Air conditioning

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This article is about cooling of air. For Heating, ventilation and air conditioning, see HVAC. For air conditioning
systems in vehicles, see Automobile air conditioning. For the Curved Air album, see Air Conditioning (album).
"A/C" redirects here. For other uses, see AC.

Air conditioning units outside a building

Air conditioning (often referred to as AC, A/C, or air con)[1] is the process of removing heat and moisture
from the interior of an occupied space, to improve the comfort of occupants. Air conditioning can be used in
both domestic and commercial environments. This process is most commonly used to achieve a more
comfortable interior environment, typically for humans and other animals; however, air conditioning is also
used to cool/dehumidify rooms filled with heat-producing electronic devices, such as computer servers, power
amplifiers, and even to display and store some delicate products, such as artwork.
Air conditioners often use a fan to distribute the conditioned air to an occupied space such as a building or
a car to improve thermal comfort and indoor air quality. Electric refrigerant-based AC units range from small
units that can cool a small bedroom, which can be carried by a single adult, to massive units installed on the
roof of office towers that can cool an entire building. The cooling is typically achieved through a refrigeration
cycle, but sometimes evaporation or free cooling is used. Air conditioning systems can also be made based
on desiccants (chemicals which remove moisture from the air). Some AC systems reject or store heat in
subterranean pipes.[2]
In the most general sense, air conditioning can refer to any form of technology that modifies the condition of
air (heating, (de-) humidification, cooling, cleaning, ventilation, or air movement). In common usage, though,
"air conditioning" refers to systems which cool air. In construction, a complete system of heating, ventilation,
and air conditioning is referred to as HVAC.[3]

Contents

 1History
o 1.1Evaporative cooling
o 1.2Development of mechanical cooling
o 1.3Electrical air conditioning
o 1.4Refrigerant development
 2Operating principles
o 2.1Refrigeration cycle
o 2.2Evaporative cooling
o 2.3Free cooling
 3Humidity control
o 3.1Dehumidification and cooling
o 3.2Dehumidification program
 o 3.3Dehumidifier
 4Energy transfer
o 4.1Seasonal energy efficiency ratio
 5Installation types
o 5.1Window unit and packaged terminal
o 5.2Split systems
 5.2.1Mini-split (ductless) system
 5.2.2Multi-split system
o 5.3Air-only central air conditioning
o 5.4Central plant cooling
o 5.5Portable units
 5.5.1Portable split system
 5.5.2Portable hose system
 5.5.3Portable evaporative system
 6Uses
o 6.1Comfort applications
 6.1.1Domestic usage
o 6.2Process applications
 7Health effects
 8Environmental impacts
o 8.1Power consumption and efficiency
o 8.2Lower-energy alternatives
o 8.3Automobile power consumption
o 8.4Refrigerants
 9See also
 10References
 11External links

History[edit]
Evaporative cooling[edit]
Since prehistoric times, snow and ice were used for cooling. The business of harvesting ice during winter and
storing for use in summer became popular towards the late 17th century.[4] This practice was replaced by
mechanical ice-making machines.
The basic concept behind air conditioning is said to have been applied in ancient Egypt, where reeds were
hung in windows and were moistened with trickling water. The evaporation of water cooled the air blowing
through the window. This process also made the air more humid, which can be beneficial in a dry desert
climate. Other techniques in medieval Persiainvolved the use of cisterns and wind towers to cool buildings
during the hot season.[5]
The 2nd-century Chinese mechanical engineer and inventor Ding Huan of the Han Dynasty invented a rotary
fan for air conditioning, with seven wheels 3 m (10 ft) in diameter and manually powered by prisoners of the
time.[6] In 747, Emperor Xuanzong (r. 712–762) of the Tang Dynasty (618–907) had the Cool Hall (Liang
Dian 涼殿) built in the imperial palace, which the Tang Yulin describes as having water-powered fan wheels
for air conditioning as well as rising jet streams of water from fountains. During the subsequent Song
Dynasty(960–1279), written sources mentioned the air conditioning rotary fan as even more widely used.[7]
In the 17th century, the Dutch inventor Cornelis Drebbel demonstrated "Turning Summer into Winter" as an
early form of modern air conditioning for James I of England by adding salt to water.[8]
Development of mechanical cooling[edit]
Three-quarters scale model of Gorrie's ice machine at John Gorrie State Museum, Florida

Modern air conditioning emerged from advances in chemistry during the 19th century, and the first large-scale
electrical air conditioning was invented and used in 1902 by US inventor Willis Carrier. The introduction of
residential air conditioning in the 1920s helped enable the great migration to the Sun Belt in the United
States.[citation needed]
In 1758, Benjamin Franklin and John Hadley, a chemistry professor at Cambridge University, conducted an
experiment to explore the principle of evaporation as a means to rapidly cool an object. Franklin and Hadley
confirmed that evaporation of highly volatile liquids (such as alcohol and ether) could be used to drive down
the temperature of an object past the freezing point of water. They conducted their experiment with the bulb of
a mercury thermometer as their object and with a bellows used to speed up the evaporation. They lowered
the temperature of the thermometer bulb down to −14 °C (7 °F) while the ambient temperature was 18 °C
(64 °F). Franklin noted that, soon after they passed the freezing point of water 0 °C (32 °F), a thin film of ice
formed on the surface of the thermometer's bulb and that the ice mass was about 6 mm (1⁄4 in) thick when they
stopped the experiment upon reaching −14 °C (7 °F). Franklin concluded: "From this experiment one may see
the possibility of freezing a man to death on a warm summer's day."[9]
In 1820, English scientist and inventor Michael Faraday discovered that compressing and
liquefying ammonia could chill air when the liquefied ammonia was allowed to evaporate. In
1842, Florida physician John Gorrie used compressor technology to create ice, which he used to cool air for
his patients in his hospital in Apalachicola, Florida. He hoped to eventually use his ice-making machine to
regulate the temperature of buildings. He even envisioned centralized air conditioning that could cool entire
cities. Though his prototype leaked and performed irregularly, Gorrie was granted a patent in 1851 for his ice-
making machine. Though his process improved the artificial production of ice, his hopes for its success
vanished soon afterwards when his chief financial backer died and Gorrie did not get the money he needed to
develop the machine. According to his biographer, Vivian M. Sherlock, he blamed the "Ice King", Frederic
Tudor, for his failure, suspecting that Tudor had launched a smear campaign against his invention. Dr. Gorrie
died impoverished in 1855, and the dream of commonplace air conditioning went away for 50 years.[citation needed]
James Harrison's first mechanical ice-making machine began operation in 1851 on the banks of the Barwon
River at Rocky Point in Geelong, Australia. His first commercial ice-making machine followed in 1853, and his
patent for an ether vapor compression refrigeration system was granted in 1855. This novel system used a
compressor to force the refrigeration gas to pass through a condenser, where it cooled down and liquefied.
The liquefied gas then circulated through the refrigeration coils and vaporized again, cooling down the
surrounding system. The machine produced 3,000 kilograms (6,600 lb) of ice per day.[citation needed]
Though Harrison had commercial success establishing a second ice company back in Sydney in 1860, he
later entered the debate over how to compete against the American advantage of ice-refrigerated beef sales
to the United Kingdom. He wrote: "Fresh meat frozen and packed as if for a voyage, so that the refrigerating
process may be continued for any required period", and in 1873 prepared the sailing ship Norfolk for an
experimental beef shipment to the United Kingdom. His choice of a cold room system instead of installing a
refrigeration system upon the ship itself proved disastrous when the ice was consumed faster than
expected.[citation needed]
Electrical air conditioning[edit]
Willis Carrier

In 1902, the first modern electrical air conditioning unit was invented by Willis Carrier in Buffalo, New
York.[citation needed] After graduating from Cornell University, Carrier found a job at the Buffalo Forge Company.
There, he began experimenting with air conditioning as a way to solve an application problem for the Sackett-
Wilhelms Lithographing and Publishing Company in Brooklyn, New York. The first air conditioner, designed
and built in Buffalo by Carrier, began working on 17 July 1902.[citation needed]
Designed to improve manufacturing process control in a printing plant, Carrier's invention controlled not
only temperature but also humidity. Carrier used his knowledge of the heating of objects with steam and
reversed the process. Instead of sending air through hot coils, he sent it through cold coils (filled with cold
water). The air was cooled, and thereby the amount of moisture in the air could be controlled, which in turn
made the humidity in the room controllable. The controlled temperature and humidity helped maintain
consistent paper dimensions and ink alignment. Later, Carrier's technology was applied to increase
productivity in the workplace, and The Carrier Air Conditioning Company of America was formed to meet
rising demand. Over time, air conditioning came to be used to improve comfort in homes and automobiles as
well. Residential sales expanded dramatically in the 1950s.[citation needed]
In 1906, Stuart W. Cramer of Charlotte was exploring ways to add moisture to the air in his textile mill. Cramer
coined the term "air conditioning", using it in a patent claim he filed that year as an analogue to "water
conditioning", then a well-known process for making textiles easier to process. He combined moisture with
ventilation to "condition" and change the air in the factories, controlling the humidity so necessary in textile
plants. Willis Carrier adopted the term and incorporated it into the name of his company.[10]
Shortly thereafter, the first private home to have air conditioning was built in Minneapolis in 1914, owned
by Charles Gates.[11] Realizing that air conditioning would one day be a standard feature of private homes,
particularly in regions with warmer climate, David St. Pierre DuBose (1898-1994) designed a network of
ductwork and vents for his home Meadowmont, all disguised behind intricate and attractive Georgian-style
open moldings.[when?] This building is believed to be one of the first private homes in the United States equipped
for central air conditioning.[12]
In 1945, Robert Sherman of Lynn, Massachusetts invented a portable, in-window air conditioner that cooled,
heated, humidified, dehumidified, and filtered the air.[13]
Refrigerant development[edit]
Main article: Refrigerant
A modern R-134a hermetic refrigeration compressor

The first air conditioners and refrigerators employed toxic or flammable gases, such as ammonia, methyl
chloride, or propane, that could result in fatal accidents when they leaked. Thomas Midgley, Jr. created the
first non-flammable, non-toxic chlorofluorocarbon gas, Freon, in 1928. The name is a trademark name owned
by DuPont for any chlorofluorocarbon (CFC), hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC), or hydrofluorocarbon (HFC)
refrigerant. The refrigerant names include a number indicating the molecular composition (e.g., R-11, R-12, R-
22, R-134A). The blend most used in direct-expansion home and building comfort cooling is an HCFC known
as chlorodifluoromethane (R-22).
Dichlorodifluoromethane (R-12) was the most common blend used in automobiles in the U.S. until 1994, when
most designs changed to R-134A due to the ozone-depleting potential of R-12. R-11 and R-12 are no longer
manufactured in the U.S. for this type of application, but is still imported and can be purchased and used by
certified HVAC technicians. For systems requiring only an occasional "shot" of R-12 and otherwise in good
working order and performing far better than virtually all "R-134a" systems whether "converted" or "factory",
even $50-$100 per pound of R-12 is considered "cheap" by many individuals.
Modern refrigerants have been developed to be more environmentally safe than many of the early
chlorofluorocarbon-based refrigerants used in the early- and mid-twentieth century. These include HCFCs (R-
22, as used in most U.S. homes before 2011) and HFCs (R-134a, used in most cars) have replaced most
CFC use. HCFCs, in turn, are supposed to have been in the process of being phased out under the Montreal
Protocol and replaced by HFCs such as R-410A, which lack chlorine.[14]HFCs, however, contribute to climate
change problems. Moreover, policy and political influence by corporate executives resisted
change.[15][16] Corporations insisted that no alternatives to HFCs existed. The environmental
organization Greenpeace provided funding to a former East German refrigerator company to research an
alternative ozone- and climate-safe refrigerant in 1992. The company developed a hydrocarbon mix
of isopentane and isobutane, but as a condition of the contract with Greenpeace could not patent the
technology, which led to its widespread adoption by other firms.[17][18][19] Their activist marketing first in Germany
led to companies like Whirlpool, Bosch, and later LG and others to incorporate the technology throughout
Europe, then Asia, although the corporate executives resisted in Latin America, so that it arrived in Argentina
produced by a domestic firm in 2003, and then finally with giant Bosch's production in Brazil by 2004.[20][21]
In 1995, Germany made CFC refrigerators illegal.[22] DuPont and other companies blocked the refrigerant in
the U.S. with the U.S. EPA, disparaging the approach as "that German technology".[21][23] Nevertheless, in
2004, Greenpeace worked with multinational corporations like Coca-Cola and Unilever, and later Pepsico and
others, to create a corporate coalition called Refrigerants Naturally!.[22][24] Then, four years later, Ben & Jerry's
of Unilever and General Electric began to take steps to support production and use in the U.S.[25] In 2011 the
EPA decided in favor of the ozone- and climate-safe refrigerant for U.S. manufacture.[17][26][27]

Operating principles[edit]
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Refrigeration cycle[edit]
Main article: Heat pump and refrigeration cycle
A simple stylized diagram of the refrigeration cycle: 1) condensing coil, 2) expansion valve, 3) evaporator coil,
4) compressor

Capillary expansion valve connection to evaporator inlet. Notice frost formation.

Cooling in traditional AC systems is accomplished using the vapor-compression cycle, which uses the forced
circulation and phase change of a refrigerant between gas and liquid to transfer heat.
The vapor-compression cycle can occur within a unitary, or packaged piece of equipment; or within
a chiller that is connected to terminal cooling equipment (such as a variable refrigerant flow terminal or fan coil
unit) on its evaporator side and heat rejection equipment on its condenser side.
Evaporative cooling[edit]
Main article: Evaporative cooler

An evaporative cooler

In very dry climates, evaporative coolers, sometimes referred to as swamp coolers or desert coolers, are
popular for improving coolness during hot weather. An evaporative cooler is a device that draws outside air
through a wet pad, such as a large sponge soaked with water. The sensible heat of the incoming air, as
measured by a dry bulb thermometer, is reduced. The temperature of the incoming air is reduced, but it is
also more humid, so the total heat (sensible heat plus latent heat) is unchanged. Some of the sensible heat of
the entering air is converted to latent heat by the evaporation of water in the wet cooler pads. If the entering
air is dry enough, the results can be quite substantial.
Evaporative coolers tend to feel as if they are not working during times of high humidity, when there is not
much dry air with which the coolers can work to make the air as cool as possible for dwelling occupants.
Unlike other types of air conditioners, evaporative coolers rely on the outside air to be channeled through
cooler pads that cool the air before it reaches the inside of a house through its air duct system; this cooled
outside air must be allowed to push the warmer air within the house out through an exhaust opening such as
an open door or window.[28] These coolers cost less and are mechanically simple to understand and maintain.
Free cooling[edit]
Main article: Free cooling
Air conditioning can also be provided by a process called free cooling which uses pumps to circulate a coolant
such as air, water, or a water-glycolmixture from a cold source, which in turn acts as a heat sink for the
energy that is removed from the cooled space. Common storage media are cool outside air, deep aquifers, or
a natural underground rock mass accessed via a cluster of small-diameter boreholes. Some systems with
small storage capacity are hybrid systems, using free cooling early in the cooling season, and later employing
a heat pump to chill the circulation coming from the storage. The heat pump is added because the
temperature of the storage gradually increases during the cooling season, thereby declining its effectiveness.
Free cooling systems can have very high efficiencies, and are sometimes combined with seasonal thermal
energy storage (STES) so the cold of winter can be used for summer air conditioning. Free cooling and hybrid
systems are mature technology.[29]

Humidity control[edit]
Since humans perspire to provide natural cooling by the evaporation of perspiration from the skin,
reducing relative humidity can promote occupant comfort. An air conditioner designed for an occupied space
typically will create a 30% to 60% relative humidity in the occupied space to balance comfort, microbial
growth, and other indoor air quality factors.[30]
Dehumidification and cooling[edit]
Air conditioning equipment will reduce the absolute humidity of the air processed by the system if the surface
of the evaporator coil is significantly cooler than the dewpoint of the surrounding air. Moisture from the air will
condense on the coil and must be disposed of or recycled.
Dehumidification program[edit]
Most modern air-conditioning systems feature a dehumidification cycle during which the compressor runs
while the fan is slowed as much as possible[citation needed] to reduce the evaporator temperature and therefore
condense more water. When the temperature falls below a threshold, both the fan and compressor are shut
off to mitigate further temperature drops;[clarification needed] this prevents moisture on the evaporator from being
blown back into the room.[citation needed] When the temperature rises again,[clarification needed] the compressor restarts and
the fan returns to low speed.
Occasionally, to thaw any ice produced, the fan runs with the compressor shut down; this function is less
effective when ambient temperatures are low.[citation needed]
Inverter air conditioners use the inside coil temperature sensor to keep the evaporator as cold as possible.
When the evaporator is too cold,[clarification needed] the compressor is slowed or stopped with the indoor fan
running.[citation needed]
Dehumidifier[edit]
Main article: Dehumidifier
Typical portable dehumidifier

A specialized air conditioner that is used only for dehumidifying is called a dehumidifier. It also uses
a refrigeration cycle, but differs from a standard air conditioner in that both the evaporator and the condenser
are placed in the same air path. A standard air conditioner transfers heat energy out of the room because its
condenser coil releases heat outside. However, since all components of the dehumidifier are in
the same room, no heat energy is removed. Instead, the electric power consumed by the dehumidifier
remains in the room as heat, so the room is actually heated, just as by an electric heater that draws the same
amount of power.
In addition, if water is condensed in the room, the amount of heat previously needed to evaporate that water
also is re-released in the room (the latent heat of vaporization). The dehumidification process is the inverse of
adding water to the room with an evaporative cooler, and instead releases heat. Therefore, an in-room
dehumidifier always will warm the room and reduce the relative humidity indirectly, as well as reducing the
humidity directly by condensing and removing water.
Inside the unit, the air passes over the evaporator coil first, and is cooled and dehumidified. The now
dehumidified, cold air then passes over the condenser coil where it is warmed up again. Then the air is
released back into the room. The unit produces warm, dehumidified air and can usually be placed freely in the
environment (room) that is to be conditioned.
Dehumidifiers are commonly used in cold, damp climates to prevent mold growth indoors, especially in
basements. They are also used to protect sensitive equipment from the adverse effects of excessive humidity
in tropical countries.

Energy transfer[edit]
In a thermodynamically closed system, any power dissipated into the system that is being maintained at a set
temperature (which is a standard mode of operation for modern air conditioners) requires that the rate of
energy removal by the air conditioner increase. This increase has the effect that, for each unit of energy input
into the system (say to power a light bulb in the closed system), the air conditioner removes that energy.[31] To
do so, the air conditioner must increase its power consumption by the inverse of its "efficiency" (coefficient of
performance) times the amount of power dissipated into the system. As an example, assume that inside the
closed system a 100 W heating element is activated, and the air conditioner has a coefficient of performance
of 200%. The air conditioner's power consumption will increase by 50 W to compensate for this, thus making
the 100 W heating element cost a total of 150 W of power.
It is typical for air conditioners to operate at "efficiencies" of significantly greater than 100%.[32] However, it may
be noted that the input electrical energy is of higher thermodynamic quality (lower entropy) than the output
thermal energy (heat energy).
Air conditioner equipment power in the U.S. is often described in terms of "tons of refrigeration", with each
approximately equal to the cooling power of one short ton (2000 pounds or 907 kilograms) of ice melting in a
24-hour period. The value is defined as 12,000 BTU per hour, or 3517 watts.[33] Residential central air systems
are usually from 1 to 5 tons (3.5 to 18 kW) in capacity.
Seasonal energy efficiency ratio[edit]
Main article: Seasonal energy efficiency ratio
For residential homes, some countries set minimum requirements for energy efficiency. In the United States,
the efficiency of air conditioners is often (but not always) rated by the seasonal energy efficiency ratio (SEER).
The higher the SEER rating, the more energy efficient is the air conditioner. The SEER rating is the BTU of
cooling output during its normal annual usage divided by the total electric energy input in watt hours (W·h)
during the same period.[34]
SEER = BTU ÷ (W·h)

this can also be rewritten as:

SEER = (BTU / h) ÷ W, where "W" is the average electrical power in Watts, and (BTU/h) is the rated cooling
power.
For example, a 5000 BTU/h air-conditioning unit, with a SEER of 10, would consume 5000/10 = 500 Watts of
power on average.
The electrical energy consumed per year can be calculated as the average power multiplied by the annual
operating time:
500 W × 1000 h = 500,000 W·h = 500 kWh
Assuming 1000 hours of operation during a typical cooling season (i.e., 8 hours per day for 125 days per
year).
Another method that yields the same result, is to calculate the total annual cooling output:
5000 BTU/h × 1000 h = 5,000,000 BTU
Then, for a SEER of 10, the annual electrical energy usage would be:
5,000,000 BTU ÷ 10 = 500,000 W·h = 500 kWh
SEER is related to the coefficient of performance (COP) commonly used in thermodynamics and also to
the Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER). The EER is the efficiency rating for the equipment at a particular pair of
external and internal temperatures, while SEER is calculated over a whole range of external temperatures
(i.e., the temperature distribution for the geographical location of the SEER test). SEER is unusual in that it is
composed of an Imperial unit divided by an SI unit. The COP is a ratio with the same metric units of energy
(joules) in both the numerator and denominator. They cancel out, leaving a dimensionless quantity. Formulas
for the approximate conversion between SEER and EER or COP are available.[35]
(1) SEER = EER ÷ 0.9
(2) SEER = COP × 3.792
(3) EER = COP × 3.413
From equation (2) above, a SEER of 13 is equivalent to a COP of 3.43, which means that 3.43 units of heat
energy are pumped per unit of work energy.
The United States now requires that residential systems manufactured in 2006 have a minimum SEER rating
of 13 (although window-box systems are exempt from this law, so their SEER is still around 10).
Installation types[edit]
Window unit and packaged terminal[edit]

Parts of a window unit

Window unit air conditioners are installed in an open window. The interior air is cooled as a fan blows it over
the evaporator. On the exterior the heat drawn from the interior is dissipated into the environment as a second
fan blows outside air over the condenser. A large house or building may have several such units, allowing
each room to be cooled separately.
In 1971, General Electric introduced a popular portable in-window air conditioner designed for convenience
and portability.[36]
Packaged terminal air conditioner (PTAC) systems are also known as wall-split air conditioning
systems.[37] They are ductless systems. PTACs, which are frequently used in hotels, have two separate units
(terminal packages), the evaporative unit on the interior and the condensing unit on the exterior, with an
opening passing through the wall and connecting them. This minimizes the interior system footprint and
allows each room to be adjusted independently. PTAC systems may be adapted to provide heating in cold
weather, either directly by using an electric strip, gas, or other heater, or by reversing the refrigerant flow to
heat the interior and draw heat from the exterior air, converting the air conditioner into a heat pump. While
room air conditioning provides maximum flexibility, when used to cool many rooms at a time it is generally
more expensive than central air conditioning.
The first practical semi-portable air conditioning unit was invented by engineers at Chrysler Motors and
offered for sale starting in 1935.[38]
Split systems[edit]
Split-system air conditioners come in two forms: mini-split and central systems. In both types, the inside-
environment (evaporative) heat exchanger is separated by some distance from the outside-environment
(condensing unit) heat exchanger.
Mini-split (ductless) system[edit]

Condenser side of a ductless split-type air conditioner

 Evaporator, or terminal, side of a ductless split-type air conditioner

A mini-split system typically supplies air conditioned and heated air to a single or a few rooms of a
building.[39] Multi-zone systems are a common application of ductless systems and allow up to 8 rooms (zones)
to be conditioned from a single outdoor unit. Multi-zone systems typically offer a variety of indoor unit styles
including wall-mounted, ceiling-mounted, ceiling recessed, and horizontal ducted. Mini-split systems typically
produce 9,000 to 36,000 Btu (9,500–38,000 kJ) per hour of cooling. Multi-zone systems provide extended
cooling and heating capacity up to 60,000 Btu's. Large systems are known as VRF (Variable refrigerant flow)
systems. Mini split ductless systems were invented by Daikin in 1973, and VRF systems were also invented
by Daikin in 1982. [40]
Advantages of the ductless system include smaller size and flexibility for zoning or heating and cooling
individual rooms. The inside wall space required is significantly reduced. Also, the compressor and heat
exchanger can be located farther away from the inside space, rather than merely on the other side of the
same unit as in a PTAC or window air conditioner. Flexible exterior hoses lead from the outside unit to the
interior one(s); these are often enclosed with metal to look like common drainpipes from the roof. In addition,
ductless systems offer higher efficiency, reaching above 30 SEER.[41]
The primary disadvantage of ductless air conditioners is their cost. Such systems cost about US$1,500 to
US$2,000 per ton (12,000 BTU per hour) of cooling capacity. This is about 30% more than central systems
(not including ductwork) and may cost more than twice as much as window units of similar capacity."[42]
An additional possible disadvantage is that the cost of installing mini splits can be higher than some systems.
However, lower operating costs and rebates or other financial incentives—offered in some areas—can help
offset the initial expense.[43]
Multi-split system[edit]
A multi-split system[44] is a conventional split system, which is divided into two parts (evaporator and
condenser) and allows cooling or heating of several rooms with one external unit. In the outdoor unit of this air
conditioner there is a more powerful compressor, ports for connecting several traces and automation with
locking valves for regulating the volume of refrigerant supplied to the indoor units located in the room.
A large Multi Split System is called a Variable refrigerant flow system and can be used instead of a central air
conditioner system, as it allows for higher energy efficiency but it is more expensive to purchase and install.
Difference between split system and multi-split system:
Other common types of air conditioning system are multi-split systems, the difference between separate split
system and multi-split system in several indoor units. All of them are connected to the main external unit, but
the principle of their operation is similar to a simple split-system.
Its unique feature is the presence of one main external unit that connected to several indoor units. Such
systems might be the right solution for maintaining the microclimate in several offices, shops, large living
spaces. Just few of outdoor units do not worsen the aesthetic appearance of the building.The main external
unit can be connected to several different indoor types: floor, ceiling, cassette, etc.
Multi-split system installation considerations[edit]
Before selecting the installation location of air conditioner, several main factors need to be considered. First of
all, the direction of air flow from the indoor units should not fall on the place of rest or work area. Secondly,
there should not be any obstacles on the way of the airflow that might prevent it from covering the space of
the premises as much as possible. The outdoor unit must also be located in an open space, otherwise the
heat from the house will not be effectively discharged outside and the productivity of the entire system will
drop sharply. It is highly advisable to install the air conditioner units in easily accessible places, for further
maintenance during operation.
The main problem when installing a multi-split system is the laying of long refrigerant lines for connecting the
external unit to the internal ones. While installing a separate split system, workers try to locate both units
opposite to each other, where the length of the line is minimal. Installing a multi-split system creates more
difficulties, since some of indoor units can be located far from the outside. The first models of multi-split
systems had one common control system that did not allow you to set the air conditioning individually for each
room. However, now the market has a wide selection of multi-split systems, in which the functional
characteristics of indoor units operate separately from each other.
The selection of indoor units has one restriction: their total power should not exceed the capacity of the
outdoor unit. In practice, however, it is very common to see a multi-split system with a total capacity of indoor
units greater than the outdoor capacity by at least 20%. However, it is wrong to expect better performance
when all indoor units are turned on at the same time, since the total capacity of the whole system is limited by
the capacity of the outdoor unit. Simply put, the outdoor unit will distribute all its power to all operating indoor
units in such a way that some of the rooms may not have a very comfortable temperature level. However, the
calculation of the total power is not simple, since it takes into account not only the nominal power of the units,
but also the cooling capacity, heating, dehumidification, humidification, venting, etc.
Air-only central air conditioning[edit]
Central ducted A/C provides temperature control and ventilation to an area by conditioning air within an air
handler and distributing it to one or more zones. The temperature of individual zones can be controlled by
varying the airflow to each zone and/or reheating the air.
Central plant cooling[edit]
See also: Chiller

A central chilled water plant using air-cooled chillers

Central cooling plants are used to condition large commercial, industrial, or campus loads. At larger scales,
the ductwork required to move conditioned air to and from the plant would be impractically large, so an
intermediate fluid such as chilled water is used instead. The plant circulates cold water to terminal chilled
water devices such as air handlers or fan/coil units .
Portable units[edit]
A portable air conditioner can be easily transported inside a home or office. They are currently available with
capacities of about 5,000–60,000 BTU/h (1,500–18,000 W) and with or without electric-resistance heaters.
Portable air conditioners are either evaporative or refrigerative.
The compressor-based refrigerant systems are air-cooled, meaning they use air to exchange heat, in the
same way as a car radiator or typical household air conditioner does. Such a system dehumidifies the air as it
cools it. It collects water condensed from the cooled air and produces hot air which must be vented outside
the cooled area; doing so transfers heat from the air in the cooled area to the outside air.
Portable split system[edit]
A portable system has an indoor unit on wheels connected to an outdoor unit via flexible pipes, similar to a
permanently fixed installed unit.The portable units draw indoor air and expel it outdoors through a single duct.
Many portable air conditioners come with heat as well as dehumidification function[45].
Portable hose system[edit]
Hose systems, which can be monoblock or air-to-air, are vented to the outside via air ducts.
The monoblock type collects the water in a bucket or tray and stops when full. The air-to-air type re-
evaporates the water and discharges it through the ducted hose and can run continuously.
A single-hose unit uses air from within the room to cool its condenser, and then vents it outside. This air is
replaced by hot air from outside or other rooms (due to the negative pressure inside the room), thus reducing
the unit's overall efficiency.[46]
Modern units might have a coefficient of performance of approximately 3 (i.e., 1 kW of electricity will produce
3 kW of cooling). A dual-hose unit draws air to cool its condenser from outside instead of from inside the
room, and thus is more effective than most single-hose units. These units create no negative pressure in the
room.
Portable evaporative system[edit]
Evaporative coolers, sometimes called "swamp coolers", do not have a compressor or condenser. Liquid
water is evaporated on the cooling fins, releasing the vapor into the cooled area. Evaporating water absorbs a
significant amount of heat, the latent heat of vaporisation, cooling the air. Humans and animals use the same
mechanism to cool themselves by sweating.
Evaporative coolers have the advantage of needing no hoses to vent heat outside the cooled area, making
them truly portable. They are also very cheap to install and use less energy than refrigerative air conditioners.

Uses[edit]
Air-conditioning engineers broadly divide air conditioning applications into comfort and process applications.
Comfort applications[edit]

An array of air conditioners outside a commercial office building

Comfort applications aim to provide a building indoor environment that remains relatively constant despite
changes in external weather conditions or in internal heat loads.
Air conditioning makes deep plan buildings feasible, for otherwise they would have to be built narrower or
with light wells so that inner spaces received sufficient outdoor air via natural ventilation. Air conditioning also
allows buildings to be taller, since wind speed increases significantly with altitude making natural ventilation
impractical for very tall buildings.[citation needed] Comfort applications are quite different for various building types
and may be categorized as:

- Commercial buildings, which are built for commerce, including offices, malls, shopping centers,
restaurants, etc.
- High-rise residential buildings, such as tall dormitories and apartment blocks
- Industrial spaces where thermal comfort of workers is desired
- Cars, aircraft, boats, which transport passenger or fresh goods
- Institutional buildings, which includes government buildings, hospitals, schools, etc.
- Low-rise residential buildings, including single-family houses, duplexes, and small apartment buildings
- Sports stadiums, such as the University of Phoenix Stadium[47] and in Qatar for the 2022 FIFA World
Cup[48]
Women have, on average, a significantly lower resting metabolic rate than men.[49] Using inaccurate metabolic
rate guidelines for air conditioning sizing can result in oversized and less efficient equipment,[49] and setting
system operating setpoints too cold can result in reduced worker productivity.[50]
In addition to buildings, air conditioning can be used for many types of transportation, including automobiles,
buses and other land vehicles, trains, ships, aircraft, and spacecraft.
Domestic usage[edit]

Typical residential central air conditioners in North America

Air conditioning is common in the US, with 88% of new single-family homes constructed in 2011 including air
conditioning, ranging from 99% in the South to 62% in the West.[51] In Canada, air conditioning use varies by
province. In 2013, 55% of Canadian households reported having an air conditioner, with high use
in Manitoba (80%), Ontario (78%), Saskatchewan (67%), and Quebec (54%) and lower use in Prince Edward
Island (23%), British Columbia (21%), and Newfoundland and Labrador (9%).[52] In Europe, home air
conditioning is generally less common. Southern European countries such as Greece have seen a wide
proliferation of home air-conditioning units in recent years.[53] In another southern European country, Malta, it
is estimated that around 55% of households have an air conditioner installed.[54]

Process applications[edit]
Process applications aim to provide a suitable environment for a process being carried out, regardless of
internal heat and humidity loads and external weather conditions. It is the needs of the process that determine
conditions, not human preference. Process applications include these:

- Chemical and biological laboratories

- Cleanrooms for the production of integrated circuits, pharmaceuticals, and the like, in which very high
levels of air cleanliness and control of temperature and humidity are required for the success of the
process.
- Environmental control of data centers
- Facilities for breeding laboratory animals. Since many animals normally reproduce only in spring,
holding them in rooms in which conditions mirror those of spring all year can cause them to reproduce
year-round.
- Food cooking and processing areas
- Hospital operating theatres, in which air is filtered to high levels to reduce infection risk and the
humidity controlled to limit patient dehydration. Although temperatures are often in the comfort range,
some specialist procedures, such as open heart surgery, require low temperatures (about 18 °C,
64 °F) and others, such as neonatal, relatively high temperatures (about 28 °C, 82 °F).
- Industrial environments
- Mining
- Nuclear power facilities
- Physical testing facilities
- Plants and farm growing areas
- Textile manufacturing
In both comfort and process applications, the objective may be to not only control temperature, but
also humidity, air quality, and air movement from space to space.

Health effects[edit]
In hot weather, air conditioning can prevent heat stroke, dehydration from excessive sweating and other
problems related to hyperthermia. Heat waves are the most lethal type of weather phenomenon in developed
countries. Air conditioning (including filtration, humidification, cooling and disinfection) can be used to provide
a clean, safe, hypoallergenicatmosphere in hospital operating rooms and other environments where proper
atmosphere is critical to patient safety and well-being. It is sometimes recommended for home use by people
with allergies.[citation needed]
Poorly maintained water cooling towers can promote the growth and spread of microorganisms such
as Legionella pneumophila, the infectious agent responsible for Legionnaires' disease. As long as the cooling
tower is kept clean (usually by means of a chlorine treatment), these health hazards can be avoided or
reduced. The state of New York has codified requirements for registration, maintenance, and testing of
cooling towers to protect against Legionella.[55]

Environmental impacts[edit]
Power consumption and efficiency[edit]
Production of the electricity used to operate air conditioners has an environmental impact, including the
release of greenhouse gases. According to a 2015 government survey, 87% of the homes in the United
States use air conditioning and 65% of those homes have central air conditioning. Most of the homes with
central air conditioning have programmable thermostats, but approximately two-thirds of the homes with
central air do not use this feature to make their homes more energy efficient.[56]
Lower-energy alternatives[edit]
Alternatives to continual air conditioning can be used with less energy, lower cost, and with less
environmental impact. These include:[57]

- In large commercial buildings, making windows able to be opened by occupants when the air outside
is cool enough to be comfortable
- Setting thermostats to around 82 °F (28 °C) and allowing workers to wear more climate-appropriate
clothing, such as polo shirts and Bermuda shorts. This approach has worked for the Cool Biz
campaign in Japan.
- Passive cooling techniques, such as:
- Passive solar cooling
- Natural ventilation under and through buildings
- Operating windows to induce a stack effect breeze
- Letting in cool air at night and closing windows during the day
- Operating shades to reduce solar gain
- Building slightly underground, to take advantage of unpowered conduction and geothermal mass
- Placement of trees, architectural shades, windows (and using window coatings) to reduce solar gain
- Thermal insulation placed to prevent heat from entering
- Light-colored building materials reflect away more incoming infrared radiation
- Using a fan if the air is below body temperature
- Using naturally cooler basement rooms more
- Taking a siesta during the hottest part of the day
- Sleeping outside on a porch or roof

Automobile power consumption[edit]

In an automobile, the A/C system will use around 4 horsepower (3 kW) of the engine's power, thus increasing
fuel consumption of the vehicle.[58]
Refrigerants[edit]
The selection of the working fluids (refrigerants) has a significant impact not only on the performance of the air
conditioners but on the environment as well. Most refrigerants used for air conditioning contribute to global
warming, and many also deplete the ozone layer.[59] CFCs, HCFCs, and HFCs are potent greenhouse
gases when leaked to the atmosphere.
The use of CFC as a refrigerant was once common, including the refrigerants R-11 and R-12 (sold under the
brand name Freon-12). Freon refrigerants were commonly used during the 20th century in air conditioners
due to their superior stability and safety properties. When they are released accidentally or deliberately, these
chlorine-bearing refrigerants eventually reach the upper atmosphere.[60] Once the refrigerant reaches
the stratosphere, UV radiation from the Sun homolytically cleaves the chlorine-carbon bond, yielding a
chlorine radical. These chlorine radicals catalyze the breakdown of ozone into diatomic oxygen, depleting
the ozone layer that shields the Earth's surface from strong UV radiation. Each chlorine radical remains active
as a catalyst until it binds with another radical, forming a stable molecule and quenching the chain reaction.
Prior to 1994, most automotive air conditioning systems used R-12 as a refrigerant. It was replaced with R-
134a refrigerant, which has no ozone depletion potential. Old R-12 systems can be retrofitted to R-134a by a
complete flush and filter/dryer replacement to remove the mineral oil, which is not compatible with R-134a.
R22 (also known as HCFC-22) has a global warming potential about 1,800 times higher than CO2.[61] It was
phased out for use in new equipment by 2010, and is to be completely discontinued by 2020. Although these
gasses can be recycled when air conditioning units are disposed of, uncontrolled dumping and leaking can
release gas directly into the atmosphere.
In the UK, the Ozone Regulations[62] came into force in 2000 and banned the use of ozone depleting HCFC
refrigerants such as R22 in new systems. The Regulation banned the use of R22 as a "top-up" fluid for
maintenance between 2010 (for virgin fluid) and 2015 (for recycled fluid). This means that equipment that
uses R22 can still operate, as long as it does not leak. Although R22 is now banned, units that use the
refrigerant can still be serviced and maintained.
The manufacture and use of CFCs has been banned or severely restricted due to concerns about ozone
depletion (see also Montreal Protocol).[63][64] In light of these environmental concerns, beginning on November
14, 1994, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has restricted the sale, possession and use of refrigerant
to only licensed technicians, per rules under sections 608 and 609 of the Clean Air Act.[65]
As an alternative to conventional refrigerants, other gases, such as CO2 (R-744), have been proposed.[66] R-
744 is being adopted as a refrigerant in Europe and Japan. It is an effective refrigerant with a global warming
potential of 1, but it must use higher compression to produce an equivalent cooling effect.[citation needed]
In 1992, a non-governmental organization, Greenpeace, was spurred by corporate executive policies and
requested that a European lab find substitute refrigerants. This led to two alternatives, one a blend of propane
(R290) and isobutane (R600a), and one of pure isobutane.[18][22] Industry resisted change in Europe until 1993,
and in the U.S. until 2011, despite some supportive steps in 2004 and 2008 (see Refrigerant Development
above).[27][67]

See also[edit]
- Air conditioner inverter
- Cassette air conditioner
- Crankcase heater
- Energy label
- Ground-coupled heat exchanger
- Hydronics
- Ice storage air conditioning
- List of home appliances
- Louver
- Trombe wall
- Seawater air conditioning
- Uniform Mechanical Code
- Working fluids

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External links[edit]
- Media related to Air conditioners at Wikimedia Commons
- Air Handling Units CFD Simulation on YouTube
- U.S. Patent 808,897 Carrier's original patent
- U.S. Patent 1,172,429
- U.S. Patent 2,363,294
 How Air Conditioners Work
BTU and EER
Most air conditioners have their capacity rated in British thermal units (Btu). A Btu is the
amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of 1 pound (0.45 kilograms) of water
one degree Fahrenheit (0.56 degrees Celsius). One Btu equals 1,055 joules. In heating
and cooling terms, one ton equals 12,000 Btu.

A typical window air conditioner might be rated at 10,000 Btu. For comparison, a typical
2,000-square-foot (185.8 square meters) house might have a 5-ton (60,000-Btu) air
conditioning system, implying that you might need perhaps 30 Btu per square foot.
These are rough estimates. To size an air conditioner accurately for your specific
application, you should contact an HVAC contractor

The energy efficiency rating (EER) of an air conditioner is its Btu rating over its wattage. As an
example, if a 10,000-Btu air conditioner consumes 1,200 watts, its EER is 8.3 (10,000 Btu/1,200
watts). Obviously, you would like the EER to be as high as possible, but normally a higher EER
is accompanied by a higher price.

Let's say you have a choice between two 10,000-Btu units. One has an EER of 8.3 and consumes
1,200 watts, and the other has an EER of 10 and consumes 1,000 watts. Let's also say that the
price difference is $100. To determine the payback period on the more expensive unit, you need
to know approximately how many hours per year you will be operating the air conditioner and
how much a kilowatt-hour (kWh) costs in your area.

Assuming you plan to use the air conditioner six hours a day for four months of the year, at a cost
of $0.10/kWh. The difference in energy consumption between the two units is 200 watts. This
means that every five hours the less expensive unit will consume one additional kWh (or $0.10)
more than the more expensive unit.

Let's do the math: With roughly 30 days in a month, you're operating the air conditioner:

4 months x 30 days per month x 6 hours per day = 720 hours

[(720 hours x 200 watts) / (1000 watts/kilowatt)] x $0.10/kilowatt hours = $14.40

The more expensive air conditioning unit costs $100 more to purchase but less money to operate.
In our example, it'll take seven years for the higher priced unit to break even.
 THE HEAT BEHIND HUMIDITY
Humans use perspiration to stay cool, and a relative humidity of around 45 percent is just about
perfect to sweat. Very humid conditions are so uncomfortable because the air becomes saturated
with moisture, and all that nice, cooling sweat can't evaporate. It has no place to go. Just think of
that shiny glow as your body's personal AC -- when it isn't too humid out [source: HSW].

Energy Efficient Cooling Systems

Because of the rising costs of electricity and a growing trend to "go green," more people
are turning to alternative cooling methods to spare their pocketbooks and the
environment. Big businesses are even jumping on board in an effort to improve their
public image and lower their overhead.

Ice cooling systems are one way that businesses are combating high electricity costs
during the summer. Ice cooling is as simple as it sounds. Large tanks of water freeze
into ice at night, when energy demands are lower. The next day, a system much like a
conventional air conditioner pumps the cool air from the ice into the building. Ice cooling
saves money, cuts pollution, eases the strain on the power grid and can be used
alongside traditional systems. The downside of ice cooling is that the systems are
expensive to install and require a lot of space. Even with the high startup costs, more
than 3,000 systems are in use worldwide [source: CNN].You can read more about ice
cooling in Are Ice Blocks Better than Air Conditioning?

An ice cooling system is a great way to save money and conserve energy, but its price
tag and space requirements limit it to large buildings. One way that homeowners can
save on energy costs is by installing geo-thermal heating and cooling systems, also
known as ground source heat pumps (GSHP). The Environmental Protection Agency
recently named geo-thermal units "the most energy-efficient and environmentally
sensitive of all space conditioning systems" [source: EPA].

Although it varies, at six feet underground the Earth's temperatures range from 45 to 75
degrees Fahrenheit. The basic principle behind geo-thermal cooling is to use this
constant temperature as a heat source instead of generating heat with electricity.
The most common type of geo-thermal unit for homes is the closed-loop system.
Polyethylene pipes are buried under the ground, either vertically like a well or
horizontally in three- to six-foot trenches. They can also be buried under ponds. Water or
an anti-freeze/water mixture is pumped through the pipes. During the winter, the fluid
collects heat from the earth and carries it through the system and into the building.
During the summer, the system reverses itself to cool the building by pulling heat from
the building, carrying it through the system and placing it in the ground [source: Geo
Heating].

Homeowners can save 30 to 50 percent on their cooling bills by replacing their traditional
HVAC systems with ground source heat pumps. The initial costs can be up to 30 percent
more, but that money can be recouped in three to five years, and most states offer
financial purchase incentives. Another benefit is that the system lasts longer than
traditional units because it's protected from the elements and immune to theft
[source: Geo Exchange].

You can learn more about air conditioners and related topics below.

PASSIVE COOLING
Some people go to the extreme and get rid of their AC units entirely. Passive cooling is
the greenest of trends and a great way to save money. Passive cooling revolves around
the concept of removing warm air from your home using the interaction between the
house and its surroundings. There are several ways to block and remove heat, including
shading through landscaping, using a dark exterior paint, installing a radiant barrier in
the roof rafters and good old- fashioned insulation. Another way is through thermal
siphoning, the process of removing heat through controlled airflow. Opening the lower
windows on the breezy side of your house and the upper windows on the opposite side
creates a vacuum that draws out the hot air. Ceiling fans and roof vents are other ways
to direct heat out at low cost [source: Earth Easy].