh 6=270.92 kJ /kg
h 4=h 3 ( throttling ) , thenh 4=55.16 kJ /kg

h 8=h7 ( throttling ) ,then h8=95.47 kJ /kg
(a) Required: The mass flow rate,mB of the refrigerant through the lower cycle
The mass flow rate can be determined from the steady flow energy balance on the
adiabatic heat exchanger as
Ė¿ = Ė out → ṁ A h5 + ṁB h3= ṁA h 8+ ṁB h2
m ̇ A ( h5−h 8 )=ṁ B ( h2−h3 )
0.08 kg / s [251.88−95.47 ]kJ / kg= ṁB [ 255.93−55.16 ] kJ /kg
0.08 kg /s [156.41]kJ /kg=200.77 kJ /kg ( ṁB )
0.08 kg/ s ×156.41 kJ /kg
ṁB = =0.0623 kg /s
200.77 kJ /kg
(b) Required: The rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space, QL, and the power
input, Win, to the compressor.
The rate of heat removal, QL from the refrigerated space is given by
Q̇ L=ṁ B ( h1−h4 ) =0.0623 kg / s [239.16−55.16]kJ /kg
¿ 0.0623 kg /s ×184 kJ /kg=11.4632
¿ 11.46 kW

W ¿ =W comp A ,∈¿+W comp B ,∈ ¿=m ̇ A ( h 6 −h 5) +ṁ B (h 2 −h1 ) ¿
¿
¿ 0.08 kg /s (270.92−251.88) kJ /kg+0.0623 kg /s (255.93−239.16) kJ / kg

¿ 0.08 kg /s (19.04)kJ /kg+0.0623 kg /s (16.77)kJ /kg
1.5232+1.044771
¿ 2.57 kW
(c) Required: The coefficient of performance (C.O.P.), of the cascade refrigerator.

The COP of the refrigeration system is the ratio of refrigeration to the net power input
Q̇L 11.46 kW
( C . O . P . )ref = = =4.45914396887=4.46 That is, this refrigerator removes about
W ¿ 2.57 kW
4.46 units of thermal energy from the
4.4.2 MULTISTAGE COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS
When the fluid used throughout the cascade refrigeration system is the same, the heat exchanger
between the stages can be replaced by a mixing chamber (called a flash chamber) since it has
better heat transfer characteristics. Such systems are called multistage compression
refrigeration systems. A two-stage compression refrigeration system is shown in Fig. 4.11.
In this system, the liquid refrigerant expands in the first expansion valve to the flash chamber
pressure, which is the same as the compressor interstage pressure. Part of the liquid vaporizes
during this process. This saturated vapor (state 3) is mixed with the superheated vapor from the
low-pressure compressor (state 2), and the mixture enters the high-pressure compressor at state
9. This is, in essence, a regeneration process. The saturated liquid (state 7) expands through the
second expansion valve into the evaporator, where it picks up heat from the refrigerated space.
The compression process in this system resembles a two-stage compression with intercooling,
and the compressor work decreases. Care should be exercised in the interpretations of the areas
on the T-s diagram in this case since the mass flow rates are different in different parts of the
cycle.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4-4
A two-stage compression refrigeration system operates between thepressure limits of 0.80 MPa
and 0.14 MPa using refrigerant-134a as the working fluid.The refrigerant leaves the condenser as
a saturated liquid and is throttled toa flash chamber operating at 0.32MPa. Part of the refrigerant
evaporatesduring this flashing process, and this vapor is mixed with the refrigerantleaving the
low-pressure compressor. The mixture is then compressed to thecondenser pressure by the high-
pressure compressor. The liquid in the flashchamber is throttled to the evaporator pressure and
cools the refrigeratedspace as it vaporizes in the evaporator. Assuming the refrigerant leaves the
evaporator as a saturated vapor and both compressors are isentropic, determine the:
(a) fraction of the refrigerant that evaporates as it is throttled tothe flash chamber,
(b) amount of heat removed from the refrigeratedspace and the compressor work per unit mass of
refrigerant flowing throughthe condenser,
SOLUTION:
A two-stage compression refrigeration system operating between specified pressure limits is
considered. The fraction of the refrigerant that evaporates in the flash chamber, the
refrigerationand work input per unit mass, and the COP are to be determined. Assuming that the
steady operating conditions exist and the kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible and
the flash chamber is adiabatic.
The T-s diagram of the refrigeration cycle is shown below
The enthalpies of the refrigerant at various states are determined from the refrigerant tables and
When P1=0.14 MPa ,then h1=h g=239.16 kJ /kg∧s1=s g=0.94456 kJ /kgK
But s 1=s 2 ,
When Pm =0.32 MPa∧s 1=s2 , thenh2=255.93 kJ /kg
When Pm =0.32 MPa , thenh 3=h g=251.88 kJ /kg∧h7 =hf =55.16 kJ /kg
When P2=0.80 MPa , thenh 5=h f =95.47 kJ /kg∧s5 =s f =0.91835 kJ /kgK
But s 4=s 9 ,
When P2=0.80 MPa∧s 5=s6 , thenh 6=270.92 kJ /kg
h6 =h5 ( throttling ) ,then h6=95.47 kJ /kg
h 8=h7 ( throttling ) ,then h8=55.16 kJ /kg

We note that the refrigerant leaves the condenser as saturated liquid and enters the low-pressure
compressor as saturated vapor.
(a) Required: The fraction of the refrigerant that evaporates as it is throttled to the
flash chamber is simply the quality at state 6, which is x6 and is given by
h6 =h f + x 6 h fg
h6 −hf 95.47−55.16 40.31

x 6= = = =0.20492095
hfg 196.71 196.71
x 6=0.2049 (b) Required: The amount of heat removed from the refrigerated space and the
compressor work input per unit mass of refrigerant flowing through the condenser are
The amount of heat removed from the refrigerated space per unit mass is qL and is given by
q L =( 1− x6 ) [ h1 −h8 ]
q L =( 1−0.2049 ) [ 239.16−55.16 ] kJ /kg
q L =0.7951 ×184 kJ /kg=146.2984 kJ /kgq L =146.3 k J /kg
The compressor work input per unit mass, win of refrigerant flowing through the condenser is
given by
w ¿=wcomp . I ,∈¿+w comp . II ,∈ ¿¿ ¿
w ¿= ( 1−x 6 ) [ h2−h 1 ] + ( 1 ) [h 4−h 9 ]
The enthalpy at state 9 is determined from an energy balance on the mixing chamber i.e.
Ė¿ = Ė out
x 6 h3+ ( 1−x 6 ) h2=h9
h 9=0.2049 ( 251.88 ) + ( 1−0.2049 ) ( 255.93 )
h 9=51.61+ 203.49=255.10 kJ /kg
Also, s9 =0.9416 kJ /kgK
Thus, the enthalpy at state 4 (P = 0.80 MPa and s4 = s9 ) is h4 = 274.48 kJ/kg.
Substituting these values in expression for the compressor work input per unit mass, then
w ¿=wcomp . I ,∈¿+w comp . II ,∈ ¿¿ ¿

w ¿= ( 1−x 6 ) [ h2−h 1 ] + ( 1 ) [h 4−h 9 ]
w ¿= (1−0.2049 ) [ 255.93−239.16 ] + ( 1 ) [ 274.48−255.10 ]
w ¿= ( 0.7951 ) [ 16.77 ] + ( 1 ) [ 19.38 ]=32.71kJ /kg
(c) Required: The coefficient of performance (COP) of the refrigerator is
q˙L 146.3 kJ /kg

( C . O . P . )ref ., , flash= = =4.472638
w¿ 32.71 kJ /kg
( C . O . P . )ref ., , flash=4.47
EXERCISE
Q1.A single-stage vapour-compression refrigerator uses refrigerant-134a as the working fluid
and operates on an ideal vapor compression refrigeration cycle between 0.10 MPa and 0.90 MPa.
If the mass flow rate of the refrigerant is 0.15 kg/s, determine the: (a) rate of heatremoval from
the refrigerated space and the power input to the compressor; (b) rate of heat rejection to the
environment;(c) coefficient of performance of therefrigerator.
Q2.A refrigerator uses refrigerant-134a as working fluid. The refrigerant enters the compressor
of the refrigerator as superheated vapourat 0.18 MPa and -10°C at a rate of 0.12kg/s and leaves
at 1.00 MPa and 70°C. The refrigerant is cooled in the condenser to 40°C and 0.80 MPa andis
throttled to 0.16 MPa. Disregarding any heat transfer and pressure dropsin the connecting lines
between the components, determine the: (a) rate ofheat removal from the refrigerated space and
the power input to the compressor;(b) rate of heat rejection to the environment;(c) isentropic
efficiency of the compressor;(d) coefficient of performance of the refrigerator.
Q3.A vapour-compression refrigerator uses refrigerant-134a as the working fluid and operates on
an ideal one-stage vapour-compression refrigeration cycle between 1.20 MPa and 0.24 MPa. The
mass flow rate of the refrigerant during the cycle is 65 g/s. Assuming steady state conditions
applies and neglecting the changes in kinetic and potential energies, determine the: (a) rate of
heatremoval from the refrigerated space and the power input to the compressor; (b) rate of heat
rejection to the environment;(c) coefficient of performance of therefrigerator.
Q4.A two-stage cascade refrigeration system operates between the pressure limits of 0.95 MPa
and 0.24 MPa. Each stage operates on an ideal vapour-compression refrigeration cycle with
MPa. Disregarding any heat transfer and pressure dropsin the connecting lines between the
components If the mass flow rate of the refrigerant through the lower cycle is 0.056 kg/s,.,
determine the: (a) mass flow rate of the refrigerant through the upper cycle; (b) rate ofheat
removal from the refrigerated space and the power input to the compressors; (c) rate of heat
rejection to the environment;(d) coefficient of performance of the cascade refrigerator.
Q5.A two-stage compression refrigeration system operates between thepressure limits of 1.40
MPa and 0.28 MPa using refrigerant-134a as the working fluid.The refrigerant leaves the
condenser as a saturated liquid and is throttled toa flash chamber operating at 0.65MPa. Part of
the refrigerant evaporatesduring this flashing process, and this vapor is mixed with the
refrigerantleaving the low-pressure compressor. The mixture is then compressed to thecondenser
pressure by the high-pressure compressor. The liquid in the flashchamber is throttled to the
evaporator pressure and cools the refrigeratedspace as it vaporizes in the evaporator. Assuming
the refrigerant leaves the evaporator as a saturated vapor and both compressors are isentropic,
determine the:(a) fraction of the refrigerant that evaporates as it is throttled tothe flash chamber,
(b) amount of heat removed from the refrigeratedspace and the compressor work per unit mass of
refrigerant flowing throughthe condenser, (c) coefficient of performance of the refrigerator.
Q6.A two-stage cascade refrigeration system operates between the pressure limits of 0.10 MPa
and 0.75 MPa. Each stage operates on an ideal vapour-compression refrigeration cycle with
MPa. Disregarding any heat transfer and pressure dropsin the connecting lines between the
components. If the mass flow rate of the refrigerant through the upper cycle is 0.15 kg/s,
determine the: (a) mass flow rate of the refrigerant through the lower cycle; (b) rate of heat
removal from the refrigerated space and the power input to the compressors; (c)rate of heat
rejection to the environment; (d) coefficient of performance of the cascade refrigerator.
Q7.A two-stage compression refrigeration system using refrigerant-134a as the working

fluidoperates between the pressure limits of 1.00 MPa and 0.18 MPa.The refrigerant leaves the
condenser as a saturated liquid and is throttled toa flash chamber operating at a pressure of 0.45
MPa. During this flashing process, part of the refrigerant evaporates and this vapor is mixed with
the refrigerantleaving the low-pressure compressor. The mixture is then compressed to
thecondenser pressure by the high-pressure compressor. The liquid in the flashchamber is
throttled to the evaporator pressure and cools the refrigeratedspace as it vaporizes in the
evaporator. Assuming the refrigerant leaves the evaporator as a saturated vapor and both
compressors are isentropic, determine the:(a) fraction of the refrigerant that evaporates as it is
throttled tothe flash chamber, (b) amount of heat removed from the refrigeratedspace and the
compressor work per unit mass of refrigerant flowing throughthe condenser, (c)rate of heat
rejection to the environment; (d) coefficient of performance of the refrigerator.
Q8.Refrigerant-134a enters the compressor of a refrigerator at 140 kPa and 10°C at a rate of 0.3
m3/min and leavesat 1 MPa. The isentropic efficiency of the compressor is 78 percent. The
refrigerant enters the throttling valve at 0.95 MPaand 30°C and leaves the evaporator as saturated
vapor at18.5°C. Show the cycle on a T-s diagram with respect to saturation lines, and determine
(a) the power input to the compressor, (b) the rate of heat removal from the refrigeratedspace,
and (c) the pressure drop and rate of heat gain in theline between theevaporator and the
compressor. Answers:(a) 1.88 kW, (b) 4.99 kW, (c) 1.65 kPa, 0.241 kW
Q9.Refrigerant-134a enters the compressor of a refrigerator as superheated vapor at 0.14 MPa

and 10°C at a rate of0.12 kg/s, and it leaves at 0.70 MPa and 50°C. The refrigerant is cooled in
the condenser to 24°C and 0.65 MPa, and it is throttled to 0.15 MPa. Disregarding any heat
transfer and pressuredrops in the connecting lines between the components, showthe cycle on aT-
s diagram with respect to saturation lines, anddetermine (a) the rate of heat removal from the
refrigerated space and the power input to the compressor, (b) the isentropic efficiency of the
compressor, and (c) the COP of the refrigerator. Answers: (a) 19.4 kW, 5.06 kW, (b) 82.5
percent, (c) 3.83
Q10.A two-stage compression refrigeration systemoperates with refrigerant-134a between

thepressure limits of 1 and 0.14 MPa. The refrigerant leaves thecondenser as a saturated liquid
and is throttled to a flashchamber operating at 0.5 MPa. The refrigerant leaving the low-pressure
compressor at 0.5 MPa is also routed to theflash chamber. The vapor in the flash chamber is then
compressed to the condenser pressure by the high-pressure compressor, and the liquid is throttled
to the evaporator pressure.Assuming the refrigerant leaves the evaporator as saturatedvapor and
both compressors are isentropic, determine (a) thefraction of the refrigerant that evaporates as it
is throttled tothe flash chamber, (b) the rate of heat removed from therefrigerated space for a
mass flow rate of 0.25 kg/s throughthe condenser, and (c) the coefficient of performance.
Q11.Consider a two-stage cascade refrigeration systemoperating between the pressure limits of

1.2 MPa and 200kPa with refrigerant-134a as the working fluid. Heat rejection from the lower
cycle to the upper cycle takes place in an adiabatic counterflow heat exchanger where the
pressure in theupper and lower cycles are 0.4 and 0.5 MPa, respectively. In both cycles, the
refrigerant is a saturated liquid at the condenser exit and a saturated vapor at the compressor
inlet, andthe isentropic efficiency of the compressor is 80 percent. Ifthe mass flow rate of the
refrigerant through the lower cycleis 0.15 kg/s, determine (a) the mass flow rate of the
refrigerant through the upper cycle, (b) the rate of heat removal fromthe refrigerated space, and
(c) the COP of this refrigerator.Answers: (a) 0.212 kg/s, (b) 25.7 kW, (c) 2.68
Q12. Consider a two-stage cascade refrigeration systemoperating between the pressure limits of
1.2 MPa and 200 kPawith refrigerant-134a as the working fluid. The refrigerant leaves the
condenser as a saturated liquid and is throttled to aflash chamber operating at 0.45 MPa. Part of
the refrigerantevaporates during this flashing process, and this vapor is mixed with the
refrigerant leaving the low-pressure compressor. Themixture is then compressed to the condenser
pressure by thehigh-pressure compressor. The liquid in the flash chamber isthrottled to the
evaporator pressure and cools the refrigeratedspace as it vaporizes in the evaporator. The mass
flow rate ofthe refrigerant through the low-pressure compressor is 0.15kg/s. Assuming the
refrigerant leaves the evaporator as a saturated vapor and the isentropic efficiency is 80 percent
for bothcompressors, determine (a) the mass flow rate of the refrigerant through the high
pressure compressor, (b) the rate of heatremoval from the refrigerated space, and (c) the COP of
thisrefrigerator. Also, determine (d) the rate of heat removal andthe COP if this refrigerator
operated on a single-stage cyclebetween the same pressure limits with the same compressor
efficiency and the same flow rate as in part (a).
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 VAPOUR ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Another form of refrigeration that becomes economically attractive when there is a source of
inexpensive thermal energy at a temperature of 100 to 200°C is absorption refrigeration. Some
examples of inexpensive thermal energy sources include geothermal energy, solar energy, and
waste heat from cogeneration or process steam plants, and even natural gas when it is available
at a relatively low price.
The disadvantages of vapour compression refrigeration system are

1. Requirement of expensive high grade energy input to compressor (shaft work)
2. Vibration of rotating or reciprocating parts.
These disadvantages have lead to the development of absorption and adsorption vapour
refrigeration systems.
Principle of operation::Some substances can attract and hold large quantities of vapours of
other substances at a relatively low temperature. The vapour are driven off when energy is added
and the temperature is raised.
ADSORPTION: The process is called adsorption if the vapour is retained on the surface or in
the capillary pores of a solid. The heat that is transferred to keep the process isothermal is the
latent heat of condensation of the vapour adsorbed plus the relatively small heat of wetting.
ABSORPTION: The process is called absorption if there is chemical reaction between the two
substances, or when the vapour goes into solution. The heat transferred is latent heat of the
vapour, the heat of chemical reaction or heat of solution.
There is an attraction between the molecules of the refrigerant and absorbent and thus a proactive
heat release (exothermic reaction) accompanies the formation of the solution. Consequently the
latent heat of vaporization form solution is considerably higher than those for vaporization alone
at the same temperatures.
5.2 ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM
As the name implies, absorption refrigeration systems involve the absorption of a refrigerant by
a transport medium. The most widely used absorption refrigeration system is the ammonia–water
system, where ammonia (NH3) serves as the refrigerant and water (H 2O) as the transport
medium.Other absorption refrigeration systems include water–lithium bromide and water lithium
chloride systems, where water serves as the refrigerant.The latter two systems are limited to
applications such as air-conditioning where the minimum temperature is above the freezing point
of water
5.2.1 AMMONIA/WATER ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM
To understand the basic principles involved in absorption refrigeration, we examine the NH3–
H2O system shown in Fig. 5.1. The ammonia–water refrigeration machine was patented by the
Frenchman Ferdinand Carre in 1859. Within a few years, the machines based on this principle
were being built in the United States primarily to make ice and store food. You will immediately
notice from the figure that this system looks very much like the vapor-compression system,
except that the compressor has been replaced by a complex absorption mechanism consisting of
an absorber, a pump, a generator, a regenerator, a valve, and a rectifier. Once the pressure of
NH3 is raised by the components in the box (this is the only thing they are set up to do), it is
cooled and condensed in the condenser by rejecting heat to the surroundings, is throttled to the
evaporator pressure, and absorbs heat from the refrigerated space as it flows through the
evaporator. So, there is nothing new there. Here is what happens in the box:
Ammonia vapor leaves the evaporator and enters the absorber, where it dissolves and reacts with
water to form NH3 – H2O. This is an exothermic reaction; thus heat is released during this
process. The amount of NH3 that can be dissolved in H2O is inversely proportional to the
temperature. Therefore, it is necessary to cool the absorber to maintain its temperature as low as
possible, hence to maximize the amount of NH3 dissolved in water. The liquid NH 3– H2O
solution, which is rich in NH3, is then pumped to the generator. Heat is transferred to the
solution from a source to vaporize some of the solution. The vapor, which is rich in NH3, passes
through a rectifier, which separates the water and returns it to the generator. The high pressure
pure NH3 vapor then continues its journey through the rest of the cycle. Thehot NH3 H2O
solution, which is weak in NH3, then passes through a regenerator, where it transfers some heat
to the rich solution leaving the pump, and is throttled to the absorber pressure.
Compared with vapor-compression systems, absorption refrigeration systems have one major
advantage: A liquid is compressed instead of a vapor. The steady-flow work is proportional to
the specific volume, and thus the work input for absorption refrigeration systems is very small
(on the order of one percent of the heat supplied to the generator) and often neglected in the
cycle analysis. The operation of these systems is based on heat transfer from an external source.
Therefore, absorption refrigeration systems are often classified as heat-driven systems
.
The absorption refrigeration systems are much more expensive than the vapor-compression
refrigeration systems. They are more complex and occupy more space, they are much less
efficient thus requiring much larger cooling towers to reject the waste heat, and they are more
difficult to service since they are less common. Therefore, absorption refrigeration systems
should be considered only when the unit cost of thermal energy is low and is projected to remain
low relative to electricity. Absorption refrigeration systems are primarily used in large
commercial and industrial installations.
The COP of absorption refrigeration systems is defined as

Desired output QL
(C . O . P .)absorption = =
Required input QL
Qgen +W pump ,∈¿= … … … … … ..(5.1)¿
Q gen
The maximum COP of an absorption refrigeration system is determined by assuming that the
entire cycle is totally reversible (i.e., the cycle involves no irreversibilities and any heat transfer
is through a differential temperature difference). The refrigeration system would be reversible if
the heat from the source (Qgen) were transferred to a Carnot heat engine, and the work output of
this heat engine (W= ηth,rev× Qgen) is supplied to a Carnot refrigerator to remove heat from the
refrigerated space.
Note that
Q L=W ×(C . O . P .)R ,rev =ηth ,rev ×Q gen ×(C .O . P .)R ,rev … … … … … … … (5.2)
Then the overall COP of an absorption refrigeration system as shown in Figure 5.2 under
reversible conditions becomes
QL
(C . O . P .)rev . absorption = =η ×(C . O. P .) R , rev … … … … … … .., , , , , ..(5.3)
Q gen th ,rev
(
(C . O . P .)rev . absorption = 1−
T0
Ts )( TL
)
T 0−T L
… … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .(5.4)whereTL =
Temperature of the refrigerated space,

T0 = Temperature of the environment,
and Ts = Temperature of the heat source.
Any absorption refrigeration system that receives heat from a source at Ts and removes heat
from the refrigerated space at TLwhile operating in an environment at T0 has a lower COP than
the one determined from Eq. 5.4. For example, when the source is at 120°C, the refrigerated
space is at -10°C, and the environment is at 25°C, the maximum COP that an absorption
refrigeration system can have is 1.8. The COP of actual absorption refrigeration systems
is usually less than 1.
Air-conditioning systems based on absorption refrigeration, called absorption chillers, perform

best when the heat source can supply heat at a high temperature with little temperature drop. The
absorption chillers are typically rated at an input temperature of 116°C (240°F). The chillers
perform at lower temperatures, but their cooling capacity decreases sharply with decreasing
source temperature, about 12.5 percent for each 6°C (10°F) drop in the source temperature. For
example, the capacity goes down to 50 percent when the supply water temperature drops to 93°C
(200°F). In that case, one needs to double the size (and thus the cost) of the chiller to achieve the
same cooling. The COP of the chiller is affected less by the decline of the source temperature.
The COP drops by 2.5 percent for each 6°C (10°F) drop in the source temperature. The nominal
COP of single-stage absorption chillers at 116°C (240°F) is 0.65 to 0.70. Therefore, for each ton
of refrigeration, a heat input of (12,000 Btu/h)/0.65 or 18,460 Btu/h is required. At 88°C (190°F),
the COP drops by 12.5 percent and thus the heat input increases by 12.5 percent for the same
cooling effect. Therefore, the economic aspects must be evaluated carefully before any
absorption refrigeration system is considered, especially when the source temperature is below
93°C (200°F). Another absorption refrigeration system that is quite popular with
campers is a propane-fired system invented by two Swedish undergraduate students. In this
system, the pump is replaced by a third fluid (hydrogen), which makes it a truly portable unit.
WORKED EXAMPLE 5-1
An ammonia absorption refrigeration system receives a quantity of 1,500 kJ/s of solar heat
through a generator from a source at 150°C and maintains the refrigerated space at -3°C. If the
temperature of the environment is 25°C, determine the:
(a) maximum COP of the absorption refrigeration system;
(b) maximum rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space.
SOLUTION
Temperature of the refrigerated space =TL= -3ºC = 270 K
Temperature of the environment =T0= 25ºC = 298 K
Temperature of the heat source = Ts = 150ºC = 423 K
Heat from the source per unit time = Qgen = 1,500 kJ/s = 1.5 × 106 J/s
(a) Required: Maximum COP of the absorption refrigeration system
The COP of the absorption refrigeration system is given by
(C . O . P .)rev . absorption = 1− 0
T
( TL
)(
T s T 0−T L )
(
( C . O . P . )rev . absorption = 1− )( 298 270
298 K
423 K K−270 K )
K
=( 1−0.7045 ) (
28 K )
270 K
(C . O . P .)rev . absorption =0.2955× 9.642857
(C . O . P .)rev . absorption =2.849464=2.85
(b) Required: Maximum rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space
The maximum rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space, QL is given by
(C . O . P .)rev . absorption =
QL
Qgen ( )
2.85=
( QL
6
1.5 ×10 J / s )
Q L=2.85 × 1.5× 106 j /s=4.275× 106 J /s
Q L=4275 kJ / s
WORKED EXAMPLE 5-2
Heat is supplied to an absorption refrigeration system from a geothermal well at 140°C at a rate
of 3.5 × 105kJ/h. The environment is at 25°C, and the refrigerated space is maintained at -15°C.
Given that the efficiency of the reversed Carnot refrigerator is 60%, determine the:
(b) maximum rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space;
(c) COP of the reversed Carnot refrigerator.
(d) work output of the heat engine
SOLUTION
Temperature of the refrigerated space =TL= -15ºC = 258 K
Temperature of the environment =T0= 25ºC = 298 K
Temperature of the heat source = Ts = 140ºC = 413 K
Heat from the source per unit time = Qgen = 3.5 × 105kJ/h
Efficiency of the reversed Carnot refrigerator = ηth ,rev =60 %=0.6
(a) Required: Maximum COP of the absorption refrigeration system
The COP of the absorption refrigeration system si given by
(C . O . P .)rev . absorption = 1−
(
T0 TL
)(
T s T 0−T L )
(
( C . O . P . )rev . absorption = 1−
298 K
413 K)( 298 258
K−258 K )
K
=( 1−0.72155 ) (
40 K )
258 K
(C . O . P .)rev . absorption =0.27845× 6.45
(C . O . P .)rev . absorption =1.7960025=1.80
(b) Required: Maximum rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space
The maximum rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space, QL is given by
(C . O . P .)rev . absorption =
QL
Qgen ( )
1.80= ( QL
5
3.5 ×10 kJ / h)
Q L=1.80 × 3.5× 105 kj/h=6.3 ×10 5 kJ /h
Q L=630,000 kJ /h
(c) Required: COP of the reversed Carnot refrigerator.
The COP of the reversed Carnot refrigerator is given by
Q
( C . O . P . )rev . absorption = L =ηth ,rev × ( C .O . P . )R , rev
Q gen
1.80=0.60×(C .O . P .)R ,rev
1.80
(C . O . P .)R , rev = =3.00
0.60
(d) Required: Work output of the heat engine
The work output of the heat engine is given by
W =η th, rev ×Q gen
W= 0.60× 3.5 ×105 kJ /h
5
W =2.1× 10 kJ /h
W =210,000 kJ /h
WORKED EXAMPLE 5-3

Two ammonia-water absorption refrigeration systems A and B have coefficients of performance
which are respectively two-third and three-fifth of the coefficient of performance of a reversed
Carnot refrigerator. If the coefficient of performance of the reversed Carnot refrigerator is 7.2
and the maximum heat removed from the cold refrigerated space of the refrigerators of A and B
are 4500 kJ/h and 4200 kJ/h respectively, determine the:
(i) Maximum coefficients of performance of refrigerators A and B;
(ii) Maximum heat transfer from the heat source to the generators of both A and B;
(iii) Work output of the heat engines of A and B.
SOLUTION
2
(C . O . P .)rev . absorption, A= (C . O . P .)R , rev
3
3
(C . O . P .)rev . absorption, B= (C . O . P .)R , rev
5
But (C . O . P .)R , rev =7 .2
( Q L ) A =4500 kJ /h∧( Q L) B=4200 kJ /h
(i) Required: Maximum coefficients of performance of refrigerators A and B;

2
(C . O . P .)rev . absorption, A= (C . O . P .)R , rev
3
2
(C . O . P .)rev . absorption, A= × 7.2=4.80
3
3
(C . O . P .)rev . absorption, B= (C . O . P .)R , rev
5
3
(C . O . P .)rev . absorption, B= ×7.2=4.32
5
(ii) Required: Maximum heat transfer from the heat source to the generators of both
A and B;( Q gen ) A∧ ( Qgen ) B
From the relation i.e.
( Q L) A
(C . O . P .)rev . absorption, A=
( Q gen ) A
4500 kJ /h
4.80=
( Q gen ) A
4500 kJ /h
( Q gen ) A= 4.80
=937.5 kJ /h
The maximum heat transfer from the heat source to generator A is 937.5 kJ/h
( Q L )B
(C . O . P .)rev . absorption, B=
( Q gen )B
4200 kJ /h
4.32=
( Qgen ) B
4200 kJ /h
( Q gen ) A= 4.32
=972.2 kJ /h
The maximum heat transfer from the heat source to generator B is 972.2 kJ/h
(iii) Required: Work output of the heat engines of A and B; W A ∧W B

From the relation i.e. Q L=W ×(C . O . P .)R ,rev
For the absorption refrigerator A:
( Q L ) A =W A ×(C .O . P .)R ,rev
4500 kJ /h=W A ×7.2
4500 kJ /h
W A= =625 kJ /h
7.2
The work output of the heat engines of refrigerator A is 625 kJ/h
For the absorption refrigerator B:

( Q L ) B=W B ×(C .O . P .)R ,rev
4200 kJ /h=W B × 7.2
4200 kJ /h
W A= =583.3 kJ /h
7.2
The work output of the heat engines of refrigerator A is 583.3 kJ/h
5.2.2 LITHIUM BROMIDE/WATER ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

The figure below shows a schematic of a practical LiBr/H2O system.
The evaporator and absorber, both at the lower pressure are combined in one shell and the
condenser and generator, at the higher pressure, are combined in a second shell.
A liquid–liquid heat exchanger is added to improve the C.O.P. also shown are P-T and h-conc.
diagrams to help explain the operating cycle.
From the bottom of the lower vessel, a relatively weak solution (high content of water) is
pumped by pump P1 through the heat exchanger to enter the condenser-generator at condition 2.
Heat is transferred to the fluid from stream or hot-ratio coils in the generator portion. At the P
and T o condition, water at the container pressure of say 100mmHg absolute. The concentration
of LiBr in the remaining solution is increased from condition 1 to condition 4 and the stronger
solution (less water) is returned to the lower vessel through the heat exchanger.
A three-way valve between lines 1-2 and 4-5 can be used to control the actual rate of liquid
circulation between the upper and lower chambers in response to chilled water temperature
variation.
The water vapour that was driven from the solution in the upper shell is condensed at shell
pressure when it comes in contact with the cooling water oils above.
It is prevented from returning to solution by the condensate pan, which directs the liquid through
a separate line to the upper part of the lower shell. A U-tube seal or restriction in this line can
maintain the pressure difference between the two shells.The refrigeration effect is achieved when
the returning water flashes to wet vapour at the lowerpressure obtaining its latent heat of
evaporation from the chilled water to improve heat transfer. The low pressure of about 6.2mmHg
abs in the bottom shell in possible because, at the lower temp, water is rapidly taken into the
solution of LiBr and water. The conc. of that solution is changed from condition 5 to condition
1. Heats of condensation and solution are removed by circulation of cooling water through the
part of this shell that acts as absorber. The spray in the absorber section brings the solution into
intimate contract with water vapour to aid absorption and facilitates heat transfer with the
cooling water coils.
The extremely low pressure in the evaporator absorber cannot be maintained indefinitely without
the operation of a purge system to remove non-condensable gases. This is accomplished by
operating the vacuum pump occasionally.
This refrigeration system is suitable for air conditioning and for process water cooling. With a
minimum pressure of 6.2mmHg absolute and water being the refrigerant the temperature in the
evaporator in above 4ºC.
Some system actually circulates the primary water from pump P2 to the cooling load, but the use
of a secondary fluidis usually preferable to reduce contamination and leakage problem.
LiBr/H2O systems are manufactured in sizes from 10 to 1000turns. The COP is considerably less
than unity,but cheap energy can make such a figure economically competitive with much higher
COP values for vapour-compression machines.Another advantage is minimum vibration.
WORKED EXAMPLE 5-4

A LiBr-Water absorption refrigeration system utilizing a regenerative heat exchanger operates
with a generator temperature of 90°C, an absorber temperature of 30ºC, an evaporator
temperature of 10°C, and a condenser temperature of 34°C. The solution leaves the heat
exchanger at 48ºC before entering the generator. The concentration of the solution leaving the
absorber and generator are 0.50 and 0.66 respectively. If the pump delivers LiBr-water solution
at the rate of 30 kg/min., determine the:
(a) maximum energy exchange rate in the regenerative heat exchanger;
(b) COP of the absorption refrigeration system;
(c) refrigeration capacity in tons;
(d) temperature at which the LiBr solution leaves the heat exchanger from the absorber.
SOLUTION
Temperature of the generator =Tg= 90ºC = 363 K
Temperature of the absorber =Ta= 30ºC = 303 K
Temperature of the evaporator = Te= 10ºC = 283 K
Temperature of the condenser = Tc= 34ºC = 307 K
Temperature of the solution as it leaves the heat exchanger = Th= 48ºC = 321 K
Mass of solution delivered from the pump = 30 kg/min.
Mass balance Energy balance
Absorber: m7 + m4 = m1qa + m1h1 = m7h7 + m4h4
Generator: m2 = m3 +m5qg + m2h2 = m3h3 + m5h5
Condenser: m5 = m6 qc + m6h6 = m5h5
Evaporator: m6 = m7qe + m6h6 = m7h7
Energy balance of the heat exchanger is

m1 (h1 – h2) = m3 (h3 – h4)
For the pressure: Pressure at 10ºC = 1.23 kPa
Pressure at 34ºC = 5.32 kPa
Concentration x1 = 0.50 at Ta = 30ºC; h1 = -170 kJ/kg
Concentration x3 = 0.66 at Tg = 90ºC; h3 = -70 kJ/kg
At Th = 48ºC and x1 = 0.50, h2 = -130 kJ/kg
m1 x 1 0.50 × 0.50
But m1 x 1=m3 x3 , then m3= = =0.38 kg /s
x3 0.66
Since m3 = m4, then m4 = 0.38 kg/s
Recall m1 = m7 + m4
0.50 = m7 + 0.38, then m7 = 0.12 kg/s. Also m6 = 0.12 kg/s
(a) Required: Maximum energy exchange rate in the regenerative heat exchanger;
The maximumenergy exchange rate in the regenerative heat exchanger is given by
q h=ṁ1 ( h2−h 1) =ṁ 3 ( h3−h 4 )

q h=0.50 kg /s (−130+ 170 ) kJ /kg=0.50 kg/s ×40 kJ /kg
q h=20 kJ / s=20 kW
(b) Required: COP of the absorption refrigeration system;

The COP of the absorption refrigeration system is given by
Desired result
( C . O . P . )Ref =
qe
Cost of achieving¿= ¿
qg
At Tc = 34ºC, h6 = hf= 142.5 kJ/kg
At Te = 10ºC, h7 = hg= 2519.8 kJ/kg
At Tg = 90ºC, h5 = hg = 2660.1 kJ/kg
q e =ṁ 6 ( h7−h 6 )=0.12 kg /s ( 2519.8−142.5 ) kJ /kg=285.3 kW
And q g= ṁ3 h3 + ṁ5 h5−m2 h2
q g=0.38 (−70 )+ 0.12 ( 2660.1 ) +0.50 ( 130 ) =357.6 kW
Therefore,
q 285.3 kW
( C . O . P . )Ref = e = =0.8
q g 357.6 kW
(c) Required: The refrigeration capacity in tons;

q e 285.3
The refrigeration capacity= = =81tons
3.52 3.52
(d) Required: The temperature at which the LiBr solution leaves the heat exchanger from the
absorber.
Heat loss by LiBr solution leaving heat exchanger = Heat gained by LiBr solution moving into
absorber
m 1 ( h2−h1 ) =m3 ( T 4 −T h )
¿ m 1 ( 48−30 )
m1 0.50
T 4−48= ×18= ×18=23.68
m3 0.38
T 4=23.68+ 48=71.68ºC
COMPARISON OF AMMONIA-WATER ABSORPTION SYSTEM AND LIBR-WATER

ABSORPTION SYSTEM
Ammonia/water absorption system is more complicated than a LiBr/water system because both
NH3 and H2O will exert vapour pressure at the temperatures involved. When energy is added,
both NH3and H2O willvaporize.
Separately,NH3 and H2O have different boiling temperatures for any given pressure.A solution of
the two has a boiling point somewhere between the two individual values. The concentration of
the solution determines the boiling point at a particular total pressure. When thermal energy is
added, NH3which has a lower boiling temperature will vapourize preferentially. The resulting
vapour mixture will have a higher proportion of NH 3 then the original liquid solution. The
remaining liquid will have a lower NH 3 concentration. From this, two things follow: first, the
boiling point of the remaining liquid will rise: second, subsequent vapour with a lower NH 3
concentration than the first vapour is driven off.
As energy is added to a liquid solution of ammonia and water at concentration X a, the

temperature will rise until the saturated liquid temperature at that concentration is reached at
point b.Further heat transfer to the solution will drive off some vapour, and the first vapour to
form a-t-t-b will have a composition Xc, for more vapour to be formed, the temperature of the
remaining liquid solution must be raised. Points d and e, f and g represent condition of liquid
and vapour in equilibrium at some higher temperature and the same total pressure. The last bit of
liquid to vaporize would have a concentration, Xf. By the time all the liquid b has evaporated, the
mixture would have a concentration Xg =Xa. Point h represents the vapour in a superheated
state.
EXERCISE
Q1. What is absorption refrigeration? How does an absorption refrigeration system differ from a
vapor-compression refrigeration system?
Q2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of absorption refrigeration?
Q3. In absorption refrigeration cycles, why is the fluid in the absorber cooled and the fluid in the
generator heated?
Q4. How is the coefficient of performance of an absorption refrigeration system defined?
Q5. What are the functions of the rectifier and the regenerator in an absorption refrigeration
system?
Q6. An absorption refrigeration system that receives heat from a source at 130°C and maintains
the refrigerated space at 5°C is claimed to have a COP of 2. If the environment temperature is
27°C, can this claim be valid? Justify your answer.
Q7. An absorption refrigeration system receives heat from a source at 120°C and maintains the
refrigerated space at 0°C. If the temperature of the environment is 25°C, what is the maximum
COP this absorption refrigeration system can have?
Q8. Heat is supplied to an absorption refrigeration system from a geothermal well at 130°C at a
rate of 5 × 105kJ/h. The environment is at 25°C, and the refrigerated space is maintained at -
30°C. Determine the maximum rate at which this system can remove heat from the refrigerated
space. Answer: 5.75 × 105 kJ/h
Q9. Heat is supplied to an absorption refrigeration system from a geothermal well at 250°F at a
rate of 105 Btu/h. The environment is at 80°F, and the refrigerated space is maintained at 0°F. If
the COP of the system is 0.55, determine the rate at which this system can remove heat from the
refrigerated space.
Q10. An ammonia absorption refrigeration system receives a quantity of 1,750 kJ/s of solar heat
through a generator from a source at 160°C and maintains the refrigerated space at -5°C. If the
temperature of the environment is 27°C, determine the:
(b) maximum rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space.
Q11. A reversible absorption refrigerator consists of a reversible heat engine and a reversible
refrigerator. The system removes heat from a cooled space at -10°C at a rate of 22 kW. The
refrigerator operates in an environment at 25°C. If the heat is supplied to the cycle by condensing
saturated steam at 200°C, determine (a) the rate at which the steam condenses and (b) the power
input to the reversible refrigerator. (c) If the COP of an actual absorption chiller at the same
temperature limits has a COP of 0.7, determine the second law efficiency of this chiller.
Answers: (a) 0.00408 kg/s, (b) 2.93 kW, (c) 0.252
Q12. A LiBr-Water absorption refrigeration system utilizing a regenerative heat exchanger

operates with a generator temperature of 95°C, an absorber temperature of 33ºC, an evaporator
temperature of -3°C, and a condenser temperature of 40°C. The solution leaves the heat
exchanger at 52ºC before entering the generator. If the pump delivers LiBr-water solution at the
rate of 1440 kg/hr., determine the:
Q13. A LiBr-Water absorption refrigeration system utilizing a regenerative heat exchanger

operates with a generator temperature of 110°C, an absorber temperature of 35ºC, an evaporator
temperature of 5°C, and a condenser temperature of 42°C. The solution leaves the heat
exchanger at 56ºC before entering the generator. If the pump delivers LiBr-water solution at the
rate of 0.80 kg/s., determine the:
Q14. Two ammonia-water absorption refrigeration systems A and B have coefficients of

performance which are respectively two-third and three-fifth of the coefficient of performance of
a reversed Carnot refrigerator. If the coefficient of performance of the reversed Carnot
refrigerator is 4.8 and the maximum heat removed from the cold refrigerated space of the
refrigerators of A and B are 4500 kJ/h and 4200 kJ/h respectively, determine the:
(iv) Maximum coefficients of performance of refrigerators A and B;
(v) Maximum heat transfer from the heat source to the generators of both A and B;
(vi) Work output of the heat engines of A and B.
Q15. Three ammonia-water absorption refrigeration systems A, B and C have coefficients of

performance which are respectively two-third, three-quarter and four-fifth of the coefficient of
performance reversed Carnot refrigerator. If the coefficients of performance of the reversed
Carnot refrigerator is 7.2 and the maximum heat removed from the cold refrigerated space of the
refrigerators of A, B and C are 4800 kJ/h, 4200kJ/h and 5400 kJ/h respectively, determine the:
(i) Maximum coefficients of performance of refrigerators A, B and C;
(ii) Maximum heat transfer from the heat source to the generators of A, B and C;
(iii) Work output of the heat engines of A, B and C.
CHAPTER SIX
6.0 CRYOGENICS
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Cryogenics is the study of the means of producing very low temperatures and the properties of
substances at these temperatures. The first low temperature refrigeration system was primarily
developed for the
(i) solidification of carbon (IV) oxide;

(ii) liquefaction and the fractional distillation (separation) of the so-called permanent
gases (which states above critical isothermal at ordinary point and cannot be liquefied
by isothermal compression) such as air, oxygen, hydrogen, helium and nitrogen;
(iii) investigation and utilization of the unusual properties of various substances at
extremely low temperatures.
These are the main reasons for the production of cryogenic temperatures.
It has been suggested that -150ºC be regarded as the dividing line between conventional
temperatures and cryogenics temperatures. Note the temperature of atmospheric sublimation of
solid CO2(dry ice) is 78ºC.
6.2 LIMITATIONS OF VAPOUR-COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS
The single stage vapour-compression refrigeration systems for different refrigerants are limited
to an evaporator temperature of - 40ºC. Below this temperature, there are limitations to the use of
these systems that lead to the developments of cryogenic principles. These include:
1. The production of low temperatures is limited inherently by the solidification temperature

of the refrigerants. The refrigerant used must have a freezing temperature below the
required temperature to be attained.
2. The coefficient of performance is low because of very high pressure ratios.
3. The pressure in the evaporator is extremely low (below atmospheric pressure) and the
suction volume is very large when a refrigerant with very high boiling temperature is
used.
4. The pressure in the condenser is extremely high when a refrigerant with very low boiling
temperature is used.
5. Operation of any mechanical equipment at very low temperatures are sometime difficult.
6.3 LIQUEFACTION OF GASES

Liquefaction of gases is very necessary in order to produce low temperature for refrigeration
purposes. This can be achieved in four different ways. Four main methods of expansion of gases
that may be used for producing low temperature gas or refrigeration are;
1. External cooling by means of a separate refrigeration system.

2. The Joule-Thomson effect in throttling the gas to be liquefied
3. The non-flow isentropic expansion of gas: This method is used to produce low
temperature and is employed in the air refrigeration cycle where the gas is expanded at
constant entropy. Presently, this method is used in aircraft refrigeration systems. At
constant entropy, low temperature of the gas may be obtained.
4. Free, irreversible expansion of gases in an engine or turbine: The free, irreversible
expansion (throttling process) of the gas for production of low temperature from a
comparatively high pressure through an orifice or other restriction to a lower pressure.
For a perfect gas, the irreversible expansion has no effect in change in temperature.
6.3.1 External cooling by means of a separate refrigeration system:A separate refrigeration

system is required to cool gas below its critical point. The multiple-fluid cascade refrigeration
system which was used for many years for liquefaction of gases but has now been replaced by
more direct methods is shown below.
The system shown is used for the liquefaction of nitrogen. The four working fluids are: ammonia
(NH3), ethylene(C2H4), methane (CH4) and nitrogen (N2) itself. These substances were chosen so
that each could evaporate at normal Patm. Their respective atmospheric boiling points are
approximately 240K for NH3, 169K for C2H4, 111K for CH4 and 77K for N2
The efficiency is greatly improved by the use of the three counterflow heat exchangers.
6.3.2 The Joule-Thomson effect in cooling of gas to be liquefied: A simple system utilizing the
Joule-Thomson effect for the liquefaction of air is shown schematically below. It is referred to as
either the Hampson system or as a simple Linde system. A two- stage compressor with
intercooling and aftercooling is shown in the diagram. Ideally, the compression of the gas is
isothermal. A highly efficient counter flow heat exchanger and good thermal insulation of that
exchanger and of the expansion chamber below are essential to the attainment of liquefaction.
The yield of the system, Y is the ratio of the mass of liquid produced to the mass of gas
compressed,
ṁ f
Y= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .(6.1)
ṁ c
The specific work consumption, WY is the energy required per unit mass or volume of liquid
produced
WC
WY= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .(6.2)
ṁf
The system below points (c) and (i) can be referred to as a Joule-Thomson refrigeration system.
The theoretical yield, assuming perfect insulation, can be determined by a mass and energy
balance on the system below points (c) and (i):
Mass balance: ṁC =ṁf + ṁi
Energy balance : ṁC hC =ṁf h f + ṁ i h i
Combining these equationsto eliminate mi we have
ṁ C ( hi−h C )=ṁf ( hi−h f ) … … … … … … … … … … … … ..(6.3)
Therefore,
ṁ f hi−hC
Y= = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . ( 6.4 )
ṁ c hi−h f
From equation 6.4, no yield is possible. Y cannot be greater than zero unless h i>hc and yet Ti can
only approach TC as an upper limit for a perfect heat exchanger. Thus the Joule-Thomson effect
must be positive in the ambient temperature range for this simple cycle towork.
hi>hc and Ti<Tc can be only when Pi< inversion pressure forthis temperature range.
When starting such a plant, there is no cold gas in the system and the throttling process will be in
the gas phase region path (3) – (6) in the figure. But provided that the gas is below its inversion
temperature, a little cooling will occur. This cooling effect is cummulative as it is utilized in the
heat exchanger and the throttling curve will shift toward path (d) – (e)
The value of hd can be determined from a mass and energy balance on the counterflow heat
exchanger.
ṁC hC + ṁC ( 1−Y ) h g= ṁC hd + ṁC ( 1−Y ) h i … … … … … (6.5)
hC −hd
=1−Y … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . …(6.6)
hi−hg
The work done during the isothermal compression is
w C =T C ( s b−sC ) −( hb −hC ) … … … … … … … … … .. … … .. ( 6.7 )
To liquefy either hydrogen or helium by means of the Joule-Thomson effect of the gas itself
requires the gas be precooled to a temperature below the inversion point for the pressure from
which throttling is to take place. In the hydrogen liquefier, the evaporation of liquid nitrogen at a
partial vacuum is used to precool the high-pressure hydrogen stream. In the helium liquefier,
liquid hydrogen is substituted for the precooling medium.
6.4 SEPARATION OF GASES
The most important commercial method for separating multi-component gases into their
individual constituents depend on the refrigeration to allow the components to vapourize and
condense at varying equilibrium conditions in a separating column or tower.
When fluids to be separated are considered to be gases at normal temperatures and pressures, the
refrigeration temperatures must be in the cryogenic range.
For simplicity, air can be treated as a binary mixture of N 2 and O2. The simple single-column
Linde air-separation system is shown schematically below.
The air is purified and dried before delivery to the heat exchangers so that impurities;
particularly H2O and CO2 will not condense or freeze, blocking passageways. The compressed
air is then precooled in the counterflow heat exchanger after which it is condensed in coils
immersed in the liquid sump at the bottom of the column. The condensed high pressure liquid is
throttled to about Patm with Joule-Thomson effect causing it to cool down. The resulting mixture
of vapour and liquid at state (d) is such that the vapour is closer to pure N 2 as it can be seen from
an isotherm drawn through (d).The liquid flowing downward through the baffles of the vertical
column exchanges heat with rising vapour, preferentially vapourizing nitrogen and condensing
oxygen. Thus, the vapour leaving at (c) is somewhat richer in N 2 than the equilibrium vapour at
(d).The liquid and vapour in equilibrium at the bottom of the column will be pure O 2 if a
sufficient number of stages or baffle trays is provided.
The equilibrium states shown are attained only after sometime. If perfect insulation of the
column is assumed, the separation of stream (b) into the two streams(e) and (i) is the reverse of
the adiabatic mixing of two streams. The same mass and energy equations govern the process as
that derived earlier. Points (e), (b) and (i) must be in a straight line on the h-x diagram as
discussed earlier. This line is also shown in the figure shown above.
The heat leakage to the system must be kept to a minimum. Comparing this system to the
ammonia-water system described earlier, the generator heat source for air separation is the
supply air stream which must be cooled and condensed. The “dephlegmator cooling” must be
accomplished entirely by counterflow of the liquid and vapour within the column.
6.5 THE JOULE-THOMSON EFFECT
The ratio of temperature change to pressure change at constant enthalpy is called the Joule–
Thomson or Joule-Kelvin coefficient(µ)
Mathematically,
μ=
[ ]
dT
dP h
… … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .(6.8)
which varies with both the temperature and pressure of the gas.
The magnitude of the Joule-Thomson coefficient is a measure of the imperfection of a gas or its
deviation from the behaviour of a perfect gas. Joule-Thomson coefficient, µ, may be either
positive or negative for real gases. This however depends upon the thermodynamic state of the
gas. Examine the graphs of T-P and T-s below.
The conditions are:
 When µ is positive, the temperature of the gas fall on expansion by throttling

 When µ is negative, the temperature of the gas rise on expansion by throttling
 When µ is zero, the temperature of the gas remain constant on expansion by throttling
The temperature at which µ changes from positive to negative for a given pressure, and is
therefore zero, is called the INVERSION TEMPERATURE.
There is a maximum inversion temperature for each gas above which µ is always negative. The
locus of the inversion points is called the inversion curve.
From definition of specific enthalpy, h and the second law of thermodynamics;
dh=Tds+ vdp … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (6.9)
But s=s ( T , p )
Therefore, ds= ( ∂T∂ s ) dT +( ∂∂ sp ) dp … … … … … … … … … … ….. … … (6.10)

p T
At constant enthalpy, dh= 0. Substituting this and equation (6.10)in equation (6.9), then
T ( ∂T∂ s ) dT +[ T ( ∂∂ sp ) +v ] dp=0 … … … … … …..( 6.11)
p T
Also, from thermodynamic relations,
c p= ( ∂∂ Th ) =T ( ∂T∂ s ) … … ..… … … … … … … … … … .(6.12)

p p
Multiplying equation (6.12) by dT and substituting the result in equation (6.11), then
c p dT + T
[ ( ∂∂ sp ) +v ] dp=0 … … … … … … … … .. ( 6.13 )
T
Divide equation (6.13) through by dp, then
cp ( ∂∂ Tp ) +[ T ( ∂∂ sp ) +v ]=0 … … … … … … .. … .. ( 6.14 )
h T
Therefore,
( ∂∂ Tp ) = −1c [ T ( ∂∂ sp ) + v] … … … … … ….. … .... ( 6.15 )

h p T
To eliminate entropy from the last equation (6.15) and from Gibbs function i.e.
g=h−Ts∧¿
dg=Tds+ vdp – Tds−sdT
dg=vdp−sdT ,then
( ∂∂ Tv ) =−( ∂∂ sp ) … … … … … … ..… … … … … … … … …(6.16)

p T
Equation (6.16) above is called a MAXWELL RELATION.

Substituting equation (6.16) in equation (6.15), then
( ∂∂ Tp ) = −1c [−T ( ∂∂Tv ) + v ] … … … … … … .. ….... ( 6.17 )

h p p
From the definition of Joule-Thomson coefficient, µ in equation (6.1), then
µ= ( ∂T∂p ) = c1 [ T ( ∂∂ Tv ) −v ] … ….. … … … … .. … ....( 6.18 )

h p p
The equation (6.18) above is called the Joule-Thomson coefficient.
For a perfect gas, ( ∂∂ Tv ) = RP = Tv . This means that µ= 0 for a perfect gas. The value of the Joule-
p
Thomson coefficient is negative for all gases under high temperatures and pressures.
An alternative expression for µ, can be derived as follows:
dh=Tds+ vdp
From equation (6.4),
dh=T ( ∂T∂ s ) dT +[ T ( ∂∂ sp ) +v ] dp … … … …. … … (6.19)

p T
Thus,
( ∂∂ hp ) =T ( ∂∂ sp ) + v … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .(6.20)
T T
Substituting for T (
∂p)
∂s
+ v from equation (6.20) in equation (6.15), then
T
c ( ∂ p)
−1 ∂ h
µ= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .. ( 6.21 )
p T
But h=u+ pv
Therefore,
µ=
1
cp
−
∂u
[ ( ) ( )]
∂p T
−
∂ pv
∂p T
… … … … … … … … … … … ..(6.22)
It can also be shown that

v
μ= ( βT −1 ) … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … ….. ( 6.23 )
cp
where β= ( )
1 ∂v
v ∂T p
β is called the coefficient of cubic expansion of a gas

The inversion temperature, Ti corresponds to μ=0.
1
T i= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . … … …(6.24 )
β
The maximum “cooling” will be obtained for any given upstream temperature, T and
downstream pressure, P if the initial pressure lies on the inversion curve. The Joule-Thomson
cooling effect cannot take place above the maximum inversion temperature nor below the
minimum inversion temperature.
For most substance, the maximum inversion temperature is above the ambient temperature T amb.
In the case of hydrogen, H2 and helium, He, it is necessary to pre-cool the gas below the
maximum inversion temperature to obtain cooling by throttling.
For liquefaction process, it is necessary to cool the gas below the critical temperature since the
liquid phasedoesnot occur above this value.If it is necessary to pre-cool the gas be liquefied
below its inversion temperature, this can be done with a conventional refrigerator or else the
throttle valve has to be replaced with an expansion machine. A throttle valve is preferred to an
expansion machine because it is difficult to construct a machine which will work satisfactorily at
very low temperatures
MINIMUM WORK TO LIQUEFY A GAS
The following diagram gives a hypothetical system which allows a simple calculation of the
minimum work required:
The work required to change a gas from condition (P 1,T1) to a liquid at the same pressure should
be the net work of a reversible processes connecting the two state points (a) and (f).
The gas at (a) is compressed isothermally to point (b) at P2. The work of compression must be
w C =( h b−h a ) +q H … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … ..(6.25)
for isothermal process and
q H =T 1 ( s a−s b )=T 1 ( s a−sf ) … … … … … … … … … … .. ( 6.26 )
In isentropic expansion from (b) to (f) which is also at P1, the work recovered is
w E =( h b−h f ) … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .. ( 6.27 )
Thus, the net work required is given by
w N =w C −w E
w N =T 1 ( s a−s f )−( ha−h f ) … … … … … … … … … … .. ( 6.28 )
Although the system discussed here is impractical because of the very large pressure range
required, I is a theoretical reversible series of processes between points (a) and (f), and therefore
represents an ideal against which other systems may be compared.
6.6 PROBLEMS AT VERY LOW TEMPERATURES.
Containers of cryogenics fluids must be of special materials that are able to withstand extremely
low temperatures without loosing their strength. Appropriate materials include nickel, (stainless)
steels, copper alloys and aluminium.
Low carbon steels should not be used for piping these fluids or for parts subjected to high
pressure. It becomes very brittle when cold.Nickel and/or chromium improve the properties of
steel at very lowtemperature.
Any electrical device used must be of special design and construction.
Lubrication too is a special problem at such low temperature. It is appropriate to stop the use of
lubricant or use a dry type. For example, the use of molybdenum sulphide is desirable.
Fluid should not touch the body of the container since it freezes instantly any parts of the body
touched. There is the need to wear protective clothing, goggles, gloves, etc. when working on
cryogenic fluids.
6.7 APPLICATIONS OF CRYOGENICS
 The cold temperatures attained are need to liquefy and separate gases such as oxygen,
nitrogen and argon. They are used to liquefy hydrogen and helium.
 Cryogenics may be used to condense and solidify obnoxious and harmful gases from
exhaust products of industrial processes. For example; the removal of sulphur and
ammonia (NH3) gas from the exhaust gases from burning coke.
 Cryogenic techniques are used in the propulsion of liquid fuel rockets and for preserving
tissue, blood and whole organs.
 Cryogenic fluids may be used as expendable refrigerants to cool a substance or
evaporator. The refrigerant is released to the atmosphere. Such systems are called
chemical refrigeration or open cycle refrigeration systems.Since the fluid is subjected to
Patm., it boils and the rest of the fluid is at very low temperature.(boiling point at Patm).
Some fluids with their boiling points at Patm., and their maximum inversion temperatures are
given below.
FLUID BOILING POINT at MAXIMUM INVERSION

Patm TEMPERATURE
Oxygen -183ºC -893K
Air -192ºC -603K
Nitrogen -196ºC -621K
Neon -246ºC
Hydrogen -253ºC -204.6K
Helium -270ºC -40K
Carbon dioxide (dry ice) is also used as an expendable refrigerant. The boiling point of carbon
dioxide at Patm is -78ºC. This is the temperature of the atmospheric sublimation of carbon
dioxide.Methane on the other hand has a boiling point of -161ºC at Patm.
6.7.1 APPLICATION IN THE OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY
Cryogenic upgrading of low heating – value natural gas:

There are substantial reserves of natural gas in which the reservoir formation of hydrocarbons are
contaminated withnon-burning components such as helium, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen
sulphide and water. Cryogenic processing can be used to upgrade such low heating-value gases
so as to produce an acceptable high-heating-value natural gas that meets the required standard by
bringing about a separation between the hydrocarbons and non-hydrocarbons in themixture.
The reduction of temperature occurring during cryogenic processing produces a two-phase (gas
liquid) mixture. One phase becomes enriched with hydrocarbon while the other phase becomes
denuded of hydrocarbon.
Components in the mixture such as carbon dioxide, water vapour and heavy hydrocarbon having
high solidification temperatures, can adversely affect the operation of the cryogenic parts by
forming solids on heat exchanger surfaces. Such components are removed from the gas stream in
the pre-treatment section of the plant.
A schematic of the plant for removal of N2 from natural gas is shown below
The low- heating value gas at a pressure of 5500kPa after passing through the pre-treatment
section is cooled in the aluminium plate-fin heat exchanger against the returning high-heating-
value gas and vent gas. The gas is then expanded to a pressure of 2600 kPa and a liquid-vapour
mixture passes into the high pressure fractionator.
A nitrogen-enriched vapour flows up the high-pressure fractionator, while methane is returned to

the sump of this column by a nitrogen reflux stream produced in the tubes of the overhead
condenser. The refrigeration required to produce this nitrogen reflux is provided by evaporating
some of the liquid methane from the low-pressure column, in the shellof the overhead condenser.
The low-pressure feed is an enriched methane stream taken from the base of the high-pressure
fractionator. The low-pressure reflux is a high purity nitrogen liquid taken off the high-pressure
fractionator just below the condenser. The upgrading is completed in the low-pressure
fractionator. The liquid is pumped from the column sump, evaporated and superheated against
the incoming low-heating-value gas. The gas from the top of the low-pressure column is mainly
nitrogen and is also heated to ambient temperature against the incoming low-heating-value gas.
Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG):
Liquefaction of natural gas offers marked storage space savings and it also has advantage in
pipeline and ship transportation. Natural gas can be liquefied using the standard cascade process
which employs three refrigerants – methane, ethylene and propane – all circulating in closed
cycles. There is a separate compressor for each of these refrigerants.
As previously discussed, the liquefaction of natural gas commonly requires pre-treatment prior to
cryogenic liquefaction. A key feature of most liquefied natural gas carriers in operation is the
insulation system which maintains the cargo at – 162ºC.
CHAPTER SEVEN
7.0 AIR-CONDITIONING
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Air conditioning is any process by which atmospheric air is made more suitable for a particular
use. Examples include the cooling and dehumidification for human comfort in the tropics,
heating + humidification in winter in countries in the temperate region, control of environment
for livestock, preservation of stored material, for manufacture and wearing of various materials,
and removal of contaminants by filtering the air or by using other methods. A typical air-
conditioning plant is shown in figure 3.1.
7.2 PRINCIPLES OF APPLIED PSYCHROMETRY
Basic to the solution of any air-conditioning problem is understanding the principles of

Psychrometry.
Psychrometry is the branch of engineering science that deals with the studyof measurement of
the moisture content of air while
Psychometrics is the science that investigates the thermal properties of moist air, considering the
measurement and control of moisture content of air and studies the effect of the atmospheric
moisture on material and human comfort.
7.2.1 TERMS USED IN PSYCHROMETRY
1. Dry air: It is the water free content of air having any degree of moisture. It is impracticable to
have 100% dry air but moist air of any degree of moisture content. Generally, air is believed to
contain 78.09% of Nitrogen, 20.95% of Oxygen, 0.93% of Argon, 0.03% of Carbon (IV) oxide
and other rare gases. The relative molecular mass of air is taken to be 28.97 and the gas constant,
Rair is
Ru 8314.3 J /kgK
Rair = = =287 J /kgK ………………………………….. (7.1)
M 28.97
2.Saturated air: - It is a moist air whose condition is such that it can co-exist in natural
equilibrium with an associated condensed moisture phase presenting a flat surface to it. A given
quantity of air can be saturated with a fixed quantity of moisture at a specific temperature. For a
given temperature of air and at saturation, the vapour pressure of moisture in air is equal to the
saturation pressure stated in the steam table.
3. Dry Bulb Temperature (DBT) - It is the temperature of air as registered by an ordinary

thermometer.
4. Wet Bulb Temperature (WBT) – It is the temperature registered by a thermometer when the
bulb is covered by a wetted wick and is exposed to a current of rapid moving air.
5. Dew Point Temperature (DPT) – It is the temperature to which air must be cooled at constant
pressure in order to cause condensation of the water vapour. It could also be described as the
saturation temperature corresponding to the actual partial pressure of water in the air.
6. Adiabatic Saturation Temperature –It is the temperature at which water or ice can saturate air
by evaporating adiabatically into it. The adiabatic saturation temperature is numerically equal to
wet bulb temperature.
7. Dew Point Depression – It is the difference between the dry bulb temperature and the dew
point temperature.
8. Wet Bulb Depression – It is the difference between the dry bulb temperature and the wet bulb
temperature.
9. Specific Humidity (Humidity Ratio) – It is the ratio of the mass of water vapour per unit mass
of dry air in the mixture of vapour and air. Its value is expressed as gramme of water per
kilogramme of dry air. It is a function of dew point temperature.
Specific humidity, W is given by
mv
W=
ma
where mv = mass of water vapour
ma = mass of dry air
10.Relative Humidity, (RH or Ф) – It is the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapour in the
mixture to the saturated partial pressure at the dry bulb temperature. It is expressed as
percentage.
11. Sensible Heat – It is the heat energy required to raise the temperature of a substance when
heat is added or removed from it.
12. Latent Heat - It is the heat energy required to change the physical state of a substance
without change in its temperature when heat is added or removed from it.
13. Enthalpy – It is the total energy of a system representing the sum of internal energy and flow
energy during a steady flow process.
7.2.2 MATHEMATICAL RELATIONS IN PSYCHROMETRY
Both specific humidity and relative humidity are of utmost importance in the mathematical
relations in Psychrometry. The issue of partial pressure of air and water vapour needs to be
addressed using Dalton’s law before meaningful derivations can be made.
DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURE – It states that “The total pressure of gaseous
mixture is equal to the sum of the partial pressure which the component gases would exert if
each existed alone in the volume of the mixture at a particular temperature”.
In a quest to ascertain a well-defined equation to calculate the partial pressures of water vapour
in the air, many considerations were made but Dr. Carrier equation was accepted and adopted.
Dr. Carrier equation for calculating the partial pressure of water vapour in the air is given by
Pv = ( Pvs ) wb−
[ Pt −( Pvs )wb ] ( t db−t wb ) …………………………………… (7.2)
1527.4−1.3 t wb
Where Pv = Partial pressure of water vapour,
Pvs = Partial pressure of water vapour when air is fully saturated, \
Pt = Total pressure of moist air,
tdb = Dry bulb temperature,
twb = Wet bulb temperature.
*FOR SPECIFIC HUMIDITY (HUMIDITY RATIO), W
Specific Humidity is the ratio of the mass of water vapour per unit mass of dry air in the mixture
of vapour and air.
Mathematically,
Mass of water vapour

Specific Humidity =
Mass of dry air
mv
W= ……………………………………… (7.3)
ma
Its value is expressed as gramme of water per kilogramme of dry air.
From the gas equation, PV = mRT.
Then the mass of water vapour is given by
Pv V
mv = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …. … … … … … … … … …(7.4)
Rv T
And the mass of dry air is given by
Pa V
m a= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … ..(7.5)
RaT
Where Pv = Partial pressure of water vapour,
Pa = Partial pressure of dry air,
Pt = Total pressure of moist air
Rv = Gas constant of water vapour,
Ra = Gas constant of dry air,
V = Volume of mixture
Divide equation (7.4) by equation (7.5), then
W=
mv ( )
=
Pv V
Rv T PV R T
= v × a
( )
ma Pa V Rv T PaV
Ra T
m v Ra P v
W= = × … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … ..(7.6)
ma Rv Pa
The Universal Gas constant, Ru = 8314.3 J/kgK.
If the relative molecular mass of water vapour, M = 18, then the gas constant, Rv of water vapour
is calculated thus
Ru 8314.3 J / kgK
R v= = =461.9 J /kgK … … … ..(7.7)
M 18
And the relative molecular mass of dry air, M = 28.97, then the gas constant, Ra of dry air is
calculated thus
Ru 8314.3 J / kgK
Ra = = =287.0 J /kgK
M 28.97
As in (7.1).
Substituting (7.1) and (7.7) in (7.6), then
m v 287.0 P v
W= = × … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … ..(7.8)
ma 461.9 P a
Simplifying, then
‖
W =0.621
Pv
Pa ‖
… … … … … … … . … … … … … .. … … … … … … ..(7.9)
But, Pv + Pa = Pt. therefore
‖ W =0.621
Pv
Pt −Pv ‖
……………………………….………… (7.10)
*FOR DEGREE OF SATURATION, µ
Degree of saturation is the ratio of mass of water vapour associated with unit mass of dry air to
the mass of water vapour associated with unit mass of dry saturated air.
Mathematically,
Mass of water vapour associated withunit mass of dry air

Degree o f saturation=
Mass of water vapour associated withunit mass of dry saturated air
ma
μ= ……………………………………… (7.11)
mvs
In terms of specific humidity,(W), the degree of saturation of air is given by
Specific humidity of dry air

Degree of saturation=
Specific humidity of air whenis fully saturated
W
μ= ……………………………………… (7.12)
W vs
*FOR RELATIVE HUMIDITY, RH OR Ф
Relative Humidity is the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapour in the mixture to the
saturated partial pressure at the dry bulb temperature.
Mathematically,
∂ pressure of water vapo ur ∈the mixture
Relative Humidity =
Saturated ∂ pressure at the dry air bulbtemperature
Pv
Ф= ……………………………………… (7.13)
P vs
In terms of mass, m, the relative humidity is defined as
Mass of water vapour ∈a given volume

Relative Humidity =
Mass of water vapour ∈the same volume if air saturated at same temperature
mv
Ф= ……………………………………… (7.14)
m vs
It is expressed as percentage.
From the characteristic gas equation i.e. PV = mRT
Equation (7.14) can be transformed into equation (7.13) as
Ф=
mv
=
( )Pv V
Rv T
=
Pv
( )
m vs P vs V P vs
Rv T
ASSIGNMENT
Prove that the degree of saturation of air (µ) is approximately equal to the relative humidity (Ф)
The expression for the relative humidity, Ф, from its definition is
Pv
Ф=
P vs
and that of specific humidity, W as in expression (7.9) is
Pv
W =0.621
Pa
PaW
Pv =
0.621
And therefore, from relative humidity,

Pv
Ф= =
Pa W
(
0.621
=
)
1
×W ×
Pa
P vs Pvs 0.621 Pvs
Hence,
‖ Ф=1.6 W
Pa
P vs ‖
… … … … … … … … … … … … … … .(7.15)
The foregoing expression (7.15) is the relationship between specific humidity and relative
humidity.
NOTE THAT:
1. Relative humidity as compared to specific humidity is of utmost important in

comfort air-conditioning and industrial air-conditioning
2. Relative humidity signifies the absorption capacity of air. If the initial relative
humidity of air is less, it will absorb more moisture and vice versa.
3. Relative humidity and specific humidity can be conveniently measured as they
required the measurements of vapour pressure (Pv) and saturated vapour pressure
(Pvs).
4. The value of vapour pressure (Pv) can be obtained from the measurement of the
wet bulb temperature while the saturated vapour pressure (Pvs) can be obtained
from the steam table which is corresponding to the given temperature of air.
*FOR ENTHALPY OF MOIST AIR, (h)
The enthalpy of moist air (h) is the sum of the enthalpy of dry air and enthalpy of water vapour
associated with dry air. It is expressed in kJ/kg of dry air.
h=hair +W h vapour … … … … … … … … . … … … … … … .(7.16)
h=c p T db +W h vapour … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .(7.17)
h vapour =h gat dry bulb temperature ……………...… (7.18)
But h vapour =2500+1.88 T db (kJ/kg) …………………… (7.19)
Substituting (7.19) in (7.17), then
h=c p T db +W ( 2500+1.88 T db ) … … … ….. … … … … .(7.20)
where h = Enthalpy of mixture per kg of dry air
hair= Enthalpy of 1 kg of dry air

hvapour= Enthalpy of 1 kg of water vapour obtained from steam table
Tdb= Dry bulb temperature °
W = Specific humidity (kg/kg of dry air)
Cp= Specific heat of air at constant pressure (the value is assumed to be 1005 J/kgK)
WORKED EXAMPLE 7-1
Air is saturated at a temperature of 36°C. Determine the:
(i) Vapour pressure;

(ii) Specific humidity;
(iii) Enthalpy of the air.
(Specific heat at constant pressure is 1.005 kJ/kgK)
SOLUTION
Since the air is saturated, therefore
Tdb = Twb = Tdp = 36°C
(i) Required: Vapour pressure, Pv

Since Pv= Pvs, then the vapour pressure can be obtained from the steam table.
From the steam table, when T = 36°C, the pressure, P is the vapour pressure which is
0.05940 bar
(ii) Required: Specific humidity, W
The specific humidity, W is given by
Pv
W =0.621
Pt −Pv
Pv = 0.05940 bar, Pt = 1.0312 bar, hence
0.05940
W =0.621
1.0312−0.05940
W =0.03796 kg /kg of air

(iii) Required: Enthalpy, h
The enthalpy, h is given by
h=c p T db +W ( 2500+1.88 T db )
h=( 1.005× 309 ) +0.03796 [ 2500+ ( 1.88 ×309 ) ]
h=310.545+116.952=427.497
h=427.5 kJ /kg
WORKED EXAMPLE 7-2
The condition of the atmosphere is 23°C and specific humidity of 0.0075 kg/kg of dry air.
Determine the:
(i) partial pressure of vapour;

(ii) relative humidity;
(iii) dew point temperature.
SOLUTION
Dry bulb temperature, Tdb = 23°C
Specific humidity, W = 0.0075 kg/kg of dry air
(i) Required: Partial pressure of vapour; Pv
From the relation for specific humidity W i.e.
Pv
W =0.621
Pt −Pv
Pv
0.0075=0.621
1.0312−P v
0.0075(1.0312−P v )=0.621 P v
0.007734−0.0075 Pv =0.621 Pv
0.6285 Pv =0.007734
Pv =¿0.0123 bar
(ii) Required: Relative humidity; Ф

The saturation vapour pressure, Pvs corresponding to T = 23°C, from the steam table
is Pvs = 0.02808 bar. Hence, the relative density is given by
∂ pressure of water vapour∈the mixture

Relative Humidity =
Satur ated ∂ pressure at the dry air bulbtemperature
Pv ¯¿
Ф= =0.0123 ¿
P vs ¯
0.02808 ¿ =0.4380=43.80 % ¿
(iii) Required: Dew point temperature; Tdp

The dew point temperature is the saturation temperature of water vapour at a pressure
of 0.0123 bar. From the steam table and by interpolation, Tdp = 10.05°C
WORKED EXAMPLE 7-3
The atmospheric conditions are 23ºC and the specific humidity of 11.5 g/ kg of air. Determine
the:
(i) Partial pressure of water vapour;
(ii) Relative humidity;
(iii) Dew point temperature.
(Atmospheric pressure = 760 mmHg)
SOLUTION
Dry bulb temperature, TDB = 23ºC
Specific humidity, W = 11.5 g/ kg of air = 0.0115 kg/ kg of air
(i) Required: Partial pressure of water vapour, Pv

From the relation for specific humidity i.e.
Pv Pv
Specific Humidity , W =0.621 =0.621
Pa Pt −Pv
Pv
0.0115=0.621
760−P v
0.0115 Pv
=
0.621 760−Pv
Pv
0.0185=
760−Pv
Pv =0.0185(760−P v )
Pv +0.0185 Pv =14.06
Pv =13.805 mmHg
(ii) Required: Relative humidity, Ø

The relative humidity, Ø is given by
Pv
Relative Humidity , ∅=
Pvs
The saturated vapour pressure of dry bulb temperature of 23ºC is 0.02808 bar
760
¿ mmHg , P vs=0.02808× =21.06 mmHg
1.0132
13.805 mmHg
Relative Humidity , ∅= =0.6555=65.55 %
21.06 mmHg
(iii) Required: Dew point temperature, tDB

The dew point temperature is the saturated temperature of water vapour at a
pressure of 13.805 mmHg (0.0184 bar) and it is given by interpolation as
17−16 t DB −16
=
0.01936−0.01817 0.0184−0.01817
0.00023
t DB −16=
0.00119
t DB −16=0.1933
t DB =16.1933=16.19 ° C
An enthalpy/ humidity protractor, which gives the slope of the time for any q’=∆h/∆w for the
chart, is an appendage to some psychometric charts.
In the Carrier psychometric chart provided for you, a sensible heat factor scale is provided on the
RHS. A pole point found at the intersection of the 24oc TDB and 17oc TWB (o=50%) is used with
the SHF scale. It is similar to the enthalpy/humidity protractor mentioned earlier.
SHF = enthalpy change associated with TDB change divide by the total enthalpy change e.g.
To determine the sensible heat ratio SHR or SHF, draw a straight line between the initial and
final condition. Draw a line parallel to this one from the reference point to the SHF scale. Read
SHF.
In the process of chemical dehumidification, the water vapor from the air is absorbed or absorbed
by a hygroscopic material. If1 the process is adiabatic, it is isenthalpic and since specific
humidity decreases, the temp of the air must increase.
7.3 COOLING LOADS
Each building to be air-conditioned presents a problem in heat transmission in which indoor and
outdoor temperature condition and all sources of heat must be considered. No quick formula or
rule of thumb can be applied on the basis of building type and size.
The outdoor design condition is determined for each locality from records kept for many years at
many weather stations (usually airport readings). Table 4.1, gives a list of several Nigerian cities
and their weather conditions. Dry and wet bulb temperatures are given for the 1%, 21/2%, and 5%
high values. There percentage figures indicate the percentage of the total number of hour in year
during which the temperature has been equal to or greater than the listed value. For general
comfort air conditioning, 21/2% design level in recommended.
The calculation and correspond to environmental condition which are near extreme normally
encountered. Peak-load conditions during the cooling season usually correspond to the maximum
solar conditions rather than to the peak outdoor-air temperature. Thus it is often necessary to
make several calculations at the year to fix the appropriate maximum cooling capacity
requirement. Peak solar head occur in different space at different times depending on the
orientation of the spaces.
Indoor design conditions vary widely for industrial application. For comfort air conditioning, a
TDB= 24oC (75oF) and R.H. of 50% are often used.
The inside design temperature only limits the condition that can be maintained in extreme
weather. When the outside temperature is below the outside design value, an inside temperature
below 24oC can be maintained if desired.
Heat transfer through a building envelope is influenced by the material used; by geometry factor
such as size, shape, and orientation; by the existence of internal heat sources and by climatic
factors.
Thermal transmission
Heat gain by thermal transmission is given by
Infiltration and Ventilation Loads
Entry of outside air onto the space influence both air temperature and humidity level.
The Sensible load, Qls is given by
Qls= 1.23 Q(To-Ti)……………………………………………(3.3)
where Q=volumetric flow rate of outside air,
To = Outside temperature
Ti = Inside temperature
The Latent load,Qll is given by

Qll = 3000Q (Wo - Wi)
Where W = specific humidity= Humidity ratio
Infiltration is the uncontrolled entry of outside air directly into the building, resulting from
natural forces, e.g. wind.
Ventilation is the air intentionally brought in to the enclosed space (e.g. room, office e.t.c.) by
mechanical means.
In commercial and institutional buildings, infiltration may be limited by maintaining the pressure
within the building slightly in excess of that outside. The slightly positive pressure in the
building is maintained by sizing exhaust fans to handle less air than brought in from the outside
by the ventilation system. Exhaust fan are generally located in toilets, mechanical rooms, or
kitchen to ensure that air and odours from those spaces will not be re-circulated throughout the
building.
Internal Loads
Primary sources of internal heat gain are lights, occupants and equipment important in most
residential buildings. The portion of the heat emanating from lighting in the form of radiant
energy is not an instantaneous load on the a/c system. The energy is first absorbed by the walls,
floors, and furnishing of the space, their temperature increase at a rate dependent on their mean.
Filter the surface temperature becomes higher than the air temperature; heat is corrected from the
surfaces and finally becomes a load on the cooling system. Thus the more of the objects causes a
delay between turning on the light and the energy from the light having an effect on the load.
The cooling loads from the lighting persist after the lights are turned off for the same reason.
Q = (lamp rating in Watts) Fu Fb (CLF)
Q = NPFa (CLF) for bulbs
Q = NPFb (CLF) for fluorescent
N = number of bulbs/ fluorescent light
P = rated power of lamps in watts
FU = utilization factor or fraction of installed lamps in use (for bulb = 1.5)
Fb = ballast factor fluorescent lamps = 1.2 for common fluorescents
CLF = cooling load factor from table for heat producing equipment, estimate power used in a
manner similar to that used for lighting. For equipment having little radiant energy transmission,
CLF =1.
The table shows cooling loads from occupant as a function of their activity. The other table gives
the occupancy of various types of space. Since a portion of the heat transferred by radiation,
Occupant sensible cooling load in watts, Q = (gain per person) × (number of people)×(CLF)
For the latent load, CLF = 1.0
Solar loads through transparent surfaces
Surfaces optical proportion described by
For transparent surfaces, solar energy passing through the surface
Where iT= irradiation on exterior surface
N = fraction of absorbed radiation transferred by conduction and convection to inside

environment
The expression is called the solar –heat gain factor SHGF.max values for SHGF are given in
tables.
A shading coefficient is used to adjust SHGF for other types of solar and to account for inside
shading devices.
If external surfaces shade the window, AHGF values for a north orientation are used for the
shaded portion of the window.
It is also usual practice to include a cooling-load factor CLF to account for the delay before the
radiant energy is absorbed and transferred by correction to the air in the space .CLF value are
given in tables.
Shading from overhangs or other projection reduces solar heat for north-facing windows (in
northern hemisphere) are used for that portion of the window that is shaded.
Solar loads on opaque surfaces
If transmission due to air-temperature difference is included,
This equation can be written in and equivalent form
Te =solar-air temperature, which is the outdoor temperature increased by an amount to account

for solar radiation.
To incorporate the effect of thermal storage in the wall, an equivalent temperature difference,
called cooling-load temperature difference (CLTD) has been developed for commonly used wall
second.
CLTD values are given in tables
WORKED EXAMPLES 7-4

¿ ¿
A room of dimensions 8 m 6 m 5 m is occupied by an air-water vapour mixture at 36ºC.
The atmospheric pressure is 1 bar and the relative humidity is 65%. Determine the
(i) humidity ratio;
(ii) dew point temperature;
(iii) mass of dry air;
(iv) mass of water vapour.
SOLUTION
Volume of the room, V = 8 m × 6 m × 5 m = 240 m3
Dry bulb temperature, Td = 36ºC = 36 + 273 = 309 K
Atmospheric pressure, Pt = 1 bar
Relative humidity, ɸ = 0.65
(i) Required: Humidity Ratio, W
The partial pressure of water vapour can be determined from the steam table as:
At Td = 36ºC, the saturation pressure of water vapour, Ps = 0.05940 bar
Pv Pv
Relative humidity, ∅= =¿ 0.65=
Pvs 0.05940
Pv = 0.65 × 0.05940 = 0.03861 bar
0.622 Pv 0.622× 0.03861 0.02401542
Humidity Ratio, W = = =
Pt −Pv 1−0.03861 0.96139
W = 0.02498 kg/kg of dry air
W = 24.98 g/kg of dry air
(ii) Required: Dew point temperature, tdp
The dew point temperature, tdp is the saturation temperature corresponding to the
partial pressure of water vapour, Pv.
From the steam table, the temperature corresponding to Pv = 0.03861 bar is
tdp = 28.37ºC
(iii) Required: Mass of dry air, ma
Pressure of dry air, Pa = Pt – Pv = 1 – 0.03861 = 0.96139 bar
= 0.96139 × 105 N/m2
= 96,139 N/m2
From the equation of state i.e. Pa v = ma Ra Td
Pa v 96,139 N /m2 ×240 m3
m a= = =260.1779 kg
Ra T d 287 J / kg K ×309 K
ma=260.2 kg
(iv) Required: Mass of water vapour, mv
From the definition of humidity ratio (W), i.e.
Mass of water vapour m v
W= =
Mass of dry air ma
mv
0.02498 ¿
260.2
mv =0.02498× 260.2=6.4992=6.50 kg
WORKED EXAMPLES 7-5

The sensible cooling load of a small office is determined to be 12 kW. The room is to be
maintained at 22°C and 50% relative humidity.The outside temperature is 31⁰C. Twenty-five
per cent of the moisture in the air flowing out of the room is picked up in the room.The air is
completely recirculated and the cooling system must remove the moisture added in the room.
(i) Calculate the flow rate of air at the inlet condition to the cooling coil if the air
cooled is just enough to remove the moisture added to the room.
(ii) Find the latent cooling load of the room.
SOLUTION
Sensible cooling load, qls = 12 kW = 12,000 W
Inside temperature, Ti = 22ºC
Outside temperature, To = 31ºC
Humidity Ratio difference, ωo – ωi = 0.25
Volumetric flow rate of air, Q̇=?
(i) Required: Volumetric flow rate of air, Q̇
The sensible cooling load, qls is given by
q ls =1.23 Q̇ ( T o−T i )
12000 W =1.23 × Q̇ ( 31−22 )
12000 W =11.07 × Q̇
12000
Q̇= =1084.0108401084
11.07
Q̇=1084 L/s
(ii) Required: Latent cooling load, qll
The latent cooling load, qll is given by
q ¿=3000 Q̇ ( ω o−ω i )
q ¿=3000 × 1084 ×0.25
q ¿=813,000W =813 kW
WORKED EXAMPLES 7-6
A room has six free hanging 60 Watts and four recessed 100 W incandescent bulbs which are all
put on for 10 hours during the 16 hours of operation in the room. Find the maximum rate of heat
gain from the lighting fixtures. (Utilization factor of the bulbs = 1.5)
SOLUTION
Recessed lamps = Fixture X
Free hanging lamps = Fixture Y
Number of recessed lamps, NR = 4; Rated power, PR = 100 W
Number of free hanging lamps, NF = 6; Rated power, PF = 60 W
Utilization factor, Fa = 1.5
Cooling load factor, CLF for recessed lamps used for 10 hours out of 16 hours of
operation (from the table) = 0.89 (Fixture X)
Cooling load factor, CLF for free hanging lamps used for 10 hours out of 16 hours of
operation (from the table) = 0.97 (Fixture Y)
Therefore, the maximum rate of heat gain, qm from the lighting fixtures is
Maximum rate of heat gain = Rate of heat gain from recessed lamps + Rate of heat gain
from free hanging lamps
qm = qR + qF
qm= [NR × PR × Fa × (CLF)] + [NF × PF × Fa × (CLF)]
qm =[4 × 100W × 1.5 × 0.89] + [6 × 60W × 1.5 × 0.97]
qm = 534W + 523.8W = 1,057.8 W
WORKED EXAMPLES 7-7
A lecture theatre contains six hundred 200 Level students seated for a GET 242 lecture with the
lecturer teaching. Determine the
(i) Total heat gained by the occupants;

(ii) Sensible heat gained by the students;
(iii) Latent heat gained by the students;
(iv) Sensible heat gained by the lecturer.
SOLUTION
(i) Required: Total heat gained by the occupants;
Q = (Heat gained per person)×(Number of people) × (CLF)
Activity 1 – Seated and Quiet

From tables, Heat gained = 100W
Number of people = 600
CLF = 1.0
Activity 2 – Teaching
From tables, Heat gained = 175W
Number of people = 1
CLF = 1.0
QTotal =QStudents +Q Lecturer

Q Total =[ 100 W × 600 ×1.0 ] + [ 175W × 1× 1.0 ]
QTotal =60,000 W +175 W =60,175W
(ii) Required: Sensible heat gained by the students;

QStudents =100 W ×600 × 1.0=60,000 W
Sensible heat gained by the students is 60% of total heat gained by the
students given by
60
Qls = ×60,000=36.000 W
100
(iii) Required: Latent heat gained by the students;
QStudents =100 W ×600 × 1.0=60,000 W
Latent heat gained by the students is 40% of total heat gained by the
students given by
40
Qls = ×60,000=24.000 W
100
(iv) Required: Sensible heat gained by the lecturer.

Q Lecturer =175 W ×1 ×1.0=175W
Sensible heat gained by the students is 50% of total heat gained by the
students given by
50
Qls = ×175=87.5 W
100
Shading from overhang or other projection such as shown below can significantly reduce solar
heat gain through a window.
Solar altitude angle b = angle measured formal horizontal plane on earth up to the sun.
= wall azimuth angle
=angle between two vertical planes, one normal to the wall and the other containing the sun.
= solar azimuth angle
= angle between the sun ray and the south
=angle between vertical plane containing the sun and the south.
= angle between a vertical plane normal to the wall and the south.
The wall azimuth angle
The depth of a shadow cast by a horizontal projection above a window
Y=
And the width of a shadow cast by a vertical projection of depth d is
Note: the SHGF and CLF for a north-facing window (in the northern hemisphere) are used for
that position of the window which is shaded.
Air quality and ventilation requirement
Indoor air quality is controlled b removal of contaminants or by dilution or both and ventilation
require both processes. Ventilation is defined as supplying air by natural or mechanical means to
a space.
Ventilation air = outdoor air + re-circulated air outdoor air is provided for dilution.
Reason for ventilation: odor and irritation for upper respiratory tract or eyes are the reason for
ventilation. Health-threatening contaminant may also be present ventilation not done because of
shortage of O2.
Assuming that outdoor-air quality is satisfactory for dilution purposes table 4-3b present
outdoor=air requirement for ventilation. Much larger quantities of air read for dilution where
sinking is emitted.
Ventilation imposes significant load on hearing and cooling for re-circulation to reduce
outdoor=air quantity will conserve energy whenever the outdoor=air temperature is extremely
high.
ASHRAE Procedure.
V = Vy+ Vm
Where v = rate of supply air for ventilation purposes L/s
Vr = re-circulating air rate, L/s

Vm = minimum outdoor-air rate for specified occupancy e.g. the non-sinking value from table,
but not less than 2.5L/s per person.
Also Vr =
Where Vo = outdoor=air rate from table 403b for specified occupancy (smoking or non-
smoking, as appropriate, L/s.
E = efficiency of contaminant removal by air=cleaning device.
See table 4=3c
Refrigeration Tables with Charts
EXERCISE
Q1.Air is saturated at a temperature of 42°C. Determine the:
(i) Vapour pressure;

(ii) Specific humidity;
(iii) Enthalpy of the air.
(Specific heat at constant pressure is 1.005 kJ/kgK, 1 atm. = 1.01325 bar)
Q2. The condition of the atmosphere is 26°C and specific humidity of 0.0115 kg/kg of dry air.
Determine the:
(i) partial pressure of vapour;

(ii) relative humidity;
(iii) dew point temperature.
(Specific heat at constant pressure is 1.005 kJ/kgK, 1 atm. = 1.01325 bar)
Q3. The atmospheric conditions are 23ºC and the specific humidity of 11.5 g/ kg of air.
Determine the:
(i) Partial pressure of water vapour;
(ii) Relative humidity;
(iii) Dew point temperature.
(Atmospheric pressure = 760 mmHg)
¿ ¿
Q4. A room of dimensions 8 m 5m 7 m is occupied by an air-water vapour mixture at
32ºC. The atmospheric pressure is 1 bar and the relative humidity is 60%. Determine the
(i) humidity ratio;
(ii) dew point temperature;
(iii) mass of dry air;
(iv) mass of water vapour.
Q5. The sensible cooling load of a small office is determined to be 16.5 kW. The room is to be
maintained at 24°C and 50% relative humidity. The outside temperature is 35⁰C. Thirty per cent
of the moisture in the air flowing out of the room is picked up in the room. The air is completely
recirculated and the cooling system must remove the moisture added in the room.
cooled is just enough to remove the moisture added to the room.
(ii) Find the latent cooling load of the room.
Q6. A room has ten free hanging 60 Watts and six recessed 100 Watts incandescent bulbs which
are all put on for 8 hours during the 10 hours of operation in the room. Find the maximum rate of
heat gain from the lighting fixtures. (Utilization factor of the bulbs = 1.5)
Q7.An auditorium has eight free hanging 100 Watts, four recessed 60 Watts incandescent bulbs
and twelve 20 Watts fluorescent light which are all put on for 10 hours during the 16 hours of
operation in the room. Find the maximum rate of heat gain from the lighting fixtures. (Utilization
factor of the bulbs = 1.5, Ballast factor of fluorescent light = 1.2)
Q8. A lecture theatre contains six hundred and fifty 200 Level students seated for a GET
262lecture with the lecturer teaching. Determine the
(i) Total heat gained by the occupants;

(ii) Sensible heat gained by the students;
(iii) Latent heat gained by the students;
(iv) Sensible heat gained by the lecturer.
Q9. The latent cooling load of an auditorium is determined to be 1025 kW. The auditorium is to
be maintained at 22°C and 50% relative humidity. The outside temperature is 33⁰C. Thirty-five
per cent of the moisture in the air flowing out of the auditorium is picked up in the auditorium.
The air is completely recirculated and the cooling system must remove the moisture added in the
auditorium.
cooled is just enough to remove the moisture added to the auditorium.
(ii) Find the sensible cooling load of the room.
Q10. The volumetric flow rate of air at the inlet condition through the cooling coil of a town hall
building is 1260 m3/s. The hall is to be maintained at 21°C and 50% relative humidity. The
outside temperature is 35⁰C. Thirty per cent of the moisture in the air flowing out of the room is
picked up in the room. The air is completely recirculated and the cooling system must remove
the moisture added in the room. Determine the
(i) sensible cooling load of the hall if the air cooled is just enough to remove the
moisture added to the hall;
(ii) latent cooling load of the hall;
(iii) total cooling load of the hall;
(iv) ratio of the sensible cooling load to the latent cooling load.
Q11. The ratio of the sensible cooling load to the latent cooling load of a lecture theatre is 1:45.
The total cooling load of the lecture theatre is 920kW. The theatre is to be maintained at 24°C
and 50% relative humidity. The outside temperature is 33⁰C. The air is completely recirculated
and the cooling system must remove the moisture added in the theatre. Calculate the
(i) sensible cooling load of the lecture theatre;
(ii) latent cooling load of the lecture theatre;
(iii) volumetric flow rate of air in the lecture theatre;
(iv) percent of the moisture in the air flowing out of the lecture theatre that is picked up in
the theatre.

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REFRIGERATION

4. Joel. R. Basic Engineering Thermodynamics in SI. Units, 3rd ed.,

8. Eastop, T.D. and McConkey, A.. Applied Thermodynamics for Engineering

9. Cengel, Yunus A. and Boles, Michael A., Thermodynamics, An Engineering Approach in

1.0 Introductory Concepts of Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning …………………….. 5

1.1 Refrigeration ……………………………………………………………………...….. 5

1.2 Air-Conditioning ………………………………………………………………….… 11

1.3 Relationship between Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning ……...………………... 12

1.4 Application of Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning …………………..…….……... 13

CHAPTER TWO – REFRIGERANTs and coolants

2.0 Refrigerants and Coolants ……………………………………………….…………. 14

2.1 Refrigerants …………………………………………………………….…………… 14

2.2 Coolants ………………………………………………………………….…...…….. 16

CHAPTER THREE – REFRIGERATION CYCLES

3.0 Refrigeration Cycles ……………………………………………………….…………17

3.1 Reversed Carnot Cycle ………………………………………………………………. 18

3.2 Practical Refrigeration Cycle …………………………………...…………………… 22

CHAPTER FOUR – VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS

4.0 Vapour Compression Refrigeration Systems............................................................ 23

4.1 The Ideal Vapour Compression Refrigeration Cycles............................................... 23

4.2 TheActual Vapour Compression Refrigeration Cycles.............................................. 28

4.3 One Stage Vapour Compression Refrigeration Cycle................................................ 32

4.4 Multi Stage Vapour Compression Refrigeration Cycles ………................................. 33

4.4.1 Cascade Refrigeration Systems ……………………………………………………….. 33

5.0 Vapour Absorption Refrigeration................................................................................ 46

5.2 Absorption Refrigeration System ………………………………………………….…. 46

5.2.1 Ammonia-Water Absorption Refrigeration System.....................................................47

5.2.2 Lithium Bromide-Water Absorption Refrigeration System …………......................... 52

CHAPTER SIX – CRYOGENICS

6.2 Limitations of Vapour-Compression Refrigeration Systems.........................................10

6.3 Liquefaction of gases …………………….………....……...........................................10

6.4 Separation of gases ………………………………………………………………..… 10

6.5 Joule-Thomson Effect.…………......……….................................................................10

6.6 Problems at very low temperatures ………………………………………………… 10

6.7 Applications of Cryogenics …………………………………………………………. 11

6.7.1 Applications of Cryogenics in the oil and gas industry ……..………………………. 11

CHAPTER SEVEN – AIR-CONDITIONING

7.0 Air-conditioning ........................................................................................................... 10

7.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................10

7.2 Psychrometry ………………………………….............................................................10

Figure 1.1: Refrigeration and heat pump

1.1.1 Applications of Refrigeration Systems

Amongst the numerous applications of refrigeration systems are:

1.1.2. Refrigeration System and Cycle

Figure 1.2: Simple refrigeration diagram

Figure 1.3: Melting ice

1.1.4. Coefficient of Performance of a Refrigerator

where, Q = amount of heat extracted in the refrigerator

Thus, (C.O.P.)P = (C.O.P.)R + 1

1.1.6. Classification of Refrigeration Systems

1. Natural refrigeration: It relies on nature for provision of refrigeration. Natural

 Use of natural ice, that is

 Use of evaporative cooling

 Use of salt solution

 Depend on local conditions

 Uncertainty due to dependence on weather

 Difficult to produce large amount of refrigeration using any of these natural

2. Mechanical refrigeration: It employs artificial mean for provision of refrigeration.

 Air refrigeration systems: air is used as the refrigerant

 Vapour compression systems

 Vapour absorption refrigeration systems

1.2 AIR CONDITIONING