TuniRock 2022 Proceedings

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ADVANCES IN ROCK MECHANICS, AN
ISRMSPECIALIZED CONFERENCE
TUNIROCK 2022, HAMMAMET, TUNISIA, 25 – 27 MARCH 2022
TUNIROCK 2022
Editors: Essaieb HAMDI
Salma SOUISSI
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This conference was organized by the Tunisian Society of Rock Mechanics as an ISRM Specialized Conference.
We thank the following companies and organizations for their generous support.
PLATINIUM SPONSOR SILVER SPONSOR
CONFERENCE PARTNERS
ACADEMIC PARTNERS
Published by the Tunisian Society for Rock Mechanics, Department of Civil Engineering, National Engineering School
at Tunis, BP 37 Le Belvédère 1002, Tunisia.
© Tunisian Society for Rock Mechanics, 2022
All rights reserved, no part of this publication or the information contained herein may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, by photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without written prior permission from the editor.
Although all care is taken to ensure the integrity and quality of this publication and the information herein, no
responsibility is assumed by the publishers nor the author for any damage to property or persons as a result of operation
or use of this publication and/or the information contained herein.
Printed in Tunisia.
ISBN: 978-9973-0929-1-5
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The Organizing Committee expresses its deep appreciation for the voluntary contribution of the technical review panel in
assisting to maintain high technical standards for the papers published in the TuniRock 2022 proceedings.
ADVISORY COMMITTEE
Reşat Ulusay, Turkey
Michael du Plessis, South Africa
Suseno Kramadibrata, Indonesia
Sevda Dehkhoda, Australia
Leandro Alejano, Spain
José Pavon, Paraguay
Laura Pyrak-Nolte, USA
Ömer Aydan, Japan
Yang Qiang, China
Vojkan Jovičić, Slovenia
Luis Lamas, Portugal
SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE
Manuel Pastor, Spain
Essaieb Hamdi, Tunisia (Chairman) Michel Chalhoub, Lebanon
Amade Pouya, France Mohamed Laid Boukelloul, Algeria
Amjad Kallel, Tunisia Mounir Bouassida, Tunisia
Doug Stead, Canada Najla Romdhane, Tunisia
Fetheddine Melki, Tunisia Nick Barton, Norway
Georgios Anagnostou, Switzerland Olivier Fouché Grobla, France
Hatem Gasmi, Saudi Arabia Oualid Limam, Tunisia
Hédi Sellami, France Ricardo Castedo, Spain
Houcem Trabelsi , Tunisia Sergio da Fontoura, Brazil
Jean-Louis Durville, France. Tarek Kormi, Tunisia
José Angel Sanchidrian, Spain Zied Saada, Tunisia
Karim Miled, Tunisia Zoubeir Lafhaj, France
Louis N.Y. Wong, Hong Kong
ORGANIZING COMMITTEE
Dr Salma Souissi (Chair)

Dr Kais Ben Abdallah (Co-chair)
Dr Nesrine Gabsi (Secretary General)
Prof. Amjad Kallel
Prof. Fetheddine Melki
Prof. Essaieb Hamdi
Dr Sofiene Ezzeiri
Dr Montassar Ben Slama
Dr Noureddine Rhayma
Dr Imen Belhaj Ali
Mr Karim Elleuch
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Table of contents
Table de matières
Preface
Préface
KEYNOTE LECTURES
CONFERENCES PLENIERES
1 Rock Characterization and Testing and Future Trends: Highlighting the ISRM Suggested 1
Methods
Reşat Ulusay, Hacettepe University, Department of Geological Engineering, Ankara, Turkey
2 Advanced techniques for deep hard rock geothermal drilling 9

Hedi Sellami, Mines Paris – PSL
3 Stress, Structures and deformations: The case of the occidental Mediterranean Sea and 10
Surrounding area
Farhat Rekhiss, Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Sfax
SESSION 1: SITE INVESTIGATION TECHNOLOGY

SESSION 1: TECHNOLOGIES D’INVESTIGATIONS
1 Caractérisations De Remblai Minier : Calage Du Modèle Numérique à partir Des Résultats 13

d’auscultation Du Terrain
F. Tlili, N. Ben Jamaa, A. Kharroubi, S. Ennour
2 Cracking of a clay subjected to desiccation: Experimental and 3D numerical investigation. 25

H. Trabelsi, F. Louati, M. Jamei
3 Characterization of fractured rock mass and its influence on rock slopes stability with survey data 31
from Yaounde (Cameroon)
R. Bissaya, R. E. Medjo, R. T. Ghogomu & B. Njom
4 Stability of rock masses and protection systems against rockfall: Case study of the cliff Ain 47
El Anba, Medenine, Tunisia.
H. Kabadou, A. Kallel, S. Souissi
5 Numerical elastoplastic homogenization of an anisotropic rock mass with non-persistent 57

fractures
M. Chalhoub, S. Souissi, E. Hamdi, A. Pouya
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SESSION 2: LABORATORY AND IN SITU TESTING
SESSION 2: ESSAIS AU LABORATOIRE ET IN-SITU
1 Anisotropic hydraulic behaviour of compacted clayey soil during wetting-drying cycles 71
F. Louati, H. Trabelsi, M. Jamei
2 Characterization of expansive soils using oedometer test results 79

S.A. Manigniavy, Y. Bouassida, D. Azaiez, M. Bouassida
3 Evaluation of petrophysical parameters : A case study of the Abiod formation in Pelagian 85

Platorm.
W. Abdelkhalek, A. Touekbri and F. Melki, A.Ben Salem
4 Statistical analysis and geometric properties of fracturing from outcrop of Cherahil Formation 91
of Jebel Cherahil in central Tunisia
A. Ammari, Ch. Abbes
5 System for Monitoring of Rock Mechanics Parameters in Underground Construction with the 101
Application of Information Technology
A.V. Manko & E.A. Muraveva
SESSION 3: ROCK MECHANICS IN CIVIL, MINING AND PETROLEUM ENGINEERING

SESSION 3: MECANIQUE DES ROCHES EN GENIE CIVIL, MINIER ET PETROLIER
1 Study on fracture propagation behavior and mechanical properties of CO2 fracturing in shale 109
reservoirs
M. Q. He,
2 Effet de la dégradation de la roche sur les structures en maçonnerie : cas d’une voûte de 119
l’amphithéâtre d’El Jem
I. Fayala, O.Limam, E. Hamdi
3 Geomechanical Integrity of Fractured Reservoirs: Hydro-Mechanical Coupling 125

K.Ben Abdallah, S. Souissi, E. Hamdi, A. Pouya
4 Numerical modeling of a pathological case: Spillway of Joumine dam Tunisia 131

A. Chikh Grayaa, S. Louati
5 Matériaux excavés : caractérisation en vue de leur valorisation en ingénierie pédologique. 141

Cas d’un sol calcaire dégradé, Tunisie.
G. Snoussi, E. Hamdi, O. Fouché-Grobla
SESSION 4: ANALYTICAL AND NUMERICAL MODELING OF ROCK MECHANICS

PROBLEMS
SESSION 4: MODELISATION NUMERIQUE ET ANALYTIQUE EN MECANIQUE DES ROCHES
1 A bipotential approach for the bearing capacity of strip footings with nonassociated plastic 155
materials
A. Oueslati, M. Hamlaoui, G. de Saxcé
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2 Preliminary Artificial Neural Network modeling predicting uniaxial compressive 163
strength within carbonate rocks
M. Abdelhedi, C. Abbes
3 Three-Dimensional Finite Element modeling of soil-nail interaction under pullout testing 169
conditions
S. Sghaier, S.Ellouze, A.Daoud, M. Bouassida
4 Investigating the electrical discharge effect on the shaft capacity of RIT piles: a case study 181
W. Bouassida
5 Prédictions numérique et analytique de la consolidation du sol mou de Tunis 189

A. Rezgui, L. Ajam, B. Jellali
6 Comparaison entre les mesures de Su à partir de l’essai de cisaillement direct et de l’Outil de 199
Cisaillement Cylindrique
D. Azaiez, M. Bouassida, & S.A Manigniavy
SESSION 5: RISKS AND HAZARDS
SESSION 5: RISQUES ET ALEAS
1 Application de la mécanique des roches au nouveau barrage Mellegue amont 209

H. Zbidi & B. Talbi
2 Waste disposal facility on limestone deposit: case of study and how to reinforce it for 219
environmental considerations?
H. Bannour
3 Analyse de stabilité des digues de rétention de boue par éléments finis: cas d’étude tunisien 227
H. Karoui, M. Bouassida, E. Hamdi et N. Mezni
4 New computational methods embedded in Geospring 1.0 239

W. Bouassida, S. Khaled, W. Belaid
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PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ADVANCES IN ROCK MECHANICS,
AN ISRM SPECIALIZED CONFERENCE
Edited by Essaieb HAMDI & Salma SOUISSI
Hammamet (Tunisia), 25-27 March 2022
Preface
The Tunisian Society for Rock Mechanics is very proud to organize its second international conference on
Advances in Rock Mechanics, an ISRM Specialized Conference from 25 to 27 March 2022 in the beautiful
City of Hammamet (Tunisia). Due to COVID-19 pandemic, the Organizing Committee decided to hold this
session in blended mode (on-line and on-site). TuniRock 2022 is held with the support of the International
Society for Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering (ISRM).
Technical program of TuniRock 2022 comprises a wide spread of important themes covered by e.g. site
investigation technology, laboratory and in-situ testing, Rock mechanics in Civil, Mining and Petroleum
engineering, Analytical and Numerical modeling of Rock mechanics problems, Risks and hazards
This volume includes three keynote lectures addressed by eminent scientists and experts. It also includes the
thirty accepted papers for publication in the TuniRock2022 conference, presented in five oral sessions.
The Editor wishes to thank the authors for their valuable contribution in the preparation of the papers, the
delegates for taking the time to come and share their knowledge, the Organizing Committee and the Scientific
Committee for their full commitment in making this publication possible. Further, the TuniRock 2022
organization would not be possible without the financial support provided by the Sponsors.
The Editors.
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COMPTES RENDUS DU DEUXIEME CONGRES DE MECANIQUE DES ROCHES, CONFERENCE
SPECIALISEEDE L’ISRM
Edités par Essaieb HAMDI & Salma SOUISSI
Hammamet (Tunisie), 25-27 mars 2022
Préface
L’Association Tunisienne de Mécanique des Roches (ATMR) est très fière d'organiser sa deuxième conférence
internationale sur les avancées en Mécanique des Roches, conférence spécialisée de l'ISRM, du 25 au 27 mars
2022 dans la belle ville de Hammamet (Tunisie). Pour cette session, le comitré d’organisation a choisi de tenir
la conference en mode combine (en ligne et en présentiel). TuniRock 2022 est organisé avec le soutien de la
Société Internationale de Mécanique des Roches et de l'Ingénierie des Roches (ISRM).
Le programme technique de TuniRock 2022 comprend une large gamme de thèmes importants ex.
Technologies d’investigations, essais au laboratoire et in-situ Mécanique des roches en génie civil, minier et
pétrolier, modélisation numérique et analytique en mécanique des roches, risques et aléas
Ce volume comprend trois conférences plénières présentées par d'éminents scientifiques et experts. Il comprend
également les vinght-cinq communications acceptées pour publication durant TuniRock 2022 et présentée en
cinq sessions orales.
L’éditeur tient à remercier les auteurs pour leur précieuse contribution à la préparation des documents, les
participants pour avoir pris le temps de venir partager leurs connaissances, le Comité d'organisation et le Comité
scientifique pour leur engagement total pour la réussite de cet événement. Enfin, l'organisation de TuniRock
2022 ne serait pas possible sans le soutien financier des Sponsors.
Les éditeurs.
vii
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KEYNOTE LECTURES
Rock Characterization and Testing and Future Trends: Highlighting the ISRM
Suggested Methods
Reşat Ulusay
Hacettepe University, Department of Geological Engineering, Ankara, Turkey1
resat@hacettepe.edu.tr
Abstract. In rock mechanics and rock engineering, the models developed depend considerably on the input data such
as boundary conditions, rock material and rock mass properties. Correct characterization and evaluation of the
properties of rock material, discontinuities and rock mass frequently requires laboratory and in-situ tests, supplemented
with a high degree of experience and judgment. Accordingly, since 1974, ISRM has spent considerable effort in
developing a succession of the ISRM Suggested Methods (SM) for different aspects of rock mechanics. This paper
emphasizes the need and importance of standardization of rock characterization and testing methods within the context
of the ISRM SMs and briefly discusses near future trends in rock characterization and testing.
Keywords: Rock mechanics, ISRM, rock testing, rock characterization, SM.
1 Introduction
Rock mechanics is the basic science of mechanics applied to rocks. The application of mechanics on a large scale
to a pre-stressed, naturally occurring material is the main factor distinguishing rock mechanics from other
engineering disciplines. The first experimental rock mechanics studies were performed by Gauthey, who built a
testing machine in about 1770 and noted that the compressive strength of longer specimens was lower than the
cube strength [1]. In terms of experimental rock mechanics, important developments were performed between
1945 and 1960. The subject of rock mechanics started in the 1950s from a rock physics base, gradually became a
new discipline in its own right during the 1960s mainly by the efforts of Professor Leopold Müller, who officially
endorsed International Society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM) in Salzburg, Austria, in 1962.
Since site investigations and laboratory and field tests provide important inputs for rock modelling and rock
engineering design methods, determination of properties and rock characterization are the main important areas
of interest in this field. Increasing demands from rock engineering studies, rapid advances in technology and
recognition of the fact that laboratory test results from a small specimen of rock cannot be directly applied to solve
all rock engineering problems resulted in development of a number of laboratory and field testing and site charac-
terization methods. However, after some nearly 60 years of activity and continued work of ISRM, there are still
many unanswered questions in the field of rock mechanics and rock engineering. In this paper, test method and
importance of standardization of rock testing methods are introduced within the context of the ISRM SMs and
current developments and future trends in rock characterization and testing methods are briefly discussed.
2 Test Method, Standard and ISRM Suggested Methods
“Test method” is a definitive procedure for the identification, measurement and evaluation of one or more qualities,
characteristics or properties of a material. Although numerous test methods have been developed for determination
of geotechnical properties of rock materials, only a few of them have become widely-used or recognized. The
repeatability of a rock mechanics experiment is the precision determined when the same methods and equipment,
used by the same operator, under identical conditions are used to make multiple measurements on identical rock
specimens. For example, Operator-1 measures a single part with Gauge-A 20 times, and then measures the same
part with Gauge-B. Fig. 1a indicates that Gauge- A has less variation, so it is more repeatable than Gauge-B. On
the other hand, reproducibility refers to the precision determined when the same methods, but different equipment
1Most parts of this paper were presented at two regional conferences in Slovenia and Serbia in 2017 and 2019,
respectively. This is the partly shortened version of them.
1
and operators are used to make measurements on identical rock specimens. Reproducibility is the variability of the
measurement system caused by differences in operator behaviour. Operators 1, 2, and 3 measure the same part 20
times with the same gauge and the three lines in Fig. 1b are the measurements from three operators. The variation
in average measurements between Operators 1 and 2 is much less than the variation between Operators 1 and 3,
indicating that the gauge's reproducibility is too low. In short, the aforementioned and other considerations have
necessitated the use of standard or suggested test methods.
“Standard” is a document that has been developed and established within the consensus principles of a society
and that meets the approval requirements of that society’s principles and regulations. The advantages of the
standardization of rock testing methods as follow [2]: (i) the standardization guidance is helpful to anyone
conducting the test, (ii) the results obtained by different organizations on rocks at different sites can be compared
in the knowledge that 'like is being compared with like', and (iii) there is a source of recommended procedures for
use in contracts, if required. There are national bodies, producing standards for their own countries, in particular,
“ASTM” in US, “BS” in the UK and “DIN” in Germany, and the methods suggested by Japanese Geotechnical
Society (JGS) etc. European countries are going to be joined in CEN (European Committee for Standardization).
But the development of EUROCODE 7 (EC7) has been undertaken from the point of view of foundations and
retaining structures on and in soils. It is now widely recognized that EC7 is, in many ways, inappropriate and, in
some circumstances, inapplicable to rock engineering [3].
(a) (b)
Fig. 1. (a) Repeatability and (b) reproducibility demonstrations
The term “Suggested Method” has been carefully chosen: these are not standards; they are explanations of
recommended procedures to follow in the various aspects of rock characterization, laboratory and field testing and
monitoring. An “ISRM SM” is a document that has been developed and established within the consensus principles
of the ISRM and that meets the approval requirements of the ISRM procedures and regulations. The ISRM SMs
can be used as standards on a particular project if required for contractual reasons, but they are intended more as
guidance. The SMs are developed voluntarily by the Working Groups (WGs) established by the ISRM
Commission on Testing Methods. Since 1974 ISRM has generated 70 SMs. When compared to the standards
mentioned above, ISRM has most published methods on rock testing. All the ISRM SMs were compiled in three
ISRM Books namely; the Yellow Book [4], the Blue Book [5] and the Orange Book [6]. The general content of
an ISRM SM and a guideline recommended by ISRM to the volunteers and invited WGs, who intend to develop
new or to upgrade the current ISRM SMs, are available in the website of ISRM.
3 Future Trends in Rock Characterization and Testing
The complexity of modern rock engineering suggests that there are some issues requiring further investigations
and a need for further developments in experimental methods which may also lead to generation of new ISRM
SMs. Main near future trends and needs in experimental rock mechanics, rock characterization and monitoring are
briefly discussed in the following paragraphs.
Determination of the strength and deformability and geotechnical characterization of "difficult rocks", mainly
such as soft rocks and block-in-matrix rocks (Bimrocks) are important issues. Soft rocks are critical geo-materials
since they present several types of problems, such as low strength, disaggregation, crumbling, high plasticity,
slaking, fast weathering and many other characteristics. For example, today depending on increases in mining
depths, rock engineering problems due to large deformations of soft rocks have also been increased. They have
intermediate strength between soils and hard rocks, therefore, in some cases, they are too soft to be tested in rock
mechanics equipment and too hard for soil mechanics equipment, and their mechanical properties are highly sen-
sitive to variations in their water content (Fig. 2a). Sampling from soft rocks (Fig. 2b), their site characterization
2
and classification under the usual systems such as RMR and Q, which are generally applicable to discontinuous
media made of hard rocks, are other difficulties, and there is still a need for further investigations to develop new
laboratory and in-situ testing methods in conjunction with the adaptation of some existing methods for soft rocks.
(a) (b)
Fig. 2. (a) Reduction in strength depending on saturation for some soft tuffs [7] and
(b) a view from a crumbled soft rock specimen
Bimrocks are the mixture of rocks composed of geotechnically significant blocks within bonded matrix of finer
texture such as melanges, faulted/fractured rocks and other complex geological mixtures (e.g., [8]; Fig. 3a). Due
to their complex heterogeneity and mechanical variability, the correct geomechanical characterization and
determination of their strength and deformability are quite challenging issues, and in such cases, reducing
expensive and inconvenient surprises in rock engineering applications has a prime importance. Site [9] and
physical model mélange [10] studies suggested when the block proportions are between about 25% and 70%, the
increase in the overall mechanical properties of bimrocks are mainly related to the volumetric block proportion
(VBP) in the rock mass (Fig. 3b) and as VBP increased, frictional strength increased while cohesion decreased.
Neglecting the contributions of blocks to overall bimrock strength and only considering the strength of weak matrix
may be too conservative for many bimrocks for rock engineering design. Although some efforts have been
performed to assess the strength of bimrocks based on physical models, empirical approaches, equivalent material
techniques and in-situ tests (e.g., [10-14]), further studies and comparison of their results with existing experiences
to develop more efficient methods for the in-situ characterization of bimrocks, introducing them in rock mass
classification and determination of their geomechanical properties are needed.
(a) (b)
Fig. 3. (a) A typical bimrock consisting of blocks embedded in a clayey matrix [14],
(b) strength of bimrocks increasing with volumetric block proportion, VBP [10]
In order to overcome the difficulties associated with testing on soft and weak rocks and sampling from historical
sites, the use of non-destructive techniques has been receiving great attention in recent years. The needle
penetration test, as a new ISRM SM ([6], [15]), is one of the non-destructive testing methods, which can be used
for indirectly estimation of some geotechnical parameters of soft rocks. X-ray computed tomography (CT)
scanning technique has also becoming widely used as a promising non-destructive method in rock engineering to
visualize and to investigate various conditions and processes such as cracking, porosity, damage, corrosion,
3
diffusion in porous and fractured rocks without any disturbance (Fig. 4). The infrared tomography technique has
been popular in recent years on the infrared radiation in the process of rock deformation leading to fracturing and
failure (e.g. [16-17]). The use of this technique to detect and evaluate quantitatively the extent of damage in brittle
geo-materials owing to the non-linear coupled thermo-mechanical effects is quite promising. In addition, any
standard or SM for both methods is not available yet.
As a branch of rock mechanics, when compared to other aspects of rock mechanics, except a dynamic laboratory
ISRM SM [6, 18], guidance and standards and/or SMs for rock dynamics testing are generally lacking. Therefore,
there are many issues in rock dynamics testing requiring further investigations, such as shear strength of rock joints
under dynamic loads in order to understand the rate effects on shear strength and dilation, and assessment of
mechanical and physical causes of the rate effects on the rock strength and failure pattern, dynamic response of
rock bolts and anchors under earthquake shaking etc. The dynamic responses of geo-materials during fracturing
have not received any attention in the fields of geo-engineering. These responses may be very important in the
failure phenomenon of engineering structures (i.e. rock burst, squeezing, sliding) and the high ground motions
induced by earthquakes.
Fig. 4. X-Ray CT scan images and CT value distribution with height

at different time intervals for a tuff sample [17]
It has been crucial to understand the strength characteristics and nonlinear deformation behavior of rocks due
to the increasing worldwide demand for the exploitation of deep resources, giant hydraulic and hydropower
projects, deeper transportation tunnels and construction of nuclear power plants, wellbore stability etc. In many of
these cases, the actual rock mass undergoes real stress states that accommodate 3-axial components (Fig. 5a), and
therefore, true-triaxial rock testing (TTT) device (Fig. 5b), which can reproduce a real stress environment, can
improve the understanding of the mechanical properties of rocks. Most recently, an ISRM SM for TTT [19] has
been published. However, a database of TTT results, verification of constitutive relationships, more incorporation
with acoustic emission (AE) and micro-seismic measurements etc. would be important. The behaviour of
anisotropic and jointed rocks under TT stress conditions should also be experimentally investigated more
thoroughly and application of this method in highly stressed environments for predicting and prevention of rock
bursts would be useful.
Although rock spalling (Fig. 6a) is also an important aspect in rock engineering, the focus is mainly on spalling
in hard and low porosity rocks. The near future primary tasks are providing guidelines for laboratory procedures
to detect damage thresholds [20] and suggesting field observations using the televiewer, core disking (Fig. 6b) etc.
which can be used during investigations to assess spalling potential. The exact mechanism of spalling in foliated
rocks also needs clarification and preparation of a SM on laboratory determination of crack initiation and critical
damage thresholds of brittle rocks will also be one of the valuable guidelines.
4
(a) (b)
Fig. 5. (a) Loading schemes to generate: (i) an axisymmetric and (ii) true 3-axial
compressive state of stress in rock samples [21], (b) schematic view of an example
true 3-axial apparatus and loading directions [22]
(a) (b)
Fig. 6. (a) Spalling in an underground opening [23], (b) core disking
Recently, the non-contact methods for geotechnical survey have seen rapid progress owing to their accuracy,
low cost and non-interference with ongoing work. Among them 3D laser scanning and photogrammetry is the
most popular with a great promise for characterising rock surfaces such as for fracture mapping, identification of
rock types, detecting water leakage, monitoring of rock mass deformations, and the associated documentation and
visualisation [24].
The use of rock mechanics in petroleum engineering has become increasingly important since the 1970s. In
terms of rock testing, the factors are mainly the measurement of in-situ stresses, particularly shale and sandstone
characterization, and petroleum engineering related laboratory tests such as the thermo-hydro-mechanical behavior
of shales [25]. Boring and testing issues, including coring guidelines and best practices, minimizing and identifying
core damage, sample preparation and handling, “best-practice” testing protocols, index testing, non-standard tests
(e.g. creep, high temperature, high pressure, reactive fluids and fractured rock), and the use of analogue materials
will be the important developments expected in this area in the near future.
Although there are laboratory test methods to determine the properties of rocks in terms of excavatability and
borability, some of the methods have still no standard or suggested method. By considering the increasing interest
in TBMs and deep borings, some improvements on determination of excavatability and borability parameters and
preparation of associated SMs are also some of the near future expectations which may assist considerably in the
effort of predicting excavatability and in the assessment of borability performance.
Long-term maintenance and preservation of man-made historical and modern rock structures as well as waste
disposal sites become important issues in geo-engineering. Important issues are how to evaluate the weathering
and degradation rates and effect of variations in water content on rocks with minerals or particles susceptible to
water, and to incorporate these in the stability assessments (e.g. [7, 26]). Available methods such as slake
durability, drying and wetting, freezing and thawing, and swelling tests can be used for the purpose. However,
disintegration of rocks during wetting-drying and freezing-thawing laboratory tests, in which weather conditions
are simulated, occurs faster than the natural processes in situ, and they are also insufficient to provide experimental
data for constitutive and mechanical modeling. Therefore, the development of new experimental techniques and/or
modification of the existing experimental methods to solve this problem are urgently needed.
5
5 Conclusions
Since there have been important scientific developments and technological advances both in rock mechanics and
rock engineering, the importance of experimental investigations and characterization of rock masses and
development of new technics will continue as an integral part of rock mechanics and rock engineering. In terms of
experimental rock mechanics and site characterization the followings seem as the most popular areas of interest
and would be the main sources for the development of new ISRM SMs: (a) rock dynamics, (b) characterization
and testing methods for soft rocks and bimrocks, (c) non-destructive testing methods, (d) non-contact methods, (e)
rock mechanics at great depths and associated test methods, (g) SMs to be used in excavatability and borability
studies, (h) guidelines for laboratory procedures to detect damage thresholds, and (i) new and/or upgraded methods
to assess rate of degradation in preservation of cultural assets. In addition, future cooperation among the ISRM
Commissions, more international collaborations and the greater integration (i.e. integrating engineering with
geophysics, engineering geology, microcosmic) can drive research to greater levels in rock mechanics and will be
very helpful in the production of new SMs.
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mass as equivalent continuum, In: Rossmanith H.P. (ed.), 2nd International Conference on Mechanics of Jointed and
Fractured Rocks, Vol. 2, pp. 560-574, CRC Press Balkema, London (1995)
12. Sönmez, H., Kasapoglu, K.E., Coskun, A., Tunusluoglu, C., Medley, E.W., Zimmerman, R.W.: A conceptual empirical
approach for the overall strength of unwelded bimrocks. In: Vrkljan, I (ed.), EUROCK2009 pp. 357-360, CRC Press,
Rotterdam, Balkema (2009).
13. Li, X., Lia, Q.I., He, J.M.: In situ tests and stochastic structural model of rock and soil aggregate in the three Gorges
Reservoir area, China. Int. J Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 41 (3), 702-707 (2004)
14. Coli, N., Berry, P., Boldini, D.: In situ non-conventional shear tests for the mechanical characterisation of a bimrock. Int.
J Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 48, 95-102 (2011).
15. Ulusay, R., Aydan, Ö., Erguler, Z.A., Ngan-Tillard, D.J.M., Seiki, T., Verwaal, W., Sasaki, Y., Sato, A.: ISRM Suggested
Method for the needle penetration test. Rock Mech. and Rock Eng. 47, 1073-1085 (2014)
16. Luong, M.P., Emami, M.: Characterization of mechanical damage in granite. Frattura ed Integrità Strutturale 27, 38-42
(2014)
17. Sato, A. & Aydan, Ö.: An X-ray CT imaging of water absorption process of soft rocks. In: Khalili, N., Russell, A.,
Khoshghalb A. (eds.), Int. Symp. on Unsaturated Soils: Research and Applications, pp. 675-678, CRC Press Balkema,
London (2014)
18. Zhou, X.Y., Xia, K., Li, X.B., Li, H.B., Ma, G.W., Zhao, J., Zhou, Z.L., Dai, F.: Suggested method for determining the
dynamic strength parameters and mode-I fracture toughness of rock materials. Int. J Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 49, 105-112
(2012)
6
19. Feng, X-T., Haimson, B., Li, X., Chang, C., Ma, X., Zhang, X.: ISRM Suggested Method: Determining deformation and
failure characteristics of rocks subjected to true triaxial compression. Rock Mech. Rock Eng. 51, 2011-2020 (2019)
20. Ghazvinian, E., Diederichs, M., Martin, D., Christiansson, R., Hakala, M., Gorski, B., Perras, M., Jacobsson, L.: Prediction
thresholds for crack initıation and propagation in crystalline rocks. Unpublished ISRM Commission on Spall Prediction
Report on Testing Procedures (2012)
21. Kwasniewski, M.: Recent advances in studies of the strength of rocks under true triaxial compression conditions. Arch.
Min. Sci. 58 (4), 1177–1200 (2013)
22. Feng, X.T., Zhang, X., Kong, R.. & Wang, G.: Novel Mogi type true triaxial testing apparatus and ıts use to obtain complete
stress–strain curves of hard rocks. Rock Mech. Rock Eng. 49, 1649-1662 (2016)
23. Kaiser, P.K.: Practical implication of brittle failure on hard rock tunnelling construction. [Online] Presentation at Univer-
sitat Politéchnicade Catalunya Barcelona, Spain, http://www.etcg.upc.edu/estudis/aula-paymacotas/granit/ponencies/kai-
ser.pdf (2010)
24. Feng, Q., Wang, G., Röshoff, K.: Investigation of 3D terrestrial laser scanning techniques for potential application to rock
mechanics. In: Qian, Q., Zhou, Y. (eds.), 12th International Congress on Rock Mechanics, pp. 963-968, CRC Press
Balkema, London (2011).
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2012/Chicago.aspx. (2012)
26. Ulusay, R., Aydan, Ö. The 2016 Hans Cloos Lecture: Geo-engineering aspects on the structural stability and protection of
historical man-made rock structures: An overview of Cappadocia Region (Turkey) in the UNESCO’s World Heritage List.
Bull. Eng. Geol. and the Env. 77, 457-488 (2018)
7
Advanced techniques for deep hard rock geothermal drilling
Hedi SELLAMI
Mines Paris - PSL
ABTRACT: Geothermal energy harnesses the heat of rocks to convert water to steam and supply an un-
interrupted power as opposed to wind and solar energy sources. This makes geothermal energy a lead-
ing candidate for a carbon neutral, efficient and a reliable source of renewable energy supply across the
globe. However, the current drilling methods to reach the rocks at a depth of more than 4 Km are slow
and inefficient – making geothermal sources supply less than 2% to the global energy share.
The growth of deep geothermal energy requires reducing the unit cost of drilling by 30% by developing
a technology capable of drilling 3 or 4 times faster than conventional drilling techniques, which is a
very ambitious goal. We will mention some of these novel rock breaking processes, in particular a
method, we named “Self-Relief-Drilling ”, based on a principle to ‘free’ the deep rock from existing
concentrated stress at the bottom-hole in the immediate vicinity of the drilling bit, allowing for an easier
rock-cutting action. The new technique combines two, previously separate, mature technologies: High
Pressure Water Jetting and Percussive Drilling, in a system customised for hard rock geothermal reser-
voirs to depths of 6 km.
9
Stress, Structures and deformations:The case of the western
Mediterranean Sea and its surrounding area
Farhat Rekhiss
Ecole Nationale d'Ingénieurs de Sfax
The deformed structures of the western Mediterranean Sea are big scale structures. They are
larger than the field structures and experimental ones obtained in the laboratory.
These structures are related to the extensional and compressional phenomena that happened dur-
ing the Africa and Europe collusion. This means that the Opening and the extension of the west-
ern Mediterranean Sea was happening when the Alpine chain took place in the surrounding zone
of this basin.
So, the structural and geodynamic evolution of the domain between Europe and Africa was
commanded by an Extension/Compression system which evolved in space and time since, at
least, 30 Million years ago.
This study resulted from many field trips and cruises on the Tunisia-Sardinia margin using
seismic reflection, litho-stratigraphic study and rock and mineral analyses.
10
1.1
SESSION 1
SITE INVESTIGATION TECHNOLOGY
12
Caractérisations De Remblai Minier : Calage Du Modèle
Numérique à partir Des Résultats d’auscultation Du Terrain
Fatma Tlili 1,2,4, Nejib Ben Jamaa 2, Adel Kharroubi 3, Samir Ennour4
1
Institut Supérieur des Sciences et Techniques des Eaux, Université de Gabès, Tunisie
2
Unité de Recherche : Modélisation Mécanique, Energie & Matériaux (M²EM) Ecole Nationale
d’Ingénieurs de Gabès, Université de Gabès, Tunisie
3
Unité de Recherche : Hydro-Sciences Appliquées, Institut Supérieur des Sciences et Techniques de
l'Eau, Université de Gabès, Tunisie
4
MECATER ingénierie, Rue Ibn Zohr, Immeuble Alizé, Le Kram, Tunisia.
RÉSUMÉ : En Nouvelle Calédonie, l’industrie minière produit des quantités énormes des stériles
miniers aménagés sous formes des remblais appelé verse. L’instabilité de ces verses peut
engendrer un risque de mouvement de terrain dommageable. A cet effet, l’ingénieur minier se
doit de comprendre le comportement rhéologique de stériles stockés afin d’éviter les phénomènes
d’instabilités non prévues. Dans ce cadre, les modélisations numériques faites par les
géotechniciens et les chercheurs visent à effectuer des analyses prédictives de stabilité des talus
dans des conditions réalistes. Pour ce faire, une modélisation numérique fiable et proche de la
réalité d’un remblais miniers représente un défi toujours plus exigent pour les chercheurs et les
géotechniciens. Le choix du modèle du comportement rhéologique proche de l’état réelle des
matériaux du remblai ainsi que l’hétérogénéité et l’incertitude au niveau des paramètres
géomécaniques du sol sont parmi les critères les plus critiques dans une simulation numérique.
Les essais laboratoire ainsi que les mesures in situ d’un site exploité sont généralement limité vue
leurs cout élevée et la difficulté d’accès. Néanmoins, une caractérisation proche de réalité d’un
sol n’est réalisée qu’à l’aide des outils numériques de recherche, ce qui limite la confiance dans
les conditions de stabilité. Afin de fournir cette application efficace et innovante, un système de
surveillance à grande échelle a été mis en œuvre pour plus que 20 ans dans la zone étudiée. En
effet, L’exploitation des résultats des instruments de surveillance intégrée spécialisée peut ici être
fonctionnelle pour caler et améliorer la fiabilité et la cohérence entre le model numérique et la
réalité. Le calage entre le modèle numérique et les résultats d’auscultation vise à fournir une vraie
caractérisation du sol ainsi que de définir le meilleur modèle rhéologique adéquate à l’évaluation
de tous signes d’instabilité à court et à long terme.
MOTS-CLES : Calage modèle numérique ; Surveillance sur le terrain ; Caractérisation du sol.
1. INTRODUCTION
L'industrie minière génère une grande quantité de rejets, à savoir des stériles de latérite, des
produits sous-économiques et des résidus. La bonne gestion de ces déchets en toute sécurité est
une préoccupation majeure car elles sont à l'origine d'accidents majeurs et de catastrophes
environnementales. Les résidus de latérite sont généralement déposés en surface en tas (verses ou
remblais) et se consolident au fil du temps sous leur propre poids. Ils peuvent s'étendre à des
dizaines de mètres au-dessus du sol. L'instabilité de ces ouvrages peut provoquer la rupture du
remblai, créant le risque de glissement de terrain. Cependant, les exploitants miniers doivent
toujours comprendre et prédire le plus précisément possible le comportement des stériles
entreposés afin d'éviter tout phénomène susceptible d'entraîner des évolutions imprévues de
l'instabilité.
13
D'un point de vue rhéologique, la bonne connaissance du comportement du sol sous des
contraintes est un enjeu majeur, car elle permet d'évaluer les déformations induites par les
contraintes tout en assurant une bonne adéquation entre les contraintes réelles et modélisées. Dans
ce cas, les propriétés physiques et mécaniques du sol sont les plus intéressantes.
Cette étude porte sur la caractérisation du sol latéritique en Nouvelle-Calédonie, qui repose sur
une base terreuse. En effet, le minerai de nickel est condensé dans des couches de péridotite
recouvertes d’une couche supérieure de latérite. L’extrait du nickel nécessite de décaper cette
couche supérieure w et d’entreposer en tas sur des sites spécialement conçus à cet effet. Ces
remblais miniers sont des matériaux au comportement complexe qui évolue avec le temps, depuis
la préparation jusqu’à la mise en place et la consolidation dans le chantier (Belem et al., 2002b;
Benzaazoua et al., 2004; Kesimal et al., 2005).
Plusieurs études ont été menées sur les latérites remaniées de nouvelles calédoniens et leurs
stabilités. Depuis 1973, les latérites remaniées sont stockées sous forme des verses de grandes
hauteurs qui dépassent plus que 100m. Les règles de conceptions de ces verses ont été élaborées
à partir d’une profonde étude géotechnique qui est synthétisée dans le rapport intitulé « Nouvelle
démarche de conception des décharges de latérites dans les exploitations de minerai de nickel en
Nouvelle Calédonie, Samir ENNOUR, JP PIGUET, Septembre 1996 ». Ces verses sont équipées
d’instruments d'auscultation pour le but d’évaluer leur comportement à court et à long terme.
L’objectif de cette étude est d’identifier les caractéristiques de ces stériles à l’aide du code en
éléments finis. Nous tenterons de calibrer entre des données expérimentales à savoir les résultats
de mesures d'auscultation durant plusieurs années avec des résultats obtenus à partir de modèles
numériques soit les déplacements et les surpressions interstitielles.
Le cas de la verse « Mont-jardin » est considéré ici comme de cas d’étude. À cet égard, un modèle
numérique a été élaboré. Il permet de prédire le comportement du sol avec une fiabilité acceptable.
Pour entamer cet objectif, une bonne compréhension de la structure du matériau étudié est
indispensable pour pouvoir interpréter correctement les résultats des simulations numériques.
2. ZONE D’ETUDE
Après l’exploitation du gisement de nickel, la société le nickel SLN a retenu des concessions
comme zones de verses minières destinés pour le stockage de stériles miniers. Les sites
d’implantation de ces verses sont généralement constitués par des talwegs, ce qui induit des
risques vis-à-vis des stabilités en fonction des terrains d'assise et de leur pente. Les aires de
stockage doivent être équipé par des dispositifs de surveillance (des inclinomètres ; des
piézomètres et des capteurs de pressions interstitielles) afin de suivre le comportement de produits
stockés pendant leurs consolidations.
La verse « Mont-jardin » a été sélectionnée pour l’étude de caractérisation des latérites. Le calage
du modèle de calcul numérique de la verse a été basé sur les résultats des mesures d’auscultation
à savoir les déplacements horizontaux et les surpressions interstitielles.
La zone d’étude de la verse « Mont-jardin » fait partie du gisement de Kouaoua qui se localise
sur le côté Est de l’île (Figure 1). La surface topographique du site de la verse « Mont-jardin » est
légèrement incliné vers le Sud. La topographie du site est marquée par deux creeks peu profonds,
de direction N40 et N50 qui se rejoignent pour former le creek principal qui apparaît au pied de
la verse.
14
Les caractéristiques de la verse sont décrites dans le tableau 1.
Tableau 1 : Caractéristiques de la verse servie pour le calage
Verse Mont-jardin
Latitude : -21,457075° ;
Localisation sur la carte
Longitude : 165.764224°
Des produits constitués par des latérites rouges ou jaunes, à des teneurs
Nature de produis stockés
en eau très fluctuantes.
Cote plateforme de calage
606
(NGNC)
Hauteur de la verse (m) 84
Superficie (ha) 4,6
Pente intégratrice (°) 27
De 1986 jusqu’à 1993 : Début de la construction de la cote 524 jusqu’à
Cadence de stockage réelle la cote 594 NGNC.
par an (m) De 1993 à 1995 : Rehausse expérimentale de 12 m, jusqu’à la cote 606
NGNC, soit une hauteur totale de 82 m.
Figure 1 : Localisation de la verse servie pour le calage
3. SYSTEME DE SURVEILLANCE
Le système de surveillance, conçu et installé dès le démarrage de construction des verses. Il
comprend des inclinomètres (INC) pour évaluer les déplacements horizontaux au cours et après
la construction de la verse, des capteurs de pressions interstitielles (CPI) servent à capter les
pressions interstitielles génères lors de stockages des latérites.
Le dispositif d’auscultation de la verse « Mont-jardin » est composé de trois inclinomètres (INC)
et cinq CPI ; (Figure 2). Compte tenu des résultats d’auscultations d’une période de plus que 28
ans, les déplacements mesurés dans les inclinomètres sont stabilisés et conforment aux prévisions.
En plus, vue que la verse « Mont-jardin » atteinte sa côte ultime depuis 1995, les CPI installées
dans la verse sont désaturés. A cet effet, le calage des déformations du modèle numérique de la
verse « Mont-jardin », sera basé sur les résultats de mesures de l’inclinomètre INC1 qui est
implanté au niveau du flan principale. Pour les surpressions de consolidation, l’objectif du calage
15
c’est de retrouver des valeurs de pressions interstitielles nulles, conformément aux observations
des derniers années.
Tableau 2 : Données de surveillance de la verse Mont jardin – Juillet 2021
Profondeur Dép. maximale
Mesure les Période de
Inclinomètre sous Localisation cumulé Juillet
déplacements du mesure (ans)
rehausse (m) 2021 (cm)
Flanc Sud Est de
INC1 90 28 12,5
la verse
Scellé dans Flanc Sud-Ouest
INC2 60 22 8,5
le bedrock de la verse
L’assise de la
INC3 25 22 Hors service
verse
Capteur de
Cote Pressions interstitielles Juillet 2021
Pressions Localisation Fonction
d’installation (kPa)
interstitielles
CPI1 20 Suivre l’évolution
CPI2 35 des pressions
CPI3 8 La verse interstitielles sous Dé-saturés
CPI4 45 l’effet de la
CPI5 75 rehausse
Figure 2 : Localisation de la verse Mont jardin
4. LES CARACTERISTIQUES MECANIQUES DES MATERIAUX CONSTITUANT LA

VERSE ET L’ASSISE PARTIR DE RETOUR D’EXPERIENCE
La détermination des paramètres mécaniques de matériaux mises en verse ainsi que son assise
constituent le point important de cette étude. Dans ce cadre, les hypothèses de calcul seront
fondées sur les valeurs déduites des documents disponibles et de retour d’expérience dans le
domaine de la construction des verses (Historique des études du bureau d’étude MECATER
Ingénierie, essais de laboratoires à grandes échelles de quelques sondages…).
Les matériaux mis en verse sont constitués des produits non économiques tel que les latérites
rouges ou jaunes à des teneurs en eau très fluctuantes et des produits économiques comme les
16
saprolites basse teneur et les latérites minéralisées. L’assise formé généralement de saprolites
terreuses.
Les latérites en verse sont des sols résiduels de couleur rouge et jaune. Ce sont des matériaux de
classe A3 selon le classement GTR (Guide des terrassements routiers du SETRA-LCPC, 1992).
Le diamètre maximal Dmax de ces matériaux est inférieur à 50 mm et le pourcentage de passant à
0,08 mm est d’environ à 70 %. Ces matériaux sont sensibles au remaniement produit lors de
l’extraction et de la mise en œuvre. La réduction de la structure résiduelle secondaire conduit à
un matériau assimilable à une argile souvent à l’état plastique à très plastique. Plusieurs études
ont été effectuées sur ce sol afin de déterminer leurs caractéristiques.
D’après l’historique de la zone d’étude, la perméabilité initiale des latérites ayant une moyenne
de 3.10-9 m/s. En tenant compte de la présence des bandes d’enrochement ayant une perméabilité
de 10-3 m/s (les mèches et les pistes de roulage), la perméabilité induite dans le model numérique
est égale à 5.10-8 m/s. Le rapport est de 0,05 ce qui donne un matériau compressible.
Les saprolites sont des sols issus de l’altération de la roche mère (péridotites). En se réfèrent au
profil latéritique type (Figure 3), ces types de sols apparaissent directement au-dessus de l’horizon
rocheux (bed rock). Leurs caractéristiques physiques sont présentées dans le tableau récapitulatifs
N°3 qui résume les différentes caractéristiques induites dans la modélisation numérique. Ces
caractéristiques sont collectées à partir de l’historique des études des recherches effectuées sur ce
type de matériaux.
Figure 3 : Profil géologique de la zone d’étude
17
Tableau 3 : Caractéristiques de référence géo mécaniques adoptées dans la modélisation
Paramètre Latérites en verse Saprolites terreuses Substratum rocheux Unité
Soft-soil creep Soft-soil creep
Modèle Elastique -
Model Model
γsat 18 18 22 kN/m3
γunsat 16 16 20 kN/m3
E - - 5000 MPa
ν - - 0.27 -
Cc 0,15 0,1 - -
Cs 0,02 0,01 - -
Cα 0.01 0,008 - -
eini 2 1,8 - -
C 10 15 - kN/m2
φ 38 30 - Degré
Kx = K y 10-8 à 5.10-8 10-7 10-6 m/s
5. MODELISATION NUMERIQUE
5.1. But de modélisation numérique
Cet article a pour but de faire une concordance entre les résultats des calculs numériques avec les
mesures d’auscultations expérimentales. Nous allons nous baser sur une période de mesure de
plus que 28 ans de plus, en utilisant des lois de comportement plus avancées prenant en compte
la consolidation et le fluage à long terme des matériaux.
Pour la modélisation aux éléments finis, nous avons adopté le code de calcul « Plaxis » qui
comporte la loi « Soft SoilCreep » bien adaptée au comportement des latérites. Ce code de calcul
permet de prendre en compte l'écrouissage des argiles molles et sa consolidation secondaire
(fluage) : celle-ci se traduit par une évolution de la déformation axiale en fonction du temps et ce
après la fin de la consolidation primaire. Le fluage évolue en fonction du logarithme du temps (au
moins pour les échelles de temps observables). Il est caractérisé par le paramètre Cα (Bjerrum,
1967). Dans le code de calcul « Plaxis », les calculs sont réalisés en contraintes effectives en
utilisant les caractéristiques intrinsèques des matériaux constituant l’assise et la verse (cohésion
et angle de frottement drainés).
Les pressions interstitielles générées par la consolidation des matériaux de l’assise et des latérites
en verse seront calculées selon la théorie de Terzaghi. Ces calculs font appel aux paramètres de
la consolidation (perméabilité et coefficient de compressibilité). La comparaison des contraintes
effectives par rapport au critère de rupture intrinsèque permet d’évaluer en tout moment le
potentiel de stabilité de la verse.
Les matériaux stockés en verse ont été considérés comme un seul matériau ayant des
caractéristiques équivalentes qui seront déterminées à partir du calage du modèle numérique. Le
tableau 3 résume les différentes caractéristiques de référence induites dans la modélisation
numérique.
18
Les conditions aux limites des coupes étudiées
Les calculs avec le modèle bidimensionnel dans PLAXIS 2D sont réalisés en déformations planes.
Dans ces conditions, l’extension latérale de la verse est supposée infinie.
Les conditions aux limites adoptées pour cette modélisation sont les suivantes :
- Cotés gauches et droites du modèle : déplacements horizontaux nuls et frontières en
consolidation fermées. Ces cotés représentent des limites éloignées du modèle qui
théoriquement ne doivent pas être affectées par les sollicitations induites par la verse ;
- Base du modèle : déplacements nuls représentant une frontière éloignée.
Figure 4 : Géologie de la coupe modélisée
5.2. Phasage des calculs

Les étapes de stockage simulées débutèrent par la phase chargement gravitaire du modèle
permettant de créer l’état de contraintes initiales du terrain. A la fin de cette phase, les
déplacements seront annulés. Par la suite, la mise en place et consolidation des couches de latérites
en verse conformément au phasage de mise en verse réelle. Et en fin, nous recherche des zones
les plus sollicitées au niveau de la verse à la fin du chargement de par un calcul appelé Phi/C
réduction en procédant à la réduction progressive de la cohésion et de l’angle de frottement de
tous les matériaux constitutifs du modèle.
5.3. Résultats de calcul et interprétation des résultats
Après plusieurs simulations, nous avons réussi à retrouver le profil inclinométrique calculé proche
de profil mesuré (Tableau 4). Les paramètres de calage du modèle numérique de la verse « Mont-
jardin » sont présentés dans le tableau 5. Nous constatons que les paramètres de consolidation qui
ont permis le calage des modèles numériques à savoir un indice des vides initial de 2,6 et un indice
de compressibilité de latérites en verse de 0,15 sont proches des valeurs de référence déduites des
collectes des essais et des études réalisés, Ceci assure la fiabilité du model calage réalisé. Nous
avons réussi à caler l’indice du fluage Cα de la verse « Mont-jardin » qui a atteint sa cote ultime
depuis 1995. Cet indice reste dans les ordres de grandeurs pour ce type de matériau.
Il existe des écarts inévitables entre les déplacements mesurés et les déplacements calculés. Nous
estimons que ces écarts sont acceptables et ce en considérant les aspects suivants :
19
- L’hétérogénéité des matériaux stockés dans les verses avec la présence d’une grande
proportion de cailloux qui sont répartie de façon aléatoire et qui peuvent se concentrer parfois
à proximité des instruments de mesures et perturbent ainsi les résultats du modèle théorique
(milieu homogène équivalent).
- La séquence de stockage des produits : Réellement le stockage des latérites se fait au niveau
de l’ensemble des casiers avec des épaisseurs différentes et des périodes de remplissage
différentes. Dans la modélisation, nous intégrons uniquement la différence de niveau entre
le début et la fin de chaque mois, sans tenir compte de la séquence détaillée de stockage.
- L’effet 3D : Les simulations réalisées sur modèle bidimensionnel (2D) supposent que
l’extension latérale de la coupe étudiée est infinie. Or, réellement, le confinement latéral
offert par la topographie contrôle en partie les déplacements.
- La déformabilité des stériles stockés en verse, qui est très sensible à la compacité, peut être
très variable selon les conditions de déposition : pluviométrie, épaisseur de la couche
d’étalement et composition des produits stockés.
Tableau 4 : Les modalités simulés pour le calage de la verse « Mont-jardin »
Paramètres de latérites en verse

Modalité
Cc Cs Cα e K (m/s)
1 0,3 0,03 0,01 2 5 10-8
2 0,15 0,015 0,01 2 5 10-8
3 0,15 0,01 0.008 2 5 10-8
4 0,15 0.02 0.002 1,8 10-7
5 0,15 0,01 0.008 2,6 5 10-8
Tableau 5 : Caractéristiques mécaniques déduites du calage de la verse « Mont-jardin »
Paramètre Latérites en verse Saprolites Terreuses
Cc 0,15 0,1
Cs 0,01 0,01
Cα 0,008 0.008
eini 2,6 1,8
Rapport Cc/(1+e0) 0,4 0,035
K0 1-sin (φ) 1-sin (φ)
-8
K (m/s) 5 10 10-7
20
Figure 4 : Déplacements horizontaux mesurés et calculés au niveau de l’inclinomètre INC 1 de la verse
« Mont-jardin »
Figure 4 : Surpressions interstitielles calculés au niveau de la verse « Mont-jardin » ( Pmax =0.7 kPa)
21
6. CONCLUSION
Estimations des paramètres proches de réalité représentent une mission toujours exigeante pour
les chercheurs et les concepteurs, ainsi que pour ceux qui sont impliqués dans le domaine minier.
En effet, à partir d’une modélisation numérique fiable l’exploitant minier peuvent mieux
comprend et prévoit le comportement réel de produits stockés et fait la bonne gestion de ces rejets
d’une façon sécuritaire. À cet égard, des instruments d’auscultation ont été intégré dans les aires
de stockage pour suivre le comportement des verses stockes pendant les différentes phases de sa
vie (à court et à long terme).
Dans la présente étude, une interprétation approfondie de résultats issus de ces instruments
d’auscultations permet de caractériser l’historique de déplacements horizontaux et d’évaluer les
valeurs maximales des surpressions interstitielles générées lors de stockages des verses. Ces
résultats permettent de caler les paramètres induits dans le model numérique de la verse et par
suite d’élaborer un modèle de calcul prévisionnel capable de reproduire le comportement réel des
verses de grandes hauteurs et de simuler ainsi les mécaniques de rupture potentielle pouvant
affecter la verse pendant les différentes phases de sa vie.
L’hétérogénéité des matériaux stockés dans la verse, la simulation bidimensionnel 2D, les
conditions de stockage réelles tel que la pluviométrie et la façon d’étalement des produits stockes
sont des facteurs indispensables qui peuvent donner un écart acceptable entre les résultats
expérimentales et théoriques.
Ces recherches ont été mise à jour en fonction de la durée de mesures in-situ, les essais
géotechniques à petit échelles et à grande échelle, les nouveaux codes du calcul et les lois de
comportement les plus avancées.
ABREVIATION
- Densité saturée (γsat en KN/m3),
- Densité non saturée ( γunsat en KN/m3),
- Module de déformation élastique (E en MN/m²),
- Coefficient de Poisson (ν),
- Angle de frottement (φ en °),
- Cohésion (C en KN/m²),
- Perméabilité verticale et horizontale : Ky et Kx (m/jour),
- Indice de compression Cc,
- Indice de gonflement Cs,
- Indice de fluae Cα,
- Indice de vide initial eini,
- Surpressions interstitielles maximales Pmax.
REFERENCES
[1] Kesimal, A., Yilmaz, E., Ercikdi, B., Alp, 1., Deveci, H. (2005) Effect ofproperties oftailings
and binder on the short-and long-term strength and stability of cemented paste backfill. M
aterials Letters 59(28):3703-9.
[2] Ennour, S., ALHEIBJ,M. J.P,PIGUET (1996) Nouvelle démarche de conception des
décharges de latérites dans les exploitations de minerai de nickel en Nouvelle Calédonie.
[3] Brice,S. (2014) cartographie du régolithe sur formation ultrabasique de NOUVELLE-
CALEDONIE : Localisation dans l’espace et le temps des gisements nickélifères.
22
[4] Carmine, G. , Irene, R., Guido. G (2021) Field Monitoring and Laboratory Testing for an
Integrated Modeling of River Embankments under Transient Conditions.
[5] BJERRUM L., (1967) 7 th Rankine lecture Engineering geology of normally consolidated
marine clays as related to settlements of buildings, Géotechnique, Vol. XVII, n° 2, juin 1967,
p. 82-118.
23
24
Cracking of a clay subjected to desiccation: Experimental and 3D
numerical investigation.
H. Trabelsi
Laboratoire de Génie Civil, Ecole Nationale d’Ingénieurs de Tunis, BP.37, 1002, le Belvédère Tunis,
Tunisie. houcem.trabelsi@enit.utm.tn
F. Louati
Tunisie.
M. Jamei
Tunisie.
ABSTRACT: The paper focuses on the cracking of fine soil by desiccation. An extension of hydro-
mechanical model to 3D, previously proposed and including the porosity as a state variable, is used. Crack’s
growth in surface with variable depths and developed in zones of higher porosity. This significantly affects
the transport properties as the diffusivity, the permeability, and the thermal conductivity. Simulations have
been carried out to reproduce the distribution of the network of cracks by desiccation. The loss of moisture
content during shrinkage was quantified in relation with the crack’s characteristics. The numerical results
were discussed in terms of average loss moisture content during drying.
1 INTRODUCTION.
Les dernières décennies sont marquées par le phénomène du réchauffement climatique et l'accroissement
des émissions de gaz à effet de serre. Ceci est dû aux activités humaines qui ne respectent pas
l'environnement. Cette hausse de température conduit à des événements climatiques extrêmes :
précipitations et sécheresses de durées inhabituelles.
Les changements climatiques provoquent des risques naturels, les glissements de terrain et l'effondrement
des sols engendrent des dégâts au niveau des ouvrages. Nous considérons que ces problèmes sont d'une
grande importance pour notre pays, la Tunisie, et pour tous les pays à climat classé habituellement de semi-
aride. Dans ce contexte, nous nous intéressons à l'étude des sols non saturés et particulièrement la fissuration
des argiles soumises à la dessiccation.
Il est aujourd'hui bien connu que les argiles et les limons sont actives en termes d'interactions avec l'eau.
En effet, ces sols sont déformables sous l'effet de l'humidification par un apport d'eau (gonflement) ou sous
l'effet du drainage par évaporation (retrait). Le retrait et le gonflement se déroulent naturellement avec une
évolution du degré de saturation et c'est cette évolution qui conditionne le développement de l'un ou l'autre
des deux phénomènes.
L'apparition des fissures (superficielles ou bien peu profondes) à la surface des talus argileux, suite à
l'évaporation de l'eau pendant les périodes sèches (phénomène de dessiccation) et les différents cycles de
drainage et d'humidification entraine une augmentation de la perméabilité de la couche superficielle des
pentes. Ce phénomène favorise l'infiltration des eaux de pluie et engendre les glissements de terrain
superficiels. La propagation de ces fissures peut engendrer l'instabilité des pentes dans plusieurs cas. Dans
de nombreuses circonstances, les fissures de dessiccation entrainent des dégradations dans les ouvrages
géotechniques. Les fissures de dessiccation affectent aussi les barrières argileuses mises en place pour
l'isolation des déchets, et cela à la suite de l'augmentation de la perméabilité de la barrière. En particulier,
ce phénomène constitue une entrave au stockage souterrain des déchets nucléaires. L'étude des sols non
25
saturés nécessite la résolution des problèmes complexes et couplés. Trois balances peuvent être couplés,
(CTHM : Couplage Thermique, Hydrique et Mécanique).
Plusieurs auteurs se sont intéressés au suivi de l'ouverture des fissures en profondeur. La plupart de ces
travaux sont expérimentaux, [1, 2, 3]. La prédiction de la profondeur des fissures permet la détermination
du volume des fissures [4]. Les travaux de Olivier 2006 et Striling 2013 [5,6] comportent aussi des
simulations basées sur la technique des éléments finis avec des conditions spéciales qui permettent
l'initiation et la propagation des fissures. D'autres simulations utilisant la méthode des éléments discrets
pour la prédiction des fissures en profondeur ont été menées [7,8,9].
Pour quantifier l'évaporation, Nachshon et al 2012 [10] proposent une étude qui décrit le processus
d'échange de gaz à l'interface sol-atmosphère. Ces auteurs ont quantifié le rôle du vent en tant que facteur
influençant l'échange entre le sol et l'atmosphère. Ils ont aussi proposé des relations empiriques pour décrire
l'évaporation en fonction des conditions hygrothermiques, ainsi que l'effet de l'ouverture des fissures sur
l'évaporation.
2 LA LOI DE COMPORTEMENT UTILISÉE

On a montré dans des travaux antérieurs faits sur une argile de la région de Béja - Tunisie [11,12], que
lorsque la succion dépasse la valeur de 15 MPa, la résistance à la traction n'est plus une fonction linéaire
de la succion. Au-delà de cette valeur l'effet de la dessiccation diminue puisque le retrait s'achève alors que
la succion continue à augmenter. Par ailleurs, la résistance à la traction tend vers une limite maximale qui
est pour cette argile de l'ordre de 1MPa. Pour cela, la résistance à la traction en fonction de la succion est
formulée comme suit :
∅
C (s) = 𝜎 〈1 −
∅
〉 (1)
quasi-saturée
1000 phase partiellement saturée

phase
Tensile strength (kPa)
phase résiduelle
sAE=450 kPa
100
sSL=15 MPa
Résistance à la traction
10 Modèle proposé, Eq.1
1
0,2 0,5 2 5 20 50 200
0,1 1 10 100
Suction + patm (MPa)
Figure. 1.Résistance à la traction en fonction de la succion pour l'argile étudiée.
Avec :
C (s) : Résistance à la traction en fonction de r : Paramètre de rétention.
la succion.
𝜎 : Résistance maximale à la traction (état ϕ : Porosité
hydrique sec).
𝑆 : Succion du point d'entrée d'air. ϕ0 : Porosité de référence
𝑆 : Succion résiduelle (limite de retrait). m : Paramètre de ductilité du matériau
La variation de la résistance à la traction a trois phases :
i. (s<0.45 MPa) Une phase quasi-saturée où la succion est inférieure à la succion du point d'entrée d'air.
ii. (0.45<s<15 MPa) Une deuxième phase est une phase non-saturée et déformable, avec une succion inférieure
à la succion résiduelle. Dans cette phase, la résistance à la traction varie linéairement avec la succion.
26
iii. (s>15 MPa) La troisième phase est une phase dans laquelle la succion augmente sans changement significatif
de la résistance à la traction, en particulier lorsque la succion est supérieure à la succion résiduelle.
3 CONDITIONS AUX LIMITES IMPOSÉES
3.1 Conditions mécaniques
La modélisation du contact entre l'échantillon et le fond est faite de la façon suivante :
 On impose un déplacement vertical nul au fond (pas de décollement).
 Le frottement à l'interface entre l'échantillon et le fond est modélisé par une loi linéaire entre la
force et le déplacement horizontal.
 Sur les parois latérales, les déplacements sont imposés nuls dans les deux directions x et y
3.2 Conditions Thermo-hydriques
Modéle de Van-Genuchten
1 P0=1,03, Ssat=0.98, Ssat=0.05, λ=0,33
Degré de saturation - Sr (%)
0,8
Etat quasi-saturé
0,6
Etat résiduel
0,4 Etat partiellement saturé
0,2 Sres ≌ 0.28

SLR≌ 15 MPa
SAE ≌ 450 kPa
0
0,1 1 10 100 1000
Succion - s (MPa)
Figure. 2. Courbe de rétention d’eau et ajustement avec le modèle de Van-Genuchten [13].
On modélise l'effet de l'évaporation en imposant la température de l'échantillon initiale à T0=35°C et la

concentration de vapeur d'eau dans l'air sur la surface latérale à 0.034 kg/kg. Les paramètres de la courbe
de rétention d'eau sont présentés dans la figure 2. La conductivité thermique du matériau a été imposée à
1.5 W.m-1.K-1. La valeur de la conductivité thermique intervient dans l'équilibre thermique et la
détermination de la répartition de la température au sein de l'échantillon. La perméabilité est considérée
isotrope k=10-10 m.s-1.
Rappelons que pour la modélisation du comportement volumique par retrait, il existe déjà dans la littérature
des modèles élasto-plastiques qui intègrent le comportement volumique des sols non saturés. Ils sont en
majorité basés sur le concept des contraintes effectives. Les résultats numériques comparés aux résultats
expérimentaux montrent que les équations non linéaires utilisées pour décrire la déformation volumique
par retrait lors du chemin de drainage sont convenables. Cependant, dans notre étude nous utilisons une
relation linéaire entre la déformation volumique par retrait 𝜀 et la succion.
∆𝜀 = 3𝛼 . 𝑠 (2)
4 INTERPRÉTATION DES RÉSULTATS

4.1 Réseau de fissures
Un échantillon de sol cylindrique de diamètre 40 cm et de hauteur 10 cm a été envisagé pour les simulations.
Un champ de porosité distribuée aléatoirement a été injecté, avec une porosité initiale moyenne de 0.6 et
27
un écart type égal à 1% de la valeur moyenne donnée. Cette hétérogénéité vise à faciliter l’amorçage et la
propagation des fissures d’une manière plus réaliste.
Le profil de saturation a été imposé au début des essais. Un profil intermédiaire et final de saturation, de
succion et de teneur en eau a été attribué, sur la base de mesures de laboratoire effectuées au cours d’un
mois de dessiccation. Les simulations ont été faites avec un maillage de 5884 éléments tétraédriques.
L’épaisseur (distance dans le sens vertical) est divisée en vingt éléments. La simulation commence par une
étape d’équilibre (temps = 0,001 jour). À la fin de la première étape, le degré de saturation est de Sr=0.96.
Les figures 3.a et c montrent le réseau de fissures à la fin de la deuxième étape (temps = 1,5 jour). Nous
considérons la fissure dans les éléments finis lorsque la porosité est supérieure à la porosité de référence
(ϕ0= 0,61). Le réseau de fissures, respectivement en surface et en profondeur, sont présentés sur les figures
3.b et 3.d.
Porosité
a) b)
c) d)
Figure. 3. Simulation du réseau de fissures, a) Temps = 1,5 jours, b) Temps = 20 jours, c) Temps = 1,5 jours, d)
Temps = 20 jours.
4.2 Variation des paramètres au cours de la dessiccation
La figure 4 montre la variation de la succion, du degré de saturation, de la porosité et de la teneur en eau
calculés. La succion en surface et particulièrement au fond de l'échantillon est plus élevée à proximité des
fissures.
 La succion est quasi constante dans la zone homogène (non fissurée). Elle ne varie qu'en fonction
de la profondeur (selon z).
28
 L'échantillon en surface semble non-saturé et presque saturé en profondeur. La succion est plus
élevée en surface et a tendance à diminuer avec la profondeur. Ceci explique l'apparition et la
répartition de ces fissures à la surface supérieure de l'éprouvette.
Time= 20 Time= 16.95 Time= 10.28 Time= 6.66

Time= 3.33 Time= 1.33 Time= 0.66 Time= 0.14
10
9
8
7
Hauteur (cm)
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0,01 0,1 1 10 100 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0 20 40 60
a) Succion - s (MPa) b) Sr (-) c) Porosité - n (-) d) Teneur en eau - ω (%)
Figure. 4. Variation de, a) succion, b) degré de saturation, c) porosité et d) de la teneur en eau en profondeur et en
fonction du temps.
5 CONCLUSION
Afin d'étudier l'effet de la fissuration en profondeur, nous avons présenté dans ce travail des résultats de
simulation d’un échantillon cylindrique initialement saturé. Il ressort de cette étude les remarques
principales suivantes :
1. La prise en compte dans la modélisation des conditions thermo-hydriques (Humidité relative et
température imposées) a permis de mieux approcher les résultats expérimentaux.
2. Les déformations volumiques par retrait sont linéaires par partie.
3. Au cours de la dessiccation les déformations verticales sont quasiment faibles. Donc seules les
déformations dans le plan sont significatives.
4. Les angles de bifurcation des fissures qui constituent aussi un paramètre de caractérisation du
réseau de fissures, ne semblent pas être correctement prédits par le modèle 3D, en comparaison
avec les observations expérimentales.
Références
[1] Chertkov, V. Y., & Ravina, I. Morphology of horizontal cracks in swelling soils. Theoretical and Applied Fracture
Mechanics, 31(1), 19-29. (1999).
[2] Peron, H., Hueckel, T., Laloui, L., & Hu, L. Fundamentals of desiccation cracking of fine-grained soils:
experimental characterisation and mechanisms identification. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 46(10), 1177-1201.
(2009).
[3] Trabelsi, H. Etude expérimentale et numérique du comportement des argiles soumises à des conditions de
dessiccation. Thèse présentée à l’Ecole Nationale d’Ingénieurs de Tunis pour l’obtention du diplôme de Doctorat en
génie civil. (2014).
[4] Trabelsi, H., Hadrich, B., & Guiras, H. Evaporation, shrinkage, and intrinsic permeability of unsaturated clayey
soil: analytical modelling versus experimental data. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 11(8), 1-14. (2018).
29
[5] Oliver, J., Huespe, A. E., Blanco, S., & Linero, D. L. Stability and robustness issues in numerical modeling of
material failure with the strong discontinuity approach. Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering,
195(52), 7093-7114. (2006).
[6] Stirling, R. A., Davie, C. T., & Glendinning, S. Numerical modelling of desiccation crack induced permeability.
In Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris, Presses
des Ponts, Paris, France (Vol. 813, p. 816). (2013).
[7] Sima, J., Jiang, M., & Zhou, C. Modelling desiccation cracking in thin clay layer using three-dimensional discrete
element method. In AIP Conference Proceedings (Vol. 1542, No. 1, pp. 245-248). American Institute of Physics.
(2013).
[8] Guo, Y., Han, C., & Yu, X. Laboratory characterization and discrete element modeling of shrinkage and cracking
in clay layer. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 55(5), 680-688. (2018).
[9] Lin, Z. Y., Wang, Y. S., Tang, C. S., Cheng, Q., Zeng, H., Liu, C., & Shi, B. Discrete element modelling of
desiccation cracking in thin clay layer under different basal boundary conditions. Computers and Geotechnics, 130,
103931. (2021).
[10] Nachshon, U., Dragila, M., & Weisbrod, N. From atmospheric winds to fracture ventilation: Cause and effect.
Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences, 117(G2). (2012).
[11] Trabelsi, H., Jamei, M., Zenzri, H., & Olivella, S. Crack patterns in clayey soils: Experiments and modeling.
International Journal for Numerical and Analytical methods in geomechanics, 36(11), 1410-1433. (2012).
[12] Trabelsi, H., Romero, E., & Jamei, M. Tensile strength during drying of remoulded and compacted clay: The role
of fabric and water retention. Applied Clay Science, 162, 57-68. (2018).
[13] Van Genuchten, M. T. A closed‐form equation for predicting the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils. Soil
science society of America journal, 44(5), 892-898. (1980).
30
Characterization of rock mass and its influence on rock slopes
stability with survey data from Yaounde (Cameroon)
R. Bissaya, R. E. Medjo, R. T. Ghogomu & B. Njom

Department of Earth Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Yaounde 1, Yaounde, Cameroon
ABSTRACT: To accomplish a reliable rock mass characterization and assess its influence on
rock slopes stability in the Yaounde area, geological field work along with further data pro-
cessing and analysis have been carried out; discontinuous deformation analysis (DDA) being in-
troduced to be less dependent on rock strength properties. Therefore it has been established that
masses are subdivided in blocks by three main joint sets (F1, F2 and F3). The key and potential
key block statuses are accountable to various parameters. (1) The common key block status is
that with low F1 dip angle, matching to type III class where joint friction is low; whereas its un-
common status is that with fairly high F1 dip angle, corresponding to type I class. (2) The com-
mon potential key block status corresponds to type II class, whereas its uncommon status
matches to type III class, where the initially tapered blocks become secondary key blocks.
Key words: discontinuity, geomechanics, slope stability, key block, Yaounde, Cameroon
1 INTRODUCTION
A rock mass consists of rock itself and discontinuities. Discontinuity is used as a term denoting
any separation of rock blocks and having zero or low tensile strength (Palmström, 2001). It is
well accepted that the intersection of discontinuities in a jointed rock mass creates in situ blocks
of arbitrary three-dimensional geometry, which might intersect excavation surfaces to form dis-
crete blocks which can be kinematically free (removable blocks) and result in slope failures
(Yow, 1985; Goodman and Shi, 1995). An accurate and detailed rock mass characterization is a
key for adequate slope stability knowledge. A good characterization is very dependent on the
time on the site as well as the surface and underground excavations. To be less dependent on
rock strength properties (discontinuity and rock mass shear strength parameters) and to derive
objective results, geological field work, along with further data processing and analysis (e. g.,
discontinuous deformation analysis) might be a solution. The idea of discontinuous deformation
analysis (DDA) presented by Dr. Shi’s innovation in 1988 led to a new method of treating the
deformation of discontinuous media. Since then, DDA has been adopted to solve a wide range
of complicated engineering problems and spread throughout the field of rock mechanics and en-
gineering (Xie, 2007). With useful semi-automatic tools in predicting the performance of rock
slopes (e.g., Rocsciences Inc. RSDip, Goodman and Shi's block theory, Shi’s VisKBT), this pa-
per performs a DDA with survey data from Yaounde masses. RSDip is of considerable assis-
tance in plotting the information and in interpretation of statistically significant trends (Hoek,
31
2007). Block theory method allows the examination of the intersection of discontinuity sets and
excavation surfaces for plane combinations creating blocks that are kinematical able to fall. The
method has been applied to surface and underground excavations (e. g., Goodman and Shi,
1981; Yow, 1985; Um and Kulatilake, 2001; Wang et al., 2011). It has also been computer im-
plemented by several authors such as Shi’s (2017) VisKBT amongst others.
In fact this paper is guided by the following questions: (1) are the joint networks vs. free planes
distribution influencing factors regarding the slope failure, (2) and how do kinematical free
blocks influence slope failure?
To address the above mentioned issues, a focus on the joint networks and free planes analysis is
placed. Then the blocks are checked for their kinematical freedom or potential instability with
the mentioned method. Finally the possible causes of slope failure are discussed.
2 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE STUDY AREA AND GEOLOGICAL SETTING

2.1 Physiography of the study area
The study area, which involves Yaounde and its surroundings, is located on the southern Came-
roon plateau (Fig. 1a-b). It is subjected to an equatorial-guinean climate which comprises alter-
natively two dry seasons and two rainy seasons of unequal intensity. The average rainfall is
1562 mm, whereas temperatures range between 22.8°C to 25.47°C (Bissaya et al., 2014). The
slopes are made up of weathering and iron crust soil, whereas the tops are made up of mineral
soil (Yongué Fouateu, 1986; Onguéné Mala, 1993). The basement/parent rock consists of
gneissic rock itself and tectonic features, which crops out on interfluve summits, slopes and
flood valleys. The rivers and sources paths (talwegs) follow the fault trajectories (Ganwa et al.
2007). The relief is characterized by large hills with sometimes half-orange peaks (Sengalen,
1967); at times they overpass altitude 1000 m. (1) The high reliefs, above 1000 m height cover
about 15% of the surface. These hills generally have very large and tabular tops, with irregular
contours. Their slopes are convex and steep toward the summit (Onguéné Mala, 1993). (2) The
hills below 1000 m cover about 40% of the surface. They have very sharp tops and convex or
convexo-concave slopes (Onguéné Mala, 1993).
2.2 Geological setting

The study area is situated in the southern domain of the Pan-African Central African Orogenic
Belt in Cameroon; in the Yaounde region, to be more precise (Fig. 1a-b). Comprehensive geo-
logical research for the Yaounde region has been in progress since the 1950s with the Cham-
petier de Ribes and Aubagne (1956) geological map; and is still going on. It reveals that, the
rocks consist of meta-volcano-sediments of the Neoproterozoic age dating 630 Ma (age Sm/Nd-
WR-Grt on gneiss with kyanite, Toteu et al., 1994), 613 ± 33 to 586 ± 15Ma (age U/Th/Pb-Mnz,
Owona et al., 2011) 598-540 Ma (age Rb/Sr-WR-Bt/-Ms on metapelites and metadiorites,
Owona, 2008; Owona et al., 2012). These crystalline rocks include micaschists with two-mica,
garnet, kyanite, staurotide; micaceous quartzites, two-mica gneiss, and migmatites (Vicat,
1998). Its geodynamic particularity is polyphasal deformation (Nzenti et al., 1988; Ngnotué et
al., 2000; Ngako et al., 2003; Mvondo et al., 2003; 2007; Penaye et al., 2004), which created
ductile and brittle tectonic features. (1) The ductile tectonic features are continuous, such as iso-
clinal folds within the F1 foliation bedding planes (Mvondo et al., 2007; Mbola et al., 2014).
These structures have been deeply overprinted by the F2 cleavage and various filled joints or
vein sets (Moreau and Ghogomu, 1982; Mvondo et al., 2007; Mbola et al., 2014). The contem-
poraneous north-south to NE-SW and east-west to NW-SE vertical constrictions that follow up
are characterized by F3 and F4 orthogonal mega-scale folds (Mvondo et al, 2007; Mbola et al.,
2014). (2) The brittle tectonic features are discontinuous and characterized by unfilled joints or
fracturing diaclases (Moreau and Ghogomu, 1982; Mvondo et al., 2007; Mbola et al., 2014), or
complex faulting (Dumont, 1986). Foliation bedding planes, fracturing diaclases and complex
faulting are so far the most abundant discontinuities of the masses. Their joint sets might consti-
tute joint networks to be taken into account in slope stability analysis as addressed in this paper.
Figure 1. (a) Location (b) and simplified geologic map of the study area showing the main rock units and
survey points (modified from Champetier de Ribes and Aubagne, 1956; Weecksteen, 1957).
3 MATERIALS AND METHODS

This study combines survey data with stereographic plotting to describe joint networks with
RSDip software. Then it combines joint networks to DDA using block theory with VisKBT
software. Figure 2 shows the whole approach for the determination of possible causes for slope
failure in a flow diagram.
Figure 2. Flowchart of the data gathering process for the determination of possible major causes for slope
failure.
33
3.1 Data basis
As mentioned above, foliation bedding planes, fracturing diaclases and complex faulting were
recorded during geological surveys. The corresponding measurements of six outcrops are pro-
vided (see Table 1); assuming that tectonic patterns are determined by regional conditions.
Therefore, all further analyses on this paper are based on these data.
3.2 Stereographic plotting

The stereographic projection allows the three-dimensional orientation data to be represented and
analyzed in two dimensions so that lines or circles or points can represent planes, and points can
represent lines (Wyllie and Mah, 2004). In this study we are using pole plots; because when
each plane is represented by a single point, it is the most convenient means of examining the
orientation of a large number of discontinuities. We are using also great circles plots; because
once the mean orientation of the discontinuity sets has been identified on the pole plots, the next
step in the analysis is its representation by a great circle.
3.3 Joint networks

The geological documentation (e.g., Moreau and Ghogomu, 1982; Mvondo et al., 2007) showed
that at least the following two major joint types dominate the rock mass: foliation and fractur-
ing. Therefore the major aim was the detection of the joint networks and the determination of
the corresponding orientations. To obtain joint sets orientation within Rocsciences RSDip pro-
gram, at the first step, the plane poles were plotted on a stereonet; then the discrimination of
clusters led to an optimum identification of the dominant joint networks geometry (by the dis-
play of mean plans great circle). The RSDip tutorial topic can be found in Tutorial 1.rsdip data.
3.4 Kynematic analysis of the joint networks

The kinematic analysis of the joint networks is performed using block theory codes within
VisKBT software.
3.4.1 Goodman and Shi’s block theory
The main idea behind the block theory analysis is that it allows different combination of discon-
tinuities to be passed over and to directly identify and consider critical rock blocks. A simplified
2D illustration (Fig. 3) shows five types of blocks in a surface excavation formed by discontinu-
ities. Types of blocks can be divided into infinite and finite blocks. Finite blocks can be catego-
rized into non-removable and removable blocks. The identification of removable blocks (some-
times key blocks) is one of the most important parts in a rock slope stability analysis. The block
theory works with the stereographic projection, which is a strong tool for analysis of three di-
mensional structures. The resume of the way the block theory works is outlined as follows. (1)
The rock massif is delimited by planar free surfaces (planes of excavation) and cut into blocks
by closed planes of discontinuity (joints) with infinite extension. The joints are distributed into
families of parallel planes. The situation of these planes in space is generally not known. (2) A
plane of excavation delimits two half spaces. An empty half space and a rocky half space. A
joint delimits two half spaces, written as 0 and 1 (0 identifies the upper half space and 1 identi-
fies the lower half space) (see Goodman and Shi, 1981; Goodman, 1989). (3) The rock matrix is
assumed to be sufficiently resistant to avoid block rupture. These blocks are removable if the
following conditions are fulfilled: JP  EP = Ø and JP  Ø; where JP designates the joint pyr-
amid and EP, the excavation pyramid. The first condition signifies that these blocks are fin-
ished. The second condition signifies that the blocks are not enclosed by the joints, that is to say
a movement shall be possible by opening or shearing of the blocks. The JP represents therefore
the overall directions of the possible movement of a block (there cannot be the closure of joints
there). In practice, this condition is filled for all JP that is represented on a stereogram. The
block theory goes with stereonet which extends above the circle of reference of the classical ste-
reographic projection. Ways to assess kinematic modes of failure, computer implementation of
the methods, and other application of block theory are covered in books by Goodman and Shi
(1985), Yow (1985), Yow and Goodman (1987), Goodman (1989), Mauldon (1992), Mauldon
and Goodman (1990, 1995), etc.
Table 1. Data for the orientation of discontinuities (format dip/dip direction).

Mvan-North
25/335 4/335 11/320 22/008 30/010 25/250 14/335 16/296 10/346 12/335
25/008 8/335 15295 28/015 16/015 18/242 10/320 20/295 11/348 21/272
22/000 13/325 12/335 21/005 20/250 31/170 05/325 20/303 12/015 16/251
30/005 21/320 09/335 18/335 17/265 20/207 21/012 19/010 20/352 23/353
24/335 27/327 22/335 17/310 21/308 21/314 27/358 23/345 22/315 15/286
22/270 21/261 16/241 13/240 18/222 15/248 13/270 08/285 86/290 90/170
70/250 85/350 82/305 88/315 89/265 70/158 71/266 90/308 64/257 44/185
74/200 70/250 87/230 88/312 82/172 82/165 71/262 90/290 60/237 90/296
80/000 72/250 88/305 85/111 90/172 88/162 76/265 62/248 67/203 72/252
88/295 82/310 88/248
Mvan-South
05/000 28/305 20/315 26/272 16/315 23/290 34/295 30/291 21/300 18/282
07/000 31/318 18/324 17/331 25/030 18/325 36/301 20/330 24/226 24/290
14/351 30/303 22/332 15/014 22/290 32/296 32/330 10/322 20/295 19/310
29/350 32/316 28/336 20/340 26/285 21/310 20/308 20/324 22/285 15/312
29/346 30/307 26/303 17/314 20/315 24/302 22/293 16/342 31/285 11/292
28/342 21/321 30/001 14/285 19/218 24/317 35/314 30/286 16/283 35/285
80/057 58/140 90/224 90/132 90/128 82/200 70/140 80/205 90/194 90/084
90/041 90/037 90/070 90/040 89/117 90/065 90/120 90/335 66/094 71/102
Nsam
16/000 16/320 18/324 17/335 23/282 15/336 14/335 11/003 25/015 07/245
19/335 18/315 16/335 16/294 12/350 11/315 18/000 26/030 35/030 19/000
31/332 22/339 17/346 20/333 12/356 17/010 10/350 34/030 08/348 10/345
06/010 22/214 31/220 19/220 15/201 30/357 22/038 16/040 15/036 13/275
16/150 15/180 12/251 17/341 13/294 26/359 16/026 10/021 30/033 10/277
15/170 08/205 12/166 41/182 80/172 80/160 76/155 72/163 70/155 90/221
80/162 72/165 55/200 80/170 85/166 78/161 82/163 75/168 75/155 89/120
78/166 89/162 72/170
Nkolmesseng
52/266 55/290 28/315 22/280 22/285 28/290 34/268 25/302 26/058 19/062
48/332 31/270 22/336 21/290 19/268 18/316 47/266 30/050 30/042 20/070
45/300 40/312 24/324 24/292 19/295 29/275 25/300 28/048 21/048 73/178
71/320 71/321 60/050 56/060 78/334 58/040 50/135 62/036 76/174 75/176
72/319 84/170 54/068 74/330 86/350 82/276 48/034 50/035 75/175
Mvolyé
15/222 30/246 20/245 23/094 19/040 12/291 90/270 90/328 90/273 90/180
19/227 12/055 02/010 12/220 21/025 13/226 90/267 90/269 90/272 82/245
22/235 13/017 21/230 09/026 22/220 19/230 88/252 80/113 85/276 79/210
26/252 08/045 10/230 11/015 12/220 10/157 90/273 90/278 86/286 90/255
35/248 19/225 13/231 10/025 18/252 09/060 70/210 90/280 90/233 88/070
15/248 15/346 09/090 20/241 17/250 38/295 26/324 18/352 12/076 21/050
32/273 14/350 10/074 19/235 25/244 30/300 19/322 26/060 19/030 14/021
19/224 29/026 15/072 16/075 55/279 30/313 30/274 15/048 30/302 35/317
22/243 22/027 15/111 21/071 37/302 23/315 18/020 21/056 20/244 90/275
29/272 04/025 10/063
35
Figure 3. Rock slope classification provided by block theory (after Kalatilake et al., 2011).
3.4.2 Stability analyses with VisKBT
The used version (VisKBT 1.1) has three unknown per block: x direction movement dx, y direc-
tion movement dy, and z direction movement dz, Thus, the computation method used in this pa-
per is both 2d-DDA and 3d-DDA. The JP plots rely on the joint network whereas the EP plots
rely on field observation according to which hill faces or slopes are carved by geological struc-
tures. However, the dip of the EP planes are 05° to 33° different from their corresponding dis-
continuity sets plane so that the great circles of their stereographic projection can be clearly dif-
ferentiated from those of the discontinuity plane. The approximated fracture friction angles from
massive rocks (see e. g. Hoek, 1970; Hoek and Bray, 1977; 1981) lead us to fix a value of 30°.
After performing the analyses, the software identifies the blocs and distinguishes between key,
potential and stable blocks. Each block is assigned with a safety coefficient and a potential slid-
ing direction described with a normal vector (Nx, Ny, Nz). The fictitious force is mentioned. In
this paper, VisKBT uses upper focal point (UFP) stereographic projection.
4 RESULTS
4.1 Joint networks identification

Within RSDip software, plane poles are assigned to their corresponding discontinuity sets,
whereas unclassified plane poles remain unassigned. The clusters are marked with colored con-
tours as follows: the blue colored line represents a cone of confidence of 95%, whereas the or-
ange colored line displays the aperture of the assigned planes. The membership angle for this
joint network identification (lateral limit) was set to 20°, as this value provided the best result.
For better visualization of the identified discontinuity sets Figure 4 displays the corresponding
stereographic plots with the assigned and clustered orientation planes, whereas Figure 5 shows
an in situ discrete block and the its main joint sets. Consequently, the relevant discontinuity sets
(represented by the mean plans) are shown in Table 2. The set F1 poles are spread over the half
West of the net, while that of sets F2 and F3 are spread respectively half North and South of the
net. The angle between poles of joint sets, which is determined by rotating the stereonet until
both poles lie on the same great circle reaches 90°. Anyway, there are light rotations that en-
hance set F1 dip angles and reduce that of sets F2 and F3 (e. g., Nkolmesseng joint network).
Table 2. E. g. of mean of plans of each discontinuity set derived from RSDip.

Survey point F1 F2 F3
Mvan-North 13/321 70/256 87/307
Mvan-South 21/311 90/039 90/122
Nsam 10/344 78/163 //
Nkolmesseng 28/290 77/175 41/048
Mvolyé 1 08/246 75/210 89/271
Mvolyé 2 09/324 75/200 89/271
Figure 4. Plots of field measurements, showing the main discontinuity sets at: (a) Mvan-North, (b) Mvan-
South, (c) Nsam, (d) Mvolyé 1, (e) Mvolyé 2, and (f) Nkolmesseng. For vectors entries, see table 1.
Figure 6. Removable block detachment on the cliff of the Akokndoué massif (N03°51’14,65’’;
E11°27’56,16’’). Note the failure planes formed by main discontinuity sets.
4.2 Free planes analysis

As mentioned in section 3. 4. 2 concerning the EP planes, this analysis deals with field observa-
tions where best fit slopes which are more likely to deliver removable block are of about 90°
dip. Therefore two practical cases are observed. (1) If the EP is equal to a discontinuity set
planes so that the great circle of their stereographic projection is common with F2 or F3 discon-
tinuity planes, JPs might be completely contained within the space pyramid (SP) (i. e. JP  EP
= Ø) but their stereographic identification can’t be clear. When the EP is just 1° different from
F2 and F3 discontinuity planes so that the great circle of their stereographic projection can be
37
clearly identified from that of the discontinuity planes, many blocks are completely within the
SP, and their stereographic identification is clear (see Fig. 7a and b). However, if the dip of EP
plane is equal or just few degrees different from F1 discontinuity plane so that the great circle of
this stereographic projection is equal or few degrees different from that of the discontinuity
plane, although some JPs might be completely within the SP, the discontinuity dip angle is too
lower than friction angle; thus JPs are not removable. (2) If the EP is equal to a discontinuity set
of planes so that the great circle of their stereographic projection is common with F2 or F3 dis-
continuity planes, JPs might be completely contained within the SP, and their stereographic
identification is clear. When the EP is just 1° different from F2 and F3 discontinuity planes so
that the great circle of their stereographic projection can be clearly identified from that of the
discontinuity planes, many blocks are completely within the SP (see Fig. 7c and d). However,
even if the dip of EP plane is equal or just few degrees different from F1 discontinuity plane so
that the great circle of this stereographic projection is equal or few degrees different from that of
the discontinuity, the JPs which might be completely contained within the SP would be remova-
ble, moreover the discontinuity dip angle might be higher than friction angle.
(a) (b)
EP = 90/256 EP = 90/307
(c) (d)
EP = 90/175 EP = 90/048
Figure 7. UFP simulation of EPs (rock slopes) that shows free spaces setting where: (b) and (c) many JPs
are removable for EP  F2 or EP  F3 (with data from Mvan-North). (d) Many JPs are removable for EP
 F2 or EP  F3 or EP = F1 (with data from Nkolmesseng).
4.3 Kynematic analysis

As mentioned in section 3. 4. 2., kinematic analysis was performed using the block theory based
on software VisKBT to (1) generate the numerical models and, (2) determine the status of sta-
ble, potential and key blocks. The stability analysis of JPs through survey data determines the
status of several blocks (see Table 3). (1) For the different cases, the key blocks are generally of
type I. However, key blocks JPs100, JPs110, JPs101, and JPs111 of Mvan-North, Mvan-South,
Mvolyé 1, and Mvolyé 2 may come from the type III removable blocks with low joint friction.
(2) The potential key blocks are generally of a type II, such as JPs000, JPs010, and JPs011 of
Mvan-North, Mvan-South, and Mvolyé 2 cases and JP000, JP010, and JP001 of Mvolyé 1 case.
However, when the key block or primary key block (Wibowo, 1997) is removed, the adjacent
block, which is originally non removable, could become a removable block. Such a tapered
block could be a potential key block or secondary key block (Wibowo, 1997). Thus the type IV
originally tapered block could become a potential key block, such as JP100, JP010, JP001, and
JP011 of Nkolmesseng case. (3) The stable blocks are generally of the resultant for R (the centre
of the reference circle, the direction of gravity), such as JPs001 of Mvan-North, Mvan-South,
and Mvolyé 2 cases. They may fit to the type III rock slope classification. JP000 of Nkolmes-
seng case and JP001 of Mvolyé 1 case may depend on dip and friction angle values.
Table 3. Kinematic analysis of stable, potential and key blocks assigned to each survey point.
Fictitious Safety
Survey point Planes Mode Sliding direction
force coefficient
000 Potential -0.3376 2.4996 (-0.613;0.757;-0.225)
100 Key 0.7422 0.2101 (-0.332;-0.0827;-0.94)
010 Potential -0. 4209 2.9897 (-0.31;0.927;-0.94)
110 Key 0.9684 0.0302 (-0.0418;0.315;-0.999)
Mvan-North
001 Stable -100 100 (0;0;0)
101 Key 0.4918 0.4918 (-0.274;-0.284;-0.919)
011 Potential -0.6717 9.9 (0.598;0.799;-0.0564)
111 Key 1 0 (0;0;-1)
000 Potential -0.7743 9.9 (0.529;0.847;-0.0599)
100 Key 1 0 (0;0;-1)
010 Potential -0.1806 1.5036 (-0.705;0.612;-0.358)
110 Key 1 0 (0;0;-1)
Mvan-South
001 Stable -100 100 (0;0;0)
101 Key 1 0 (0;0;-1)
011 Potential -0.1876 1.5234 (-0.726;0.588;-0.358)
111 Key 1 0 (0;0;-1)
000 Stable -100 100 (0;0;0)
100 Potential -0.1977 1.3779 (0.851;-0.0467;-0.523)
010 Potential -0.2216 1.5343 (-0.893;-0.174;-0.415)
110 Key 0.8444 0.1332 (0.0196;-0.224;-0.974)
Nkolmesseng
001 Potential -0.3025 1.9484 (-0.312;0.895;-0.319)
101 Key 0.2203 0.6640 (0.561;0.505;-0.656)
011 Potential -0.0402 1.0856 (-0.83;0.302;-0;469)
111 Key 1 0 (0;0;-1)
000 Potential -0.4325 4.1051 (-0.905;-0.403;-0.139)
100 Key 0.8164 0.1546 (-0.129;-0.224;-0.966)
010 Potential -0.5802 7.8271 (-0.874;0.478;-0.0849)
110 Key 0.9897 0.0100 (-0.0174;0.0003;-1)
Mvolyé 1
001 Potential -0.5962 9.9 (-0.0185;-0.998;-0.0594)
101 Key 0.6942 0.2756 (-0.0217;-0.284;-0.959)
011 Stable -100 100 (0;0;0)
111 Key 1 0 (0;0;-1)
000 Potential -0.4873 4.8292 (-0.943;0.307;-0.127)
100 Key 0.8164 0.1546 (-0.0885;-0.243;-0.966)
010 Potential -0.4138 3.6429 (-0.581;0799;-0156)
110 Key 0.9897 0.0100 (-0.0174;0.0003;-1)
Mvolyé 2
001 Stable -100 100 (0;0;0)
101 Key 0.7588 0.2123 (-0.0215;-0.267;-0.963)
011 Potential -0.5046 5.0109 (0.0151;0.992;-0.126)
111 Key 1 0 (0;0;-1)
39
5 DISCUSSION
In this section, we are going to discuss the possible causes of slope failure based on EPs likely
to make either potential or key blocks. Assuming that a jointed rock slope is susceptible to top-
pling and sliding if the joints dip steeply into the slope. For toppling to be kinematically feasi-
ble, it is usually assumed that the strike of the steeply dipping joint set is roughly the same as
that of the slope face. With this assumption, the problem can be reduced to a two-dimensional
one that can be analyzed considering a section perpendicular to the slope face (after Yeung and
Wong, 2007). The sliding has been approximated with the same assumption.
5.1 EPs likely to make potential or key blocks with e. g., the Mvan-North joint network
- If EP = vertical rock slope oriented according to F2 strike (90/256)
Figure 8a shows that only JP011 satisfies the condition of removability (JP011  EP and JP011
 EP = ). Thus all the blocks which are removable in this excavation are the volume of inter-
section of the upper half spaces of joint plane F1 and the lower half spaces of joint planes F2
and F3. According to the mentioned kinematic parameters (see Table 3), it is a potential key
block that suggests the Figure 8c proposed trace profile on a surface cut.

Figure 8b shows that only JP011 and JP110 satisfy the condition of removability (JP011 +
JP110  EP and JP011 + JP110  EP = ). Thus all the blocks which are removable in this ex-
cavation are the volume of intersection of the upper half spaces of joint plane F1 and the lower
half spaces of joint planes F2 and F3 or lower half spaces of joint plane F1 and F2 and upper
half spaces of joint plane F3. According to the mentioned kinematic parameters (see Table 3),
they are both potential key blocks which suggest the Figure 8d and e proposed trace profile on a
surface cut.
5.2 EPs likely to make potential or key blocks with e. g., the Nkolmesseng joint network
Figure 9a shows that only JP001 and JP110 satisfy the condition of removability (JP001 +
cavation are the volume of intersection of the upper half spaces of joint planes F1 and F2 and
the lower half spaces of joint plane F3 or lower half spaces of joint planes F1 and F2 and upper
they are respectively potential and key blocks which suggest the Figure 9c and d proposed trace
profile on a surface cut.
Figure 9b shows that only JP010 and JP101 satisfy the condition of removability (JP010 +
cavation are the volume of intersection of the upper half spaces of joint planes F1 and F3 and
the lower half spaces of joint plane F2 or lower half spaces of joint planes F1 and F3 and upper
they are respectively potential and key blocks which suggest the Figure 9e and f proposed trace
profile on a surface cut.
5.3 Scope of the slopes failure over the study area masses
The status of potential key blocks is shown in Figures 8c-e and Figures 9c and f through JP011,
JP110, JP001, and JP010. It can be seen that the tendency for the set-up of potential key blocks
becomes larger as the rock slope is steeper. The status of key blocks is shown in Figures 9d and
e through JP 110 and JP101. It can be seen that the tendency for the set-up of key blocks be-
comes larger both (1) if the slope and F1 joint set trend in the same direction, (2) and when the
F1 joint set steep increases. To resume, the slope failure occurs as the F1 joint set and slope
steepness increase, even by few degrees. The tendency for toppling becomes larger if the slope’s
block is taller for the same base width (Hoek and Bray, 1981; Wyllie and Mah, 2004; Yeung
and Wong, 2007); if the friction angle of all joints is larger; if the base inclination is larger; and
if there is no lateral confinement (Yeung and Wong, 2007). As δ the angle between the strike of
the block toppling/sliding inclined plane and the trace of a joint on the inclined plane changes
for different cases, or when the slope’s block becomes shorter for the same base width, there ex-
ist a transition δ values that separate the pure toppling cases from other cases (stable, sliding, or
toppling/sliding) (Wyllie and Mah, 2004; Yeung and Wang, 2007).
(a)
(c)
(d)
(b)
(e)
Potential key block Key block
Figure 8. By making without a rotation the half space of joint EP line, the key or potential key blocks of a
given slope and joint system can be identified, (a) and (b) e. g. whole stereographic projection with JPs
and EPs from Mvan-North joints network. (c), (d) and (e) Joint traces and their corresponding potential
key blocks simulating in 2d.
41
(a) (c)
(d)
(b) (e)
(f)
Potential key block Key block
Figure 9. By making without a rotation the half space of joint EP line, the key or potential key blocks of a
given slope and joint system can be identified, (a) and (b) e. g. whole stereographic projection with JPs
and EPs from Nkolmesseng joints network. (c), (d), (e) and (f) Joint traces and their corresponding poten-
tial and key blocks simulating in 2d.
6 CONCLUSION
This study has resulted in the characterization of the joint networks and their influence on rock
slope stability in Yaounde and its surroundings, through some survey data. The joint networks
are made up of the three major joint sets F1, F2, and F3. The EPs = F1 free plane is not likely to
generate removable blocks, whereas the EPs = F2 and EPs = F3 do. From these statements, key
blocks and potential key blocks were identified; however, their status is accountable to various
parameters. (1) The common key block status is that with low F1 dip angle, matching to type III
class where joint friction is low; whereas its uncommon status is that with fairly high F1 dip an-
gle, corresponding to type I class. (2) The common potential key block status corresponds to
type II class, whereas its uncommon status matches to type III class, where the initially tapered
blocks become secondary key blocks. (3) The stability of blocks relies first on type III status
when the stable blocks are those of the resultant for R. Then it relies on the type V status with
the EP likely to make potential or key blocks. The block theory used in this study limited the
loading on the rock mass to gravitational forces only; it fit with massive rock (such as igneous
rock) and very large block volume (> 10 m3) which are not too much influenced by water forc-
es.
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8 AKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors thank Prof. Nicholas Sitar (Edward G. Cahill and John R. Cahill Professor) for his
insightful comment and suggestions of an earlier version of the manuscript. The authors thank
three research mates who helped in the collection of data, Boukar Madi, Jacques Bertrand
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45
Stability of fractured rock masses and protection systems against
rockfall: Case study of the cliff Ain El Anba in Medenine, Tunisia.
H. Kabadou
Stabilité et structure des sols, Tunis, Tunisia
A. Kallel
Laboratory of Water, Energy and Environment (Lab 3E), Sfax National School of Engineering, University
of Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia
S. Souissi
LR14ES03-Ingénierie Géotechnique, Université de Tunis El Manar – Ecole Nationale d’Ingénieurs de
Tunis, BP 37 Le Belvédère, 1002 Tunis, Tunisia
ABSTRACT: Stabilizing a cliff against rock fall is one of the major tasks of geotechnical engi-
neers. Thus, the choice of optimal protection systems is the objective of an in-depth investigation
in order to characterize and specify unstable areas. This paper includes the detailed diagnosis of
the cliff Ain El Anba, Southern Tunisia. Geological, Structural and geotechnical survey of the
site has been conducted and the major vulnerable zones and stability trigger has been identified.
In addition, rock fall trajectories have been simulated using GEOROCK 2D and 3D. The ob-
tained results revealed that the study is subject to various stability problems related to topography,
fractures, and lithology. Appropriate solution to each case have been proposed, such as blast-
ing/purging, rockfall protection mesh and anchoring/nailing.
Keywords: Rockfall, stability, fractures, numerical simulation
1 INTRODUCTION
Les mouvements de terrain sont considérés comme des objets ponctuels et limités du point de vue
espace et impact. Ils sont parmi les risques naturels les plus catastrophiques, une fois déclenchés
leurs conséquences peuvent être extrêmement destructrices tant en terme socio-économique qu’en
vie humaines.
La protection contre ces mouvements gravitationnels et l'atténuation des risques naturels sont des
éléments essentiels pour la sécurité des infrastructures et de leurs utilisateurs.
Cette étude s'intéresse aux instabilités qui se développent dans les massifs de bancs calcaires frac-
turés, qui sont des systèmes complexes contrôlés par plusieurs facteurs. Il s’agit de l’éboulement
au niveau PK124 de la route régionale RR113.
Dans cet article, nous présentons une caractérisation géologique/géotechnique détaillé de la zone
d’étude afin de proposer une stratégie de protection optimale.
2 PRESENTATION DE LA ZONE D’ETUDE
2.1 Localisation
La falaise du Jbel Ain El Anba est située au sud-ouest de la ville de Médenine, elle fait partie de
la Délégation de Beni Khedech. On y accède par la route régionale RR113, reliant Médenine à
Beni Khedech. La zone d'étude est située au PK 24 et s'étend sur 350 m en direction de Beni
Khedech comme le montre la figure 1.
47
Figure 1. Plan de situation de la falaise à Jbel Ain El Anba (Google maps)
Pour mieux approcher les mécanismes de déformation de la falaise, une analyse du cadre géolo-
gique et structural du secteur d'étude est essentielle.
2.2 Description lithologique du Jbel Ain El Anba

Les observations sur terrain et l’examen de la carte géologique de la région montrent que la falaise
comporte de haut en bas les couches suivantes (figure2) :
- Un banc calcaire de plus de 20 m d’épaisseur comportant une stratification subhorizontale qui
découpe le banc en 3 couches de 7 m d’épaisseur. Ce banc est composé de calcaire moyennement
altéré en surface et peu altéré en profondeur, il est affecté par une fracturation verticale disconti-
nue.
- Une couche de marne verdâtre présentant une épaisseur proche de 13 m d’épaisseur et un pen-
dage subhorizontal inférieur à 10° de direction NE-SO. Au niveau de la surface de la falaise, cette
couche est couverte d’éboulis sur une épaisseur variant de 1 à 2 m d’épaisseur.
- Une alternance marno-calcaire composée de couches minces, d’épaisseur inférieure à 1m, de
calcaire et d’intercalaire de marne verdâtre de faible épaisseur (moins de 50cm).
Figure 2. Coupe lithologique de la falaise
2.3 Contexte structural

L'évaluation du danger de chute de pierres ou de blocs tient compte de l'état de fracturation du
massif rocheux. Une étude structurale visant à identifier les plans de fracturation dans cette région.
Après une étude géologique et structurale ainsi que des observations sur site, il a été constaté que
le massif calcaire d'Ain El Anba est affecté par 2 types de discontinuités majeures. Le premier est
d'origine sédimentaire (joint de stratification qui correspond à la stratification des bancs calcaires
48
et représente le pendage général de cette série) et le second correspond à une fissuration méca-
nique verticale.
Figure 3. Les fractures
2.3.1 Mesures de fracturation

Notre zone d'étude est caractérisée par la présence de plusieurs familles de fracturation. Un relevé
structural dans chaque zone d'étude pour mesurer les plans de fracture, leurs pendages et leurs
directions afin de permettre l'analyse du potentiel de mouvement des blocs constitutifs de la fa-
laise. Les grandes familles identifiées dans ce domaine sont regroupées dans le tableau 1.
Tableau 1. Les mesures de fracturation

__________________________________________________
Famille Direction Pendage
__________________________________________________
F1 N180 83° W
F2 N16 85° E
F3 N293 82° N
F4 N122 82° S
__________________________________________________
Les plans de fracture identifiés ont été reportés sur le stéréogramme présenté dans la figure 4.
Figure 4. Présentation stéréographique des différentes familles de fracturation
2.3.2 Étude de fracturation et son impact sur la stabilité

Dans les massifs rocheux, les fractures sont des zones de faiblesse mécanique. Ils déterminent les
mécanismes de rupture potentiels. L'analyse de l'ensemble des données décrites ci-dessus (géolo-
giques, structurales) et la reconnaissance in situ des instabilités permet d'identifier les principaux
mécanismes de rupture caractérisant les aléas rocheux dans cette zone. En effet, un risque de
glissement dièdre causé par l'intersection de la famille F1/F2 est mis en évidence. Cette structure
49
se développe en dièdre le long d'une ligne avec un pendage défavorable de 51° interceptant le
versant dont le pendage apparent est de 66° (figure 5-a).
La figure 5-b montre que le coefficient de sécurité mesuré pour la rupture dièdre induite par
l'intersection des Familles F1/F2 dans cette zone est de l'ordre de 1,13. Par conséquent, ce dièdre
est instable et mobilisable.
(a) (b)
Figure 5. (a) Mécanisme de glissement dièdre ; (b) Calcul du coéfficient de sécurité, Fs pour
rupture en dièdre F1/F2
2.4 Réseau hydrographique

Habituellement, la direction de l'écoulement de l'eau peut nous donner une idée de la stabilité
d'une pente. Il s'agit d'une étude réalisée à partir du modèle numérique du terrain, qui vise à pré-
ciser les systèmes de drainage et le réseau hydrographique (figure 6) autour de notre zone d'étude
pour comprendre l'influence du débit d'eau sur la stabilité de la falaise. La plate-forme sommitale
de la falaise d'Ain El Anba favorise la stagnation et l'infiltration d'eau météorique dans le remblai.
Au sommet de la pente, l'eau peut s'infiltrer dans des fissures de tension ouvertes. La pression de
l'eau se développe proportionnellement à la profondeur de la fissure, ce qui est une force de dé-
stabilisation très conséquente.
Figure 6. Les réseaux de drainage (Global mapper)
50
2.5 Présentation générale du problème
Les risques observés sur la falaise (illustrés dans le bloc diagramme de la figure 7) sont les chutes
de pierres ainsi que l'érosion de la marne.
Figure 7. Bloc diagramme  gros bloc détaché ; basculement rocheux ; cavités ; fis-
sures ; fissure connecté au cavité ; bloc repose sur la couche marneuse ; bloc détaché at-
teint la route ; chute des pierres ; pierre détaché atteint la route
Le massif rocheux présente également plusieurs discontinuités (Figure 8) susceptibles de couper

des blocs potentiellement instables. La forte pente de la falaise au niveau de la route et l'infiltration
d'eau stimulent la chute de roches meubles et de blocs sur la pente et augmentent les possibilités
de rebonds. Vu la faible végétation et en l'absence de systèmes de protection, les blocs détachés
peuvent atteindre la route comme le montre la figure 9.
Figure 8. Massif calcaire fracturé
51
Figure 9. Bloc calcaire détaché
De plus, sous l'effet du poids des bancs calcaires, les marnes ont tendance à fluer et ainsi provo-
quer un tassement différentiel puis une fissuration des bancs calcaires sus-jacents.
Figure 10. Gros blocs en détachement
3 ANALYSE DES EBOULEMENT ROCHEUX : MODELISATION DE TRAJECTOIRES

PAR GEOROCK 2D ET 3D
L'évaluation de l'aléa éboulement est réalisée en déterminant les zones de départ et les conditions
de probabilité de propagation des glissements de terrain en tenant compte de leurs intensités afin
de juger le degré de danger. La figure 11 schématise la trajectoire que peut suivre un bloc de roche
détaché et le danger que présente sur les usagers de la route RR113.
Figure 11. Schéma d’évaluation d’aléa
52
La simulation de trajectoire a été réalisée avec les logiciels Georock2D et 3D, le modèle géomé-
trique a été développé à partir des relevés topographiques de la falaise (Figure12).
Les points colorés représentent les blocs tombés observés sur la pente. Les traces colorées repré-
sentent les trajectoires simulées des blocs. Cette simulation montre que des blocs isolés de taille
variable peuvent se détacher de la falaise et atteindre la route, mettant en danger les usagers de la
route. La sécurisation de la route est donc obligatoire.
Figure 12. Simulation trajectographique de l’éboulement rocheux
4 SYSTEMES DE PROTECTION CONTRE LES CHUTES DE ROCHES
Après des visites de la falaise et une étude approfondie des problèmes rencontrés, la solution
retenue a été conçue avec le système renforcé MACRO 1 de MACCAFERRI.
Pour sécuriser la falaise d'Ain El Anba, il a été proposé de mettre en place un Steelgrid® HR
System - HEA 300 (Haute Energie Absorption) Ф10mm (figure 13). Le Steelgrid® HR System
est un système complet innovant pour les travaux d'atténuation des chutes de pierres et de conso-
lidation des pentes. Le système Steelgrid® HR combine un géocomposite breveté en treillis mé-
tallique à haute résistance, qui est utilisé en conjonction avec des plaques d'ancrage, des boulons
en U spécifiques et des connecteurs en treillis.
Figure 13. Steelgrid® HR System - HEA 300 (Maccaferri)
Lorsque le confortement d’un massif rocheux devient très difficile à cause d’un volume important
ou d’une stabilité défaillante, il serait probablement plus judicieux de recourir aux travaux de
purge et de minage.
53
4.1 La purge
La purge de la falaise consiste à nettoyer les éboulis déposés sur la couche de marne. Les gros
défis de cette opération sont le délai et le coût c’est pourquoi seuls les blocs détachés menaçant
la sécurité de la route sont concernés (figure 14).
Figure 14. Blocs détachés à purger
4.2 Le minage
Le minage des gros blocs disloqués vise à supprimer les gros blocs de quelques dizaines de m3.
Dans ce cas, il s’agit presque toujours de supprimer ou de réduire l’aléa d’éboulement, plus rare
mais plus destructeur que la chute de pierres (Figure 15).
Figure 15. Photo des blocs à miner
4.3 Ancrage
Au niveau de certaines zones du massif rocheux, quelques blocs de taille métrique présentent un
danger de chute et sont en partie désolidarisés de l’ensemble de la falaise, afin de les maintenir
en place et les bloquer, des clous d’ancrage pourront les retenir contre le massif.
En effet, la connaissance des mécanismes de déformation et de rupture est une étape primordiale
dans la conception de dispositif de boulonnage.
54
Le bloc calcaire identifié instable est situé au sommet du massif rocheux (Figure 16).
Figure 16. Photo d’un bloc à ancrer
Afin de maintenir ces blocs instables et empêcher leur chute, des clous d’ancrages pourront faire
l’affaire.
La méthode de calcul proposée s’applique au renforcement d’un bloc rocheux isolé susceptible
de glisser. La modélisation des mécanismes d’interaction massif/clou est ramenée à sa plus simple
expression, en impliquant un nombre limité de données géométriques et mécaniques. Dans ce
modèle numérique on a utilisé une barre en acier avec une limite d’élasticité égale à 500 Mpa
scellé à une profondeur de 2 m (Figure 17)
Figure 17. Modèle de rupture plane avec ancrage
Les résultats montrent qu’après la mise en place de l’ancrage, les contraintes sont concentrées aux
alentours des clous. Ainsi un boulon d’ancrage scellé à une profondeur minimale de 2 m dans la
falaise est capable de retenir un volume rocheux instable de taille métrique.
5 CONCLUSION
En se basant sur ce diagnostic détaillé de la falaise et le calcul de la stabilité avec les logiciels
adéquats on a confirmé que la falaise de la route RR113 est affectée par un phénomène de dé-
mantèlement progressif de la pente ce qui génère localement des mouvements de grandes masses
rocheuses et plus fréquemment des chutes de blocs qui peuvent affecter les usagers de la route.
Pour permettre une exploitation sécuritaire de la route, il est indispensable de procéder à des tra-
vaux de sécurisation.
55
Les solutions proposées pour sa sécurisation sont :
- Micro-minage des gros blocs détachés
- Purge des blocs déposés sur les marnes
- Ancrage des blocs susceptibles de chute
- Pose de filet plaqué
6 PREFERENCES
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et de Géologie de l'Ingénieur - JNGG' 2006 Lyon (France)
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Sécurisation contre les chutes des roches
56
Numerical elastoplastic homogenization of an anisotropic rock
mass with non-persistent fractures
M. Chalhoub
Distruct Solutions, Zalqa, Meten, Lebanon. Distruct.com
S. Souissi
Tunis, BP 37 Le Belvédère, 1002 Tunis, Tunisia.
E. Hamdi
Tunis, BP 37 Le Belvédère, 1002 Tunis, Tunisia.
A. Pouya
Laboratoire Navier (UGE, ENPC, CNRS), École des Ponts ParisTech, Cité Descartes, Champs-sur-Marne,
France
ABSTRACT:
The use of numerical methods for the design of projects in rock masses is increasingly predominant
with the increase in digital computing capacities. When the density of fractures is high, it is advantageous
to adopt a homogenization approach. However, several difficulties related to fracture geometry and mesh
generation emerge. Several attempts were done to overcome this problem and to calculate the mechanical
elastoplastic parameters (Pouya & Ghoreychi 2001; Min & Jing 2003; Chalhoub 2006, 2010; Pouya &
Chalhoub 2008; Bidgoli et al. 2013; Souissi et al. 2020). However, the numerical generation of the post-
peak curves, which are of main importance to estimate a rockmass deformability in the plastic phase, is
rarely found in the literature.
In the present work, a methodology based on the combined use of the discrete fracture network and
the Finite Element Method is proposed and applied to a fractured rock mass containing two families of non-
persistent fractures to estimate its equivalent elastoplastic behavior. The proposed methodology based on
the work of Pouya & Ghoreychi 2001, and Chalhoub 2010 has proven its efficiency in the generation of the
homogenized stress-strain curves using Disroc© JFEM software, particularly in the post-peak phase. The
homogenized anisotropic elastoplastic parameters were deduced for several directions of loading. The
numerical curves show that the degree of anisotropy of a rockmass may differ from the elastic to the plastic
post-peak phase. They also confirm that a rockmass may have several post-peak behaviors in terms of
brittleness and ductility according to the load direction.
KEYWORDS: rockmass; fractures; numerical homogenization; anisotropy; post-peak behavior; Joint

Enriched Finite Element Method; Representative Volume Element.
57
1 INTRODUCTION
Existing natural discontinuity networks induce fractured rock mass anisotropy when subjected to
mechanical loading. Several approaches may be considered to investigate anisotropic rock mass
elastoplastic behavior, to know: empirical classifications, analytical methods, and numerical methods. The
failure process of a rockmass is usually affected by anisotropy and discontinuities presence (Hoek 1983;
Goodman 1989; Hoek & Diederichs 2006; Hammah et al. 2008). The strain-stress curve and resulting
mechanical elastoplastic parameters in terms of deformability and strength were analyzed by several
researchers (Elliott & Brown 1985; Cundall et al. 2003; Diederichs et al. 2007). A non-trivial task is the
estimation of the homogenized post-peak stress-strain relation and residual strength. Moreover, parameters
such as dilation angle, which are often used in calibrating numerical models of real fractured rock masses
are very difficult to determine experimentally. Several authors consider that the dilatancy parameter is not
constant but decreases with plastic strain development (Detournay 1986; Alejano & Alonso 2005).
Anisotropy was also taken into account by adopting a directional dependent yield function such as in the
work of Gao et al. 2010. Another approach adopts the ubiquitous joint model (Jaeger 1960) and modified
ubiquitous joint (Ismael & Konietzky 2017). Several recent works used these approaches to simulate the
hydro-mechanical behavior of jointed rock masses (Shina & Santamarina 2019; Mader et al. 2022).
Numerical analyses were extensively used to study fractured rock mechanical behavior (Lisjak &
Grasselli 2014; Nguyen et al. 2019; Ben Abdallah et al. 2021). When the density of fractures is high
especially for non-persistent fractures, numerical models find many limitations due to mesh generation and
convergence difficulties. Several efficient methods were proposed. A set of them is based on Synthetic
rockmass models (Dershowitz 1995; Pierce et al. 2007; Hamdi & Karrech 2015). The equivalent
homogenized behavior of rockmass using FEM was also investigated by several authors (Pouya &
Ghoreychi 2001; Min & Jing 2003; Hamdi & du Mouza 2005; Chalhoub 2006, 2010; Pouya & Chalhoub
2008; Bidgoli et al. 2013; Souissi et al. 2020). The advantage of this approach is to replace a discontinuous
and heterogeneous medium with a continuous one with equivalent mechanical parameters.
In the present work, a methodology based on the combined use of discrete fractures network and Finite
Element Method is proposed and applied to a fractured rock mass with two sets of non-persistent fractures
to estimate the equivalent elastoplastic behavior. The homogenized anisotropic behavior is analyzed in the
elastic and post-peak phases.
2 HOMOGENIZATION PROCESS
The numerical homogenization method proposed in Pouya and Chalhoub 2008, which was later
developed by Chalhoub 2010, is used in the context of the present work. The homogenization process is
performed under plane strain conditions. Its mathematical background supports a rigorous determination of
the macroscopic strain and stress and a lower and upper bound for the elastic tensors. Additionally, the
accuracy of the symmetrical positive-definite compliance tensor derived in the elastic phase has been also
proved in Pouya & Chalhoub 2008 through specific conditions of applied stress or strain on the boundary
of the Representative Volume Element (RVE).
3 REPRESENTATIVE VOLUME ELEMENT (RVE)
Different methodologies may be used to calculate the dimensions of a 2D RVE. For an elastic behavior,
it is possible to check the mechanical parameters variation with cell size (i.e. the modulus of elasticity in a
certain direction). A simple method consists in considering a square with a fixed center and a fixed
direction, but with increasing size (Figure 1). Using this method, it was shown by Chalhoub & Pouya 2008
that the mechanical elastic RVE and the geometrical RVE corresponding to the fractures’ length and spacing
are equivalent (RVEmeca ≈ RVEgeo). The mechanical properties of fractures and the rock matrix should be
constant over the rock mass area. The outcome of this research is applied in the current paper. It has the
advantage to transform the mechanical problem into a geometrical problem and reducing the computation
process. The size of the RVE that has been considered is 5m x 5m.
58
Figure 1: Method of calculation of an RVE (increasing side of a central square).
4 LOAD PATTERNS AND BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

To check the anisotropy of the rock mass, the mechanical tests were carried out according to three
different directions, to know: 1- A horizontal compression and traction tests at 0° (parallel to X), 2- A
vertical compression and traction tests at 90° (parallel to Y), 3- A pure shear test, and, 4- An inclined
compression and traction tests at 45°. To this end, two RVEs were considered. The X, Y, and shear tests
were applied on RVE0 corresponding to the natural configuration of fractures. As for the inclined test, they
were conducted on a rotated RVE45 of 45° with respect to RVE0.
The boundary conditions illustrated in Figure 2 for the several mechanical tests are conducted under
imposed displacement conditions.
Figure 2: Boundary conditions for the compression, traction, and shear tests.
5 ROCKJOINTS GEOMETRY
Each of RVE0 and RVE45 presents two sets of quasi-parallel non-persistent fractures (Figure 3, Figure
4). The fractures’ density is 3.75/m2 for RVE0 and 3.76/m2 for RVE45. The average fractures’ lengths are
respectively 1.68m for set 1 and 0.92m for set 2. For RVE0, the inclination of set 1 and set 2 to the horizontal
direction is respectively 347° and 45°.
59
Figure 3: Fractures geometry and T3 mesh of RVE0. Figure 4: Fractures geometry and T3 mesh of RVE45.
6 PRETREATMENT OF ROCKJOINTS GEOMETRY

The discrete FEM modeling with the presence of joints has the advantage to consider the interaction
between fractures. However, for a high density of non-persistent fractures, this approach has some
limitations. For this reason, it is necessary to adjust the geometry of the fractures’ network. To this end, an
appropriate algorithm has been applied to avoid numerical divergence due to small-size fractures and mesh
elements resulting from fractures’ intersection, and their arrangement with respect to other fractures and
RVE boundaries (Chalhoub 2006). The applied algorithm does not affect the accuracy of the homogenized
mechanical parameters. It allows to induce the following improvements (Figure 5): 1- To eliminate a
fracture with an infinitely small length, 2- To unify two quasi-parallel fractures with a very small spacing,
3- To extend a fracture when the distance between its edge and another fracture or the RVE boundary is
minor.
Figure 5: Pretreatment of fractures geometry prior to mesh generation.
7 CONSTITUTIVE MODEL OF ROCK AND JOINTS

Cohesive zone fracture with damage-plasticity and unilateral contact is used to model the joint
behavior (CZFrac, Disroc 2020). The elastic behavior of the joint is characterized by a nonlinear hyperbolic
elasticity (Figure 6). Such formulation relies on the variation of the interface FE normal stiffness according
to the observed normal displacement; which can generally be referred to be a type of penalty approach. The
stress σ of the FE interface is decomposed into normal (σn) and tangential (shear, 𝜏) components. Its normal
relative normal and tangential components are denoted 𝑢 and 𝑢 . Hence the relation between stress and
displacement is given by:
60
𝜎 𝑢 𝑢
𝑘 𝑘
= 𝑲. = (1)
𝑘 𝑘
𝜎 𝑢 𝑢
Where 𝑘 (P/L, in which P and L are pressure and length units) is the normal stiffness term, 𝑘 (P/L)
is the shear stiffness, knt=ktn(P/L) the nondiagonal stiffness terms, and e(L) the maximum closure or physical
thickness of the interface. It may be recalled that the non-diagonal terms are considered to be zero
(𝑘 = 𝑘 = 0) and thus a pure diagonal stiffness matrix is derived. Hence the elastic stiffness tensor of
the joints depends only on two parameters, i.e. kn and kt. The normal behavior is dependent on the observed
normal interface relative displacement un and the tangential behavior is independent. These terms can be
computed from the following expressions:
𝑘
𝜎 =𝑘 𝑢 = 𝑢 (2)
1 + 𝑢 /𝑒
𝜎 =𝑘 𝑢 (3)
Again, it is important to address that, as demonstrated in Figure 6, the maximum mode-I displacement
in compression is limited by the initial thickness e of the joint (vertical asymptote that describes an infinitely
rigid behavior). On the other hand, the mode-I displacement in tension becomes infinite for a pre-defined
level of stress (𝑘 𝑒, a horizontal asymptote that describes a null-stiffness). The stress tends to infinity when
closure displacement un tends to -e and to for positive openings.
Figure 6: Nonlinear hyperbolic elasticity assumed for the normal behaviour of the rockjoints (Disroc 2020).
For the nonlinear phase, a damage-plasticity model that includes the evolution of the elastic stiffness
terms and the evolution of both normal and shear strengths with the damage evolution is used (Pouya and
Yazdi 2015). The damage behavior of the cohesive interface FEs is given by the following law:
  (1  D) K  s k 0  u  u p   (4)
In which s is a contact parameter that depends on the normal displacement un (𝑠 = 1 if 𝑢 < 0 and
𝑠 = 0 if 𝑢 ≥ 0); and 𝒌 is the initial stiffness matrix of the interface (initial state or undamaged state of
𝑲). The evolution of stress with damage is illustrated in Figure 7 and the failure criterion is given by the
following expression:
𝐹(𝝈, 𝑫) = 𝜏 − (ℎ𝜎 tan𝜙) + 2ℎ𝑔𝜏 𝜎 tan𝜙 − 𝑔 𝑐 (5)

¯
c is the initial cohesion of the mortar joint and  the friction angle. The parameter c has a simple
geometrical interpretation related to the shape of the yield surface.
61
𝑐 + 𝜎 tan 𝜙
𝜏 = (6)
2𝜎 tan𝜙
r is the joint tensile strength. The functions g and h describe the evolution of the cohesion and friction
angle and are given by:
𝑔(𝐷) = (1 − 𝐷)(1 − 𝛽 𝑙𝑛(1 − 𝐷)) (7)
ℎ(𝐷) = ℎ + (1 − 𝐷) (1 − ℎ ) (8)
tan𝜙
ℎ = (9)
tan𝜙
r is the residual friction angle. The parameters  and ’ are positive. They control via an indirect
approach the fracture energy of the curve, as demonstrated in Figure 8 by the shapes of normalized traction-
separation curves according to different  values.
Figure 7: Evolution of the damage-plasticity criterion from the initial hyperbolic surface (representing an undamaged joint) to a
completely damaged frictional joint (Disroc 2020).
Figure 8: Traction-separation laws for interface FEs when assuming different  values (Disroc 2020).
Plastic deformations 𝑢 are precluded for values of D lower then one (𝑢̇ = 0 𝑖𝑓 𝐷 < 1). If the latter
¯
is violated than plastic deformation occurs but only in the shear direction: ¯𝑢 = 𝑢 0 . The residual
¯
damage criterion when damage is precluded follows the Coulomb criterion and can be written as:
62
𝐹 (𝜎 ) = |𝜏| + ℎ 𝜎 tan𝜙 (30)
¯
The assumed shear constitutive law (shear stress versus slip displacement) can be generally described
in three ways. The post-peak regime is dependent on the parameters  and ’ in the damage phase, but also
depend on the pre-compression level (𝜎 ) and if plasticity is being considered. In the case that plasticity is
disregarded, the post-peak shear response is governed by the slope of a pre-defined residual tangential
stiffness k0t, as demonstrated in (Figure 9).

n3
n2
n1
k0t
ut
Figure 9: Relationship between the shear stress and the slip displacement under different pre-compression levels (𝜎 ) in the case
that plasticity is disregarded (left) or considered (right), (Disroc 2020)
The designated ANELVIP model (Disroc 2020) has been assumed to model the behavior of the rock
matrix (Disroc 2020). ANELVIP is an anisotropic-viscoplastic model that is capable of reproducing
anisotropic elasticity, but, as well, an anisotropic Mohr-Coulomb (traction truncated) or Drucker Prager
Plasticity and Lemaitre creep law. For the mathematical formulation of this model, the reader can refer to
Disroc 2020. In the present work, isotropic behavior is considered for the elastic and plastic phases of the
rock matrix. The creep effect is neglected. The elastic phase is characterized by Young’s modulus E (MPa)
and the Poisson ratio . As per the plastic phase, it is ruled by the cohesion c, the angle of friction  the
tensile strength ftb, and by other parameters (c, , B, and M) related to the ductility level of the material.
The effect of the softening parameters on the rock matrix behavior is illustrated in Figure 10.
A total of twenty-four parameters serve as input for this strategy, however, the number of parameters
drops to ten since the creep effect is neglected in the scope of this study and the behavior of the rock matrix
is isotropic.
Figure 10: Stress-strain curves derived from a uniaxial test through the macro-model ANELVIP and considering different values
for the softening parameters (Disroc 2020).
The numerical values of the rock and joint mechanical parameters are as follows:
Rock matrix: E=30GPa; =0.25; ftb=1.5MPa, C=3MPa; =30°, =0°; c=0.75; f=0; B=450; M=0.
63
Rockjoint: Kn=25GPa/m; K0n=0.05GPa/m; Kt=500MPa/m; K0t=0.01MPa/m; c=0.5MPa; ftm=0.1MPa,
=25°; e=20mm, hr=0.5; =1.5, ’=1.
8 NUMERICAL MODEL
The 2D numerical simulations are carried out under plane strain conditions. Triangular finite elements
T3 are used to generate the rock mesh through GID software. Joints are modeled by the mean of zero-
thickness quadrilateral elements (Goodman et al. 1968). RVE0 comprehends 1539 nodes, 1788 triangular
elements, and 579 joint elements. As for RVE45, it contains 1548 nodes, 1780 triangular elements, and 585
joints.
9 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The homogenized stress-strain curves in compression, tension, and shear are illustrated in Figure 11
and Figure 13. The following observations can be noticed:
The homogenized behavior is anisotropic in the elastic and the plastic phases. The post-peak stress-
strain curves were generated with a clear horizontal asymptote of the residual strength, both in compression
and tension. The post-peak curves are of interest to be used in the determination of representative
deformability of the rock mass in the plastic phase.
Compression X, Y, and 45° (Figure 11): The elastic phase is followed by a hardening curve reaching a
peak compressive strength. The compression curve in the X direction is characterized by several bumps
resulting from gradual complete damage of individual joints. The post-peak behavior is ductile ending by
a residual horizontal plateau. The homogenized behavior is governed by the nonlinear behavior of the rock
matrix and the joints. The illustrated ductility is due to progressive plasticization of the rock matrix (Figure
12) and the joints’ damage. Unlike the ductile behavior in the X and Y direction, the post-peak behavior of
a compressive test parallel to 45° is brittle. It derives from total damage of adjacent joints leading to a
continuous failure line inside the RVE area.
Traction X, Y, and Shear (Figure 13): The behavior of the rockmass in tension is ductile in the X
direction and fragile in the Y direction (Figure 14). In both cases, the homogenized behavior is governed
by the joints’ separation curves. The shear behavior indicates an important hardening phase and ductile
post-peak behavior.
The variation of the deformation modulus ratio with the load direction Erm/E  [0.28, 0.45]. Where
Erm is the homogenized deformation modulus of the rockmass. The variation curve has an elliptic shape
reflecting an orthotropic elastic behavior of the rockmass (Figure 15). The same is applicable for the
homogenized compressive strength, where crm  [0.13, 0.25] (Figure 16).
Figure 12: Failure mechanism and irreversible

Figure 11: Homogenized stress-strain curves in compression.
strain in the rock matrix (compression Y).
64
Figure 14: Failure mechanism and damage in
Figure 13: Homogenized stress-strain curves in tension and shear.
joints (tension Y).
Figure 15: Variation of the homogenized Young's modulus Figure 16: Variation of the homogenized compression
ration Erm/E with the direction of load. strength ratio crm/c with the direction of load.
10 CONCLUSION
In the present work, a rockmass with two sets of non-persistent fractures was considered. The RVE
was subjected to numerical mechanical tests in compression, tension, and shear. The JFEM Disroc©
software was used for this purpose.
Homogenized stress-strain curves were generated showing an expected anisotropic behavior of the
rockmass. In addition to the compression, tension, and shear peak strength, it was possible to produce the
rockmass homogenized post-peak curves including the residual strength. This result of an interesting use
for the estimation of a representative rockmass deformability in the plastic phase.
The numerical results show that the anisotropic behavior of a rockmass may differ from the elastic to
the plastic phase. For the considered rockmass, an orthotropic mechanical behavior was detected in the
elastic phase where the variation of the deformation modulus is elliptic. However, in the plastic compression
phase, the rockmass showed a general anisotropic behavior in terms of compression strength.
The results also show that a rockmass may have several post-peak behaviors in terms of brittleness
and ductility according to the load direction.
65
As a continuity of the present work, it is possible to extend the developed approach and methodology
to other typical rockmasses widespread in nature. An interesting perspective consists in elaborating an
equivalent continuous macro-model that is capable to fit the homogenized numerical curves derived from
a discrete fractures’ network modeling.
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68
SESSION 2
LABORATORY AND IN SITU TESTING
15
Anisotropic hydraulic behaviour of compacted clayey soil during
wetting-drying cycles
F. Louati, H. Trabelsi, M. Jamei

Tunis El Manar University, National School of Engineers of Tunis, LR03ES05 Laboratory of Civil
Engineering,Tunis, Tunisia
ABSTRACT : Clayey soils are very distributed in the region of Beja in the Northwest of Tunisia. These
soils are subjected to wetting-drying (W-D) cycles, result a variation in microstructure, macrostructure,
and saturated permeability. The desiccations cracks grows during cycles, and the compacted clayey soil
show an anisotropic behavior, which was the most important cause of ground fissures, collapse and
landslides.
Special tools with large-scale apparatus are important for measuring the vertical and horizontal
permeability (Kv and Kh) during W-D cycles for compacted samples with different initial density. Then,
a new permeameter was developed to analyze the permeability anisotropy during 6 wetting-drying
cycles and to investigate the influence of microstructural, macro-structural in the hydraulic anisotropy.
The saturated permeability is assumed to be isotropic (Kh=kv) before desiccation, however, this
assumption is invalid during 6 wetting-drying cycles and the pore connectivity of desiccation cracks and
permeability in the vertical direction outweighs the horizontal one.
1 INTRODUCTION
Induced by W-D cycles, the region of the north of Tunisia, which is fragile, leads to landslides. The
micro and macro-structure varied and the soil is influenced by physico-chemical effect (Louati et al.,
2018), then the saturated permeability changed during wetting-drying cycles, which leads to natural
hazards. In fact, the evolution of saturated permeability is related to the variation of desiccation cracks
during cycles.
The saturated permeability is assumed to be isotropic in recent study; however, the permeability is
anisotropic during wetting-drying cycles (Romero et al., 2008; Attom et al., 2008). Then, for describe
the saturated permeability, it is necessary to understand the variation of hydraulic anisotropy. However,
the anisotropy in the saturated permeability during wetting –drying cycles has not been well explored.
The desiccation cracks provide many preferential pathways for the infiltration of water, then the
saturated vertical permeability increase (Rayhani et al., 2008; Li and Zhang, 2010). The cracks networks
will be vertical, and extend from the surface downwards. Also, we can observe a horizontal cracks in
soil which can contribute to horizontal infiltration (Novak et al., 2000). Water can enter cracks directly
from rainfall (Romkens and Prasad, 2006; Greve et al., 2010). The problem of hydraulic anisotropy
warrants close attention.
Then, a new device was developed for determining the hydraulic anisotropy and discussed the variation
of saturated permeability. In the hydraulic experiments, the horizontal and vertical permeability were
measured during W-D cycles. For determining the performance of the new device in this paper, the
clayey soils are tested with different initial dry density during six wetting-drying cycles.
Many factors especially the wetting –drying cycles and dry density changes the hydraulic anisotropy of
compacted clay (Hei et al., 2019; Du et al., 2013). This paper combined the two effects (cycles and
initial density) on the hydraulic anisotropy. The previous studies (Rayhani et al., 2008; Julina et al.,
71
2021) investigated the variation of vertical permeability during the 3 wetting-drying cycles but ignoring
the effect of hydraulic anisotropy (horizontal and vertical permeability) along cycles. The determination
of saturated permeability and anisotropy during wetting-drying cycles have not been undertaken. Then,
the objectives of this paper are to
(1) Analyze the variation in the microstructure and macrostructure during six W-D cycles
(2) Measure the vertical and horizontal saturated permeability during wetting-drying cycles of
compacted clayey samples with different initial densities. This result will improve the comprehension
of the infiltration process in slopes and holding promise for geotechnical practice.
2.1 Materials
For determining the vertical and horizontal permeability during W–D cycles, the all details for the
preparation of compacted samples : the initial conditions (water content and dry density) and steps for
carrying out W–D cycles in permeability test setups in this paper are described in (Louati et al., 2018).
2.2 Experimental program
2.2.1 Development of a new permeameter
The aim of this new device is the ability to characterize the behavior of fine soils (permeability, micro-
structural and macro structural) with different initial density during 6 wetting-drying cycles. The Kv
value represented the saturated vertical permeability and Kh represented the saturated horizontal
permeability.
When designing the new permeameter, we took into account the following criteria:
Criteria N° 1: minimize the adhesion between the clayey sample and the permeameter mold
The adhesion between the clay and the mold depends on the material used in the construction of the
permeameter. In order to solve the corrosion problems, the mold must be rigid enough to be able to
compact the samples with high densities (> 1.35g / cm3). One of the constraints is the level of pressure
exerted by the press that can be achieved. For this reason, we built permeameters with a steel mold (Fig.
1).
Criteria N° 2: make a parallelepiped-shaped permeameter
For measuring the permeability in different directions (vertical permeability and horizontal
permeability), we have proposed to make a parallelepiped permeameter.
Criteria N° 3: The dimensions of the permeameter should allow measuring the permeability of a cracked
sample during wetting-drying cycles.
The size of the permeameter is very important for cracked soil samples (Rayhani et al., 2008; Louati et
al., 2018).
According to several authors, the size of the samples of the compacted clay should generally be large
enough (around 100 mm to 150 mm in diameter) to avoid the problem of the scaling effect that can
appear with smaller samples (Cazaux et al., 2000). The depth and spacing of desiccation cracks in
different types of soil are approximately 5-50 mm and 10-100 mm (Rayhani et al., 2008). The diameter
of the sample should be greater than 150 mm (Rayhani et al., 2008).
The width and length chosen in this study is 150 mm x 150 mm x 50mm for the permeameter. Figure 1
shows the schematic layout of the new permeameter in all detail.
The robustness of the device is the measurement of both horizontal and vertical permeability and the
cracking during wetting –drying cycles independent of the initial condition.
2.2.2 Measurement of horizontal (Kh) and vertical (kv) saturated permeability
The size of this new device was 150x150x50 mm. The permeability test was selected with distilled
water, because distilled water had a low-salinity water.
72
The compacted samples were sandwiched between two porous stone and filter paper and fixed in place
by 2 O-rings on the top. After that, the permeameter were filled with distilled water. The permeability
was measured based on Darcy’s law. The water was weighed by an electronic balance (accuracy of
0.001 g), and the data recorded by the equipped software.
For understanding the hydraulic anisotropy, two test namely vertical permeability (Kv) and horizontal
permeability (Kh) was measured in the saturated state.
When distilled water without air bubbles overflows through the outlet, the permeability test can begin.
Then, the valve in the vertical direction were opened, and the water passed in the specimen (Fig. 1 ). So,
we measure Kv after that the valve in the horizontal direction were opened and Kh were determined.
Kh and Kv values were calculated according to Darcy’s law of variable head described in the ASTM
D5084, (Equation 1).
(1)
with a is the cross-sectional area (m2), L is the height of the sample, and A is the cross-sectional area of
the sample.
Figure 1. Steps of anisotropic saturated permeability measurement (vertical and horizontal) in a new
permeameter during W-D cycles.
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
3.1 Micro-structural analysis
The micro-structural analysis for loosely and densely compacted clayey soil were performed to
determine the variation of porosity, and density during six wetting-drying cycles.
73
The effects of wetting-drying cycle on the microstructure were determined by the immersion of the
kerdane at the end of each cycle. The results present an improvement for evaluating the hydraulic
anisotropy. The variation of initial condition can directly affects the physical properties of sample (initial
dry density, initial water content, and initial void ratio).
1.4 d 0.8
2.2
d 0.9
d1
d0.8 d1.27 1.2
2 d 1.2
d0.9 d1.35
d 1.27
d1.2 d1.5
d 1.35
Dry density (g/cm3)
1.8 1
d 1.5
Void ratio (-)

1.6 0.8
1.4
0.6
1.2
0.4
1
0.2
0.8
2 4 6 0 2 4 6
W-D cycles (-) W-D cycles (-)
Figure 2. Variation of (a) dry density and (b) void ratio during W-D cycles
Figure 2.a show that the dry densities of compacted samples varied during wetting-drying test. The dry
densities decreased for the initial dense sample (density = 1.35 g/cm3, 1.5 g/cm3) and inversely increased
for the loose sample (density = 0.8 g/cm3 to 1.27 g/cm3). During wetting-drying cycles, the dense
samples become loose, and the loose sample become dense.
The calculated void ratio was shown in figure 2.b, noting that they were opposite to the dry densities.
For the dense samples, the void ratio increased with increasing wet-dry cycles. For the loose samples,
the void ratio decreased. It can be found that wet-dry cycles detach the dense samples (d1.35, d1.5) and
densify the loose samples (d0.8 to d1.27). The densification process of loose samples involves the
reduction of macro- pores, volume decrease and density increase. For the dense samples (Fig. 2), dry
densities decreased during wetting-drying cycles.
3.2 Macro-structural analysis

During wetting-drying cycles, desiccation cracks were determined by image technique (Tang et al. 2011;
Xue et al. 2014). At the end of each wetting-drying cycle, the surface of sample was obtained by using
a camera to measure the CIF. The camera was fixed parallel to specimen to ensure the sample is visible.
The desiccation cracks were observed in samples with different initial density. Figure 3 shows the
desiccation crack (density of 0.9 g/cm3) and Figure 4 shows the desiccation crack with density of 1.35
g/cm3.
The crack patterns developed in two phases during six wetting-drying cycles:
Phase 1 (cycle 1 to cycle 3) is the initiation of cracks:
During three W-D cycles, the water evaporated, and the temperature and relative humidity affect the
compacted clayey sample which lead to initiation and propagation of cracks. Some cracks were visually
observed at the sample surface, the propagation of cracks starts with smaller cracks in the initial state.
The desiccation cracks increase and widen from smaller cracks to a larger sizes. When the sample is
74
wetted with water, the cracks decrease. At the second and third cycle, the primary desiccation cracks
expand and connect with adjacent cracks, we note a generation of new cracks.
Phase 2 (cycle 3 to cycle 6) is the evolution of cracks:
After three wetting –drying cycles, the desiccation cracks gradually developed and covered the surface
of specimens for the dense samples (Fig. 4).
However, in loose samples (density 0.9), the evaporation of water leads to a reduction of the pores and
then to a densification (Fig. 3). In fact, the variation of permeability is attributed to a physical process:
cracks of the sample and densification of soil matrix (Jong and Kachanoski 1988).
The initial structure of clayey soil with a low dry density (0.9 /1.2/0.8 g/cm3) is loose, the micro-pore is
apparent (Fig. 3). During cycles, the particles are moved by osmotic forces and the infiltration of water
is blocked, then, the structure become dense
Density = 0.9 g/cm3

Cycle 1 : CIF= 5.1% Cycle 2 : CIF= 6.6 % Cycle 3 : CIF=7.1%
Cycle 4 : CIF=5.9% Cycle 5 : CIF= 4.9% Cycle 6 : CIF=5.7%
Figure 3. Evolution of desiccation cracks during drying cycles (initial density: 0.9 g/cm3)
75
Density = 1.35 g/cm3
Cycle 1 : CIF= 2.7% Cycle 2 : CIF= 4.7% Cycle 3 : CIF=4.8%
Cycle 4 : CIF= 5.4% Cycle 5 : CIF= 6.5% Cycle 6 : CIF=6.6%
Figure 4. Evolution of desiccation cracks during drying cycles (initial density: 1.35 g/cm3)
3.3 Permeability anisotropy of clayey soil under influence of dry density and wetting drying cycles
We analyze the microstructure and macrostructure mechanism, to understand the variation of saturated
permeability with different initial condition during wetting-drying cycles.
During desiccation, the pore structure was modified, and the permeability change accordingly. The
saturated permeability change with dry density during wetting –drying cycles in two phases, which
affect the hydraulic anisotropy (Fig. 5).
Between 1 and 3 cycles:
During W-D cycles, the cracks widened, and additional non-propagating cracks were observed at the
surface and at the bottom. The desiccation cracks during cycles increase above the mid-depth due to
the presence of a horizontal crack (Julina et al., 2020)
The saturated permeability (Kv and kh) increase, the kv value surpasses the kh and the hydraulic
anisotropy increase. The increase in the kh and kv values was attributed to the initiation of cracks. In
fact, the clayey sample shrinks when drying. Then, the micro-cracks grows, resulting the irreversible
damage to the structure, which provides channel for infiltration for water, then the saturated permeability
increase.
Between 4 to 6 cycles
The variation of desiccation cracks at the top and bottom is related to the existence of the non-
propagating cracks and the propagating cracks.
The saturated permeability (kh and kv) increases for sample (d=1.35) and hydraulic anisotropy decrease.
For loose sample (d=0.8 to d1.2), the saturated permeability (kh and kv) decreases because
76
compacted samples with low dry density undergo global shrinkage, the CIF and then the permeability
decrease. The kv value surpasses the kh.
The calcium carbonate at the surface of sample (CaCO3 : inorganic cement in the soil) is responsible
for the cementation effect between particle. The densification of matrix is the reason for the decrease in
the saturated permeability. The chemical process affect the microstructure of the aggregates (Louati et
al., 2018).
During cycles, the cement material around the skeleton particles was dissolved and the calcium
carbonate migrated in the surface, then the soil collapse and result a modification in the structural
change, so the saturated permeability decreased rapidly.
0.0001 0.001
Density =0.8 g/cm3

Vertical permeability kv
Saturated permeability (m/s)

1E-005 Horizontal permeability kh
0.0001
1E-006
Density =0.9 g/cm3 1E-005
1E-007 Vertical permeability kv

Horizontal permeability kh
1E-008 1E-006
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
W-D cycles (-) W-D cycles (-)
0.0001
0.0001
Density =1.2 g/cm3
Horizontal permeability kh
1E-005
1E-005 1E-006
1E-007
Density =1.35 g/cm3
Horiontal permeability kh
1E-006 1E-008
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
W-D cycles (-) Cycles (-)
Figure 5. Variation of anisotropic permeability during cycles with different initial densities.
4 CONCLUSION
The determination of saturated permeability (Kh and Kv) and hydraulic anisotropy for cracked clayey
soil requires a large-scale testing apparatus to accommodate the representative elementary volume of a
crack network (REV). We develop a new permeameter, 150 x150 x 50 mm, considering the desiccation
crack during cycles. The influence of Wetting –drying (W-D) cycles on the microstructure,
macrostructure and saturated permeability (kh and kv) were analyzed during 6 W-D cycles.
77
The desiccation cracks start with smaller cracks at the top surface (vertical cracks) which tend to increase
and widen from the top to bottom (vertical and horizontal cracks ) during W-D cycles.
- When the density increase, more desiccation cracks propagate, especially in the central part of
the image and the precipitated crystals are mainly the CACO3. The CACO3 in the clay sample
before W-D cycles (N = 0) does not show any variation, and the permeability shows
insignificant variation.
- Under a given dry density (1.35 g/cm3 ), the saturated permeability after the first cycle increase
rapidly during wetting-drying cycles. However, the increment of the saturated permeability
experiences little change after 3 cycles. For initial low compacted samples (0.8 to 1.2 g/cm3),
the saturated permeability increases during the first three cycles, but it exhibits a significantly
decrease after fifth cycles. The saturated permeability is more important in the vertical direction.
5 REFERENCE
ATTOM, Mousa F. et AL-AKHRAS, Nabil M. Investigating anisotropy in shear strength of clayey

soils. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers-Geotechnical Engineering, 2008, vol. 161, no 5, p. 269-
273.
Cazaux, D., & Didier, G. (2000). Field evaluation of hydraulic performances of geosynthetic clay liners by small
and large-scale tests. Geotextiles and Geomembranes, 18(2-4), 163-178.
C. S.Tang., Shi, B., Liu, C., Suo, W. B., & Gao, L. (2011). Experimental characterization of shrinkage and
desiccation cracking in thin clay layer. Applied Clay Science, 52(1-2), 69-77
DU, Jing et WARPINSKI, Norm R. Velocity building for microseismic hydraulic fracture mapping in isotropic
and anisotropic media. In : SPE hydraulic fracturing technology conference. OnePetro, 2013.
GREVE, A., ANDERSEN, M. S., et ACWORTH, R. I. Investigations of soil cracking and preferential flow in a
weighing lysimeter filled with cracking clay soil. Journal of Hydrology, 2010, vol. 393, no 1-2, p. 105-113.
HEI, Chuang et XIAO, Zhangbo. Borehole elastic wave anisotropic scattering and application to hydraulic
fracturing. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering, 2019, vol. 183, p. 106405.
JULINA, M. et THYAGARAJ, T. Combined effects of wet-dry cycles and interacting fluid on desiccation cracks
and hydraulic conductivity of compacted clay. Engineering Geology, 2020, vol. 267, p. 105505.
Li, J. H., & Zhang, L. M. (2010). Geometric parameters and REV of a crack network in soil. Computers and
Geotechnics, 37(4), 466-475.
Rayhani, M. H. T., Yanful, E. K., & Fakher, A. (2008). Physical modeling of desiccation cracking in plastic soils.
Engineering Geology, 97(1-2), 25-31.
NOVAK, V., ŠIMÅUNEK, J., et GENUCHTEN, M. Th van. Infiltration of water into soil with cracks. Journal of
irrigation and Drainage Engineering, 2000, vol. 126, no 1, p. 41-47.
RÖMKENS, M. J. M. et PRASAD, S. N. Rain infiltration into swelling/shrinking/cracking soils. Agricultural
water management, 2006, vol. 86, no 1-2, p. 196-205.
ROMERO, Enrique et JOMMI, Cristina. An insight into the role of hydraulic history on the volume changes of
anisotropic clayey soils. Water Resources Research, 2008, vol. 44, no 5.
LOUATI, Fatma, TRABELSI, Houcem, JAMEI, Mehrez, et al. Impact of wetting-drying cycles and cracks on the
permeability of compacted clayey soil. European Journal of Environmental and Civil Engineering, 2021, vol.
25, no 4, p. 696-721.
Xue, Q., Wan, Y., Chen, Y. J., & Zhao, Y. (2014). Experimental research on the evolution laws of soil fabric of
compacted clay liner in a landfill final cover under the dry–wet cycle. Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the
Environment, 73(2), 517-529.
78
Characterization of expansive soils using oedometer test
results
S.A. Manigniavy
Université de Tunis El Manar, Ecole Nationale d’Ingénieurs de Tunis, Laboratoire d’Ingénierie
Géotechnique et de Géorisque LR14ES03
Y. Bouassida
Université de Tunis, Ecole Nationale Supérieure d’Ingénieurs de Tunis, Laboratoire d’Ingénierie
D. Azaiez
M. Bouassida
ABSTRACT: Expansive soils are one of the problematic soils in the world. The volume change
of this soil is depended on its moisture content. A new method to characterize this type of soil is
determined from the results of oedometer tests, carried out on expansive and non-expansive
soils. The ratio between the compression index (Cc) and the swelling index (Cs) is defined. A
threshold swelling pressure (σs) value and zones delimited by a Cc/Cs value are identified to dis-
tinguish expansive from non-expansive soil specimens. And for a Cc/Cs >15, the swelling pres-
sure is almost equal to zero.
1 GENERALITY
Expansive soils are found in arid or semi-arid areas. This type of soil often causes serious
damage to buildings, especially lightweight buildings. It generally consists of clays, predomi-
nantly of the smectite group. With regard to the damage caused by swelling soil, the study of the
behaviour of foundations on this type of soil is a topic of great interest, especially for many Af-
rican countries (Kalantari 2012; Nelson et al. 2015).
Many researchers have been interested in the phenomenon of swelling, to understand how it
can occur and to find which methods are appropriate to measure the swelling pressure and to
mitigate the swelling phenomenon (Sridharan & Prakash 2016; Aniculaesi & Lungu 2019,
Bouassida et al. 2022).
The volume of expansive soils changes depending on its water content. The process of soil
swelling occurs gradually and is influenced by the saturation of the soil and also by the clay
structure of the soil (Medjnoun et al. 2014). During this process, the clay particles are pushed
apart due to the water molecules and other cations carried by the water, leading to an increase in
swelling pressure (Elarabi 2010). In general, a soil has a shrink – swell behaviour because it
contains a group of clays called smectite group, in particular montmorillonite (Chen 1988).
In addition, the principal challenge is to find ways to reduce the effect of swelling phenome-
non when building structures in contact with swelling soils. Mixture and chemical treatments
are the most popular research topics for the improvement of this problematic soil.
In North of Tunisia, including Béjà and Tunis, many projects are being built on swelling
clays. Over the last 30 years, a number of constructions have been damaged by the swelling-
shrinkage phenomenon of clays and had to be repaired. Thus, a research programme to charac-
terize expansive soils appropriately and to formulate countermeasures and construction methods
to assist civil engineers, in the safe design and construction of foundations on the swelling soils,
is needed (Bouassida et al. 2022).
79
2 BACKGROUND
The shrink - swell behaviour of clay is an extremely destructive phenomenon and leads to
enormous repair costs. Therefore, it is crucial to find methods to characterize expansive soils
(Bouassida et al. 2022).
First, expansive soils are one of the most dangerous natural hazards, competing with floods,
earthquakes, tornadoes, etc, (Chen 1975). Slope instability, tunnel collapse, differential settle-
ment and buckling of building, fissures on structures (Fig. 1) and destruction of hydraulic struc-
tures can result from the existence of swelling soils (Elarabi, 2010).
Figure 1. Cracks in the building named F2 at the Department of Civil Engineering (National
Engineering School of Tunis), build on an expansive clay according to Bouassida et al. (2006),
Photographed on 2022
Second, around the world, a lot of money is wasted due to extensive damage to buildings
caused by the effect of swelling phenomenon every year. In many countries, financial assess-
ment of the extra-costs due to swelling soil problems has not yet been carried out. In Sudan, the
cost of damage to buildings and light structures due to swelling soils is estimated more than 6
million dollars (Osman & Charlie 1983). In United States, which is one of the countries most af-
fected by the damage of this problematic soil, losses due to expansive soils range from 6 to 11
billion dollars in damage to buildings, roads, airports and other infrastructures each year
(Nuhfer 1994). In Canada, the city of Regina, which is the capital of Saskatchewan, is built on
swelling clays. The maintenance of 850 km long water supply network (30-year-old, in Regina
City) costs annually more than 2 million dollars, about 0.27 breaks/km per year (Azam et al.
2013).
Third, to deal with this type of soil, there are some improvements proposed, like the use of
granular materials, chemical and soil mixture treatments. The granular pile technique is practical
and promising technique. Their installation can be realized at any season. The reduction provid-
ed by the use of a granular pile varied from 10 - 45% (Kay 1990). The use of granular material
as a separation zone between foundation and an expansive soil seems a solution to reduce the
swelling effect (Manigniavy 2021, Bouassida et al. 2022). In addition, noted also that chemical
treatments reveal of interest. According to Mahamedi & Khemissa (2013), mixture of swelling
clay with respectively cement and lime in an amount of 10% reduces the swelling potential and
decreases liquid limit respectively 41% and 43%. Soil sensitivity to water has been reduced by
the lime treatment. This is due to decrease of moisture content after lime hydration (Kechouane
& Nechnech 2015). As cement contains about 60% lime, mixing with cement gives approxi-
mately the same result as mixing with lime. Moreover, according to Gueddouda et al. (2013),
about the soil mixture, the addition of dune sand leads to an important reduction of the swelling
parameters. With 45% sand, for the swelling potential, this reduction is about 65% and for the
swelling pressure exceeds 85%. This addition is involved in the increase of the pore size in the
80
swelling soil mass which amounts to the reduction of these expansion effects. The evolution of
suction is proportional to that of shear strength. Further, Tiwari et al. (2019) recommended the
use of coir geotextile which reduces the swelling pressure by about 27% and also reduces the
speed of swelling. It is noted that approximately the same results are found with a silica fume
treated coir geotextile. A reduction of 55% for the swelling pressure and 79% for the percentage
of expansion are observed when using a coir geotextile treated with lime. Finally, according to
Kalantari (2012), the three most commonly used techniques are replacing the soil, using suffi-
ciently strong structures and separating the structure from the swelling clay.
Table 1. Oedometer parameters of clayey soils (update of data in Bouassida et al. 2022)
Compression Swelling C /C Swelling
Country Site Cc index Cs c s pressure expansive Non-
expansive
σ (kPa)
s
Béja 0.160 0.024 6.7 110 x
0.140 0.026 5.4 230 x
0.150 0.018 8.3 90 x
0.180 0.037 4.9 120 x
0.160 0.035 4.6 140 x
0.140 0.010 14.0 40 x
0.150 0.012 12.5 40 x
0.130 0.019 6.8 140 x
0.220 0.030 7.3 130 x
0.180 0.039 4.6 80 x
0.226 0.086 2.6 204 x
0.176 0.035 5.0 108 x
Centre Urbain du 0.158 0.012 13.2 0 x
Nord - Tunis 0.123 0.009 13.7 0 x
Tunisia 0.129 0.008 16.1 0 x
Tunis El Manar 0.097 0.022 4.4 90 x
University* 0.040 0.004 10.0 95 x
0.124 0.021 5.9 220 x
0.114 0.027 4.2 185 x
0.173 0.009 19.2 0 x
0.055 0.003 18.3 0 x
0.156 0.040 3.9 275 x
Jardin El Men- 0.140 0.017 8.2 160 x
zah 1 – Tunis
0.140 0.025 5.6 190 x
0.140 0.017 8.2 150 x
0.140 0.011 12.7 20 x
0.190 0.041 4.6 70 x
0.200 0.061 3.3 180 x
Médéa* 0.140 0.045 3.1 400 x
Algeria 0.400 0.100 4.0 70 x
(Medjnoun
& Bahr
0.350 0.140 2.5 80 x
2016) 0.150 0.100 1.5 420 x
0.080 0.070 1.1 800 x
USA
(Wang Louisiana 0.360 0.110 3.3 170 x
2016)
Canada Lake Agassiz 0.730 0.230 3.2 54 x
(Hardy Northen Alberta 0.120 0.070 1.7 429 x
1965) Regina 0.170 0.050 3.4 965 x
*updated
81
3 SOME EXISTING CHARACTERIZATION METHODS
Due to damages caused by expansive soils, several researchers made an effort to develop ap-
proaches to characterize this type of soil in order to know it better and to prevent the problems it
can cause. Sridharan & Prakash (2016) proposed two kinds of characterization methods:
 identification of the soil mineralogy (such as X-ray diffraction analysis, differential

thermal analysis, dye adsorption, chemical analysis and scanning electron microscopy);
 inferential test (indirect or direct methods).
There are some indirect methods:

 Clay fraction method (Holtz & Gibbs 1956, Chen 1965, Holtz et al. 2011)
 Atterberg limits tests (Holtz & Gibbs 1956, Indian Standard 1970, Chen 1975)
 Activity Ac method (Skempton 1953, Seed et al. 1962, Sridharan & Prakash 2016)
Some classifications are referred to direct methods like oedometer swell test, free swell tests and
suction method.
4 CHARACTERIZATION OF EXPANSIVE SOILS BY COMPRESSION INDEX AND

SWELLING INDEX
Compression index (Cc) and swelling index (Cs) are defined by oedometer test which per-
formed with a submerged specimen to ensure a full saturation during the experiments. By doing
an oedometer test, both indices Cc and Cs, can be measured for any kind of soil, expansive or
non-expansive.
Figure 2. Swelling pressure σs versus Cc/Cs ratio (update of Bouassida et al. 2022)
82
The method to characterize expansive soils using the Cc/Cs ratio relied on data collected from
four case studies in Tunisia and five cases from other countries (Algeria, Canada and United
States). These data are presented in Table 1, as found by doing oedometer tests followed by
swelling pressure measurements. The Cc/Cs ratio is an indicator of volume change quantifying
the degree of soil compression versus swelling (Bouassida et al. 2022). And this variation in
volume is related to a pressure, more precisely the swelling pressure (σs). The variation of swell-
ing pressure with respect to the Cc/Cs ratio from the data collected in Table 1 is shown in Figure
2. From this figure, non-expansive soils are in the side where Cc/Cs ratio is above 10 and the
swelling pressure is under 50 kPa. Expansive soils are in the side where Cc/Cs ratio is under 10
and the swelling pressure is higher than 50 kPa. This approach is approved by Chen (1988) who
affirmed that when the swelling pressure is under 50 kPa, the swell potential is low. Moreover,
when Cc/Cs ratio is higher than 15, the swelling pressure is practically equal to zero. A classifi-
cation between swelling and non-swelling soils is shown in Table 2. If the compression index
(Cc) is about 10 times larger than swelling index (Cs), then the swelling potential of this soil is
low.
Table 2. Classification of expansive soils using oedometer test results

(Bouassida et al. 2022)
Type of soil Cc/Cs σs (kPa)
Expansive < 10 > 50
Non-expansive > 10 < 50
5 CONCLUSION
The main interested of this work is the characterization of expansive soils. This approach is
based on oedometer test results and performed with thirty-seven (37) data from Tunisia, Alge-
ria, Canada and United States. Civil engineers may consider the soil to be non-expansive and
underestimate it. If Cc/Cs ratio is less than 10, they must take into account the swelling pressure
and the shrink – swell behavior of the soil.
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Azam S., Ito M. & Chowdhury R. 2013. Engineering properties of an expansive soil. Proceeding of the
18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, 199–202. Paris.
Bouassida M., Ben Ouezdou M. & Trabelsi H. 2006. Cas pathologiques de deux bâtiments à l’ENIT. An-
nales de l’Equipement, N°26 : 53-66
Bouassida M., Manigniavy S.A., Azaiez D. & Bouassida Y. 2022. New Approach for Characterization
and Mitigation of the Swelling Phenomenon. Front. Built Env. 8:836277. doi:
10.3389/fbuil.2022.836277.
Chen, F. H. 1965. The use of piers to prevent the uplifting of lightly loaded structure founded on expan-
sive soil. In Concluding Proceedings Engineering Effects of Moisture Change in Soils, International
Research and Engineering Conference on Expansive Clay Soils. A&M, Texas, 152-171.
Chen, F.H. 1975. Foundations on Expansive Soils. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company Inc. New
York.
Chen, F.H. 1988. Foundations on Expansive Soils. Elsevier Publisher B.V.
Elarabi, H. 2010. Damage mechanism of expansive soils. Proceeding of the 2nd International Conference
on Geotechnical Engineering ICGE’10: 125-131. Hammamet 2010, Tunisia.
Gueddouda, M. K., Goual, I., Lamara, M. & Goual, S. 2013. Amélioration des propriétés physico-
mécaniques des argiles gonflantes stabilisées par ajout de sable de dune. 3ème Conférence Maghré-
bine en Ingénierie Géotechnique CMIG’13 : 221-226, Alger 2013, Algeria.
Hardy R.M. 1965. Identification and Performance of Swelling Soil Types. Canadian Geotechnical Jour-
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Kechouane, Z. & Nechnech, A. (2015). Characterization of An Expansive Clay Treated with Lime: Effect
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84
Evaluation of petrophysical parameters : A case study of the Abiod
formation in Pelagian Platorm.
W. Abdelkhalek, A. Touekbri and F. Melki

University of Tunis El Manar, Faculty of Sciences, LR18ES37 laboratory of Geodynamics, Geonumeric
And Geometrials (L3G), 2092, Tunis, Tunisia.
A.Ben Salem
Entreprise Tunisienne d’Activités Pétrolières, 54, Avenue Mohamed V, 1002 Tunis, Tunisia.
ABSTRACT: The Upper Cretaceous (Campanian-Maastrichtian Abiod formation) has never been considered
as a particular drilling target in the Pelagian Bloc (Sahel) onshore east of Tunisia. With the discovery of oil in
Maamoura followed by Sidi Kilani (SLK), the Abiod formation carbonates have become the focus of further
exploration interest in northern and central Tunisia. This study presents a petrophysical analysis carried out to
evaluate rocks properties of the Abiod formation in Pelagian Basin. Shale volume, lithofacies, porosity and
water saturation were identified from well logs. Porosity was empirically driven from available core data from
3 wells P1, P2 and P3. The results show that the Abiod formation represents vertical and lateral sedimentary
variations with good quality reservoir facies in P3.
1 INTRODUCTION
The Pelagian Basin is located in northeast Tunisia and has been an area of significant interest in the past few
years. The Abiod formation of Campanian-Maastrichian Period is widespread in the Pelagian Basin. It is a
producing carbonates reservoir.
The present study aims to characterize the lateral variation in thickness and lithology of the Abiod reservoir
based on borehole lithology logs and electrical well logging. During Upper Cretaceous, the deposits in the
East of Tunisia correspond to the Abiod, Aleg, Douleb, Bireno, Bahoul and Fahdene formations. A set of dif-
ferent data helped to identify an extensive Cretaceous phase (Touati, 1985). These Alpine and Atlassic phases
decrease from the West to the East, where strongly folded and faulted zones can be observed (Haller, 1983;
Bédir, 1995; Khomsi et al., 2006).
2 GEOLOGICAL SETTINGS
The present research is localized in the Pelagian basin characterized by geological outcrops ranging from Mi-
ocene to Quaternary (Fig.2). The Pelagian Platorm, which forms the foreland area of the Atlas thurst belt. The
region is part of the North Africa Craton, which has been subjected to several major tectonic events from
Paleozoic to late Tertiary times. The Tethysian extension from mid Jurassic onwards caused fault block rota-
tion, which locally resulted in facies and thickness variation particularly of Cretaceous(Touati, 1985).
85
Figure 1. wells location map of the study area
Original data of 3 selected wells drilled were provided by the Tunisian Enterprise of Petroleum Activities
ETAP. The analysis of logging data was supported by the application of the interactive petrophysics “IP”
software.
The well log records (sonic=Dt) was applied to describe the depositional facies and thickness variations of
Abiod formation and its stratigraphic equivalents. Besides, they were used to calculate the total porosity by
the Willie s method on sonic logging sets characterized by comparable amplitude and frequencies. This meth-
od is based mainly on the sonic data, for that reason it can be applied on carbonate formations.
A compositional analysis has been used for the Campanian Maastrichian interval of the Abiod formation in 3
wells applying the Gamma-ray, density and neutron logs to solve for propositions of limestone, shale, and the
porosity factor.
The wire-logging requires a subdivision by its precise representative facies of wells analyzed and implanted
in the study area.
4 LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY STUDY
The lithostratigraphic succession of the upper Cretaceous crossed by the two wells P1 and P2 extends from
Campanian series to the Jurassic series (Fig. 2). The deposition is primarily in a pelagic marine (Ben Brahim,
1993) setting:
- Campanian – Maestrichtian: the Abiod formation represented by a clean white limestone and slightly argil-
laceous.
- Santonian: the Aleg formation is denoting a Gamma-Ray deflection. It’s represented by a claystones with
very fine calcareous.
86
- Coniacian-upper Turonian: The Douleb formation consists of light grey limestones, locally with light
brownish white patches. Mudstone to wackstone texture and locally slightly argillaceous.
- Middle-Lower Turonian: the Bireno formation consists of light brownish to light brownish grey
amorphous to subblocky with mudstone to wackstone.
- Basal Turonian to upper Cenomanian: the Bahloul formation contains mainly light brownish grey to brown-
ish white limestone. These are slightly to moderately argillaceous, locally very argillaceous when dark as ar-
gillaceous rich laminations.
- Cenomanian-Lower Albian: Fahdene formation is a brownish limestone with minor claystone stringers and
thin interbeds.
- Aptian: the Serdj formation consists of claystones with marly limestons interbeds.
- Lower Aptian: at the top of Bouhedma formation is micrite clay and clay then dolomicrite with intercala-
tions of clay sandstone.
- Hauterivien: the Meloussi formation mainly dolomicrite with intercalations of fine sandstone.
- Valenginien: The formation of Sidi Khalif shows alternations of clay and sandstone..
- Jurassic: the Nara formation is essentially dolomitic
Figure 2. Well correlation showing lateral and vertical extension of the Abiod formation
85
5 RESERVOIR DESCRIPTION
The carbonates of the Abiod formation show significant oil interest, especially in central and eastern Tunisia,
as evidenced by certain oil and gas producing oil fields (Sidi el Kilani, Zinia, Tiref, Miskar).
Generally, the Abiod formation consists of two carbonate bars with a micritical aspect separated by an inter-
mediate term with a marl dominance.
Sedimentological analysis of the Abiod reservoir indicates that it is a packstone to wackestone limestone,
which is formed essentially by planktonic Foraminifera with coccolith debris (Fig.3) which gives this lime-
stone a medium to high matrix porosity.
Figure 3. Fauna of the Abiod formation (Etap.2006)
6 PETROPHYSICS INTERPRETETION
A detailed quantitative well log analysis was then carried out across the Abiod formation. The gamma-ray in-
dex was calculated, and the equation (1) was applied to estimate the shale volume. Reservoir porosities were
calculated by considering the neutron-density logs.
6.1 Determination of the volume shale
Determination of volume shale parameters allows to evaluate the lithology of the reservoir as well as to char-
acterize the existing facies. In our study this volume is estimated from the log Gamma Ray (Fig.3).
Vsh = (GR - GRmin) / (GRmax – Grmin)(1)
Determine the GR deflection of clean formations (GRmin) and the maximum deflection corresponding to
clays (GRmax).
Figure 3. volume shale of Well P3
88
6.2 Determination of the porosity
The Porosity was calculated using the neutron log
The determination of the porosity from the sonic is done by the following formula:
ΦS = (Δt(lue) –Δtma) / (Δtf - Δtma) (2)
6.3 Water Saturation (Sw)

The water saturation was determined using the Archie model.
F × Rw
Sw =
Rt
Rw : the resistivity of the water present in the Formation

Rt : the resistivity of penetrated Formation
6.4 NET Pay determination
For the structure studied, the Cutoffs considered are the following:
• Saturation SW <0.5 %
• PHI porosity < 0,04 %
• Volume of clay < 0,35 %
Figure 4. Stratigraphic analysis and petrophysical characterization of Well P3.
The Net-Pay generated is:
 P1 : 920m-1054m so 134 m
Average porosity Φ = 19 %
Average Vsh = 31,56 %
Average SW = 71 %
 P2 : 2222m-2578m so 356 m
Average porosity Φ = 20.08%
Average Vsh = 19%
Average SW = 60,52%
 P3 : 1716m-2288m so 572m
85
Average porosity Φ = 35,08%
Average Vsh = 19%
Average SW = 31,52%
In this study, primarily, the volume of shale and porosity are estimated from well log responses and cross-
plot. The determination of this succession due to differences in log characteristics in figure5. Cross-plots were
generated to see the lithology and porosity information of the reservoir formation.The DT/Rhob was generat-
ed for the wells used in the current study.
Figure 5. The lithology cross plot derived to the Abiod formation.
7 CONCLUSION
The Abiod formation forms the main reservoir in the Pelagian Basin. This formation has a chalky mudstone to
wackstone texture with high microporosities (up to 20%) and very low permeabilities. These original reser-
voir characteritics are enhanced by the presence of natural fractures and the development of a high porosity.
The Abiod formation in well P3 is up to 500m thick and contain predominantly massive, micritic and chalky
white limestones.
These results reveal that the P3 well presents an important oil interest which essentially shows a gas reservoir
with an average water saturation Sw = 31.56%.
For P1 and P2 well, the Abiod reservoir is a water reservoir with a water saturation of around 70%. This can
be explained by:
- The degradation of the reservoir qualities of the Campanian-Maastrichtian is due to a reduction in the thick-
ness of the limestone term whose thickness is of the order of 300 m at the level of the P2 well, whereas it is
approximately 500 m in the P3 well.
- The thinning of the reservoir level observed in the P1 well is related to tectonic activity (Faulting).
8 REFERENCES
Touati, M.A. (1985) Etude Géologique et géophysique de la concession de Sidi El Itayem en Tunisie orientale. Sahel de Sfax. Thèse
de Doct. Univ. P. et M. Curie, Paris, 226p.
Haller, P. (1983) Structure pr-é&–ofonde du Sahel tunisien. Interprétation géodynamique. Thèse de 3 éme cycle, Besancon, 163p.
Ben Brahim, A. (1993) The Upper Cretaceous Abiod Formation carbonates as a fractured reservoir in Sidi El Kilani field. Fractured
Reservoirs Seminar. Mém. ETAP., Tunis. Pp. 57-77.
Bedir, M. (1995) Mécanismes géodynamiques des bassins associés aux couloirs de décrochements de la marge atlasique de la Tuni-
sie. Séismo-stratigraphie, séismo-tectonique et implications pétrolières. Thése d´Etat, Université de Tunis, 407 p.
Khomsi, et Al (2005) Highlight and analysis of an Atlasic structure beneath the plain of Kairouan-Sahel, northeastern Tunisia.
C.R. Geosci, V. 337-574p.
90
Statistical analysis and geometric properties of fracturing from outcrop
of Cherahil Formation of Jebel Cherahil in central Tunisia
Anis Ammari
GEOMODELE Laboratory, Faculty of Sciences, University of Sfax, 3000 Sfax, Tunisia
Chedly Abbes
GEOMODELE Laboratory, Faculty of Sciences, University of Sfax, 3000 Sfax, Tunisia.
ABSTRACT: In fractured buried reservoirs, the fracturing network has a significant impact on fluid
circulation and productivity. In this work, we present the results of the analysis of outcrop fracture networks
in the Upper Middle Eocene limestone hydrocarbons reservoir, located in Central Tunisia. The study
considered outcrops in two different structures and geometries in Jebel Cherahil, which is located in the
North-South Chain of Central Tunisia. The aim of this study is to characterize the fracturing of the Cherahil
Formation using statistical method from outcrops. This field data constitutes the important support from
which statistical processing are made. Indeed, the statistical analysis of the length, spacing and aperture
parameters shows a power law fit of the curves. Thereby, it indicates a degree of self-similarity in the
organization of the fracture network which highlight the fractal nature of the fracture network. In fact, the
fracture network is organized along four main directions: ESE-WNW, E-W, SE-NW and ENE-WSW on
the western flank, and in three major directions: ESE-WNW, ENE-WSW and SE-NW in the vicinity of the
major N160 fault.
1 INTRODUCTION
Quantitative characterization of fracturing associated with different geological formations is an essential
means of gaining a better understanding of fractured aquifers in the basement, for example. The
determination of the geometrical parameters of the fracturing (orientation, length, spacing, opening, etc.)
allows to better understand the organization of the fracture networks (Guerriero et al., 2010; Wilson et al.,
2011; Hooker et al., 2013, 2014, Laubach et al., 2019; Guiffrida et al., 2019; Guiffrida et al., 2020; Pontes
et al., 2021). These parameters play a significant role in the organization of the fracture network and its
transport properties (Razack, 1982; La Pointe and Hudson, 1985; Lasm, 2000, Gillespie et al. 2011, Coli
and Pinzani, 2014). We should also mention that statistical analysis methods remain inevitable in the study
of these parameters by simplifying the description of the main geometric parameters of fracturing (La pointe
and Hudson, 1985; Lasm, 2000). In Tunisia, the Cherahil reservoir represents a petroleum interest since it
is produced in many wells (Sidi El Itayem and Kerkanah). The Cherahil B formation is a thick (200 -350
m) multilayer potential reservoir/seal which defined by Bramaud (1971) and Dufaure and Comte (1973)
from Jebel Cherahil in west of Nasrallah.
Reineche limestones which produced in sidi litayem, it can also produce oil in the Cercina field and gas in
Chergui field (Kerkenah). This reservoir has never been modeled as a fractured reservoir because of the
high porosity and primary matrix permeability. although, the examination of these levels in the field shows
a high frequency of fracturing in all outcrop tectonic contexts.
In this perspective, we were interested in establishing the scaling laws of the distribution of the geometric
and statistical attributes of the Cherahil reservoir in different structural contexts. Our data show that the
scaling characteristics of this fracture network allow the identification, for each parameter, of range of
dimensions. For that, the interpretation of samples measured on small surfaces can be extrapolated to larger
scales.
2 GEOGRAPHICAL AND GEOLOGICAL CONTEXT
Jebel Cherahil, is an anticline particularly noticeable at the village of Nasrallah oriented NNW-SSE located
in the southwest of Kairouan. It is located at an altitude of 644 meters, its geographical coordinates are
91
35°18'13" N and 9°49'30" E in DMS (degrees, minutes, seconds) or 35.3036 and 9.825 (in decimal degrees).
It extends for about 25 km. It is limited to the east by the Sahel, tectonically stable area, to the west by a
series of anticlines belonging to the north-south axis (J.Touila, J.Bou gabrine, J.Bouzert, J.Ksaira, J.Ahzem,
J.Boudinar), to the north by the Jebel Siouf and to the south by the NE-SW Goubrar Anticline.
Figure 1. Geographic location of the study area
With a general direction NNW-SSE, close to that of the N-S axis, the Cherahil massif constitutes an
asymmetrical fold whose east flank is highly fractured, straightened and sometimes overturned while the
western flank shows a folded structure with moderate dip (Rabhi, 2002).
Jebel Cherahil is presented as a reversed anticlinal fold of N175 direction, where we notice a general
reduction of the thickness of the Tertiary formations (Yaich, 1984).
The North of Jebel Cherahil is formed by Jebel Siouf which is presented as a concentric normal anticlinal
fold of direction N175 whose western flank is straightened and even reversed while the eastern flank shows
normal dips (Yaich, 1984).
3 METHODOLOGY
Herein, we conducted a quantitative fracturing study that is adopted based on the excellent consistency of
the different fracture systems in outcrop. We proceeded to the selection of stations for outcrop fracturing
data surveys, considering the good quality of the outcrops. These stations were chosen in different tectonic
settings, on the flank and near the major fault N160 of Jebel Cherahil.
The quantitative analysis was focused on the search for self-similar geometric properties of the fracture
network. Understanding the scaling characteristics of fracture networks is of immediate practical interest,
allowing interpretation of samples measured on small areas and extrapolation of the data to larger scales.
92
Figure 2. Geologic context of the study area
Figure 3. Station 1 A/ Echinoderm limestone B/ Reddish limestone
Figure 4. Station 3 A/ Echinoderm limestone B/ Reddish limestone

4 RESULTS
4.1 Fracturing analysis on the western flank of the anticline (ST-1)
4.1.1 Fracturing of the echinoderm limestones (upper unit)
4.1.2 Directional fracture sets
93
Directional analysis of all observed fractures considered in 10° class shows a major EW orientation peak
focused on the N90-100 direction, and two second order ESE-WNW and EW orientation peaks focused on
the N100-110 and N80-90 directions respectively.
4.1.3 Fracture length distribution
The distribution of the lengths considered in classes of 0.25 m with an overlap of 50% between two
successive classes, for the whole fracture network, only a part of the curve (between 3.25 and 6.25 m) fits
a power law in the echinoderm limestone (Fig. 5 A):
N(l)= 6234.2 (l)-3.44 with R2=0.91. (1)
Likewise, the distributions of fracture lengths of each fracture set (Fig. 5 B, C and D), fit power laws.
Figure 5 Length frequency distribution of echinoderm limestone of Station 1: A) The whole fractures sets, B)
Fracture set N90-100, C) Fracture set N100-110, D) Fracture set N80-90
4.1.4 Distributions of spacing

At the echinoderm limestone the distribution of fracture spacing presents a power law expressed by
F(S)=47.204(S)-1.72 for the main fracture set ESE-WSW, (2)
F(S)=32.164(S)-1.67 for the fracture set ESE-WSW. (3)
and F(S)=37.127(S)-1.82 for the fracture set EW. (4)
94
Figure 6 Frequency distribution of spacing at Echinoderm Limestone Station 1: A) Fracture set N90-100, B)
Fracture set N100-110, C) Fracture set N80-90
4.1.5 Distribution of spacing versus length

The study of the variation of spacing with fracture lengths is considered to examine the relationship between
fracture density and spacing. The distribution of spacing versus length at the echinoderm limestone fits an
exponential law for the three main fracture set.
The distribution of spacing versus length at echinoderm limestone fits an exponential law, given as (Figure
7.A., B and C respectively):
S(l) = 0.517e0.4672(L) with R² = 0.93 (5) for the main fracture set ESE-WSW
S(l) = 0.40e0.5942(L) with R² = 0.90 (6) for the fracture set ESE-WSW
S(l) = 0.39e0.2678(L) with R2=0.87 (7) for the fracture set ENE-WSW.
4.1.6 Distribution of aperture

The distribution of aperture presents a power law expressed by
F(S)=130.45(S)-1.64 for the fracture set ESE-WSW (9)
and F(S)=216.21(S)-2.07 for the fracture set EW. (10)
95
Figure 7 Length distribution as a function of spacing at Echinoderm Limestone Station 1: A) Fracture set N90-100,
B) Fracture set N100-110, C) Fracture set N80-90
Figure 8 Frequency distribution of openings in Echinoderm Limestone Station 1: A) Fracture set N90-100, B)
Fracture set N100-110, C) Fracture set N80-90
4.2 Fracturing analysis near major fault N160 (station 2)

4.2.1 Fracturing of the echinoderm limestones (upper unit)
4.2.2 Directional fracture sets
96
Directional analysis of all observed fractures considered in 10° class shows a major ESE-WSW orientation
peak focused on the N110-130 direction, and two second order ESE-WNW and ENE-WSW orientation
peaks focused on the N80-100 and N60-75 directions respectively.
4.2.3 Distribution of fracture length
The distribution of the lengths considered in classes of 0.25 m with an overlap of 50% between two
successive classes, for the whole fracture network, only a part of the curve (between 0.60 and 1.85 m) fits
a power law in the echinoderm limestone (Fig. 5 A):
N(l)=7.414(l)-4.11 avec R2=0,99. (11)
Likewise, the distributions of fracture lengths of each fracture set (Fig. 5 B, C and D), fit power laws.
Figure 9 Length frequency distribution at Echinoderm Limestone Station 2: A) The entire network, B) Fracture set
N110-130, C) Fracture set N80-100, D) Fracture set N60-75
4.2.4 Distribution of spacings

At the echinoderm limestone the distribution of fracture spacing presents a power law expressed by
and F(S)=2.8337(S)-0.76 for the fracture set ENE-WSW. (14)
4.2.5 Distribution of spacings versus lengths

The study of the variation of spacing with fracture lengths was used to examine the relationship between
fracture density and spacing. The distribution of spacing versus length at the echinoderm limestone fits an
exponential law for the three main fracture set.
The distribution of spacing versus length at limestone echinoderm fits an exponential law, given as (Figure
11.A., B and C respectively):
S(l) = 0.24e2.0089(L) with R² = 0.95 for the main fracture set ESE-WSW. (15)
S(l) = 0.15e5.931(L) with R² = 0.94 for the fracture set ESE-WSW. (16)
1.506(L) 2
S(l) = 0.42e with R =0.98 for the fracture set ENE-WSW. (17)
97
Figure 10 Frequency distribution of spacing at Echinoderm Limestone Station 2: A) Fracture set N110-130, B)
Fracture set N80-100, C) Fracture set N60-75Distribution of spacings versus lengths
Figure 11 Length distribution as a function of spacing at Echinoderm Limestone Station 2: A) Family N110-130, B)
Family N80-100, C) Family N60-75
4.2.6 Distribution of aperture

The distribution of aperture presents a power law expressed by
98
and F(S)=1.4476(S)-1.81 for the fracture set ENE-WSW. (20)
Figure 12 Frequency distribution of openings in Echinoderm Limestone Station 2: A) Family N110-130, B) Family
N80-100, C) Family N60-75
5 DISCUSSIONS
The distribution of the fracture lengths of the two different contexts of Jebel Cherahil according to the
power law indicates that fracture networks have reached an advanced stage of development. The
distribution law of fracture spacings as well as the apertures follows the power law at the level of
echinoderm limestone in the two different contexts.
The main characteristic of power laws is the absence of a characteristic scale. Therefore, the fractures appear
at all scales without upper limitation and they may be extended to higher or lower scales.
6 CONCLUSIONS
Statistical analysis showed that the distribution of fractures is not homogeneous. Fracture lengths better fit
a power law. Thus, the power law appears to be a good model for representing the length distributions of a
large number of fracture networks. Both length and spacing parameters were power-law fitted, over an
interval, showing a self-similar structure and consequently highlight the fractal nature of the fracture
network.
7 REFERENCES
Bsimuth, H. & Bramaud, M. 1971. Hypothèse sur la repartition des dépots éocènes, S.E.R.E.P.T., Tunis Tunisie.
Guerriero, V., Iannace, A., Mazzoli, S., Parente, M., Vitale, S., Giorgioni, M., 2010. Quantifying uncertainties in
multi-scale studies of fractured reservoir analogues: implement ed statistical analysis of scan line data from
carbonate rocks. J. Struct. Geol. 32 (9), 1271–1278. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2009.04.016.
Laubach, S.E., Lander, R.H., Criscenti, L.J., et al., 2019. The role of chemistry in fracture pattern development and
opportunities to advance interpretations of geological materials. Reviews of Geophysics, 57 (3), 1065-1111.
doi:10.1029/2019RG000671
99
100
System for Monitoring of Rock Mechanics Parameters in
Underground Construction with the Application of Information
Technology
A.V. Manko & E.A. Muraveva

Moscow State University of Civil Engineering, Moscow, Russia
ABSTRACT: This article shows the results of many years of research aimed at optimizing the
created methodology of rational placement of equipment for monitoring and obtaining con-
trolled parameters of rock mechanics of the massif surrounding the underground structure.
Modern information technologies are used for visualization and convenience of further use of
the obtained data. The purpose of the original study was the joint application of modern numeri-
cal methods and Geo-Information Systems (GIS) to optimize geomechanically monitoring sys-
tems of underground structures. With sufficient methodological and scientific justification, it
will allow to carry out long-term geomechanically forecasts of the object behavior at any stage
of the project life cycle to ensure the necessary technical decisions in real time if necessary.
1 INTRODUCTION
Any underground structures require a complex of works (Gorbatova 2020) on geomechanically

monitoring of rock mass and control of rock mechanics parameters (Udalov 2001). The moun-
tain massif accommodates an underground structure and a geomechanically connection appears
- the so-called system of the "rock massif - underground structure". The rock mass and the un-
derground structure affect each other and thus form stresses and deformations in the massif and
structures of the underground structure (Marinos 2010) during different periods of the object's
existence.
The placement of monitoring and measuring equipment is established on the basis of the de-
signers' personal preferences. Currently, in Russia, there are no clear recommendations for the
rational placement of monitoring equipment in underground structures. Such approach to the
organization of the monitoring system for the work of underground structures is not acceptable
at the present stage (Zakharov 2012).
It is necessary to scientifically justify and confirm by the results of the conducted modeling
the necessity of staging the research equipment in the given place. It is also necessary to create a
separate project in information systems. This project will serve to visualize the monitoring sys-
tem, store the results of measurements and compare with the predicted values. This is necessary
to make decisions to prevent accidents (Kulikova 2013).
2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
Developing in time the process of interaction of the system "rock massif - underground struc-
ture" cannot be represented by a series of independent calculations. Here it is necessary a se-
quential reflection of all events from the geological formation of the massif and its stress state to
the last stage of the life cycle of the considered object. In these conditions, the choice of soft-
ware to solve the problem is of fundamental importance. The finite element method (FEM) is
101
widely used in calculations of chamber workings and is currently the main in the design of al-
most all large underground structures (Kien 2022).
Of all the variety of information technologies, the most suitable for geomechanically moni-
toring system with fixing in the databases of rock mechanics parameters are geoinformation sys-
tems. The geoinformation system (GIS) is a modern computer technology for creation of maps
and the analysis of objects of the real world, and also occurring events.
Rough distribution of geoinformation technologies has led to that today in the market of
geoinformation technologies operates already more organizations and the firms developing and
distributing software GIS. Is among them and large firms, are also finer. By technical opportuni-
ties GIS of large firms much more win against fine firms. As optimization of systems of moni-
toring needs all spectrum of capacities of GIS it is necessary to take advantage GIS a large firm.
It is also possible to apply BIM (Building Information Modelling) system when creating a
monitoring project. But unfortunately, at the current stage of development of BIM software
there is no model with which any underground structures in the rock massif can be designed,
except collectors and tunnels.
3 STAGES AND STEPS OF GEOMECHANICAL MONITORING
3.1 Stages of monitoring

Monitoring in this paper means the whole complex of research and control of the rock massif at
the stage of design, construction and operation of the complex of underground structures. All
monitoring is divided into four stages.
The first stage of monitoring includes research carried out in the rock massif at the stage of
geological survey. The second stage of monitoring begins at the stage of underground structures
design. The third phase of monitoring is carried out during the construction of underground fa-
cilities. The fourth stage of monitoring commences with the completion of underground facility
construction and commissioning of the facility.
Simultaneously with the beginning of the first stage of monitoring, a project in geographic in-
formation systems with a database is created where at each stage the relevant information is
recorded.
3.2 Steps of monitoring

Each stage of monitoring in the life cycle of an underground structure is divided into certain
steps:
1) Revealing block structure of a mass, an arrangement, capacity and feature of a structure of
layers of the rock mass; revealing of active zones of explosive infringements; an establishment
of all laws of deformation of a mass in view of a geological structure.
2) An estimation of an intense condition and deformations in a mass and in zones of tectonic
infringements and their changes in time; definition of dangerous sites of a mass, which in-
fringement of balance is possible at the given mode of deformation.
3) The forecast of the future motions of blocks, formation new and display of already availa-
ble infringements in a mass under action of natural and artificial factors.
Steps in the second stage:
1) Specification of block structure of a mass; arrangements, capacities and features of a struc-
ture of layers of the geo block; detailed consideration of active zones of explosive infringe-
ments.
2) Modeling is intense - deformed conditions of a mass and work of an underground con-
struction in a surrounding mass at constant updating the information.
3) The forecast of motions of blocks, formation new and display of already available in-
fringements in a mass under action of natural and artificial factors by means of mathematical
modeling.
Steps in the third stage:
102
1) Specification of characteristics of cracks by their detailed research; revealing of errors in
the previous researches in an estimation of quality of breeds by visual supervision, a radar and
seismic tomography, drilling of chinks; rheology a quality monitoring;
2) Measurements of pressure in a mass consistently methods of unloading and indemnifica-
tion of pressure, on distance from a contour - a method "Doorstopper"; installation, on the same
directions, multi-point rock extensometer for the control of displacement of a contour of the
chamber over development of the chamber; measurement of size of the module of deformation
and Poisson ratio of breed - as on cores, and is direct in a mass; hydrodynamical researches; the
control of seismic activity of a rock mass.
In the fourth stage of precise steps does not exist because this stage consists in the constant
control over a condition of a surrounding mass and a construction. This stage of monitoring
lasts all period of existence of a construction (Man'ko 2009).
4 SYSTEM OF GEOMECHANICAL MONITORING OF ROCK MECHANICS

PARAMETERS IN UNDERGROUND STRUCTURES
Figure 1 shows the proposed scheme of the monitoring system using GIS.
The beginning of the lifecycle of underground construction is a study of the geological fea-
tures of the proposed construction site. At this time, numerous studies of geological maps of the
construction site are carried out, as well as new geological surveys of missing material. Based
on the laboratory research, geomechanically data about the rock is obtained. All received geo-
logical data are displayed in GIS. To each layer GIS there corresponds a layer of rocky breed,
topography, the rivers, etc. (Shekhar 2017).
After the engineering analysis of the received geological data the first representations about
an opportunity of construction on this place of a underground construction are formed. Further it
is necessary, on the basis of the initial data, to lead preliminary numerical modeling.
First it is necessary to choose model of a schematization of a rocky mass. After reception of
results lead initial numerical model it is necessary to make design decisions for final modeling.
The basic numerical modeling of a underground construction and rocky mass is carried out in
three measured statement. Underground developments fix in geographical coordinates in corre-
sponding layer GIS. After modeling all received results are displayed in GIS on the fixed under-
ground construction. On the basis of all received data designing and construction of a under-
ground construction begins.
At designing analyze the carried out numerical modeling and beforehand fix in project GIS
control points arrangement of geomechanically devices. Control points fix those places in a
rocky mass and a underground construction where the big settlement sizes of displacement and
pressure are observed. Other points where sizes of displacement and pressure less dangerous,
remain reserve. It means, that devices in these points do not put, and in a case if at construction
of a construction the new geomechanically information will appear, it is necessary to pay to
these places the most steadfast attention. GIS, in this case, is the tool for visualization of the
project and its details.
During construction passes constant supervision over a rocky mass in control points, and also
various geomechanically experiments. All this information fills up geomechanically databases
of project GIS. For the certain accounting period (hours, days, weeks) the information on con-
trol points is analyzed and the certain engineering decision makes.
In a case if new geological, geomechanically or other data have appeared is necessary to cor-
rect the project and to make new design decisions, anew to lead numerical modeling and to dis-
play all received changes in GIS and DBMS. So, can take place many times.
This system of geomechanically monitoring of rock parameters will be shown on the example
of a hypothetical underground structure consisting of two parallel chamber workings and a
transport tunnel. The chambers are 20x20m in size.
The choice of model of a schematize of a rock mass and underground construction has fallen
on Hoek-Brown criterion since it is most applicable both for not broken samples of breed, and
for crack rock mass. For not broken breeds this criterion gives a ratio of strength on axis X a
stretching and single axis compression within the limits of 1/7-1/25, that more corresponds to
the validity.
103
Figure 1. Scheme of geomechanically monitoring with GIS
Behind the following step it is necessary to choose the size rock mass between underground
chambers. The size rock mass made 5, 10, 20 and 30 meters. By results of modeling the conclu-
sion that the size should be equal 20 meters (displacement rock mass has been made have made
2mm). Reduction of the size rock mass conducts to its deformation (displacement in rock mass
have made 15mm) and the subsequent destruction.
Further it is necessary to investigate laws of distribution of displacement in a mass at various
combinations of natural pressure in a rocky mass. It is necessary for revealing of the most dan-
gerous, to work of a underground construction, a combination of natural pressure. For carrying
out of numerical experiment in this circuit researched underground developments, a rocky mass
with large cracks are reflected and various variants of natural pressure are simulated. Cracks
were modeled as a thin strip of final elements with the properties, and natural pressure is re-
placed with in regular intervals distributed loading.
104
Next, it is necessary to investigate the laws of distribution of displacements in the massif at
various combinations of natural stresses in the rock massif. It is necessary to reveal the most
dangerous combination of natural stresses for underground structures operation.
In order to carry out a numerical experiment, the underground workings and the rock mass
with large cracks under study are reflected in this scheme and different variants of natural pres-
sures are simulated. The cracks were modeled as a thin strip of finite elements with their own
properties, and the natural pressure is replaced by a uniformly distributed load. Based on the ob-
tained most dangerous distributions of natural displacements and stresses in the rock massif, a
calculation scheme in the 3D formulation was built. Figure 2 shows the results of numerical
simulation in 2D formulation, and Figure 3 in 3D formulation.
Figure 2. Result of 2D numerical modeling of displacement
Figure 3. Result of 3D numerical modeling of displacement (central part)
105
In parallel with numerical modeling the project in GIS which contained topography and all
layers of a rocky mass (Fig.4) has been made. Also, the geographical position of chambers has
been fixed.
Figure 4. The project in GIS

As a result of the three-dimensional numerical simulation, the displacements and stresses in
the rock were obtained. All the results were displayed in the GIS and DBMS project.
Analysis of the results of three-dimensional modeling showed that the zone of influence from
the considered cameras extends no more than 70 meters along the Y axis, 18-20 meters along
the X axis and 15 meters deep into the array along the Z axis. The maximum displacements in
the array are fixed at a distance of 22 meters from each end wall of the cameras, with the maxi-
mum zone of influence on the array will be in the middle of the cameras.
Figure 5. Fastening of results of modeling by control points in project GIS
106
The result of the mathematical modeling provides the basis for optimizing the locations (con-
trol points) of the installation of devices to monitor the parameters of rock mechanics. These
control points of the monitoring system are fixed in the GIS project and in the corresponding da-
tabases (Fig.5).
The first control point (1) settles down on the arch, on distance 3.33m. From each of walls
chamber and on distance 22m from an end face of chambers. Installation extensometers should
be made on depth to 20m. The second control point (2) settles down also on the arch, on dis-
tance 3.33m. From each of walls chamber and on distance in section 44 and 66 meters from an
end face of chambers. On the same distances 3.33m. From each of walls chamber and on dis-
tance in section 22, 44 and 66 meters from an end face of chambers, it is necessary to provide
the third control point (3) in a floor chamber and the fourth point (4) in the tray center. The fifth
control point (5) is in the arch end on distance 22m from an end face of chambers. The length of
researches deep into does not exceed a mass 25m. The sixth control point (6) networks of moni-
toring is located on distance 5m downwards from the end of the arch and 5m upwards from a
floor chamber in section 22m from an end face chamber. The seventh control point (7) is locat-
ed on walls in sections 44 and 66 meters on distance of 5 meters from the center of a rock mass
between chambers upwards and downwards. The eighth control point (8) is located at the very
bottom of each of walls chamber. On each wall of the chamber is on three points: two on dis-
tance 22m from each end face of the chamber and in the middle of a wall.
As the analysis of the conducted three-dimensional numerical modeling of underground
chambers in the surrounding rock massif in preliminary fixing of working control points should
be limited to these eight. The other points, where as a result of the carried out numerical calcula-
tion the arrangement of the control equipment is not required, should remain preserved with the
initial data. When new geomechanically, geological or other information is added during the de-
sign or construction of an underground facility, a new three-dimensional simulation with updat-
ed data should be performed and the data bank should be updated with this geomechanically in-
formation. And the next step is to update data in the project in the GIS and in the database.
Further, after the analysis of the received information, it is necessary to spend optimum ar-
rangement of the control equipment in those points where it is necessary, and fixing of these
control points as working in that case if, up to that moment, these points have been mothballed.
If these points were working, they remain working, but in their database enters new information.
And so happens each time there is, in the process of designing, new information. All the fixing
of points and the arrangement of control equipment occurs only in the project, but not in the ar-
ray. The final placement of all control and measuring equipment in the array and fixing of con-
trol points in the combined project in the GIS will be made only at the very last stage, when the
main production of underground works will be finished.
Then the developed monitoring system continues to work during the operation of under-
ground workings. All geomechanically information obtained by numerical modeling serves as a
reference. The data from the installed extensometers are periodically fed into the database and,
if necessary, the monitoring system is adjusted.
5 CONCLUSION
Summing up to all work it is necessary to tell that this work is attempt in common to apply
modern computer methods (numerical modeling and geographical information systems) to op-
timization of system of geomechanically monitoring. On the basis of joint application of two
computer methods it was necessary to create a technique on an optimum arrangement of the
measuring equipment.
If to make short endurance of all written above, essence of the offered technique following.
At the available data on geology numerical modeling and creation of the project in GIS is car-
ried out. On the basis of results of the lead modeling arrangement, on a paper, instead of on a
ready construction, the measuring equipment is carried out. The project in GIS allows to visual-
ize the project for convenience and speed of work.
At occurrence of new geological or other data new numerical modeling and new arrangement
of devices on a paper is carried out. All these data will be worn out in project GIS and on each
control point it is possible to learn, that occurred to the given place in a rocky mass or a con-
107
struction from the moment of the first modeling till the moment when in this place it is possible
to lead natural supervision.
Then, by results of the analysis, it is possible to draw a conclusion on that it is necessary or it
is not necessary to put the device in this place. And during all term of operation of an under-
ground construction in project GIS the information on each control point will accumulate, and
the initial information will serve reference, that will allow to make in due time the engineering
decision and to not admit failure.
REFERENCES
Gorbatova, E.A., Kolesatova, E.A., Romanko, E.A., Smyatkin A.N. 2020. Geomechanical monitoring of
the state of the earth's surface and deformations of quarry walls [in Russian]. Mining Journal 4: 16-20.
Kien, V.D., Do, N.T. 2022. Numerical Simulation of the Stability of Rock Mass around Large Under-
ground Cavern. Civil Engineering Journal: DOI:10.28991/CEJ-2022-08-01-06.
Kulikova, E. Yu. 2013. Concepts of safety in urban underground construction [in Russian]. Mining In-
formation and Analytical Bulletin 9: 178-182.
Man'ko, A.V. 2009. The organization of optimum monitoring of the environment of a underground con-
struction (In Russian). Moscow. ASV.
Marinos P.V. 2010. Geological behaviour of rock masses in underground excavations. Bulletin of the Ge-
ological Society of Greece 43: 1238-1247.
Shekhar, S., Xiong, H., Zhou, X. 2017. Encyclopedia of GIS. Springer, Cham. DOI:10.1007/978-3-319-
17885-1
Udalov, E., Zelentsov, S.N., Tyapin, V.M., Akhtiamov, K.D., Kuzin S.D. 2001. Some aspects of geome-
chanical monitoring at the Iletsk salt deposit [in Russian]. Safety in Industry 6: 23-25.
Zakharov, V. N., Arshavsky, V., Kharchenko, A.V. 2012. Monitoring and forecast of man-made geome-
chanical processes in the undermined rock mass during field development [in Russian]. Proceedings of
the Mining Institute 198: 157-160.
108
SESSION 3
ROCK MECHANICS IN CIVIL, MINING AND
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING
Study on fracture propagation behavior and mechanical properties
of CO2 fracturing in shale reservoirs
M. Q. He
College of Petroleum Engineering, China University of Petroleum-Beijing, Beijing, China
M. Q. He, T. T. Li, X. Huang
School of Petroleum Engineering, Xi'an Shiyou University, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China
X. Li
School of Petroleum Engineering, The University of Tulsa, Tulsa, OK, U.S
K. Wu
Department of Geology, State Key Laboratory of Continental Dynamics, Northwest University, Xi’an,
Shaanxi, China
ABSTRACT: The fracture initiation pressure of conventional hydraulic fracturing is the highest,
the fractures produced are limited in scale and single in fracture shape. The fracture initiation
pressure of supercritical CO2 fracturing in shale is about 11.58% lower than that of hydraulic
fracturing. The fracture initiation pressure of liquid CO2 fracturing in shale is the lowest. In the
process of fracturing shale with liquid CO2, the fractures are cracked and expanded many times,
and there are many secondary fractures, forming a complex fracture network. After the shale re-
acts with slick water, supercritical CO2 and liquid CO2, the elastic modulus of the rock increas-
es, while the Poisson's ratio and compressive strength decrease. Due to its low temperature
properties, liquid CO2 has the most significant degradation effect on the mechanical properties
of shale.
1 INTRODUCTION
Shale reservoirs, as unconventional oil and gas resources have become the main force of the
world's oil and gas growth (Stringfellow et al., 2017; Shrestha et al., 2017; Zou et al., 2019; Zou
et al., 2020). The Chang 7 shale reservoir in Ordos Basin has the low development degree of
natural micro-fractures, but high brittle mineral content and TOC content. It is beneficial to gen-
erate new micro-fractures or expand the original micro-fractures through later fracturing to im-
prove shale oil recovery (Cui et al, 2019; Lin et al, 2019; You et.al, 2021). When CO2 fracturing
in shale reservoirs, one of its main advantages is that it has lower fracturing pressure, which is
more conducive to rock fracturing (Richard et al, 2015; Middleton et al, 2015; He et al, 2016).
In addition, compared with other unconventional reservoirs, the natural fractures and natural
bedding of shale have a significant effect on fracture propagation. Compressed fractures tend to
communicate with natural fractures to form a complex fracture network, and can also induce
fishbone fractures, so that branch fractures extend along the bedding surface (Guo et al, 2014;
Tan et al, 2017; Ranjith et al, 2019). Compared with conventional hydraulic fracturing, the frac-
tures generated by CO2 fracturing are the products of comprehensive tensile and shear failure.
When fracturing shale, a complex fracture network is more likely to be formed, and the fracture
surface is rough (Zhang et al, 2017; Zhang et al, 2019; Chen et al, 2021).
Under the condition of low temperature freezing, the pore water and fissure water existing in
natural rock mass will cause structural damage and instability of the rock mass (Yavuz, 2011;
Martínez et al., 2013; Kim et al., 2014). Freezing rock at low temperature will significantly de-
teriorate the mechanical properties of rock (Cai et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2018; Du et al., 2020).
When the temperature changes from −20°C to 20°C, the uniaxial compressive strength and elas-
tic modulus of shale both decrease (Wu et al., 2018). The interaction between low temperature
liquid nitrogen and shale can have a significant fracturing effect on shale (Wang et al., 2015; Li
et al., 2018; Wu et al., 2019; Su et al., 2020). Based on this, the low-temperature liquid CO2 flu-
id has the same properties. Under the low temperature freezing condition, CO2 will freeze the
rocks with higher temperature in the reservoir, change the pore throat structure and physical
109
properties of the rock, and cause fracture damage to the rock. In this manuscript, typical core
samples from Chang 7 shale reservoir in the Ordos Basin were selected. Based on triaxial simu-
lation fracturing experiments and triaxial compression experiments, the fracture initiation, di-
version, propagation and arrest criteria under different fracturing methods are revealed, and the
complexity, production mechanism is determined. By analyzing the changes of rock mechanical
parameters after the interaction between shale cores and different fracturing media, the changing
laws of shale strength and deformation are clarified, and the damage degree of different fractur-
ing methods on shale reservoirs and the influence on rock mechanical properties is evaluated.
50mm×100mm
25mm×50mm
Figure 1. Samples of triaxial fracturing experiment
2 EXPERIMENTAL SECTION
2.1 Experimental materials
In order to avoid the influence on the experimental results due to the development of cracks in
the rock samples, the samples with no obvious cracks or less cracks on the surface were select-
ed. The sample photos are shown in the Figure1. Among them, No. 4, No. 4-1, No. 4-2, No. 7,
No. 7-1, No. 7-2, No. 12, No. 12-1, No. 12-2 are 3 sets of core samples. They were taken from
similar parts of the downhole core. The core samples of No. 4, No. 7 and No. 12 are cylinders of
50mm × 10mm, which are used for triaxial simulation fracturing experiments. The core samples
of No. 4-1, No. 4-2, No. 7-1, No. 7-2, No. 12-1 and No. 12-2 are cylinders of 25mm×50mm,
which are used for triaxial compression experiment before and after the interaction with the
fracturing medium.
2.2 Experimental equipment

The triaxial fracturing simulation test system consists of five parts: pressurization system, CO2
heating system, constant temperature water bath system, stress loading system and data acquisi-
tion system. The pressurization system adopts the ISCO260D double-piston pressurization
pump of Teledyne Company of the United States, the pump volume is 266mL, and the maxi-
mum pressure is 51.7MPa. The CO2 heating system is composed of a heater, a heat preservation
pipe and a shut-off valve. The maximum temperature of the heater can reach 200 °C, and the
temperature control accuracy is 0.1 °C. The working size of the water bath of the constant tem-
perature water bath system is 600mm×600mm×600mm, and the operating temperature range is:
room temperature～100℃. The stress loading system consists of a loading cavity with a size of
300mm×300mm×300mm, a hand pump (the maximum loading pressure is 60MPa) and a hy-
draulic jack. The data acquisition systemconsists of a computer, acquisition software, tempera-
ture and pressure sensors.
110
The main equipment used in the core immersion experiment includes a rock mechanics triax-
ial experiment system and a low temperature water bath. The rock mechanics three-axis experi-
mental system model TAW-1000 adopts the EDC full-digital servo measurement and control
device of the German DOLI company. A variety of rock mechanics experiments can be carried
out simulating the temperature and pressure conditions of the formation. The maximum axial
force is 1000KN, the maximum confining pressure is 100MPa, the maximum pore pressure is
60MPa, and the temperature range is -20℃~150℃. The low-temperature water bath is manu-
factured by Nantong Tenghua Petroleum Technology Co., Ltd., the model is DHC-3005-BW.
The temperature range is -30℃~99.9℃, the resolution is 0.01℃, the temperature fluctuation
range does not exceed 0.05℃. The size of the water bath opening is 150 mm × 150 mm, the
depth of the water bath is 140 mm.
Figure 2. Experimental setup of triaxial simulation

fracturing
Figure 3. Servo-controlled rock mechanics triaxial

experimental system
2.3 Experimental method

The triaxial fracturing simulation experiment used three kinds of fracturing fluids: slick water,
liquid CO2 and supercritical CO2 to compare the fracturing effect and fracture propagation be-
havior of different fracturing methods on shale core samples.
The experimental steps are as follows:
To check air tightness, place the specimen in the three-way stress loading chamber. Connect
the experimental system, put the loading chamber into a constant temperature water bath to pre-
heat for 30 minutes, and start loading the three-dimensional stress. Start the heating system,
pressurization system and data acquisition system to start the fracturing test. After the fracturing
test is completed, the booster pump and data acquisition software are stopped, the three-
dimensional stress is slowly unloaded to 0, the loading device is taken out from the water bath,
and the fracturing specimen is taken out.
The core samples of No. 4-1, No. 7-1 and No. 12-1 are the control group, and the core sam-
ples of No. 4-2, No. 7-2 and No. 12-1 are the experimental group. The experimental steps are as
follows:
Drill the cores with a diameter of about 2.5cm on a standard core, and measure the diameter
and length of the cores. The core samples are soaked in slick water, liquid CO2, and supercriti-
cal CO2. The core samples fully interacted with the fracturing medium (48h), they were taken
111
out. After the rock samples are restored to room temperature under natural conditions, triaxial
compression experiments are performed after 24 hours and the experimental data were recorded.
The hydraulic pressure in the confining pressure cylinder is relieved. After the hydraulic oil in
the confining pressure cylinder is emptied, the axial and radial strain gauges are closed and the
core is taken out.
Table 1 The parameter of the triaxial simulation fracturing experiment
Axial Confining
Num- Fracturing Temperature Displacement /
Lithology pressure pressure
ber media /℃ （mL·min-1）
/MPa /MPa
4 Shale 25 20 Liquid CO2 10 30
7 Shale 25 20 SC-CO2 60 30
12 Shale 25 20 Slick water 10 30
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Pump pressure-time curve
Figure 4 is the pump pressure-time curve obtained after the triaxial simulated fracturing experi-
ment with different fracturing media and shale core samples. When the No. 12 shale core sam-
ple is subjected to conventional hydraulic fracturing, with the continuous increase of the inject-
ed fracturing fluid, the pump pressure increased. Due to the high development degree of micro-
fractures in shale, the fracturing fluid is filled in the pore-throat system. In the range of 0~400s,
the pump pressure rises slowly. After 400s, the pump pressure rises rapidly and reached the
fracture initiation pressure of 33.43MPa at about 460s. When the fracturing fluid enters the cre-
ated fracture, as the fracturing fluid continues to increase, the pressure drops rapidly. When the
pump pressure is reduced to about 20.72 MPa, the pressure hardly changes. The pump pressure-
time curve of supercritical CO2 fracturing of No. 7 shale core sample is shown in Figure 4b. The
pressure rises slowly in the range of 0~600s, and the pressure rises faster after 600s, reaching
the initiation pressure of 29.50MPa at 797s. After the core is broken, the pressure drops, the
drop is lower than that of hydraulic fracturing, the pressure drops to 20.40MPa. The supercriti-
cal CO2 fracturing in shale core samples did not form the main fractures that break the core,
formed more fractures with limited scales but communicated with each other. The fracturing
fluid is slowly filtered out in the fracture network, so the pressure drop is lower than that of hy-
draulic fracturing. The pump pressure-time curve of the No. 4 shale core sample is shown in
Figure 4c. The pressure rises slowly in the range of 0~685s, the pressure decreases slightly after
685s, and the pressure is 16.93MPa at 869s. After that, the pressure continued to rise, reaching
the initiation pressure of 26.93MPa in 1095s, and the pressure dropped sharply, and finally sta-
bilized at 9.49MPa. Unlike the pump pressure-time curves of hydraulic fracturing and super-
critical CO2 fracturing, the pump pressure-time curves of liquid CO2 fracturing fluctuate. This
indicates that secondary fractures are generated during the fracturing process, resulting in multi-
ple fractures in the core samples. The generation of secondary fractures is conducive to fracture
communication to form a relatively complex fracture network, and liquid CO2 fracturing shale
has advantages.
a. Hydraulic fracturing
112
b. Supercritical CO2 fracturing
c. Liquid CO2 fracturing
Figure 4. Pressure-time curves of shale core samples under different fracturing methods
3.2 Fracture shape

The fractures formed by the hydraulic fracturing of the No. 12 core sample are shown in the
Figure 5. Hydraulic fractures start in the open-hole section and expand along the vertical stress
direction to form a simple longitudinal slit. The fracture shape is relatively straight, the fracture
is not obvious, the core sample is not broken, and there are no secondary fractures on the sur-
face. Combined with the pump pressure-time curve of the No. 12 core sample, the core only
cracks once during the hydraulic fracturing process. The pressure drops rapidly after the core
sample is fractured, indicating that the hydraulic fracturing core had high fracture initiation
pressure, limited fracturing effect, and single fractures form.
Figure 5. Fracture morphology of sample No. 12

The fractures formed by supercritical CO2 fracturing of the No. 7 core sample are shown in
the Figure 6. The fracture initiates in the open-hole section and expands along the vertical stress
direction to form a longitudinal slit. The fracture extends to the bottom surface but does not
penetrate the bottom surface, the fracture shape is relatively straight, the core sample is not bro-
ken, and there are no secondary fractures on the surface. The pump pressure-time curve of sam-
ple No. 7 shows that the core cracks only once during the supercritical CO2 fracturing process.
113
The pressure rises slowly, and the pressure begins to drop after the core sample is fractured. The
fracturing effect of the No. 7 sample is average, and the fractures formed are simple.
Figure 6. Fracture morphology of sample No. 7
The fractures formed by liquid CO2 fracturing the No. 4 core sample is shown in the Figure 7.
The fracture initiates in the open-hole section and expands along the vertical stress direction to
form a longitudinal slit. The fracture extends to the bottom surface and penetrates the bottom
surface, the fracture is a curved seam. The No. 4 core sample is broken, no secondary cracks are
found on the surface, the crack walls are rough. The pump pressure-time curve of sample No. 4
shows that during the fracturing process of liquid CO2, the pressure rises slowly, and it takes a
long time to reach the initiation pressure. The fracture initiation pressure is low, and the curve
fluctuation is not obvious, indicating that there is no obvious secondary fracture formation. Af-
ter the core sample is fractured, the pressure begins to drop. The fracturing effect of the No. 4
sample is better, and larger fractures are formed, but no secondary fractures were seen.
Figure 7. Fracture morphology of sample No.4
3.3 Rock mechanics parameters

When the confining pressure is 15MPa, the rock mechanics triaxial compression experiment of
the experimental group samples and the control samples is carried out, and the experimental re-
sults are shown in the Table 2. The elastic modulus of No. 12-1 core sample is 24.95GPa, the
Poisson's ratio is 0.204, and the compressive strength is 87.79MPa. After the core sample No.
12-2 is soaked in slick water, the elastic modulus is 26.67GPa, the Poisson's ratio is 0.183, and
the compressive strength is 78.65MPa. Compared with the core sample No. 12-1, the elastic
modulus increased by 6.45%, the Poisson's ratio decreased by 10.29%, and the compressive
strength decreased by 10.41%. Slippery water deteriorates the rock strength of shale. The elastic
modulus of the core sample No. 7-1 is 22.86GPa, the Poisson's ratio is 0.207, and the compres-
sive strength is 92.31MPa. After the core sample No. 7-2 is soaked in supercritical CO2, the
elastic modulus is 22.86GPa, the Poisson's ratio is 0.178, and the compressive strength is
76.74MPa. Compared with the core sample No. 7-1, the elastic modulus increased by 17.83%,
the Poisson's ratio decreased by 14.01%, and the compressive strength decreased by 16.86%.
Compared with slick water, the effect of supercritical CO2 on the rock strength deterioration of
114
shale core samples is more significant. The elastic modulus of No. 4-1 core sample is 23.35GPa,
the Poisson's ratio is 0.218, and the compressive strength is 86.58MPa. After the core sample
No. 4-2 is soaked in liquid CO2, the elastic modulus is 28.22GPa, the Poisson's ratio is 0.175,
and the compressive strength is 67.45MPa. Compared with the core sample No. 4-1, the elastic
modulus increased by 17.26%, the Poisson's ratio decreased by 19.72%, and the compressive
strength decreased by 22.10%. After immersing the core samples in liquid CO2, the increase of
the elastic modulus is close to that of supercritical CO2, and the decrease of Poisson's ratio and
compressive strength is significantly lower than that of the other two types of immersion exper-
iments in the same medium. The mechanical properties have changed significantly.
Table 2 Triaxial compression test results after different fracturing media interacted with shale
Confining Elastic
Immersion Compressive Poisson's
Number pressure Modulus Core state
medium strength /MPa ratio
/MPa /GPa
4-1 — 15 86.58 23.35 0.218
Cracks on the
4-2 Liquid CO2 15 67.45 28.22 0.175
surface
7-1 — 15 92.31 22.86 0.207
No cracks on
7-2 SC-CO2 15 76.74 27.82 0.178
the surface
12-1 — 15 87.79 24.95 0.204
No cracks on
12-2 Slick water 15 78.65 26.67 0.183
the surface
In conclusion, after the shale core samples interacted with different fracturing media, the elas-
tic modulus of the core increased, the Poisson's ratio and compressive strength decreased. The
elastic modulus and Poisson's ratio reflect the deformation characteristics of the rock to a certain
extent, and the fracturing fluid immersion deteriorates the strength of the shale. Due to its low
temperature properties, liquid CO2 has the most significant deteriorating effect on the mechani-
cal properties of shale, followed by supercritical CO2. Slippery water has a lower degree of
damage to the mechanical properties of shale.
3.4 Mechanism of fracture formation

During the experiment, it is found that the fracturing pressure of No. 12 conventional hydraulic
fracturing shale is 33.43 MPa, that of No. 4 liquid CO2 fracturing shale is 29.50 MPa, and that
of No. 7 supercritical CO2 fracturing shale is 26.43 MPa. The fracture initiation pressure of con-
ventional hydraulic fracturing is the highest, followed by supercritical CO2. The fracture initia-
tion pressure is about 11.58% lower than that of hydraulic fracturing. When liquid CO2 is used
as the fracturing medium, the fracturing shale has the lowest fracturing pressure. Compared with
hydraulic fracturing, the fracturing pressure is reduced by about 20.94%. In addition, fracture
photos show that liquid CO2 and supercritical CO2 can form secondary fractures and more com-
plex fracture networks after fracturing compared with conventional hydraulic fracturing. The in-
teraction of liquid CO2 and supercritical CO2 with shale can deteriorate the mechanical proper-
ties of shale and reduce rock strength, which is beneficial to further improve the fracturing
effect. Especially liquid CO2, under low temperature conditions, after the pore water and fissure
water existing in the rock freeze, it will cause structural damage, frost heave cracking, and fail-
ure and instability of the rock. There are advantages to fracturing shale reservoirs with liquid
CO2.
115
Table 3 Fracturing effects of shale cores under different fracturing methods
Fracture
Fracture Core frac-
Fracturing Displacement / initiation Fracture
Number initiation turing ef-
media （mL·min-1） pressure complexity
time /s fect
/Mpa
Liquid Single crack,
4 30 26.93 1095 broken
CO2 bend crack
7 SC-CO2 30 29.50 797 unbroken Single crack
Slippery
12 30 33.43 460 unbroken Single crack
water
4 CONCLUSION
（1）The fractures produced by hydraulic fracturing shale are limited in scale, single in shape,
and less in secondary fractures. In the process of fracturing shale with liquid CO2, the fractures
are cracked and expanded many times, many secondary fractures exist, and the formed fracture
network is relatively complex. The fractures produced by supercritical CO2 fracturing shale
samples are smaller in scale and more complex than hydraulic fracturing. Due to the large diffu-
sion coefficient of supercritical CO2, serious fluid loss during the fracturing process is the main
reason that affects the fracturing effect.
（2）The fracture initiation pressure of conventional hydraulic fracturing is the highest, fol-
lowed by supercritical CO2. The fracture initiation pressure is about 11.58% lower than that of
hydraulic fracturing. When liquid CO2 is used as the fracturing medium, the fracturing shale has
the lowest fracturing pressure. Compared with hydraulic fracturing, the fracturing pressure is
reduced by about 20.94%.
（3）The elastic modulus of the core increases after the interaction of shale with slick water,
supercritical CO2 and liquid CO2, but the Poisson's ratio and compressive strength decrease.
Due to its low temperature properties, liquid CO2 has the most significant degradation effect on
the mechanical properties of shale. The elastic modulus increases by 17.26%, the Poisson's ratio
decreases by 19.72%, and the compressive strength decreases by 22.10%. Supercritical CO2 is
followed, and slick water damages the mechanical properties of shale to a lower degree.
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118
Effet de la dégradation de la roche sur les structures en
maçonnerie : cas d’une voûte de l’amphithéâtre d’El Jem
I. Fayala, O.Limam
Université de Tunis El Manar, Ecole Nationale d’ingénieurs de Tunis, Laboratoire LGC
E. Hamdi
Université de Tunis El Manar, Ecole Nationale d’ingénieurs de Tunis, Laboratoire LIG
RESUME : L’objectif de ce travail est d’étudier l’effet de la dégradation de la roche sur le com-
portement structurel de la voûte V207 de l’amphithéâtre El JEM. En premier lieu, on commence
par une brève présentation et un aperçu historique du monument. Ensuite, nous présentons une
synthèse des altérations du monument, diagnostiquées dans quelques zones de l’amphithéâtre El
Jem. La méthodologie a été basée sur une caractérisation expérimentale, physique et mécanique,
de la roche in situ. Une comparaison entre les états sain et altéré ont montré que la pathologie
est due à une dégradation du module de Young et à une diminution de la porosité totale. Un
modèle mécanique en Eléments Finis a confirmé les concentrations de contraintes au niveau de
l’extrados et l’intrados de la voûte observées sur le terrain.
1 PRESENTATION GENERALE DU COLISEE
Dans la ville d’El Jem (qui s’appelait Thysdrus auparavant dans l'antique province romaine
d'Afrique) s'élèvent les ruines du plus grand colisée d'Afrique du Nord, un immense amphi-
théâtre où pouvaient accueillir plus de 30 000 spectateurs. L’amphithéâtre d’El Jem
(Figure 1) mesure au total 147,90 x 122,20 mètres et son arène 64,50 x 38,80 mètres. La cons-
truction de cet édifice a été réalisée en utilisant la pierre de taille qui a dû être acheminée depuis
les carrières côtières de Rejich situées à une trentaine de kilomètres de Thysdrus. Visuellement,
Cette pierre taillée dans le grès était blanche à l’origine mais les conditions climatiques l’ont
rendu jaunâtre. Le 26 octobre 1979, l'UNESCO-World Heritage Centre - inscrit l'amphithéâtre
d’El Jem sur la liste du patrimoine mondial. Il est désormais le cadre de manifestations cultu-
relles et des concerts qui sont donnés en été à l'intérieur même de l'arène. Les historiens ont
supposé que la construction de ce monument date de la période d'apogée de la ville qui s'est si-
tuée à la fin du IIème et au début du IIIème siècle[1]. L’amphithéâtre d’El Jem est considéré
comme la marque distinctive de la Tunisie romaine.
Figure 1. Vue générale de l’amphithéâtre : les gradins et archive de l’INP
119
L'Institut National d'Archéologie et d'Arts de Tunisie (INP de nos jours) a chargé une équipe
d’architectes et d’archéologues de l’étude et de la restauration complète de cet édifice pendant
trois ans (de 1973 à 1976), ce qui a permis la connaissance de ses caractéristiques architectu-
rales. L’amphithéâtre El Jem est entouré de quatre Sebkha : Sebkhet Cherita (40 km), Sebkhet
Sidi El Hani (20km), Sebkhet El Jem (20 km) et Sebkhet El Rharra ; et il se situe aussi à moins
de 50 km de la mer Méditerranée. Il y a donc la combinaison de plusieurs facteurs (humidité, sa-
linité) qui susceptible d’accélérer les dégradations des roches constituantes. La pierre utilisée
est taillée dans le grès dunaire provenant des carrières de Rjich qui donne une apparence
massive et austère à l’édifice. Les carrières de Rjich sont à 35 km environ à l’est d’El
Jem, des carrières exploitées à nos jours.
2 ALTERATIONS OBSERVEES SUR LES GRADINS
Cette zone est le support des gradins actuels qui accueillent plus de 2000 spectateurs lors du fes-
tival de la musique symphonique. Ce festival est organisé chaque été par la ville d’El Jem.
On peut distinguer visuellement les dégradations suivantes :
- Fissures communiquantes au niveau des gradins, visibles sur les voûtes qui les supportent
ainsi que sur leurs murs porteurs, ce qui a causé des traces d’humidité (Figure 2 a) et
d’infiltration d’eau (Figure 3 b) et un problème de drainage car le système d’évacuation est en
partie obstrué à cause de la présence des câbles électriques dans les caniveaux.
- Absence de liaison entre les rangées de moellons composant les voûtes au dessus de 5.14m
(Figure 2 b) et la qualité du mortier utilisé au cours de la dernière restauration effectuée les an-
nées soixante dix.
a b
Figure 2. (a)Traces d’humidité sur la partie supérieure des gradins (b) géométrie d’une voûte (207)
120
a b
Figure 3. (a) Fissures à l’extrados (b) Infiltration d’eau à l’intrados
Selon leur position dans la structure étudiée, différentes catégories de fissures sont établies: fis-
sures superficielles, fissures internes et fissures structurelles. L’étude de ces discontinuités a
consisté à déterminer les caractéristiques suivantes :
Les fissures ont des ouvertures différentes qui varient de 2 mm à 4 mm. Ce sont donc des
Lézardes ou crevasses qui peuvent entraîner des mouvements importants de la structure. Le sec-
teur étudié du monument présente, des fissures visibles dispersées le long de la voûte ainsi que
sur ses murs porteurs. Ces fissures ont des formes et des longueurs différentes et des inclinai-
sons aléatoires. Les principales directions des fissures sont Nord-Est et Nord-Ouest ce qui donne
un réseau parallèle. Beaucoup sont inclinées de 40° à 70° et d’autres sont proches de la verticale
ou l’horizontale (voir la cartographie des fissures à la Figure 4).
Figure 4. Cartographie des fissures à l’intrados

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3 ESSAIS MECANIQUES
Les échantillons de roches utilisés ont différents âges et origines, ils ont été prélevés lors des
travaux de restauration (Figure 5 a). - Les échantillons I et II, utilisés pour la restauration ac-
tuelle, sont des roches récentes, saines, provenant de la carrière El Rjich. Elles sont de couleur
blanchâtre et de formes homogènes.
- Les échantillons III et IV sont des roches anciennes qui reviennent à l’époque romaine, elles
sont de couleur jaunâtre, granuleuses contenant des fossiles. L’échantillon III est souterrain
alors que l’échantillon IV est aérien. - L’échantillon V, utilisé dans l’une des restaurations pré-
cédentes, est de couleur jaunâtre claire, granuleuses contenant des fossiles. - Les blocs I et II
sont des blocs de pierre destinée à la restauration et provenant de la carrière « Rjich » ; ces blocs
ont subi des réfections afin de leur donner une forme régulière et faciliter de ce fait les mesures
par l’appareil à ultrasons par la suite comme le montre la Figure 5 b. Le module d’Young sta-
tique Em a été déterminé pour trois éprouvettes cylindriques de pierre provenant de la carrière «
Rjich » de diamètre 100 mm et de hauteur 200 mm au moyen d’un extensomètre électronique
longitudinal comme illustré à la Figure5 c.
a b c
Figure 5. (a) Les échantillons (b) essai à ultrasons d’un bloc, destiné à la restauration, après ré-
fection (c) Essai de module
Tab 1. Caractéristiques mécaniques et physiques des enchantions
Designation (restauration actuelle roches anciennes de restaurations

roches récentes) l’époque romaine précédentes
Bloc I II III IV V
γa (kg/m3) Masse vol. 1990 2110 2290 2036 2360

V (m/s) Vitesse Onde 3257 3508 555 997 2993
Ed (GPa) Module dyn. 18,2 16,1 0,7 1,7 18
Em (GPa) Module stat. 17±0,5 - - -
Fc (MPa) Res. Comp. 8,1±0,4 - - -
Porosité% 41% 40% 49% 45% 32%
122
Le tableau 1 présente les caractéristiques mécaniques et physiques des échantillons. En
comparant les modules d’Young des différents échantillons, on remarque que les roches
anciennes III et IV qui reviennent à l’époque romaine ont des modules d’Young très
faibles d’environ 0,6 GPa et 1,7 GPa respectivement, alors qu’on trouve des modules
d’Young supérieurs à 15 MPa pour les pierres employées pour la restauration. Ces ré-
sultats montrent que plus la roche est ancienne plus le module d’Young est faible. Donc,
cette roche est influencée par les conditions d’aération et perd de ses caractéristiques en
s’altérant.
La porosité est une grandeur qui permet de mettre en évidence l’altération des roches.
En comparant la porosité des échantillons étudiés, on remarque que les échantillons III
et IV de l’époque romaine possèdent une porosité supérieure à 45%, donc, ils sont con-
sidérés comme très poreux en comparaison avec l’échantillon V. les échantillons utilisés
pour la restauration actuelles présentent un comportement intermédiaire de 40%.
Une analyse des images des fissures a été réalisée à l’aide d’un logiciel permettent leur
traitement et la détermination de l’endommagement d’une partie de la structure [2].
Le paramètre d’endommagement est défini comme étant égale à l'aire spécifique de la
fissure et il représente le rapport du nombre de pixels blancs par le nombre total de
pixels de l'image. Les résultats obtenus par le logiciel représentent mieux la réalité de la
fissuration en comparaison avec un diagnostic visuel en raison de la présence de micro-
fissures (Figure 6) ; des microfissures qui ne sont pas tenus en compte lors du diagnostic
visuel mais qui augmentent le paramètre d’endommagement. Dans le cas de la figure 6
l’ endommagement calculé est 0,36.
Figure 6 (a) Image réelle (résolution : 5,415 Pixels/mm) ; (b) Image traitée Surface de
l’image : 144300 pixels ; Surface des fissures : 52129 pixels
Dans une première étape nous avons développé un modèle éléments finis afin de modé-
liser le comportement linéaire élastique de la voute 207 présentée par les figures 2,3 et 4
avec les modules réduits.
4 MODELISATION PAR ELEMENTS FINIS DE LA VOUTE 207
La modélisation de la voûte a été réalisée en adoptant les caractéristiques des matériaux récapi-
tulées dans le Tableau 2.
Tab 1. Caractéristiques élastiques linéaires adoptées
123
Voûte en moellons (M 1) Murs en maçonnerie (M 2)
Module d’ Young (MPa) 700 970
Coefficient de Poisson 0,25 0,25
La Figure 7.a montre les conditions aux limites cinématiques pour cette structure en voûte. Les
charges appliquées sont les suivantes : Le poids propre de la structure : - pour les moellons, le
poids volumique = 0,0149 MN/m3,
- pour les blocs de pierre, le poids volumique = 0,0203 MN/m3.
Les charges d’exploitation, (pour les gradins, Q = 1,5 x 6 kN/m2).
a b
Figure 7. (a) Conditions aux limites cinématiques (b) contraintes S11 (exprimées en 104 MPa)
La figure 7.b montre sur l’extrados de la voûte des concentrations de contraintes de traction ap-
pliquées suivant l’axe x c'est-à-dire perpendiculairement aux plans de fissures observées sur les
gradins en concordance avec la photo de la figure 3.a.
6 INTERPRETATION ET CONCUSION
Les masses volumiques des échantillons anciens et provenant de carrière sont compa-
rables. L’augmentation de la porosité n’est pas associée à une perte de masse. Cette
augmentation est associée au phénomène d’endommagement avec apparition de micro-
fissures et une porosité mesurée supérieure. L’endommagement dans ce cas peut être
mécanique ou physico-chimique.
Dans une perspective à ce travail, on a projeté de développer un modèle viso-élasto-
plastique endommageable afin de modéliser la dégradation dans le temps des caractéris-
tiques de la roche et pouvoir expliquer cette chute du module au cours d’ une période de
1800 années.
Références
[1] Jean-Claude GOLVIN. « L'AMPHITEÂTRE ROMAIN L'amphithéâtre romain : essai sur la théori-
sation de sa forme et de ses fonctions, Paris, De Boccard, 1988
[2] Inès Fayala (ENIT), Essaieb Hamdi (ENIT), Oualid Limam (ENIT), Khaled Karoui (INP). « Diagnos-
tic et modélisation du comportement d’une structure en voûte de l’amphithéâtre El Jem » , rapport de
synthèse interne en collaboration avec l’Institut National de Patrimoine, ENIT, 2010
124
Geomechanical Integrity of Fractured Reservoirs: Hydro-Mechanical
Coupling
Kais Ben Abdallah 1,2, Salma Souissi2, Essaib Hamdi2, Amade Pouya3,
1 ESPRIT, Tunisia
2 National Engineering School of Tunis, Tunisia
3 École des Ponts ParisTech, France
benabdal@ualberta.ca
ABSTRACT. There is no more challenging task for today oil and gas production companies
than simulating the production behavior of naturally fractured reservoir fields. These reservoirs
are highly prosperous at their early stage of production, only to decline afterward. Previous
behavior has risen awareness of the geomechanics role in controlling deliverability of those
reservoirs. This is not a straight forward rock mechanics problem to tackle as it requires dealing
with two different constituting continuums, matrix and fractures; that respond differently to
solicitations. Hasdrubal is a naturally fractured reservoir field located in offshore Tunisia. Re-
cently, the field has manifested serious integrity and water coning issues. An integrity study
was necessary to accurately determine the ever-changing stress settings and assimilate their
impact on the production trend. Thus, former geomechanical investigations of the field were
revisited to acquire a strong understanding of the reservoir and so develop an appropriate Three-
Dimensional Geomechanical Model (3D-GM) that incorporates the invasive impacts of
faults/fractures on the mechanical and hydraulic behaviour of the field. The 3D-GM was ini-
tially deployed to appraise the alteration of the governing stresses and strains setting induced
from the reservoir depletion before generating a reactivation potential map of the faults at cur-
rent and future conditions, which showed again the reactivation of most of faults intercepted by
the well notably the ones responsible of water production. A justification that the former inves-
tigation studies were not in position to offer it as they were grounded only on the 1D modelling
approaches (i.e. intact model). Previous observation was confirmed through the built of a two
dimensional finite model for the problematic well A1ST thus allowing us to compute displace-
ment of the fault’s walls and accordingly interpret the new values of permeability associated to
the different faults of the field. The up-to-date permeabilities were introduced to the dynamic
reservoir model hence to estimate production trend of the A1ST1 well. A fair matching with
field production data was achieved, proving again the reliability of the integral approach devel-
oped in this study in modelling the Hasdrubal field with high accuracy.
Keywords: Fractured reservoirs, Reservoir Geomechanics, Three-dimensional-Geome-

chanical-Model, Fault stability analysis.
1 Introduction
An important number of newly discovered oil and gas fields has been classified as a heavily
fractured and their development constitutes a real challenge for the petroleum industry. The
ever changing state of stresses usually results in reactivation of faults and an important recon-
figuration of their fractures network inferring the pathways that were supporting hydrocarbon
production may convert into short-circuit water ﬂow, leading to a premature water breakthrough
and a major drop in the field productivity [2]. Fault reactivation may occur at any point of the
125
reservoir stress path: the increase in the differential effective stress (σvʹ- σhʹ) associated with
pore pressure decline may bring faults to failure. Hence, they deform in an irreversible manner
if the shear stresses acting on their walls plane exceed their critical shear strength (τcritical) [3].
Previous observations become even more relevant for carbonate reservoirs where the significant
stiffness of their rock promotes the propagation and even regeneration of new fractures. Com-
parable issues have been observed at Hasdrubal field, a heavily fractured carbonate reservoir
located offshore Tunisia and operated by Shell Tunisia Ltd. Despite the significant reserves
remaining, a higher cut in water and a major drop in gas and oil deliverability has been observed.
A strong need of an investigation study has thus been raised first to understand the faults be-
havior and ultimately establish a more efficient development strategy that takes into account
the effects of the geomechanical mechanisms.
2 Geomechanical Modelling of Hasdrubal Field: Geological Settings and Workflow of

Numerical Modelling
The Hasdrubal field is a major oil and gas assets located offshore Tunisia, approximately 100km
southeast of Sfax coast. The Hasdrubal reservoirs mainly consists of nummulitic limestone of
Tertiary age where the El-Garia formation forms the primary reservoir with a thickness ranging
between 40m to 60m and overlain by approximately 3000m of country rock [1]. Hasdrubal
structure represents a horst block created between a system of ‘left stepping’ en-echelon exten-
sional to oblique slip faults trending NNW-SSE. The reservoir is classified as heavily fractured
with a density of four (4) fractures per meter and a dominant NNW-SSE striking orientation.
Total porosity in the El-Garia formation varies regionally between 10% and 26% while perme-
ability varies between 40 mD and 100 mD. Drilling difficulties encountered during the devel-
opment of directional wells along with the unpredictable trend of production observed were the
key impetus behind Shell Ltd.’s efforts to grasp a better understanding of the geomechanical
behavior of the field. Accordingly, Mechanical Earth Model (MEM -1D) for the Hasdrubal field
was initiated to generate the profiles of principal stresses along the four reference wells selected
for our study: HAS-1, HAS-2, HAS-3, and HAS-4. Empirical correlations are initially deployed
to derive between field logs (Sonic, density, gamma ray) and rock proprieties (Young Modulus
(E), Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS)) before being calibrated by referring to cores
tests results. Once all the required properties are known; the stresses profiles; Vertical, Maxi-
mum Horizontal, and Least Horizontal stresses, were calculated using the elastoplastic theory
[1]. The geomechanical properties of the four reference wells were then scaled-up and popu-
lated all over the 3D Petrel® reservoir model in a manner that honours the 1D-MEM’s values.
The geological model that contains faults information has been then reached and embedded in
our 3D-Geomechanical model (3D-GM) through the normal and shear stiffness of the faults.
Once the 3D-GM stresses results are validated with the centric-1D profiles of the references
wells, the numerical simulations associated with our model were conducted. In this study, the
simulation run was repeated for the four (4) scenarios of concern (two (2) structural/static and
two (2) dynamics) where either initial condition (pore pressure) or geomechanical static propri-
eties were varied. For each case; a full configuration of stresses tensors and associated strains
were generated at both faults and within the reservoir formation. The static cases allowed us to
appraise the impact of rock proprieties on the geomechanical behaviour of the reservoir. There-
fore, two static models were created with the same pore pressure associated to virgin conditions
(t0=2008): in the first static case, the 3D-model was built using intact rock proprieties while in
the second static case, the model was generated using the homogenized proprieties that reflect
reduced strength due to the presence of discontinuities and so allowing us to assimilate their
impact on the mechanical response of the reservoir section. The dynamics cases aim to evaluate
the impact of pore pressure depletion on the geomechanical response of our reservoir and assess
126
related impact on faults reactivation. Only the homogenised 3D-GM was considered for these
cases where a one-way geomechanics-flow coupling was carried out for the time steps defining
our dynamics scenarios: t1= 2018 (current pore pressure), and t2= 2027 (abandonment pore
pressure).
Hydro-Mechanical coupling at the faults level was carried out by building a 2D-Geotechnical
model where the variation of stress at fault level was introduced in order to determine the
change in size of the faults throw and accordingly their hydraulic conductivities. Such changes
were incorporated into the 3D-Geomechanical model when simulating the hydrocarbon pro-
duction using the dynamic reservoir model. Previous approach has been of a major importance
for carbonate reservoirs, where hydraulic behavior of such type of rock is governed mainly by
the permeability of the faults/fractures rather than the permeability of the rock matrix. Hence,
a good matching between field production data and the numerical simulations results were en-
sured and the abnormal production performance that has been recently observed was explained
(i.e. major increase in the water cut due to the reactivation of water faults). Findings that the
former approaches/numerical models deployed by the field operator failed to explain and thus
fell short in predicting the mechanical and production behavior of Hasdrubal field.
3 Results and Discussion
Two different stresses regimes were interpreted from the two static cases: the intact model
yielded an alteration between strike-slip and normal stress along the reservoir section, implying
that an increase in effective principal stresses would prompt the stability of faults with ongoing
depletion. In the other hand, considering the invasive impact of fractures on the mechanical
strength of the rock during the building of the homogenized model has induced a comparable
drop in the magnitude of the horizontal stresses calculated. This drop in the magnitude of the
maximum horizontal stress would change the stress regime governing the reservoir section thus
the regime inverted from homogenized 3D model becomes Normal Faulting (i.e. authentically
representative of the stress regime present in the area). Within the previous stresses setting,
faults reactivation become likely to happen with the depletion of our reservoir. Comparable to
the intact case, a concentration of stresses at faults was yielded. Making the stability of zones
around well-fault interception zones even more problematic. Indeed, a Maximum Horizontal
Stress (SHmax) oriented North-South in a normal environment would impart a dextral shear cou-
ple on steep NW-NNW trending faults. If the stress regime is close to being critically stressed,
then this orientation is also the most favourable for faults slippage. The dynamics cases allowed
to investigate stress evolution by calculating stress path parameters that reflect the changes of
all principal in-situ stresses and in particular the least principal stress: in normal faulting regime,
sliding of faults is proportionally related to the changes in magnitude and orientation of this
stress. Simulation results show that the stress path factors are constrained to (0.35) for both
Maximum and Least Horizontal Stresses. The vertical stress depicted less sensitivity for pore
pressure depletion, with an associated stress path recorded around zero (0); implying that a
minor arching of the reservoir section is anticipated. Stress data showed that the effective ver-
tical stresses manifested a growth of 9% over production while a lower rate, around 4%, was
yielded for the effective least horizontal stress. As expected, the reservoir sections with a higher
UCS revealed lower range of strains. Whereas, the zone surrounding faults manifested a higher
deformations and so concentration of principal strains. Generally, strains trend toward negative
value for zones with very low UCS typically nearby faults and so dilation and gain in permea-
bility is expected. Accordingly, the Modified Slip Tendency method was adopted to generate a
slip potential map for the reservoir section. The Slip Tendency coefficients associated with each
fault; 𝑆𝑇 . , were computed following the equation (1) described as below.
127
( ) ( )
ST . = ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
(1)
To visualize the potential of fault reactivation, the faults were allocated colour codes bracket
defined by the values of 𝑆𝑇 . obtained: a) red colour: designate the areas that is potentially
unstable (𝑆𝑇 . >1). And b) white colour: designate the areas where the fault is expected to
support further stress variation prior to manifest instability (𝑆𝑇 . <1). Generally, the faults
in vicinity of the production wells depicted higher reactivation potential and an important var-
iation in their 𝑆𝑇 . over production, comparing to the far end faults (see Erreur ! Source du
renvoi introuvable.). Nevertheless, our finding remains skeptical and need to be matched and
justified basing on the seismic events recorded in the area, [2] and [3].
t0=2008 t0=2018
Fig. 1. Appraisal of Faults Stability: map of faults reactivation potential 5ST . ).
In order to cross-match the findings of the 3D model while producing new permeability of
faults induced from the reservoir pressure depletion, Disroc® a finite element geotechnical
software was reached to confine the investigation at the problematic well, A1ST1. A zero thick-
ness interface element are used in this model to represent the faults, Fig. 2. Thus, an established
coupled hydro-mechanical correlation for single rock fracture was reached to describe the flow
transmissivity of the faults in function of normal and shear displacement as expressed by the
following cubic relation below, Equation (2):
k = (e ρg)/12μ (2)
Where, 𝑘 is the fault transmissibility, 𝑒 is the fault aperture , 𝜌 and 𝜇 are fluid density and
viscosity; respectively, and g is acceleration gravity.
Fig. 2. 2D- Geotechnical Model
As an initial approximation, we can relate aperture opening/closure to the fracture normal dis-
placement at the fault walls, ∆𝑢 . So, the updated fault permeability may be estimated by:
𝑘 = ((𝑒 + ∆𝑢 ) 𝜌𝑔)/12𝜇. Over the 10 years of production, the permeability of water
faults increases at a rate of 2% whereas a drop in transmissibility of 1% has been recorded for
the oil faults. The previous adversely phenomena would induce a great increase in water pro-
duction that is aggravated by the drop in oil production due to the closure of oil faults. Previous
results are in accordance with production data observed for the HAS1-A1ST1 well where an
important increase in water cut associated with a reciprocal drop in oil production has been
128
measured at surface conditions. An associate investigation from reservoir perspective using
previous findings has confirmed the results obtained: improve permeability of water faults by
0.2% per year at the dynamic reservoir model while reducing the permeability of oil/gas faults
by 0.1%/year yielded a very good matching with real production data measured over the study
period of 2010-2015 of the well A1ST1 as shown in Fig. 3. Indeed, the geomechanical model
has provided us with tangible tool to appraise the overall behaviour of Hasdrubal reservoir ei-
ther to explain former production trend or estimate future productivity of the field.
Fig. 3. Production data yielded considering the adverse faults behavior
4 Conclusions
Current study represents a reliable framework for the development of new strategy of exploi-
tation for the Hasdrubal field. Furthermore, the findings obtained confirmed that most of the
faults within the field are critically stresses implying that displacement of walls and formation
of new fractures are strongly present. Such representing a major threat for the integrity of the
horizontal section of the wells. Previous statement need to be considered if further development
of the field is foreseen. such reactivation may also prompt rock displacement at faults level that
will reciprocally alters their hydraulic characteristics. Over the 10 year of production, the per-
meability of water fault increase at a rate of 2% whereas a drop in transmissibility of 1% has
been recorded for the oil fault (i.e. fault#4). Previous adversely phenomena would induce a
great increase in water production that is aggravated by the drop in oil production due to the
closure of oil faults. Previous results are in accordance with production data observed for the
A1ST1 well where an important increase in water cut associated with a reciprocal drop in oil
production has been measured at surface conditions. In contrary to reservoir models developed
in previous studies, the geomechanical model has provided us with tangible tool to accurately
appraise the overall behavior of the reservoir either to explain former production trend or esti-
mate future productivity of the field. Furthermore, we strongly recommend more sensors to be
fitted in order to measure compaction observed at sea level. Furthermore, the installation of
multi-flowmeters and sonic sensors deemed required for real-time data acquisition and cross-
matching purposes with results yielded from our numerical models [4,5].
References
Ben Abdallah, K., et al.: Hasdrubal Field, Tunisia: geomechanical integrity study. Arab J Geosci 14, 444 (2021).
Orlic, B., et al.: A study of stress change and fault slip in producing gas reservoirs overlain by elastic and visco-elastic cap
rocks. Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering (2013).
Romain, G., et al.: Dynamic Geomechanical Modelling to Assess and Minimize the Risk for Fault Slip during Reservoir De-
pletion of the Groningen Field. Technical report by Baker Hughes. Jan van Elk and Dirk Doornhof, eds. (2015).
129
Laubach, S.E., Lander, R.H., Criscenti, L.J., Anovitz, L.M., Urai, J.L., Pollyea, R.M. et al. 2019. The role of chemistry in
fracture pattern development and opportunities to advance interpretations of geological materials. Reviews of Geophysics, 57,
https://doi.org/10.1029/2019RG000671.
Long, Jonathan J.; Jones, Richard R.; Oxlade, David M.; Daniels, Susie E. and Gilment, Sébastien R. Multiscale fracture length
analysis in carbonate reservoir units, Kurdistan, NE Iraq. Petroleum Geoscience, 25, 429-442, 28 October 2019,
https://doi.org/10.1144/petgeo2018-168.
130
Numerical modeling of a pathological case: Spillway of Joumine
dam Tunisia
A. Chikh Grayaa (1, 2), S. Louati (1, 2)

(1) Carthage University, Tunisia
(2) Tunis El Manar University, Tunisia
ABSTRACT: This paper illustrates the pathological case of the spillway of Joumine earth dam.
The dam is located on the River Joumine in the Arima region in the city of Mateur and 45 km
from Bizerte governorate. The spillway is formed of 49 concrete slabs of thicknesses that vary
between 1.5 and 3 m. Concrete slabs of the spillway have been affected by serious problems. The
first one is related to the nature of soil foundation. In fact, it contains fissured rocks which are
Maastrichtian and Campanian limestone presented a high permeability (from 1.5 10-5 to 2 10-6
m/s) which produces infiltration. Additionally, marl which characterized by swelling and shrink-
ing, Triassic which is a hard clay with gypsum inclusions. The second one is attributed to high
excess pore pressure (423 kPa in 2020) responsible of slabs up risings in marl zone. The slabs
were heaving up 2 mm since 2002 and reached 6.5 mm in 2021 in marl-Triassic discontinuity.
As solution, the jet grouting technique was designed to eliminate high pore pressure in the soil
foundation of slabs. A numerical simulation was established to locate the critical zone of upward
displacement in marl- Triassic discontinuity from 1985 to 2050. By the way, four columns are
injected in the Maastrichtian Limestone permitted to reduce the soil infiltration. Consequently,
the slabs of the spillway in the critical zone regain its state of stability.
Keywords: Spillway, Slabs, Infiltration, Fissured rocks, Upward displacements, columns.
INTRODUCTION
Dam monitoring is an important part of today's safety measures around the world. Reports of
structural failures that led to structure collapse, resulting in major material and economic losses
as well as a huge number of fatalities, date back to the construction of the first dams, emphasiz-
ing the importance of monitoring (Armenteros & al, 2020). Because of these failures, dam in-
spections primarily try to compare the work behavior to the project's forecasts (Al-Janabi.A &
al, 2020).
In an earth dam, stability and seepage are critical since they have been identified as the pri-
mary causes of dam collapse (Chahar, 2004 Yaseen and al, 2020). When the slope information
and material parameters are available, geo-technical engineers may easily analyze the dam's sta-
bility and seepage using computer software (Bouassida & Djebbi, 2008). The FEM system is
capable of simulating two-dimensional unsteady and non-uniform flow through any earth fill
dams homogeneous, non-homogeneous, and anisotropic saturated and unsaturated porous body
(Ersayin, 2006).
In Tunisia, there are initiatives in the Ministry of Agriculture and engineering schools to su-
pervise graduation projects or research subjects in master's and doctorate theses to study specific
dam pathology cases.
We meet the work published by Djebbi and Bouassida in 2008 concerning a case study of
Joumine and Sidi Saad dams. Also, the work of EL Ouni and al in 2013 concerning the assess-
ment of the risk of liquefaction of the foundation of the Sidi El Barrak dam and the work of
Daoud in 2009 concerning flood management, the case of the Sidi Salem dam. Let’s not forget
the research work of Hatem Karoui in 2016 based on the study of the effect of vibrocompaction
on the risk of liquefaction of the sandy layer of the foundation of the Sidi El Barrak dam and the
study of the elongation of the gallery of the Ghezala dam.
131
Construction pathology is not commonly taught in civil engineering programs. At the same
time, there are extremely few professionals in this subject worldwide (Bouassida & Djebbi,
2008). However, restoration of engineering structures cannot be missed for several reasons
(Bouassida & Djebbi, 2008). These facts demonstrate how delicate the treatment of affected
constructions by disorders is, beginning with the identification of the source of the disorders,
progressing to the assessment of the causes of the disorders, and concluding with suggestions of
convenient repairing solutions in order to maintain the integrity of the project in question. It is
important to remember the considerable expense incurred as a result of this protracted process
(Sfar & Bouassida, 2001). A numerical study ensures the dam's and spillway's stability in court
and long-term. It can provide localization of the disorder so that it can be easily solved numeri-
cally using the indicated appropriate remedies.
Historically, upward displacements were detected for some slabs of the spillway in 2002 (Bel
Hadj & Louati, 2007). Recorded horizontal displacements, in 2006, indicated that the opening
of slabs joint reached by 15 mm and vertical displacements was in total 12 mm (Djebbi &
Bouassida, 2008).
The purpose of the numerical simulation was to compute the seepage behavior of the spillway
by using the finite element method through the Midas GTS NX computer program to simulate
pore pressure for various scenarios from 1985 to 2050 of the spillway.
As primordial solution significant, reduce of pore pressure under the slabs of spillway to pre-
vent the evolution of observed damages on surfaces of slabs. However, the main one is the rein-
forcement by columns (Bouassida & Hadari, 1995). The use of embedded columns in rock mass
combined by concrete and bentonite is the technique to enhance the overall stability of lateral
retaining wall and to reduce the swelling of slabs (Bouassida, 2011). In fact, reinforcement pro-
cedure at fissured Maastrichtian limestone, a transversal grouting under the slabs of spillway
was agreed.
1 THE SPILLWAY OF JOUMINE DAM
The building of the Joumine dam, located on the River Joumine in the Arima region in the city
of Mateur and 45 km from Bizerte governorate in Tunisia, was completed in 1983. From 1983
to 1985, the reservoir was initially filled. Under the permanent water-surface elevation, 90 m,
the reservoir capacity is 130.106 m3 and its submerged surface is by 660.104 m2. The maximum
reservoir water elevation adopted for the spillway design flood is 94.8 m (Figure 1) (DPP,
1978).
Figure 1. General view of the dam and its spillway (DGDMHW)
The spillway is a reinforced concrete structure formed by slabs elements and high retaining
walls. The spillway was built on the calcareous formation located at the right bank. Since the
rising of Joumine River flood is rapid and, in order to ensure a safe and quick evacuation of
floods, an ungated side channel spillway with automatic regime was decided. This spillway is
designed for a regularized flow of 2840 m3/s (DPP, 1978). The foundation includes a tubular sys-
tem filled by crushed stones to ensure the drainage of seepage water and, therefore, to prevent
excessive uplift pressures. The slabs have a vault form with variable thickness varying from 1.5
to 3 m (DPP, 1978). All slabs of the spillway are linked by water stop joints. The longitudinal
section is shown in the Figure 2, which indicate the various compositions of the Spillway.
132
Figure 2: Spillway compartment and its geology
The side spillway is located in an area composed by Triassic terrains, upper Cretaceous and a
stratified Paleocene. The geological description showed, from upstream to downstream, after the
white limestone of higher Campanian where the spillway was installed, limestone and marls-
limestone with rectified Campanian Maastrichtian structure. Then were encountered successive-
ly a thin marl band, a Triassic band, another broader marl band, then again limestone (Figure 2).
The marls is with a high Smectite content. However, the Triassic is hard clay, without tex-
ture, with inclusions of rock debris such as cavernous dolomites and gypsum inclusions. In ad-
dition to these bad foundation conditions, we note that the Maastrichtian Limestone is a massive
fissured yellowish-gray with Karst, which contains from 15 to 25% of gypsum. In addition to
that, the Campanian Limestone is a fissured bluish-gray clay (DPP, 1978).
2 ANALYSIS OF PIEZOMETRIC DATA
The piezometric line number 9 and number 10 control and supervise the flow under the spill-
way’s slabs. After analyzing the piezometric data of piezometric line number 9 which monitor-
ing water level in the right bank of the dam support (left bank of the spillway) and 10 which
control the right bank of the spillway, we concluded that the first one, which contain six pie-
zometers, revealed the zone of high pore pressure (figure 3).
Figure 3: Fluctuation of piezometric surfaces level of line 9 (Chikh Grayaa, 2021)
In fact after analyzing piezometric data on Surfer Golden software and Microsoft Excel, the
most important hydraulic gradient is in 2003 and exactly between P 40 and P 44 (Figures 4 and
5). Because the straight lines are parallel, the hydraulic head crossing the limestone and going
through the marl is constant, according to the analysis of piezometric line number 9. Moving
from the marl ( k=2*1 0-6 m/s ) to the Triassic (k=2.31*10-10 m/s), the gradient generally in-
creases from one year to the next because the permeability of Triassic is less important, but we
discovered the contrary, a reduction in permeability caused by the dissolution of gypsum and
the swelling of the marls (Figure 6). Therefore, this high pore pressure lifted the slabs.
133
Figure 4: Flow line 9 (Chikh Grayaa, 2021) Figure 5: Contour line (flow line 9) (Chikh Grayaa, 2021)
Figure 6: Total hydraulic head in m (line 9) (Chikh Grayaa, 2021)
3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
In February 2021, during the site visit and after a visual inspection, we noticed a clogging of the
drainage system and a water infiltration in the foundation between the manhole and the retaining
wall. However, there is no water exit in the spillway's downstream drain (PVC drain pipe ).
(Figure 7).
For more information, the role of the drainage system is to avoid the percolations from the
reservoir as well as from the natural slope therefore, under pressures and consequent upward
displacements of slabs are avoided. Two draining trenches upstream-downstream with connec-
tion bank to bank each two or three slabs compose the seepage-control system. Note that under
the joints of the spillway slabs, no drainage system was installed contrarily to the majority of
spillways (DPP, 1978).
Figure 7. The clogging of the drainage system Figure 8. Differential displacements of slabs
(Manhole and pipe) (Chikh Grayaa, 2021) (Chikh Grayaa, 2021)
In addition to the drainage system disorder, concrete slabs have been lifted .These slabs are
located in the downstream of the spillway channel (Figure 9). Keep in mind that these slabs are
connected by 30 cm deep water-stop joints. Further, because slabs thickness ranges between 1.5
m to 3 m, differential settlement due to gravity may be occasioned.
134
Figure 9. Low-level view of earth dam focusing on disorders in slabs of spillway channel (Chikh Grayaa,
2021)
These anomalies correspond to planimetric and altimetric displacements observed at the level of
the front transverse joint. Indeed these displacements continue to progress since 2002 until now.
During the visit in 2021, we saw the same disorders in the same spillway’s slabs as shown fig-
ures 8 and 9.
4 BIDIMENTIONNEL NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF SPILLWAY
After the piezometric data analysis in spillway’s foundation and the observation of site visit, we
have realized the numerical modeling using Midas GTS NX software.
Although, to respect the boundary conditions we extended the spillway geometry 150 m up-
stream and 100 m downstream. We applied Dirichlet boundary conditions, whence the two dis-
placements (𝑢𝑥 and 𝑢𝑦 equal to 0) along the ground (Substratum), equal to zero on the side edg-
es of the soil block (upstream and downstream). Furthermore, the generated mesh is based on
Delaunay's law. This law makes it possible to carry out an indirect mesh by the algorithm of tri-
angulation of Delaunay. Coulomb’s law of friction generates the interface between the same
material and different materials. For meshes, it was composed of rectangular elements, 0.5 m for
all the materials of the foundation and 0.2 m for the concrete slabs. So much at water level, we
will simulate the water level data measured on site between 1985 and 2020. The curve (Figure
10) shows the water level fluctuation taken as a function to determine numerically the displace-
ments and the pore pressures in each year between 1985 and 2020.
Figure 10. Water level between 1985 and 2020 Figure 11. Water level estimated between 2020 and 2050
(Chikh Grayaa, 2021) (Chikh Grayaa, 2021)
Since climatologists often refer to a period of at least 30 years which allows them to establish
a significant average, the last reference period extends from 1981 to 2010 according to the
WMO (World Meteorological Organization) in 2017 and UNFCCC (Third National Communi-
135
cation of Tunisia under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change). We
will then choose 2050 as the horizon for the estimated calculation of the stability of the hydrau-
lic assembly.
According to the National Institute of Meteorology of Tunisia (NIM) and the Minister of the
Environment of Tunisia (MET), the simulations of all the models show a net decrease in aver-
age annual precipitation by 2050 with a decrease of 5% to 10%, for the RCP 4.5 (Representative
Concentration Pathway) scenario. The results with the RCP 8.5 (Representative Concentration
Pathway) scenario show a decrease in average annual precipitation by 1% to 14% in 2050.
From all the above, we have established the following equation, which will lead us to have an
average decrease of 7% in the level of the water level until 2050 (Figure 11):
Pk - 0.1k
Where: c = 0.96 represents a 4% decrease in the average water level and/or piezometric level
between 1985 and 2020; k = {1, 30}, 1 for 2020 and 30 for 2050; i= n = {1, 35}, 1 for 1985 and
35 for 2020.
The longitudinal section of the spillway was chosen along the central axis. The materials,
which constitute the spillway, was indicated in table 1. The materials according to Mohr Cou-
lomb's law except the concrete is taken elastic.
Table 1: Mechanics properties of materials (DPP, 1978)

Materials E* ν ** γ *** γsat **** e***** K****** C’******* Φ’*******
Maastrichtian Limestone 480000 0,3 21,3 21,8 0,5 1,5E-5 39 41

Campanian Limestone 455000 0,3 21,3 21,8 0,5 3,35E-7 40 40
Campanian Marl 1 310000 0,3 21,3 21,8 0,5 2E-6 15 29
Campanian Marl 2 300000 0,3 21,3 21,8 0,5 2E-6 10 30
Triassic 210000 0,3 20 22 0,5 2,3E-10 0 28
Concrete 30000000 0,18 25 25 0,25 1E-12 - -
*Elastic modulus (kN/m²).
**Poisson's ratio.
*** Unit weight (kN/m3).
****Saturated unit weight (kN/m3).
*****Initial void ratio.
******Permeability (m/s).
******* Effective cohesion (kPa).
********Effective friction angle in degree.
During transient seepage from 1985 to 2020, the stability is critical only in the downstream
slabs of the spillway.
Figure 12. Total displacement in 2002 Figure13. Total displacement in 2020
136
Figure 14. Pore pressure in 2020 Figure 15. Total displacement in 2050
Figure 16. Pore pressure in 2050
In 2002, we can observe clearly that the slabs in marl and Triassic zone are lifted. An upward
displacement of slabs is remarkable with 1.5 mm, which represents the first detection of the dis-
orders (Figure 12).
In 2020, the vertical displacements obtained show clearly that the slabs are in heaving in the
Triassic zone and settlement and an upward displacements in marl zone. The heaving of slabs
continue to increase from 24 mm in 2020 to 52 mm in 2050 (Figure 15). In fact, the settlement
various between 4 and 11 mm from 1985 to 2002 and goes for 22 mm in 2020. The total dis-
placements prove a differential displacement between neighbor slabs.
The vertical displacements (y) obtained in marl and Triassic zones in 2020 is 6.58 mm (Fig-
ure 13). Hence, in 2050, it’s 11.5 mm. It should be noted that these results indicate the dis-
placements of the spillway in its longitudinal axis. Such a result is in agreement with seepage
study, which showed disorders are due to high pore pressure at Triassic and marl locations. The
pore pressure increase proportionally with the deepness and exactly under the slabs of the chan-
nel spillway in the discontinuous zone marl- Triassic, which get out of between the slabs 44 and
46 (from 180 kPa to 423 kPa in 2020). Therefore, the high pore pressure and the accumulation
of water in marls causes the heaving of slabs.
Figure 17.Comparison of numerical simulation with altimetry measurements in 2020 (Chikh Grayaa,
2021)
137
5 REMEDIES TO PROBLEMS OF JOUMINE SPILLWAY
There is a multiple types of remedies that we can use such as the Jet Grouting, add a drain well,
stone columns and the injection method. In order to eliminate the high water pressures
accumulated in the marls due to cracked limestone, we used three types of columns with 30 m
of depth and 25 cm of thickness (Bouassida, 2011) located in cracked limestone. The first
consist for three column of concrete injection spaced 10 m, the second represent 4 column of
injection spaced 12 m and the third was oriented for five column of injection spaced 13 m
(Shleiss, 2020) and (Boudkhil, 2014). Finally, after simulate the three cases of injection
proposition, Midas GTS NX conduct as to choose the second one, which is the injection of four
columns of concrete in the Maastrichtian limestone incline with 30° to the upstream direction.
The injected material mortar and bentonite (Shleiss, 2020) has the characteristics indicated in
table 2. The numerical simulation results of the second solution is represented in figures showed
below and grouped together in the table 3.
Table 3. Characteristics of the injected material (Minh.T.Q, 2013)

Proprieties E (kN/m²) ν γ (kN/m3) γsat (kN/m3) eo k(m/s)
Material 37000000 0,18 25 25 0,5 1E-12
Figure 18. Spillway with four column of concrete Figure 19. Total displacement in 2020
Figure 20. Pore pressure in 2020 Figure 21. Total displacement in 2050
Figure 22. Pore pressure in 2050
138
Table 3: Results of the remedies compared to the displacement of the spillway in 2020
Current state 2020 Remedies

Year 2020 2050 2020 2050
Total displacements (mm) 24.6 52.7 2.3 10
Heave (mm) 6.3 11 0 0
Settlement (mm) 11.6 20.3 2.3 10
The table 3 which summarize all the obtained results show the capacity of four columns to
reduce displacements and pore pressure in 2020 until 2050. In fact, we observe that there is a
huge reducing in horizontal displacement comparing to the 2020 numerical results of simula-
tions. Specially, we get interested on the second remedies, which give us the best results in term
of displacements. We can see clearly that the slabs are moved from swelling phenomena to a
consolidation case with 8 mm as value of the difference between 2020 and 2050. Therefore, the
spillway is in the right way for stabilization. With the presence of four columns, the swelling lo-
cated in downstream goes from 7 mm to -3 mm in the zone of marl-Triassic discontinuity in
2020. The same, we note that the pore pressure was reduced to 34 kN/m² in place of 450 kN/m².
This injection, reduce the effect of swelling and the settlement of marl which affect the Triassic
situation.
In addition to that, the dissolution of gypsum was the responsible of the increasing of pore
pressure under the slabs, which conduct for heaving. This phenomenon was more comprehen-
sive with the formation of a rock of gypsum which reducing the permeability in this area, so in-
creasing the pore pressure applied in the slabs.
Finally, the columns redistribute the pore pressure in the foundation of spillway uniformly.
For 2050, a maximum settlement of 10 mm will be obtained with the four columns and a maxi-
mum of 52 kN/m² pore pressure value.
6 CONCLUSION
In the present study, using the Midas GTS NX software, Surfer 16 Golden Software and Excel
software program, pore pressure and displacements analysis in spillway of Joumine dam was
presented and discussed. Results of the study showed that the average pore pressure at maxi-
mum, normal and minimum pond level are 450 KN/m², 60 KN/m² and 35 KN/m² respectively.
The displacements obtained with this software are between 24 mm and 52 mm for 2020 and
2050 respectively. We mention that the maximum upward displacements before remedies was
in the order of 6.58 mm. These numerical results are consistent with altimetry measurements,
which confirm the chosen numerical model. After that, the second part discussed practical pro-
posals of specific remediation for the spillway. It was confirmed to take the solution of four col-
umns as remedies for the spillway slabs disorder. The cracked limestone allowed the increase of
water pressure. This high water pressure caused the upward displacements of slabs at marl zone.
In addition, In fact, a good result was recapitulated by Midas GTS NX, affirmed that the spill-
way will be stable in the next 30 years without any heaves and the pore pressure take the mini-
mum average of 52 kN/m². The results achieved from numerical modeling after remedies, it is
found that the parameters studied have a significant influence on the safety of the spillway of
Joumine dam and thus it can be concluded that the spillway is safe against the danger of extra
pore pressure and swelling of its slabs.
139
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Matériaux excavés : caractérisation en vue de leur valorisation en
ingénierie pédologique. Cas d’un sol calcaire dégradé, Tunisie.
Ghada SNOUSSI & Essaieb HAMDI
Laboratoire d’Ingénierie Géotechnique et Géorisques, Ecole Nationale d’Ingénieurs de Tunis, Université
Tunis El Manar, Tunisie.
Olivier FOUCHÉ-GROBLA
Le Cnam & IRD, UMR iEES Paris, CNRS & Sorbonne Université, Paris, France.
RESUME : Les projets de construction réduisent de plus en plus les zones vertes par la coloni-
sation des sols péri-urbains. Les déblais sont dans la majorité des cas inexploitables et devien-
dront des déchets d'excavation. L’un de ces grands projets est celui de l’aménagement de la
zone industrielle Hached à Bouargoub étendu sur une superficie de 82 hectares qui produira plus
de 480 000 tonnes de sols excavés dont 20% sont exploitables et le reste sera stocké au titre de
déchets. Le but de notre projet est de donner une deuxième vie à ces déchets sous la forme
d’une terre végétale drainante. Afin de réaliser ce projet, on doit caractériser ces matériaux ex-
cavés. La caractérisation a été faite sur deux échantillons homogènes prélevés selon la norme
NF X 31-100 à travers une identification géologique, pédologique, géotechnique et minéralo-
gique. Cette étude a montré que les sols excavés sont de nature sableuse limoneuse selon la ca-
ractérisation géotechnique et alcaline (leur pH est élevé). Ces résultats ont été complétés par un
calcul de l’indice NDVI du site d’après l’imagerie Sentinel 2 qui a montré que la couverture est
une terre stérile occupée par des arbustes et prairies en certaines parties du site.
1 INTRODUCTION
Les projets de génie civil sont considérés comme l'une des activités les plus polluantes de notre envi-
ronnement (Hussin, Abdul Rahman and Memon, 2013). Ces projets provoquent l’accroissement de la
pollution d’air, d’eau et des sols, la consommation des ressources naturelles, minérales, énergétiques et
hydriques, et l’augmentation du taux de production de déchets et la consommation des terres agricoles
(Snoussi et al., 2020). L’aménagement de la zone industrielle Hached à Bouargoub, Tunisie, est l’un
de ces projets. Ce projet a une superficie de 82 hectares et produira au total plus de 300 000 m3 de ma-
tériaux excavés, qui équivalent à 480 000 tonnes. Les travaux d’aménagement seront effectués sur
trois tranches, la première tranche de 20 hectares, la deuxième tranche de 42 hectares et la troisième de
20 hectares. Parmi les déblais produits par ce projet, ceux ayant des caractéristiques physiques et mé-
caniques adéquates seront utilisés comme remblais au sein du projet. Ce sont de « bons sols » au sens
géotechnique. Mais les matériaux minéraux réutilisables ne représentent que 20% de la quantité totale
de déblais. Le reste sera stocké sous forme de nombreux tas et merlons de sols, considérés comme des
déchets. Notre but est de donner une nouvelle vie à ces déchets. Nous proposons une solution techno-
logique pour la valorisation de grandes quantités de ces matériaux excavés. On les transformera en un
sol drainant et fertile que l’on appelle « technosol ». De déchets, ces déblais deviennent une matière
première, nommée les « artefacts » à incorporer dans le technosol. Afin de réussir à transformer ces
déblais, il faut en premier lieu les caractériser. C’est le but de notre étude. Cette caractérisation est ef-
fectuée sur deux volets : le premier est le volet pédologique afin d’avoir l'aptitude du sol à être fertile.
Le deuxième volet est géotechnique dans le but d’étudier la perméabilité et la stabilité du nouveau sol
dit « technosol ».
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2 SITE D’ETUDE
2.1 Cadre géographique

La zone industrielle de Hached est située au Nord-Est de la Tunisie, plus précisément à côté de la ville
de Bouargoub - Cité Hached. Elle est localisée à une quarantaine de kilomètres au sud de Tunis, à l'en-
trée de la péninsule du Cap Bon. La zone industrielle se situe approximativement à 36° de latitude
Nord et 10° de longitude Est, à 5 km des carrières des sables de Borj Hfaiedh. Son altitude va de 80 m
à 110 m (figure 1). La cité de Hached se localise entre Djebel Bouargoub (450 m) à son extrémité Sud
et la plaine de Borj Hfaiedh (70 m) à son extrémité Nord.
Figure 1. Localisation géographique de la zone industrielle de Hached à Bouargoub (Google, 2001).
2.2 Cadre géologique

Située au pied de la dorsale tunisienne, au Sud-Est de la plaine de Grombalia, la formation géologique
dans la zone de prélèvement des déblais est rapportée à la fin de l’ère Tertiaire. La zone d’étude re-
groupe trois formations géologiques :
- PI : Pliocène marin : marnes et grès ;
- M-PI : Mio-Pliocène continental : conglomérats, sables et argiles ;
- vsM3 : Miocène supérieur : série volcano-sédimentaire ; argiles, grès et conglomérats.
Le terrain de la zone d’étude présente des affleurements d’âge Néogène (El Kamel, Mzoughi Tlemceni
and Trabelsi, 2014), en particulier du Pliocène marin tels que les marnes du Plaisancien et les sables
astiens (Bortoli et al., 1971). A ces roches hétérogènes s’ajoutent encore d’autres types de sédiments :
les alluvions récentes et le Quaternaire continental.
2.3 Cadre pédologique

Trois couleurs de sol sont dominantes dans cette région, les sols rosâtres, jaunâtres et brunâtres (figure
2). La classe du sol de la future zone industrielle est calcomagnésimorphe. Le pH de ce groupe est
d’environ 8 tandis que la proportion du calcaire actif est élevée (Belkhodja et al., 1973). Ils se caracté-
risent par la présence en quantité importante de carbonate de calcium ou de magnésium, ou de sulfate
de calcium dans l’ensemble du profil (Aubert, 1966). Les sols de ce groupe peuvent s’associer avec
d’autres types de sols tels que les sols bruns calcaires ou les sols rouges. La sous-classe de ces sols est
dite calcaire et le groupe est rendziniforme : ce sont des sols neutres, encore peu épais, dépourvus de
carbonates dans la terre fine. La structure de ces sols est caractérisée par la présence de grumeaux an-
guleux moins stables à l'humidité (Duchaufour, 1950). Plus précisément dans ce groupe sont observés
deux sous-groupes, celui des Rendzines grises (sur conglomérat) et celui des sols bruns calcaires (sur
marne encroûtée ou sur limon calcaire). Les faciès principaux recouvrent des limons calcaires ou des
marnes encroûtées altérées formant des sols rouges méditerranéens.
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Figure 2. Sols de la zone industrielle Hached à Bouargoub.
2.4 Etat du couvert végétal

Afin d’analyser la densité de la végétation sur le site de la zone industrielle, on a eu recours à l’Indice
de Végétation par Différence Normalisée NDVI (Normalised Difference Vegetation Index) ou dit en-
core Indice de Tucker (Tucker, 1979). Le NDVI est l’indice de référence le plus utilisé en agriculture
pour le suivi dynamique de l’état du couvert végétal, contient une végétation verte saine ou non, ainsi
que pour la surveillance de la sécheresse et l'alerte précoce de la famine (Gessesse and Melesse, 2019)
obtenu en analysant les images satellitaires. Cet indice fut élaboré par Rouse en 1973 dans l’étude de
l'étendue nord-sud de la région des Grandes Plaines du centre des États-Unis (Rouse et al.,
1973)(Rouse et al., 1974).
Le calcul du NDVI repose sur ce concept que la chlorophylle de la plante absorbe l'énergie dans la
bande du rouge et réfléchit dans la bande du proche infrarouge (Robin, 2002)(Bellakanji et al., 2018).
Ainsi, le NDVI quantifie la végétation en calculant la différence entre la bande spectrale du proche in-
frarouge (NIR) et la bande spectrale du rouge (RED) divisée par leur somme (Equation 1).
NIR RED
NDVI  (1)
NIR RED
Les valeurs du NDVI varient dans un écart compris entre -1 et +1 où -1 est généralement la valeur des
masses d'eau et +1 est généralement une végétation dense à feuilles vertes (Spadoni et al., 2020). Cette
valeur augmente avec l'accroissement de la couverture végétale. En fonction de la valeur du NDVI on
peut déterminer l’état de la couverture végétale du sol. Plusieurs chercheurs ont proposé une classifica-
tion de végétation (Dalezios et al., 2001)(Rizvi et al., 2009)(Yusuf, Pradhan and Idrees, 2014)(Ding et
al., 2016)(Gessesse and Melesse, 2019)(Spadoni et al., 2020). Dans cette étude, on va utiliser celle de
Akbar (Akbar et al., 2019) présentée dans le tableau 1.
Tableau 1. Valeurs du NDVI en fonction des classes de couverture terrestre (Akbar et al., 2019).
Couverture terrestre Valeur de l’NDVI
Eau -1 ≤ NDVI < 0,015
Construite 0,015 ≤ NDVI < 0,14
Terre stérile 0,14 ≤ NDVI < 0,18
Arbuste et prairie 0,18 ≤ NDVI < 0,27
Végétation clairsemée 0,27 ≤ NDVI < 0,36
Végétation dense 0,36 ≤ NDVI < 1
Nombreux sont les satellites qui nous permettent de calculer le NDVI. Pour cette étude, les images uti-
lisées ont été obtenues du satellite développé par l'Agence Spatiale Européenne (ESA) dans le cadre
du service de surveillance terrestre « Copernicus » de l'Union européenne Sentinel-2. Ce satellite pro-
duit une imagerie dans 13 bandes spectrales tous les 10 jours définie par une résolution spatiale allant
jusqu’à 10 m. La mission du Sentinel-2 est dédiée à plusieurs utilisations telles que l’observation de
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l’évolution de la végétation pour la surveillance de l'agriculture, des forêts, du changement d'affecta-
tion des terres et de la couverture terrestre, l’occupation des sols par la classification de la couverture
et utilisation des terres ainsi que l’impact du réchauffement climatique par la gestion des risques et des
catastrophes (Copernicus, 2017)(Phiri et al., 2019). C'est la raison pour laquelle notre choix s'est porté
sur l'utilisation d'images Sentinel-2 plus précisément niveau 2A. Pour cette étude, la classification des
valeurs NDVI a été exportée et traitée avec le logiciel QGIS 2.24 (QGIS, 2021) pour le mois d’avril
des années de 2016 à 2021 (figure 3).
Carte d'occupation des sols du 16 Avril 2016 Carte d'occupation des sols du 11 Avril 2017
Figure 3. Carte d'occupation des sols de la zone industrielle Hached, Bouargoub.
Légende
Selon la figure 3, les résultats montrent que la couverture terrestre du site d’étude est composée en ma-
jorité d’arbustes et prairies et terres stériles, la zone bâtis au milieu du site niveau Nord-Est représente
le quartier résidentiel de Cité Hached. L’évolution du chantier est visible avec notamment la migration
d’un stock de matériaux en forme de dôme situé au départ (2016) à cheval sur la limite sud-ouest de la
zone délimitée en noir, qui finit en-dehors de cette zone (2018). A la place qu’il occupait s’observe à
partir de 2019 un tracé de rues à angle droit. Cependant, les terres qui entourent le site d’étude sont oc-
cupées par une végétation dense. La carte d'occupation des sols d’avril 2019 montre l’existence d’une
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végétation dense dans certaines parties de la zone délimitée en noir : cela est sans doute lié à une sai-
son pluvieuse très importante de l’année agricole 2018-2019 qui présente une augmentation de précipi-
tation de 100% par rapport à l’année 2017-2018 (INS, 2021). En conclusion, l’aspect stérile de cette
zone n’est pas irréversible puisque d’une année à l’autre, une végétation clairsemée réapparait par en-
droit, voire une végétation dense les années où il pleut abondamment.
3 MATERIELS ET METHODES
3.1 Prélèvement et échantillonnage des sols

Le sol d’étude a été échantillonné deux fois in situ, une fois lors de l’exécution de la 1e tranche puis
une seconde fois lors de la 2e tranche des travaux d’aménagement de la zone industrielle de Hached.
La campagne de prélèvement s’est déroulée en octobre 2019 pour « Artefact 1 » du terrain de la 1e
tranche et en octobre 2021 pour « Artefact 2 » du terrain de la 2e tranche (figure 4 et figure 5). Dans le
but que les deux échantillons soient représentatifs, l’échantillonnage sur site est effectué selon la
norme NF X 31-100. Les prélèvements ont été réalisés d’une manière aléatoire en cinq points
(Clément and Pieltain, 1998)(Pansu, Gautheqrou and Loyer, 1998) au moyen d’une tractopelle à des
profondeurs variant entre 2 m et 4 m. Les deux échantillons composites du sol d’étude ont été stockés
en deux tas. Afin d’effectuer les essais d’identification au laboratoire, il est nécessaire de réduire les
quantités du sol. En premier lieu, dans un tas du sol, le prélèvement a été effectué en haut, dans la zone
médiane et en bas de chaque tas. Ce prélèvement est effectué après le malaxage de chaque tas à travers
la tractopelle. En deuxième lieu, l’homogénéisation est effectuée au laboratoire par le principe de
quartage.
Figure 4. Zone de prélèvement 1e tranche « Artefact 1 » (Google, 2001).
Figure 5. Zone de prélèvement 2e tranche « Artefact 2 » (Google, 2001).
3.2 Description visuelle des deux échantillons

Les matériaux des deux échantillons représentatifs sont donc homogènes, de couleur dominante rosâtre
à jaunâtre avec l’existence de quelques passages argileux, gypseux et calcaires. Les passages argileux
sont plus présents dans le sol de la 2e tranche. Une description du sol d’étude a été effectuée selon la
norme ISO 14688-1 tableau 2).
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Tableau 2. Description visuelle.
La granulométrie dominante est fine, altérée par
La granularité (grosseur des grains)
des mottes d’argile et des roches calcaires
La forme des grains Les grains de forme arrondie sont dominants
La texture des grains Soyeux, crissement et un peut collante
La couleur Deux couleurs dominantes, le rosâtre et le jaunâtre
L’humidité Sec
La consistance Dure
La compacité Compacte
La présence de la matière organique Pas de matière organique
L’odeur Aucune odeur
La structure Stratifiée
3.3 Identification pédologique

L’identification pédologique du sol est effectuée au laboratoire d'analyse agricole du ministère de
l'Agriculture. Les échantillons ont été analysés suivant le protocole technique de ce laboratoire. Les
essais d’identification pédologique sont :
- L’analyse texturale du sol a été effectuée pour les particules du sol inférieures à 2 mm, par tamisage
pour les particules des sols supérieures à 0,05 mm et par sédimentation pour les particules du sol in-
férieures à 0,05 mm, selon la norme NF X31-107.
- La mesure de la valeur du pH des sols selon la norme NF ISO 10390. L’interprétation des valeurs de
pH est effectuée selon la norme d'interprétation du pH eau du sol (Mathieu and Pieltain, 2003).
- La mesure de la conductivité électrique (CE) est effectuée sur des extraits aqueux (extrait 1/5, une
masse de sol pour 5 masses d'eau) en déciSiemens par mètre (dS.m−1) à 25°C selon la norme NF ISO
11265. La valeur de la CE permet de déterminer la teneur en sels dans le sol (salinité du sol).
- La mesure du calcaire total qui représente la quantité totale de calcaire dans le sol. Son dosage est
basé sur la réaction acide-base avec l'acide chlorhydrique, soit on dose le volume du gaz carbonique
dégagé. La valeur du calcaire total a été déterminée selon la norme NF ISO 11265.
- La mesure du calcaire actif, dit calcaire fin, selon la norme NF X31-106. Le calcaire actif représente
la fraction du calcaire qui admet une dissolution rapide et facilement par l’acide carbonique présent
dans l’eau de pluie ou par les acides organiques du sol.
3.4 Caractérisation géotechnique

Une identification physique complète des deux échantillons a été réalisée, dont les essais :
- La teneur en eau pondérale, méthode par étuvage, selon la norme EN ISO 17892-1.
- La masse volumique totale selon la norme EN ISO 17892-2, la masse volumique des grains solides
selon la norme EN ISO 17892-3.
- Les limites d’Atterberg, qui permettent de déterminer l’indice de plasticité IP, ont été déterminées
selon la norme EN ISO 17892-12.
- La capacité d'adsorption du bleu de méthylène selon la norme NF P 94-068.
- L’identification granulométrique du sol a été déterminée par la méthode de tamisage à sec après la-
vage pour la granulométrie supérieure à 63 µm et par sédimentométrie pour la granulométrie infé-
rieure à 63 µm selon la norme NF EN ISO 17892-4.
- Les autres valeurs telles que la teneur en eau à la saturation, la masse volumique sèche, l'indice des
vides et la porosité, la surface spécifique et l'activité de la fraction argileuse ont été calculées.
3.5 Identification minéralogique

L’identification minéralogique a été déterminée par la diffractométrie de rayons X. La DRX est une
technique instrumentale utilisée pour caractériser les minéraux (Flohr, 1997) qu’ils soient massifs,
sous forme de poudre ou de dépôts. En laboratoire, la technique de la diffraction des rayons X est un
outil important pour l'identification des phases cristallines (Ural, 2007) et elle est efficace dans la
146
quantification de la composition chimique et l’organisation cristallographique des matériaux cristallins
(Snoussi, Hamdi and Lafhaj, 2014).
4 RESULTATS ET DISCUSSION
4.1 Caractérisation pédologique et physique du sol d’étude

Les résultats de l’identification pédologique et géotechnique sont présentés dans le tableau 3.
Tableau 3. Résultats d’identification pédologique et géotechnique.

Identification pédologique du sol d’étude
Essai Norme Artefact 1 Artefact 2 Unité
La granulométrie de sable NF X31-107 62 65 %
La granulométrie des argiles et limons NF X31-107 38 35 %
pH (1/2.5) NF ISO 10390 8,5 7,5 -
La conductivité (1/5) NF ISO 11265 0,14 0,9 dS m−1
Le calcaire total NF ISO 10693 27,3 15,6 %
Le calcaire actif NF X31-106 14 6,2 %
Identification géotechnique du sol d’étude
Essai Norme Artefact 1 Artefact 2 Unité
Teneur en eau pondérale EN ISO 17892-1 5,26 4,67 %
Teneur en eau à la saturation - 25,76 24,26 %
Degré de saturation - 20,42 19,25 %
Masse volumique des sols EN ISO 17892-2 1,81 1,80 t/m3
Masse volumique des sols secs - 1,58 1,61 t/m3
Masse volumique des particules solides EN ISO 17892-3 2,65 2,65 t/m3
Indice des vides - 0,68 0,64 -
Porosité - 0,41 0,39 -
Limite de liquidité EN ISO 17892-12 29,40 32,00 %
Limite de plasticité EN ISO 17892-12 14,22 14,03 %
Indice de plasticité EN ISO 17892-12 15,18 17,97 %
Indice de consistance - 1,59 1,52 -
Capacité d'adsorption du bleu de mé-
NF P94-048 1,17 1,18 g
thylène
Surface spécifique NF P 94-068 28,67 28,91 -
Activité de la fraction argileuse du sol - 0,07 0,06 -
Diamètres des
Essai Artefact 1 Artefact 2 Unité
tamis
5 (mm) 95,35 96,87 %
2 (mm) 88,75 93,75 %
0,4 (mm) 62,54 67,95 %
0,08 (mm) 35,35 40,29 %
Identification granulométrique
0,063 (mm) 34,01 38,81 %
NF EN ISO 17892-4
0,03 (mm) 30,84 32,57 %
0,008 (mm) 27,24 28,12 %
0,0022 (mm) 16,88 18,59 %
0,0014 (mm) 9,43 9,69 %
Diamètre effectif des particules qui
D10 0,0014 0,0014 mm
correspond à 10 %
D30 0,031 0,02 mm
correspond à 30 %
D60 0,36 0,28 mm
correspond à 60 %
Coefficient d’uniformité Cu 266,67 200,0 -
Coefficient de courbure Cc 1,98 1,02 -
Les résultats des essais pédologiques ont permis de montrer que le sol d’étude est un sol sableux alca-
lin, non salin très pauvre admettant un pH de 8,4 pour l’artefact 1 (pourcentage de la teneur en CaCO3
147
est de l’ordre de 30%) et un pH de 7,5 pour l’artefact 2 (pourcentage du calcaire représente la moitié
par rapport au sol prélevé de la 1e tranche). Cela traduit l’absence des cultures au niveau du site
d’étude. La caractérisation du sol par télédétection prouve que ces sols sont pauvres et la couverture du
site est composée en majorité d’arbustes et prairie et d’une terre stérile.
La caractérisation géotechnique des deux artefacts montre que le sol est de nature sableuse uniformé-
ment graduée. À la saturation, la masse de l’eau est égale à 25% de la masse totale du sol. La masse
volumique des sols secs de l’artefact 2 est un peu plus élevée que celle de l’artefact 1 comme ce sol
contient plus d’argile. La porosité du sol in situ représente 40% tandis que l’indice des vides est de
l’ordre de 65%. Les résultats des essais de détermination de la teneur en CaCO3 montrent que le sol est
fortement calcaire, faiblement marneux à marneux. Les deux artefacts sont presque identiques, on peut
dire que les déblais sont homogènes.
4.2 Caractérisation minéralogique

La figure 6 montre le résultat de la diffraction des rayons X sur la poudre des deux Artefacts, 2019
(Figure 6a) et 2021 (Figure 6b). Les résultats montrent que les deux sols sont constitués d'une argile il-
litique avec de la calcite et la dolomite.
Figure 6. Résultat de la diffraction des rayons X
4.3 Classification du sol d’étude

Il existe plusieurs systèmes de classification des sols qui sont généralement basés sur la taille des par-
ticules ou sur d’autres propriétés telles que l’indice de plasticité, la valeur de bleu de méthylène.
Chaque classification a son utilité soit dans le domaine du génie civil soit de l’agriculture. Dans cette
étude, on a classé le sol par différentes méthodes afin de déterminer l’utilisation possible du sol. Les
résultats de ces classifications sont présentés dans le tableau 4.
Tableau 4. Classification des sols.
Système Classification
Classification selon la norme inter-
Sable Limoneux
nationale ISO 14688-1
Classification taxonomie des sols, Limon sableux
148
USDA, figure 7.
Classification LCPC Sable argileux (peu plastique) propre bien gradué
A2
Classification GTR
Sables fins argileux, limons, argiles et marnes peu plastiques
Figure 7. Classification des sols par le département d’agriculture des États-Unis (USDA).
Selon cette caractérisation, le seul débouché de valorisation de ces 480 000 tonnes de sols excavés est
en technique routière soit comme remblais ou dans la couche de forme. Seulement 20% de ces sols se-
ront exploitables dans cette technique et le reste sera stocké au titre de déchets. Les 384 000 tonnes de
sols excavés vont occuper de grandes surfaces de stockage et ils vont être un fardeau sur l’écosystème.
Notre objectif est d’offrir une nouvelle vie à ces matériaux excavés et d’éviter leur stockage au titre de
déchets. Ces matériaux vont être utilisés pour élaborer un nouveau sol fertile et drainant utilisé en in-
frastructure végétalisée qui est très demandée en urbanisme (Eono, 2021). Ce nouveau sol urbain est
appelé Technosol.
5 CONCLUSION
Cette étude a permis de montrer que les matériaux excavés de la zone industrielle Hached sont homo-
gènes, de nature sableuse limoneuse selon la caractérisation géotechnique, avec des minéraux argileux
plus importants dans les sols de la 2e tranche. Du point de vue pédologique, le sol est calcomagnési-
morphe. Cette dénomination a été confirmée par les essais d’identification pédologique où le pH du
sol peut atteindre 8,5. Il s’agit d’un sol pauvre et dégradé. Ces résultats ont été consolidés par un calcul
du NDVI du site qui a montré que la couverture du site est une terre stérile et en certaines parties, oc-
cupée par des arbustes et prairies. Dans ce cas, il est nécessaire d’explorer des méthodes de fertilisa-
tion de ces sols afin de pouvoir les utiliser pour produire des technosols adaptés au milieu urbain.
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151
152
SESSION 4
ANALYTICAL AND NUMERICAL MODELING
OF ROCK MECHANICS PROBLEMS
A bipotential approach for the bearing capacity of strip footings
with nonassociated plastic materials
A. Oueslati, M. Hamlaoui, G. de Saxcé

Univ. Lille, CNRS, Centrale Lille, FRE 2016 - LaMcube - Laboratoire de mécanique multiphysique et
multiéchelle, F-59000, Lille, France.
ABSTRACT: In this work we present a bipotential approach for estimating the bearing capacity
of shallow strip footing in the context a non-associated Mohr–Coulomb soil. To this end, the
considered problem is formulated in a rigorous mathematical framework coupling the bipoten-
tial concept and the limit analysis theory. Analytical quasi-bounds are given based upon a stati-
cally and plastically trial stress field and a Prandtl-like collapse mechanism
1 INTRODUCTION
Limit analysis [1,2,3] is a powerful method for the direct determination of the collapse load of
structures subjected to proportional loadings and operating beyond the elastic limit. The consti-
tutive laws are supposed rigid-perfectly plastic, modelled by a plastic domain and an associated
plastic flow rule. Typically, the task is to predict the ultimate load factors using the lower and
upper theorems related to static and kinematic approaches respectively.
For a long time, limit analysis has been used to evaluate the bearing capacity of foundations
and the slop stability for geomaterials modelled by associated plastic laws. In particular, a prob-
lem of practical interest for engineers is the bearing capacity of a semi-infinite soil foundation
with the standard law of Mohr–Coulomb, a cohesion c and a friction angle φ. Prandtl–Hill ana-
lytical solutions provide the exact limit load [4].
Another development in computing the bearing capacity of foundations is achieved by using
the finite element method and the finite difference method [5,6,7]. Note also that numerical lim-
it analysis bounds involving linear/non-linear programming are proposed in the literature [8,9].
A notable advantage of these numerical methods is the study of three-dimensional problems
with complex geometries and loadings.
It is noteworthy that the classical limit analysis theorems are restricted to standard materials
with associated flow rule (the plastic strain rate is normal to the yielding surface). However,
many experimental observations showed that for geomaterials and polymers, the dilatancy angle
is lower than the friction one and thus the plasticity is not associated. Decidedly this affects the
failure mechanism and the plastic limit loads. The assessment of the closed-form expression of
the bearing capacity of a strip footing remains open. Many numerical results are proposed in the
literature. Moreover, a simple but widely used formula for computing the limit load has been
proposed by Drescher and Detournay [10].
In this paper the bipotential theory and the slip-line method have been used to derive esti-
mates of the ultimate loads of rigid strip resting on a non-standard Mohr–Coulomb half-plane.
The punch is subjected to a normal pressure and the weight of substrate is neglected.
155
2 A BRIEF REVIEW OF THE BIPOTENTIAL THEORY
2.1 Definition and basic relations
Let X be a topological vector space of velocities κ˙, and Y be its dual space of like-stress varia-
bles π, put in duality through a dual pairing
In convex analysis, the sub-differential of a function φ in a point κ˙ is the (possibly empty)

set:
(1)
If φ is a smooth and convex function, then the law is uni-valued and we get
(2)
For more details on convex analysis, the reader is referred for instance to [11,12]. On this ba-
sis, the concept of potential can be extended in a weak form. We do not require more than the
function φ to be convex and lower semi-continuous (with possible infinite values) and we con-
sider multivalued laws generated by φ according to
(3)
The function φ is called a superpotential. The converse law takes a similar form:
(4)
where * is Fenchel's transform (or conjugate) of 


(5)
Consequently, the superpotential φ and its Fenchel's conjugate φ* satisfy Fenchel's inequality
[13]:
(6)
For instance, the associated plasticity is obtained by taking φ* as the indicator function IK of the
convex strength domain K (equal to zero in K and +∞ otherwise), and by considering the normal
flow rule (4). Nevertheless, it has been recognized experimentally that the normality rule is not
relevant for many non-linear materials such as geomaterials and polymers, cyclic plasticity of
metals, frictional contact and plasticity with damage.
De Saxcé [14,15] developed the bipotential theory based on an extension of Fenchel's inquali-
ty, and the generalization of Moreau's superpotential [11] for the non-associated models.
By definition, a bipotential is a functional b X x Y : × → ] - ∞, +∞], defined by the following
properties:
(a) b is convex and lower semicontinuous in each argument.
(b) For any κ˙′ and π′ we have
(7)
(c) For κ˙ and π we have the equivalences:
(8)
From a mechanical point of view, the bipotential represents the plastic dissipation power (by
volume unit) and the two former conditions in (7) are the constitutive law and its inverse one.
The couples (κ., π) satisfying the latter conditions in (8) are called extremal couples. If the bipo-
tential is differentiable, the two fist relations in (8) reads:
(9)
156
2.2 Limit analysis of implicit standard materials
If Classical theorems of limit analysis require that the structures be rigid-perfectly plastic obey-
ing to the normal flow rule. Fortunately, the bipotential approach paves the way to variational
formulation which leads to the extension of the static and kinematic theorems of limit analysis
to non-associated materials.
Consider a rigid-perfectly plastic solid occupying the volume V with a regular boundary S.
This surface S is split into two disjoint parts St and Sv. The solid is subjected to volume forces
F , a surface traction distribution t on St and a velocity field v on Sv.
The boundary value problem (B.V.P.) corresponding to given external loadings ( F , t , v ) is
the following: find (v,  ) such that v is K.A., σ is S.A. and d(v), σ are related by the non-
associated plastic law:
  b(.,  )(d (v ))  d (v )  b( d (v ),.)( ) (17)
The variational formalism is typically used in limit analysis for numerical simulations by the
finite element method. The basic approaches are based on one-field principles, namely Markov's
velocity principle and Hill's stress principle. More accurate numerical approximations can be
obtained using two-field principles. For instance, a hybrid-displacement principle was proposed
by Nguyen [16] and a saddle-point problem was introduced by Christiansen [17]. A survey of
variational principles in limit analysis is proposed in [2].
For the non-associated plasticity, the corresponding variational formulation is obtained
thanks to the bifunctional which belongs to this large class of two-field functionals. The necessi-
ty to consider two fields stems here from the non-associativity of the constitutive law. This con-
cept allows us to extend the calculus of variation for material admitting a bipotential.
The bifunctional is given by:
(18)
It satisfies the following relations:
(i) B (v' , ' )  0 for any v’ K.A and ant ’ S.A.
(ii) B (v,  )  0 for the couple (v,) solution of the (B.V.P).
The couple (v,σ) solution of the (B.V.P) is the solution of the following variational problems :
(19)
Let us now specify the variational versions of the limit analysis formalism by considering a
vanishing prescribed velocity field on Sv and proportional loading ( F 0 ,  t 0 ) . The positive
coefficient α is called the load factor and ( , F t 0 0) represent the reference load distributions.
For any solution (v,  ) of the classical boundary value problem (B.V.P.) under the propor-
tional loading, the variational solution of the mechanical problem satisfies:
(20)
where L is called a limit load factor.
Let us introduce the internal power
(21)
and the external power
(22)
The kinematical factor associated to a K.A. velocity field v’ satisfying is defined

by
(23)
157
It depends on the stress field σ, the exact solution of the (B.V.P.). In this case it bounds limit
fact
ors
This result constitutes the extended kinematic theorem. The proof can be found in [14,15].
3 COLLAPSE LOADS OF THE STRIP FOOTING

3.1 Problem statement
Consider the problem of punching rigid-perfectly plastic half-space using a rigid stamp subject-
ed to a vertical force. The study is carried out within the framework of plane strains. The mate-
rial is assumed to be weightless and follows the non-associated Mohr– Coulomb model for
which the yielding condition is expressed by:
(24)
where σ is the normal stress and τ is the shear strength on any surface element at failure. In the
present study, the traction stress is taken as positive.
In the (σ, τ) space, the yield curve is composed of two edges of the cone Kσ defined by
(25)
with vertex at ( c ctg ( ),0 ) . For sake of simplicity, the vertex position is denoted by
H  c ctg ( ) in the sequel.
Let ε˙ the normal strain velocity and γ˙ the shear angle velocity, corresponding respectively to
σ and τ. At any regular point of the yield curve, the plastic flow rule is characterized by a con-
stant plastic dilatancy angle ψ such that
(26)
where the plus (resp. minus) sign corresponds to the stress state on the upper (resp. lower) edge
of the cone Kσ. The angle ψ belongs to the range from zero to φ. The event φ = ψ corresponds to
the associated material. Otherwise, the material is said to be non-associated.
The flow rule may be written in a compact form as follows:
(27)
where ∂ is the subgradient operator and IKσ is the indicator function of the convex set Kσ. Recall
that the indicator function is defined by
158
Figure 1. The non-associated Mohr–Coulomb yield condition.
It can be shown that the non-standard Mohr–Coulomb model belongs to the class of Implicit
Standard Materials and admits a bipotential given by [18]:
(28)
Proposition. The finite value of the bipotential (28) along a velocity surface discontinuity is
given by
(29)
3.2 Kinematic approach

Attention is focused on the computation of the upper quasi-bound.
Numerical computations worked out by Hamlaoui et al. [7] using the Drucker–Prager model
matching the Mohr–Coulomb criterion at plane strain showed that the collapse mechanism is
similar to Prandtl's one in the sense that there is a unique wedge below the strip footing, unlike
Hill's one. The size and inclination angles of the mechanism, may, however be rather different
(see Fig. 2).
Figure 2. The Collapse mechanism depicted by the isovalues of the vertical displacement increment at the
numerical limit state for the Drucker–Prager model matching the Mohr–Coulombcriterion at plane strain,
the ruin mechanism for the associate Mohr–Coulomb model is drawn with continued black line.
159
For the compatible Prandtl-like collapse mechanism, the rate of the energy dissipation is a
result of the velocity discontinuity on lines (OA,AB,BC) and the deformation in the logspiral
shear zone. It is worth recalling that the velocity is inclined at the angle ψ with lines of velocity
discontinuity (cf. Fig.3).
Figure 3. The Prandtl like collapse mechanism for the non-associated material.
The upper bound of the bearing state of the footing is obtained by equating the rate of internal
dissipation of energy to the external rate work furnished by the punch load P.
It has been found that an upper quasi-bound of the plastic limit load reads [18]:
(30)
where
and
4 CONCLUSION
In this paper the bipotential theory and the slip-line method have been used to derive estimates
of the ultimate loads of rigid strip resting on a non-standard Mohr–Coulomb half-plane. The
punch is subjected to a normal pressure and the weight of substrate is neglected.
160
The bipotential, representing the plastic dissipation of the nonassociated Mohr–Coulomb crite-
rion is delivered, and its expression along a velocity discontinuity surface is provided. Analyti-
cal static and kinematic quasi-bounds are given based upon a statically and plastically trial stress
field and a Prandtl-like collapse mechanism.
References
1. Chen, W.F., 1990. Limit Analysis in Soil Plasticity, Elsevier, Amsterdam.
2. Save, M., Massonnet, C., de Saxcé, G., 1997. Plastic Limit Analysis of Plates, Shells and Disks, Else-
vier, Amsterdam.
3. Bouassida, M., Jellali, B., Porbaha, A., 2009. Limit analysis of rigid foundations on floating columns,
International Journal of Geomechanics, 9(3), 89-101.
4. Hill, R., 1950. Mathematical Theory of Plasticity, Oxford University Press, London.
5. Frydman, S., Burd, H.J., 1997. Numerical studies of bearing-capacity factor Nc, J. Geotech. Geoenvi-
ron. Eng., 123, 20-29.
5. Griffiths, D.V., 1982. Computation of bearing capacity factors using finite elements, Géotechnique, 32
(1982) 195–202.
6. Hamlaoui, M., Oueslati, A., Lamri, B., de Saxcé, G., 2015. Finite element analysis of the plastic limit
load of strip foundations with non-associated Drucker–Prager model, Eur. J. Environ. Civ. Eng., 19,
1179-1201.
1179-1201.
8. M. Hjiaj, A.V. Lyamin, S.W. Sloan, 2005. Numerical limit analysis solutions for the bearing capacity
factor Ny, Int. J. Solids Struct. 42, 1681-1704.
9. Sloan, S.W., Kleeman, P.W., 1995. Upper bound limit analysis using discontinuous velocity fields,
Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng. 127, 293-314.
10. Drescher, A., Detournay, E., 1993. Limit load in translational mechanisms for associative and nonas-
sociative materials, Géotechnique 43(4), 443-456.
11. Moreau, J.J., 2003. Fonctionnelles convexes, Istituto Poligraficoe Zecca dello Stato, Rome.
12. Rockafellar, R.T., 1970. Convex Analysis, Princeton University Press, Princeton.
13. de Saxcé, G., Feng, Z.Q., 1991. New inequality and functional for contact with friction: the implicit
standard material approach, Mech. Struct. Mach. 19, 301-325.
15. de Saxcé, G., 1992. Une généralisation de l′inégalité de Frenchel et ses applications aux lois constitu-
tives. C.R. Acad. Sci. t.314 (série 2), 125-129.
16. Nguyen, D.H., 1976. Principes variationnels à deux champs pour le matériau de SaintVenant–Von
Mises, Bull. Acad. Sci. Pol. Sér. Sci. Tech. 14 (7/8), 325-331.
17. Christiansen, E., 1981. Computation of limit loads, Int. J. Numer. Methods Eng. 17, 1547-1570.
1179-1201.
161
162
Preliminary Artificial Neural Network modeling
predicting uniaxial compressive strength within carbonate rocks
M. Abdelhedi
Research Laboratory GEOMODEL (LR16ES17), Department of Earth Sciences, Faculty of Sciences,
University of Sfax, BP 3083, Sfax, Tunisia.
C. Abbes
Research Laboratory GEOMODEL (LR16ES17), Department of Earth Sciences, Faculty of Sciences,
University of Sfax, BP 3083, Sfax, Tunisia.
ABSTRACT: Mechanical properties are interesting in many fields such as civil engineering,
geotechnics, geomechanics and georesources exploration. Uniaxial compressive strength (UCS)
is an important mechanical property determined to characterize natural and artificial rocks. This
paper highlights the ability of artificial neural network (ANN), as an accurate and revolutionary
method, to predict UCS within carbonate rocks. Thus, ANN was used to estimate the UCS val-
ues of the tested samples. For experimentation, we carried out ultrasonic measurements on cubic
samples before uniaxial compressive strength, perpendicularly to the stress direction. The model
was performed to link porosity, density and ultrasonic velocity to the UCS measurements. The
resulted model would allow the prediction of carbonate rocks UCS values, usually determined
with laborious experiments. Results confirmed that this model can be used as an economical and
simple method to predict the uniaxial compressive strength of carbonate rocks.
1 INTRODUCTON
Building materials are of important interest worldwide. Their lack in several regions
and the high cost of their importation create the need to develop new technologies to facilitate
their exploration and thus the estimation of physical and mechanical parameters that control
carbonate rocks quality (Wang et al. 2012). In fact, determining physical and mechanical prop-
erties of heterogeneous materials is important in order to judge their future usefulness (Maghous
et al. 2009). Mechanical, physical and geotechnical characteristics of rocks are evaluated
through the measurement of parameters such as the Uniaxial Compressive Strength UCS, poros-
ity, density, resistance to abrasion and fragmentation, etc.
Uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) is an important factor in determining material’s quality for
mining, geological and geotechnical applications (Bieniawski 1974; Abdelhedi et al. 2020; Kur-
tulus et al. 2012). In rock mechanics, determining UCS is essential for tunnels and dams design,
rock blasting, mechanical rock excavation, slope stability studies and other applications. Actual-
ly, the UCS assay via classical laboratory standards is laborious, time consuming and expensive.
That's why the elaboration of prediction models as an indirect method for the estimation of such
parameter is a field of research of a great importance (Yagiz et al. 2012, Ferentinou and Fakir
2017). Consequently, predictive models targeting specific parameters are emerging as an effec-
tive alternative method in all areas of scientific research. To determine the UCS, two methods
are available.
The first is the direct method, in which the specimens are tested in the laboratory, and the
second uses predictive models (indirect methods) (Baykasoğlu et al. 2008), recommended by
many researchers for UCS predictions (Mohamad et al. 2015).
163
Artificial intelligence is mainly applied in transportation systems (Jabbar et al. 2018), health
(Ben said et al. 2018) and in the financial sector (Nweke et al. 2018), as well as in other areas.
ANN inspired from the brain and the human nervous system (Ghaboussi et al. 1991), is an al-
gorithm that tries to find the best relationship between output and input variables. Whenever this
relationship is non-linear and complex, this technique becomes very useful (Mohamad et al.
2015, Dehghan et al. 2010). Recently, several studies are using artificial neural network (ANN)
to evaluate geo-mechanical problems (Erdem 2017, Kong et al. 2016, Shahrbanouzadeh et al.
2015, Yagiz et al. 2012).
The purpose of this study is to develop and evaluate a predictive model built with ANN for the
estimation of the UCS within carbonate rocks.
2 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
2.1 Preparation of samples
In this work, 15 carbonate rocks samples were collected from 8 geological ages, and shaped
to form cubes of 10 cm on each side (see Fig. 1).
Figure 1. Carbonate rock samples localities (Abdelhedi et al. 2020).

2.2 Ultrasonic testing
Two ultrasonic transducers were placed on two opposite surfaces of the cubic sample to deter-
mine “P” waves velocities using the pulse transmission method. A visco-elastic gel was applied
164
on the surface of the cubes in contact with the sensors to enhance the transmission of the ultra-
sonic wave. The transmitter and the receiver transducers (placed perpendicularly to the load ax-
is), were firmly pressed against the surfaces of the sample cubes until a stable transit time was
displayed. 'Time-of-flight’ of the ultrasonic waves was calculated with a commercially available
meter.
2.3 Uniaxial compressive strength measures

Using the testing machine, the specimen’s UCS (uniaxial compressive strength) was calculat-
ed by dividing the compressive force by the loaded surface area.
2.4 Effective porosity and density measures

Effective porosity is presented by the water content; it is actually the volume of water that
fills the pores that are accessible. Porosity was then determined by measuring the difference be-
tween the weight at saturated conditions and the weight before saturation (Lafhaj and Goueygou
2009; Abdelhedi and Abbes 2021).
The determined effective porosity (Pe), defined as:
V
pi (1)
Pe 
V
t
Where:
Vpi: connected pore volume.
Vt: the volume of the sample (Peng and Zhang 2007).
Rock density is the mass of the sample contained in a given volume unit:
Mass
Density  (2)
Volume
It is usually expressed in g/cm3. Therefore, the density is the ratio between the mass and the
volume of the sample (Peng and Zhang 2007).
Therefore, density measures were based on weight and volume measures.
2.5 Artificial neural network
Several authors have confirmed that the back propagation (BP) is the most efficient training
method for the artificial neural network (ANN), prediction and decision support systems (Ta-
wadrous and Katsabanis 2007). Therefore, hyperbolic tangent sigmoid transfer function and
back propagation (TRAINLM) learning were applied in this study. The back propagation algo-
rithm is based on 3 layers: an input layer, a hidden layer and an output layer.
60 % of samples were performed for training, 20 % for testing and 20 % for the validation of
the model.
3 PREDICTION OF UCS USING THE ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK
The relationships between inputs and outputs allowed the establishment of a predictive model
for the uniaxial compressive strength (UCS), using three predictor variables: Vp (m/s) (P wave
velocity), Pe (%) effective porosity, and “d” density.
Several authors have emphasized the added value of ANN in the prediction of many parame-
ters in geomaterials (Eskandari-Naddaf and Kazemi 2017, Khademi et al. 2017).Usually, when
establishing a relationship between several input variables with a single output variable, multi-
ple linear regressions are generally applied (Tripathy et al. 2015).
165
Ultrasonic pulse velocity, density and porosity were determined (Table 1) to establish the model
using artificial neural network.
Table 1. Determination of mechanical and physical parameters of rock samples.
Ech V (m/s) UCS (MPa) Density Pe (%)

Thala 1 4871,8 50,4 2,6 6
Thala 2 5636,4 50,1 3 4
Matous 1 4221,3 18,1 2 12
Metlaoui 2 2814,2 16,9 2,1 18
Aziza 3 5396,8 45,6 2,6 2
Metlawi 4 2263,7 17,0 2,1 19
Matous 5 4227,6 20,0 2,1 13
Metlaoui 6 3317,0 15,7 2,1 19
Aziza 7 4951,5 41,1 2,6 3
Metlaoui 8 3468,0 16,1 2,1 18
Matleg 9 4858,5 37,0 2,4 10
Metlaoui 10 3312,1 15,4 2,1 19
Metlaoui 11 3211,0 21,9 2,1 19
KABBARA 12 4724,8 66,4 2,5 7
Cherahil 13 3845,9 33,3 2,4 6
The input parameters: ultrasonic pulse velocity, porosity and density were used as a database for
learning, validation and testing model, while the output is uniaxial compressive strength (UCS).
Artificial neural network with 3 neurons in the input layer and 2 hidden neurons was found to be
the optimum in the established architecture (Fig. 2).
Figure 2. Architecture of ANN model (Abdelhedi et al. 2020)
The UCS values estimated using the model are plotted, as a function of the values measured ex-
perimentally, in Figure 3.
Figure 3. The relationship between Predicted and measured UCS
166
The correlation coefficient is very strong (0.972), which indicates a good model and implies a
good UCS prediction using this model (Table2).
Table 2: Statistical performance model

Training Testing Validation
R² MSE R² MSE R² MSE
Predicted UCS 0.98 0.0015 0.98 0.005 0.97 0.0008
In anterior researches, other parameters were used as inputs in order to produce prediction
models for the UCS. Tariq et al. (2017) established an ANN model to predict UCS in carbonate
rocks using density, shear waves and compression wave velocities. Correlation coefficient was
0.84. Ferentinou and Fakir (2017) used the point load index, the weight γ, the tensile strength
(σt) and the lithology as input parameters to elaborate predictive models for UCS within many
varieties of rocks in KwaZulu-Natal. Correlation coefficients were 0.99 and 0.92 for training
and testing, respectively.
The established model represents an accurate method for rock quality's estimation. The need
for fast and accurate methods emerges from the fact that standard methods are time consuming
and laborious.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Different physical and mechanical parameters of carbonate rocks were determined (porosity,
density, and uniaxial compressive strength) from samples taken from different zones and differ-
ent geological formations of Tunisia.
The model established by the artificial neural network shows an accurate prediction (R² =
0.97) of UCS with a linear relationship very close to 1 between the estimated values and the
measured values.
These important results demonstrated the ability of the ANN to develop accurate models for
the estimation of mechanical parameters determined with laborious methods.
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Geodynamica et Geromaterialia. 17(3): 367-378.
Abdelhedi, M., & Abbes, C. (2021). Study of physical and mechanical properties of carbonate rocks and
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168
Three-Dimensional Finite Element modeling of soil-nail
interaction under pullout testing conditions
S. Sghaier, S.Ellouze, A.Daoud

National Engineering school of Sfax, GESTE, Sfax, Tunisia
M. Bouassida
National Engineering School of Tunis, LIG, Tunis, Tunisia
ABSTRACT: Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) is a newly developed material adopted
as an alternative to steel reinforcement and a promising solution to enhance the long-term per-
formance of soil nails. Since the interface shear strength is a critical parameter for the design of
soil-nailed structure, the pullout behavior of these new composite materials needs to be investi-
gated. This paper details, a numerical study using PLAXIS 3D FE software to study the pullout
behavior of GFRP soil nail. The built FE model simulates all pullout test procedures on a soil
nail buried in sand. The load-displacement curves as well as the distribution of the tensile forces
are obtained. A comparison between steel and GFRP reinforcement is established to evaluate
the performance of GFRP soil nail. A parametric study was also carried out to study the influ-
ence of nail diameter, the embedded length and the overburden pressure on the pullout force of
GFRP soil nail.
1 INTRODUCTION
Soil nailing has been widely adopted to stabilize slopes and retained excavations. Through
the introduction of grouted steel reinforcements into the soil mass the in-situ soil shear strength
will increase and the stability of the soil-nailed structure will be significantly enhanced. The
cement grout can serve to protect steel bars from the direct contact to moist soil masses and thus
from rust. However, in aggressive environments, the risk of corrosion of steel bars is inevitable.
Therefore, attention has been drawn to the use of a new material in order to overcome durability
issues and enhance the long-term performance of soil nails. Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer
(GFRP) has emerged as one of the most promising solutions owing its many benefits over steel
such as better corrosion resistance and high strength to weight ratio (Xu et al. (2018)).
Since the mechanical, geometrical and physical properties of GFRP materials are quite differ-
ent from those of steel, GFRP-soil interaction mechanism needs to be studied, in order to evalu-
ate the performance of these new composite materials. Pullout tests are frequently carried out to
characterize the behavior of soil-nail interface. Furthermore, it is well known that soil nail
pullout capacity is influenced by several factors, such as nail dimensions, overburden pressure,
roughness of nail surface, and degree of saturation of the soil.
Pradhan et al. (2006) performed a series of laboratory pull-out tests on grouted soil nail in
sandy fill and found that the pullout resistance increases with an increase of the overburden
pressure. However, Su et al. (2008) concluded that the soil nail pull-out shear resistance is inde-
pendent to the overburden pressure due to installation process that induces significant vertical
stress changes in the soil around the nail. Yin and Zhou (2009) reported the effects of overbur-
den stress and grouting pressure on the soil-nail pullout resistance in a saturated completely de-
169
composed granite fill and showed that the overburden stress and grouting pressure have interac-
tional influence on the soil nail resistance. Yeung et al. (2007) and Cheng et al. (2009) carried
out full scale pullout tests to evaluate the performance of an innovative system formed by the
combination of GFRP pipe and pressurized cement grout and found that this system is very po-
tential to improve soil properties and provide high bond strength at the soil-nail interface. Zhu et
al. (2011) had used fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) sensors to evaluate the performance of the
pullout behavior of GFRP soil nail during field pullout tests and it is proven that the load trans-
fer mechanisms of GFRP and steel soil nails are quite different. Pei et al. (2013) have conducted
experimental and analytical simulation to investigate the performance of GFRP bar used as soil
nail during pullout test and found that FBG sensors are reliable for monitoring the strain varia-
tion at all measured points and laboratory pullout results are in good agreement with the pro-
posed pullout model adopted for GFRP pipe.
Numerical modelling using finite element method (FEM) has been reported by several re-
searchers for analyzing overall and local behavior of soil-nailed structures using steel material
such as Cheuk et al. (2005), Wei et al. (2010), Rawat et al. (2016), Tokhi (2016), Mohamed et
al. (2021) and Sreedevi et al. (2022).
In this study, a three-dimensional finite element (FE) model was developed using PLAXIS
program to simulate the interaction mechanism between soil and GFRP soil nail during labora-
tory pull-out test carried out by Zhang et al. (2014). A parametric study was conducted using
this model to study the influence of some factors affecting the pullout behavior of GFRP soil
nails, including nail diameter, embedded length and overburden pressure.
2 DESCRIPTION OF FINITE ELEMENT NUMERAL MODEL

2.1 Model geometry
The overall dimensions of the model were defined as the same size as the internal dimensions
of the pullout box used in the laboratory pullout test carried out by Zhang et al.(2014): 1540 mm
in length, 250 mm in width and 250 mm in heigh. The test box is composed of six aluminum
plates fixed together by means of bolted connections. A circular hole centered at the level
125mm in height and 60 mm in diameter is located on the front of the box for the installation of
the inclusion shown in figure 1.
Figure 1: Geometric characteristics of the model (Zhang et al. 2014)
2.2 Boundary conditions
Boundary conditions were defined manually, according to the actual conditions of laboratory
pullout test. The bottom boundary of the model is fixed in all directions. The lateral boundaries,
excluding one face through it the soil nail will be pulled out, as well as the top plate are re-
strained in normal direction, and set free in the two orthogonal directions.
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2.3 Constitutive models and materials parameters
2.3.1 Soil parameters
A linear elastic model behavior with the Mohr Coulomb yield criterion is adopted in this re-
search to model the soil behavior. A drained soil condition, with phreatic line positioned at bot-
tom of the model, is chosen. The parameters required in this model are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1. Soil properties used in the numerical analysis (Zhang et al. (2014))
_____________________________________________________________________________
Soil (Poorly graded sand)
_____________________________________________________________________________
Soil model Plain strain
Elements 15-nodes
Material model Mohr Coulomb
Drainage type Drained
Young’s Modulus (MPa) 35
Poisson ratio 0.25
Dry unit weight (kN/m3) 19.6
Cohesion (kPa) 1
Internal friction angle (°) 46.2
Dilatancy (°) 16.2
_____________________________________________________________________________
2.3.2 Modeling of soil nail
The soil nail is modelled using « Embedded pile » structural element. The PLAXIS embed-
ded pile is considered as a beam which can cross the soil volume elements at any arbitrary loca-
tion and with any arbitrary orientation as shown in Figure 2.a. By the insertion of this structural
element, « virtual » nodes are generated for the formulation of the interaction between the pile
and the surrounding soil without affecting the discretization of the existing mesh. The Pile is
connected to the soil by means of special elements of interfaces which are skin interface (shaft)
and foot interface (tip). Thereby, there is no need to enter any interface element when an em-
bedded pile is used in the analyses.
Although volume is not considered according to the philosophy design of the embedded pile,
a particular elastic volume around the pile (elastic zone) whose dimension is equivalent to the
pile diameter is assumed according to the pile concept as shown in Figure 2.b. This makes the
embedded pile almost behave like a volume pile. Furthermore, when the embedded pile option
is used the installation effects of the pile are not taken into account. Hence, only piles cause lim-
ited disturbance during installation could be modelled using this structural element. Since, the
soil nail is placed inside the box during soil compaction, the soil in the vicinity of the nail is
probably undisturbed, which justifies our choice of « Embedded pile » to model the soil-nail be-
havior.
In the analysis, an elastic-plastic model is used to describe the behavior of the interfaces. The
interaction may involve a skin resistance Tmax defined as the force per unit pile length and a tip
resistance Fmax whose sum is considered as the bearing capacity of the embedded pile. For the
case of soil nail, only skin resistance is considered. There are several ways to enter Tmax in
PLAXIS and in our analysis the "Layer dependent" option is used for the modelling. Table 2
shows the different parameters required for the soil nail modelling.
171
(a) (b)
Figure 2: Embedded Pile element
Table 2. Soil nail properties used in the numerical analysis

_____________________________________________________________________________
GFRP Soil nail
_____________________________________________________________________________
Predefined type Massive circular Pile
Young’s Modulus (MPa) 2,04×104
Unit weight (kN/m3) 18,2
Nail diameter (mm) 10mm
Embedded length (mm) 850mm
Skin resistance Layer dependent
_____________________________________________________________________________
2.3.3 Finite element mesh
The mesh generation is quite important in finite element analyses in the sense that both preci-
sion and economy requirements are reasonably satisfied. Moreover, the element type and the
number of elements used in the analyses affect directly the calculation time. In the 3D-FE mesh,
the fine triangular mesh is adopted around the structural element, becoming coarser towards the
edge of the box as shown in figure 3.
Figure 3: 3D finite element mesh
2.3.4 Stage computation
In the analysis, the pullout capacity of the soil nail was determined by using the plastic analy-
sis method and the staged construction calculation method. In fact, several sequential calcula-
tion phases can be described in PLAXIS program following the same procedure used in the con-
struction. Since the program allows the staged analysis of the models, two stages of calculation
are considered to simulate the pullout test. In the first stage, the geometry of the model is de-
fined, the 3D pullout box is modeled with the embedded pile. In this phase the K0 procedure,
172
which takes into account only the soil weight, is selected. As a consequence of this procedure,
the initial stresses are established in such a way that the vertical stresses are generated in equi-
librium with the self-weight of the soil and horizontal stresses are calculated from the specified
value of at rest coefficient K0. In the second phase, a pullout force is applied to the embedded
pile to initialize the pullout test. This initial pullout load is increased to an ultimate failure load
by a load incremental factor generated by PLAXIS. The procedure of loading is applied through
activation of the pullout force applied at the nail head. In this phase, a plastic calculation is de-
fined.
3 NUMERICAL RESULTS
3.1 Force-displacement curves
In the analyses, the effect of nail material on the pullout force was investigated. The analyses
were performed for two different materials as steel and GFRP with fixed diameter (D=10mm)
and length (L=850mm). The results of the pullout force versus displacement are plotted as
shown in figure 4. From the figure, it can be seen that the shape of the force-displacement
curves is similar regardless of the inclusion type. It is also seen that under the current test condi-
tions (low overburden pressure and smooth reinforcement surface) no softening behavior was
observed. In the two numerical simulations, the pullout force increased approximately linearly
with the pullout displacement and then remained constant once the maximum pullout capacity
was reached as observed in the experimental tests. Furthermore, it is seen that the pullout force
of the GFRP inclusion is almost half of that of steel despite they have the same diameter
(D=10mm). A comparison between the maximum force values obtained from the laboratory
pullout test and PLAXIS is presented in Table 3. It is observed that the results of the numerical
simulation are in good agreement with those obtained experimentally.
Figure 4: Predicted pullout force-displacement curves obtained from the numerical simulations
Table 2. Comparison of the maximum pull-out forces measured during the experimental test and calculat-
ed from PLAXIS
_____________________________________________________________________________
Soil nail type maximum measured maximum calculated
pullout force pullout force
during test from PLAXIS
_____________________________________________________________________________
GFRP soil nail 65 N 64,65N
Steel soil nail 144 N 142.7 N
_____________________________________________________________________________
173
3.2 Distribution of forces along the soil nail
Figures 5 a and b show the distribution of axial load along the length of the steel and GFRP
soil nail during the pullout process. It can be seen from those figures that the maximum value is
mobilized at the nail head and by moving away from the reinforcement head, it decreases grad-
ually to a value at end of the nail.
(a)
(b)
Figure 5. Force distribution of steel soil nail (a) and GFRP soil nail (b)
3.3 Stresses in the soil mass

The displacement contours obtained from the finite element analysis for steel and GFRP soil
nail are given in figure 6. It is seen from the figures that the deformations are generated along
the soil nail with highly stress located at nail head. It is also observed that soil deformations ex-
tends radially when the nail is pulled out from the soil which leads to plastic deformation zone
where the soil is completely disturbed.
174
(a)
175
(b)
Figure 6. contour of the maximum deformation of the model for a steel soil nail (a) and a GFRP
soil nail (b)
3.4 Influence of overburden pressure
In the analyses, the effect of overburden pressure on the pullout force of GFRP and steel soil
nail was investigated. The same finite element model was simulated with the application of dif-
ferent overburden pressures (15, 35 and 50 kPa). Figure 7 shows the evolution of the pull-out
force according to the applied overburden pressure for the two materials. A significant increase
in the pullout force was observed when the overburden pressure increases from 0 kPa to 50 kPa
(around 65 kPa for GFRP soil nail and 226 kPa for steel soil nails). This proves that the over-
burden pressure contributes well to the pullout resistance of a soil nail.
Figure 7: Influence of overburden pressure on the pullout force of GFRP and steel soil nail
3.5 Influence of nail diameter

In the analyses, the effect of the nail diameter on the pullout force of GFRP soil nail was in-
vestigated. The analyses were carried out for four different diameters (3, 5, 10 and 20mm). The
176
results were given in terms of force-displacement curves plotted presented in Figure 8. Accord-
ing to the analysis results, it was observed that the pullout force increases approximately linear-
ly with the increase of nail diameter. The pullout force for a nail diameter of 20mm was approx-
imately 7 times more than that of a nail diameter of 3mm. This is can be attributed to the fact
that as the nail diameter increased, the contact area between the bar and the soil increased. This
implies that there would be more area of interaction between the bar and soil resulting in mobi-
lization of more pullout force.
Figure 8: Influence of nail diameter on the pullout behavior of a GFRP soil nail
3.6 Influence of embedded length
The embedded length must be sufficient to allow the development of interface friction re-
quired to improve the shear strength of the existing soil. Figure 9 shows the force-displacement
curves obtained for different nail lengths (400mm, 850mm and 1100 mm). It is seen from the
figure that an increase in the embedded length from 400mm to 1100mm results in an increase in
the pullout force from 31N to 86N. In fact, as the bar length increases, the contact surface area
between the bar and the soil will increase. Therefore, more tension is mobilized over the whole
length of the bar resulting in higher pullout forces.
Figure 10: Influence of embedded length on the GFRP soil nail
177
4 CONCLUSION
This paper studied the performance of GFRP soil nail, a numerical analysis was conducted by
PLAXIS 3D finite element software. The results of the pull-out tests carried out on different
types and dimensions of inclusions and under different overburden pressures are presented and
the following conclusions are drawn:
Under actual test conditions (low overburden pressure and smooth reinforcement surface), the
pullout behavior of the soil nail was similar and had a general trend regardless the type of mate-
rial, dimensions of the reinforcement and the applied overburden pressure. In fact, the pullout
force increases quasi linearly with the pullout displacement and becomes constant once the
pullout capacity is reached. (No softening behavior has been observed)
The difference in interface shear strength and Young’s module (20,4 GPa for the GFRP soil
nail and 210 GPa for a steel soil nail) may explain the lower pullout force of GFRP soil nail
compared to steel soil nail.
Reinforcements (nail diameter and embedded length) tend to provide more pullout
force. Furthermore, analysis of the numerical results shows that, under actual test conditions, the
use of a GFRP inclusion with 20mm in diameter, gives practically the same pullout force of a
steel soil nail of 10mm diameter.
The pull-out force increases when overburden pressure increase regardless of the reinforce-
ment material. The increase of pullout shear stress in dense soil is attributed to the restrained di-
latancy phenomenon. Indeed, when shear stress occurs at the soil-nail interface during the
pullout, the soil particles around the nail tend to dilate but are restrained by the soil above lead-
ing to an increase in normal stress locally around the nail which leads to an increase of the soil
density resulting in a higher pullout resistance.
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179
180
Investigating the electrical discharge effect on the shaft capacity
of RIT piles: a case study
Wafi BOUASSIDA
University of Tunis El Manar, National School of Engineering of Tunis, LR14ES03, Geotechnical &
Georisk Engineering. BP 37 Le Belvédère 1002 Tunis, Tunisia
Yuri Kharine, Hamdi ESSAIEB, Mounir BOUASSIDA

University of Tunis El Manar, National School of Engineering of Tunis, LR14ES03, Geotechnical &
Georisk Engineering. BP 37 Le Belvédère 1002 Tunis, Tunisia
ABSTRACT: This paper presents an outstanding procedure quantifying the contribution of the
electrical discharge task on the enhancement of RIT piles shaft capacities regarding bored foun-
dations. It highlights how the identification of the shape factor combined with the construction of
the load settlement curve of a single pile leads to the determination of the electrical discharge
amplification factor. It finally draws a design chart allowing the user to estimate the shaft capacity
of a single RIT pile based on the shaft term of a bored pile.
Keywords: Rit piles, shape factor, shaft capacity, electrical discharge task.
1 PROPOSED PROCEDURE
The shaft capacity of a RIT pile is characterized by two major parameters namely the shape effect
and the electrical discharge.
The first one provides a soil-to soil frictional mechanism and therefore augments the shaft re-
sistance a RIT pile towards vertical loads as it's presented in Figure.1 and detailed in (Bouassida,
2016).
Figure. 1 Shear Stress Mechanism developed when vertically loading a RIT Pile
The second one concerns the electrical discharge task (EDT) which provides shock waves dy-
namically compacting the soil close to the pile and therefore improving its cohesion and friction
angle, hence its shear strength as it is shown in Figure.2
181
Figure. 2 EDT effects on Pressuremeter Characteristics, Project: Construction of a Seven Storage
Building in Essalema City, Tunis (Bouassida, 2016)
The question that arises during the design task of a single RIT pile is how to identify the electrical
discharge contribution in the enhancement of the bearing capacity of RIT piles regarding bored
elements. After all, the shape effect can be quantified through an integration of the shear strength
of the soil close to the shaft using full cohesion and friction angles as detailed in (Bouassida,
2021) and similarly to the under reamed piles technology as discussed by (Poulous & Davis,
1980). In order to encounter the complexity of dynamic cavity expansion works which are not
only awkward to solve in a pile foundation design task but also not guarantee a precise quantifi-
cation of EDT, the authors proposed the procedure mentioned in the flowchart below:
182
Write that the shaft capacity of a RIT pile equals: SC(RIT pile)=*δ*SC(bored
pile) where "" is the shape amplifying factor and "δ" the electrical discharge one.
Then, extract the "" factor by a full integration of the shear strength close to the
pile shaft according to Figure.1 mechanism.
Calibrating the numerical load settlement curve built by the modified cubic root
load transfer curves according to the full-scale loading test results to extract the
adhesion coefficient similarly to driven piles and the disturbance one responsible
for soil particles disarrengement along the first depths beneath the pile head
(Figure.4).
Write that the electrical discharge compaction brings an increase in the horizontal
stress with repect to equation A:
Then, draw the evolution of horizontal stress variation in depth after the EDT by
multiplying the initial horizontal stress profile by "δ".)
Projecting the load corresponding to settlement of D/100 (similarly to EC7) and

then divide it by *SC(bored pile) to obtain the "δ" amplifying factor
corresponding to the electrical discharge contribution
Repeat the process for RIT piles anchored in normally consolidated silty clays to
draw a design chart linking the limit pressure profile
to the unit shear stress that should be chosen when estimating the shaft capacity of
a RIT pile
Figure. 3 Proposed procedure to identify the electrical discharge effect on the shaft capacity of sin-
gle RIT Piles
183
Figure. 4 Loosening of the surrounding layers at the first meters of pile shaft due to driving
(Bouassida, 2021)
(A)
c: Soil cohesion;
: Soil friction angle;
: Residual Horizontal Stress Increased after the EDT task.
2 CASE STUDY
The project concerns the construction of seven floors building in Essalema City located in Tunis
suburbs. The geotechnical strata is characterized by a thick normally consolidated silty layer fol-
lowed by a moderately stiff sandy layer in which the pile tips has been anchored. Table.1 provides
the results of the geotechnical investigation carried in situ. In the same context, Figure.5 provides
the evolution of the shape factor, named shaft capacity ratio as a function of the soil adhesion.
Table. 1 Soil Investigation Results
Layer Thickness (m) Cohesion (kPa) Friction (°)

Brown Clayey sand 5 0 25
Silty Tunis Vase 10 20 10
Dark Silty Clay 12 30 10
Brown fine sand 5 0 25
Dark Tunis Vase 12 26 14
Brown Silty Clay 9 35 10
Dark Tunis Vase 12 32 12
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Figure. 5 Envelope of shaft capacity ratio as a function of the adhesion factor
For bored piles, the recommended average adhesion factor equals 0.5, hence the shape amplifying
factor equals 1,9 for this case. The calibration of the numerical load settlement curve according
to the results of the full-scale test is presented in Figure.6.
Figure. 6 Numerical settlement curves calibrated according to full-scale loading test
Figure. 7 Numerical settlement curves calibrated according to full-scale loading test
The load corresponding to a D/100 settlement equals 1120 kN hence the electrical amplification
factor equals 1,2. Figure.7 presents the evolution of the horizontal stresses in-depth before and
after the electrical discharge compaction.
185
Figure. 8 Horizontal stress profile developed by the EDT after the installation of RIT pile
What can be clearly remarked from this case is that the bearing capacity of a RIT pile is 2.6 times
the bearing capacity of a bored pile having the same geometry and 1.8 times the bearing capacity
of a driven pile. This is obviously due that such a technology combines the dynamic compaction
by means of the EDT and the shape effect which imposes a higher frictional mechanism regarding
cylindrical pile technologies.
Figure.8 presents the design chart allowing the user to estimate the shaft capacity of a RIT pile
based on the limit pressure profile of the investigated site.
Figure. 9 Design chart developed for the first case study (α=0.6 / adhesion=1.2)
Figure 9 presents a comparison between the settlement responses of piles having the same geom-
etries (D=0.4, L=20.5m) but executed by different technologies for this case study. It can be
clearly be observed that the mobilization of the shaft term for RIT piles occurs after the mobili-
zation of the full frictional mechanism for other pile setup processes. This confirms the cost-
effectiveness performance of RIT regarding the mentioned technologies in normally consolidated
clays.
186
Figure. 10 Comparison between RIT piles group behavior and other Pile Technologies (case of
four piles, spacing =5d)
3 CONCLUSION
Recharge Impulse Technology has shown its efficiency, in terms of bearing capacity and settle-
ment, for pile foundations executed in normally consolidated silty clays.
Future works should study such efficiency for RIT piles group behavior, peculiarly for piled-raft
foundations.
References
Bouassida Wafy, Kammoun. A.A (2016). Caractérisation de l’interaction entre une fondation et
un sol d’assise : Mise en œuvre d’une procédure itérative. Revue scientifique et technique
de la Construction. 5ème Congrès Maghrébin en ingénierie Géotechnique "Les risques
du sol", n° 135-136 1 et 2ème semestres, pp 19-23.
Bouassida, W. (2021). ON THE BEHAVIOR OF AXIALLY LOADED RECHARGE IMPULSE
TECHNOLOGY PILES IN SILTY CLAYS. Tunis.
Poulous, H., & Davis, H. (1980). Pile Foundations Analysis and Design. (Vol. Volume I). Sedney,
Australia: Jhon Wiley and Sons.
187
188
Prédictions numérique et analytique de la consolidation du sol
mou de Tunis
A. Rezgui
Université de Tunis El Manar – Ecole Nationale d’Ingénieurs de Tunis, LR14ES03-Ingénierie Géotechnique, BP 37
Le Belvédère, Tunis, Tunisia
L. Ajam
Université de Tunis El Manar – Ecole Nationale d’Ingénieurs de Tunis, LR-03-ES05-LIG, BP 37 Le Belvédère,
Tunis, Tunisia
B. Jellali
Université de Tunis El Manar – Ecole Nationale d’Ingénieurs de Tunis, LR14ES03-Ingénierie Géotechnique, BP 37
Le Belvédère, Tunis, Tunisia
Résumé : l’essai œdométrique est habituellement réalisé pour évaluer les caractéristiques de
consolidation des sols argileux. Cette communication contribue essentiellement à la modélisation
numérique de la consolidation primaire à l’aide de PLAXIS2D d’un échantillon pris de la vase
Tunis. Les résultats de la simulation de la diffusion de la pression interstitielle et du tassement par
éléments finis dans les conditions œdométriques du sol étudié seront comparés en second lieu à
ceux d’une approche analytique basée sur un développement de série de Fourrier de la solution
du problème étudié.
Mots clés : vase de Tunis, consolidation primaire, tassement, terzaghi, diffusion
1. INTRODUCTION
La vase de Tunis est connue par les géotechniciens comme étant un sol à « problèmes » à
cause de ses caractéristiques mécaniques médiocres. Les investigations expérimentales en
laboratoires et sur sites ont prouvé sa tendance intensive à la compressibilité étant donné qu’elle
est classée comme étant une argile très plastique, de faible consistance et d’une teneur eau et en
matières organiques très élevées (Tounekti et al, 2008). Ce caractère de compressibilité est
probablement à l’origine de toute sorte de tassement et d’instabilité des fondations des
constructions (Preetham et al, 2019). Sous l’effet d’un excès de chargement de la superstructure,
on remarque une diminution du volume de sol. En admettant que les grains des sols et la phase
liquide sont incompressibles, et que le sol est saturé, la seule explication de cette variation sera le
réarrangement des particules solides suite à l’échappement de l’eau. En effet, l’eau va être
dissipée des vides suite à la charge appliquée extérieurement, et par conséquent, on aboutira à une
réduction de volume. La réduction de volume des sols mous sous un chargement est connue aussi
par « le tassement par consolidation ». Avec le temps, la surpression d'eau interstitielle créée par
la charge sera réduite. Les tassements sont donc établis par la réduction de l'excès de pression
d'eau interstitielle. On parle également de tassement primaire. Le phénomène de la consolidation
décrit alors le processus transitoire, où l'équilibre de la pression interstitielle est rétabli après un
changement de l'état de contrainte. Ce processus implique un écoulement du fluide interstitiel à
travers la roche poreuse (Fjaer et al, 2008). Dans ce contexte, Terzaghi a proposé en 1923 pour
la première fois, la théorie de consolidation unidimensionnelle décrivant la première phase de la
consolidation des argiles (Claytonet al, 1995). Dans la suite, on esquissera une solution analytique
de l’équation différentielle régissant cette consolidation.
189
2. LA THEORIE DE TERZAGHI - SES HYPOTHESES ET SES IMPLICATIONS
Quoique cette découverte constitue la base de la mécanique de sol, elle n’était applicable qu’à
partir de 1925 où Terzaghi a traduit le phénomène en formulation mathématique en se basant sur
des hypothèses et des simplifications bien définies pour les argiles saturées. Pour décrire la
consolidation primaire, Terzaghi a fait recourt à sept hypothèses de bases (Detournay, 1993 :
1. Le déplacement dans la couche d’argile sera permis dans une unique dimension, le
problème sera résolu en 1D,
2. Le sol est supposé totalement saturé,
3. Les squelettes du sol et de l’eau sont incompressibles,
4. Le sol est homogène,
5. Les caractéristiques intrinsèques du sol sont maintenues constantes durant la phase de

la consolidation primaire,
6. Le drainage est unidimensionnel et suit la loi de Darcy,
7. Le volume varie linéairement avec l’accroissement de la contrainte effective appliquée.
En d’autres termes, si on considère un échantillon de sol argileux de volume V qui est soumis à
une contrainte verticale uniforme Δσ’ dans une seule direction, la réponse volumétrique a un
comportement élastique isotrope (caractérisé par une seule déformation normale non nulle et par
des quantités de champ variant uniquement dans cette direction). Supposant que cette orientation
privilégiée coïncide avec la direction verticale z (εzz étant donc la seule déformation non nulle),
on peut avoir donc la relation suivante :
V (1)
  zz
V
Les hypothèses 2 et 3 affirment que ce changement de volume n’est dû qu’à la dissipation de l’eau
à travers les pores vides du sol, ce qui exprime simplement que la variation du volume V est égale
à la quantité de l’eau échappée :
 

div v 
t
(2)
Tenant compte de l’hypothèse 6 stipulant que le drainage se fait suivant la direction z uniquement,
cela implique que la vitesse d’écoulement est aussi unidimensionnelle. Par ailleurs, cette vitesse
obéit à la loi de Darcy conformément aux relations (4) et (4’) :
v z V (3)

z t
k h (4)
vz  
 w z
p (4’)
h z
w
190
En insérant (4) dans (4’), on aboutira à une relation entre la pression interstitielle de l’eau et sa
vitesse d’écoulement (5) :
k p (5)
vz   k
 w z
La substitution de la relation (5) dans (3), montre que la variation spatiale de la pression
interstitielle est proportionnelle à la variation relative du volume du sol au cours du temps (6) :
k  2 p  (6)

 w z 2 t
D’après ce qui est précède, on peut conclure que le caractère poreux des argiles saturées implicite
probablement cette variation en volume ; ce qui peut se formuler par une relation de
proportionnalité entre la variation du volume au cours du temps et la variation de l’indice des
vides e, e0 étant la valeur initiale de cet indice des vides (7) :
V   e  (7)
  
t t  1  e0 
L’interprétation des hypothèses 1 et 7 renseigne indirectement que la variation unidimensionnelle

du volume V de l’échantillon est causée uniquement par les contraintes effectives verticales à tout
instant de la phase de consolidation. Sachant que la contrainte totale reste constante au cours du
processus de consolidation, on aboutit à (8) et (9) :
 v' p (8)

t t
e  e0  cc  v' (9)
Avec cv  k 1  e  le coefficient de consolidation.

 wcc
La combinaison des deux équations précédentes permet d’établir une équation différentielle de
diffusion de la pression interstitielle, analogue à l’équation de diffusion (par conduction) de la
chaleur (10) :
p 2 p (10)
 cv 2
t z
Le cas le plus simple de consolidation examiné ici est la consolidation unidimensionnelle. Dans
ce cas, la déformation latérale de la masse de sol est négligée. La procédure d'essai pour identifier
les propriétés de compression et l’histoire de chargement in-situ du sol étudié associées à la
consolidation est celle de l'essai œdométrique. Dans le reste du présent papier, on vise à résoudre
analytiquement et numériquement l’équation de consolidation primaire unidimensionnelle d’un
échantillon de la vase de Tunis, consolidé dans appareil œdométrique.
3. IDENTIFICATION DE LA PROCEDURE ET DU SOL ETUDIE
Dans ce cas L'essai œdométrique est effectué sur un échantillon cylindrique de l’argile molle de
Tunis, saturé dont les caractéristiques présentées dans le tableau 1. L’anneau cylindrique de 70
191
mm de diamètre et de 20 mm d'épaisseur est rigide de telle sorte que le déplacement radial est
bloqué. L'échantillon est pris en sandwich entre deux pierres poreuses pour assurer un double
drainage vertical en haut et en bas. Une charge statique verticale de 140 kPa est appliquée et
maintenue constant pendant 24h. Cette contrainte appliquée dépend de la contrainte effective
réelle qui est de l’ordre de 140 kPa, car le sol étudié est normalement consolidé. Vues les
symétries de révolution par rapport à l’axe vertical z, et plane par rapport à un plan perpendiculaire
à cet axe et passant par le milieu de l’échantillon, la modélisation numérique exploitera
avantageusement ces symétries pour se placer dans le contexte d’un problème en déformations
planes. Le temps de calcul pourra ainsi, être réduit.
Figure 1. Essai œdométrique
Les caractéristiques du sol étudié sont récapitulées dans le tableau 1 :
Table 1. Caractéristiques du sol étudié

_______________________________________________________________
Paramètres Valeurs
_______________________________________________________________
Sat (kN/m3) 18.4
Kx=Ky (m/s) 1.78E-9
E (kPa) 3955
ν 0.38
cc 0.24
cs 0.056
κ* 0.0228
λ_______________________________________________________________
* 0.051
γh : Poids volumique humide; Kx(y) : coefficient(s) de perméabilité; E : module de Young ; ν : coefficient
de poisson ; cc : coefficient de compressibilité ; cs : coefficient de gonflement ; κ* : coefficient de
gonflement modifié ; λ*: coefficient de compression modifié.
4. PREDICTION ANALYTIQUE DE LA CONSOLIDATION ET DES TASSEMENTS
La résolution de l’équation de la diffusion de pression interstitielle (10), dans le cas d'une

surcharge constante P sur une couche à consolider d’épaisseur h (h = 2d), rappelle l’équation de
la diffusion de la chaleur unidimensionnelle par conduction à travers une plaque. La solution
analytique d’une telle équation différentielle utilise une approche par produit de Bernoulli :
192

 p( z  0, t )  p( z  2d , t )  0
 p( z , t  0)  P


2
 (2 n 1) 
4  1  (2n  1)    Tv  2 
p( z , t )  P  sin   ze (11)
  n 1 2 n  1  2  d 
avec

T  cv t
 v d 2
Puisque le drainage résultant de la consolidation conduit à l'écoulement, il est également possible
de définir un paramètre important qui est le degré moyen de consolidation.
A chaque hauteur z le degré de consolidation vérifié :
p  z , t 
U z t   1  (12)
p
Est donc la valeur moyenne peut être définit comme :
2
  (2 n 1) 
1 2d 8 1  Tv  
U z t  
2d 0
U z dz 1 
2
  2n  1
n 1
2
e  2  (13)
De plus, une analyse analytique de l'influence du facteur du temps Tv sur l'excès de pression d'eau
interstitielle est effectuée. La pression d'eau interstitielle à un moment donné diminue lorsque le
taux de charge augmente. En effet, il y a nécessité de plus de temps pour dissiper l'excès de
pression d'eau interstitielle si le processus de chargement est terminé dans un court laps de temps.
Figure 2. Influence de Tv sur la surpression d'eau interstitielle à un stade (palier) de chargement constant de
la solution analytique
5. PREDICTION NUMERIQUE DE LA CONSOLIDATION ET DES TASSEMENTS
La simulation numérique de l'essai œdométrique est réalisée à l'aide du logiciel Plaxis2D, version
V20. La Figure 2 montre le maillage adopté dans la présente étude. Le modèle numérique adopté
a une largeur de 70 mm et une hauteur de 20 mm. Le maillage est réalisé dans le cadre d’un
modèle en déformations planes, avec des éléments finis triangulaire à 15 nœuds.
193
Table 2. Maillage du modèle
_______________________________________________________________
Paramètres Valeurs
_______________________________________________________________
Nombre des nœuds 4497
Nombres des éléments finis 538
_______________________________________________________________
Pour les argiles molles, il déconseillé d’utiliser le modèle de plasticité de Mohr-Coulomb, car il
ne permet pas d’appréhender rigoureusement à la phase non-drainée de la consolidation (court
terme). Par conséquent, le modèle adapté pour la présente simulation sera du type SSM « Soft
Soil Model ». Ce modèle permet de décrire la phase de consolidation primaire avec une précision
meilleure que celle avec le modèle MCM (Mohr-Coulomb Model).
Pour se situer dans les mêmes conditions que celles du test œdométrique réel, il faut respecter
obligatoirement les conditions aux limites pour le double drainage et la direction de déplacement
à imposer. En outre l’essai œdométrique exige le blocage du déplacement horizontal pour les
parois latérales, par contre il interdit tout sorte de déplacement pour la face inférieure de
l’échantillon. Concernant la permission du drainage en haut et en bas de la cellule il faut
perméabiliser ces deux faces et bloquer tout échange par les parois latérales.
Figure 3. Modèle numérique de la géométrie de l'échantillon
Pour le calcul de la consolidation, on admet deux étapes (stages) :

a) La phase initiale correspond à l’équilibre géostatique du modèle où un état initial des
pressions a lieu sans chargement extérieur. Cette phase communément appelée
« procédure K0 », génère directement un état de contrainte effective initiale, la pression
interstitielle et des paramètres d'état,
b) La deuxième phase où la contrainte de 140 kPa répartie uniformément à la facette
supérieure de l’échantillon sera prise en compte dans le calcul couplé par les conditions
de saturation du sol. Cette phase permet de générer les contraintes effectives, l’excès des
pressions interstitielles de l’eau à l’intérieur de l’échantillon, et de déterminer le
tassement obtenu au cours du temps jusqu’atteindre l’équilibre ou autrement :
 v   v' et p  0 (14)
6. RESULTATS ET DISCUSSION
L'objectif de cette partie vise à comparer les résultats numériques avec les résultats analytiques
obtenus. La Figure 4 présente les valeurs de l’excès de la pression interstitielle résultant de la
prédiction analytique de Terzaghi et de la modélisation numérique par SSM de Plaxis2D.
194
Figure 4. La variation de la pression interstitielle en fonction de Tv
Les deux courbes ont plus au moins la même allure. Dans un premier intervalle de temps, l’excès
de la pression interstitielle augmente. Cette augmentation illustre que l’eau siégée dans les vides
du sol s’oppose à la contrainte subie, jusqu’à atteindre l’équilibre.
Cet intervalle de temps est évalué analytiquement à 0.4s pour les résultats de la pression
interstitielle de l’eau. Au bout de cet intervalle, la valeur de l’excès de la pression de l’eau
augmente de 3 kPa. Cependant pour le modèle SSM, la variation est de l’ordre de 1 kPa au bout
de 10-4 s.
Il est à noter que lorsque l’échantillon saturé du sol argileux est soumis à une augmentation de
contrainte, la dissipation de l'excès de pression interstitielle générée se fera beaucoup plus
lentement en raison de la perméabilité relativement faible du sol argileux. Cela signifie que le
tassement, causé par le drainage d'une partie de l'eau des vides du sol, sera beaucoup plus lent.
Pour la vase testée, la dissipation totale de la pression interstitielle par la solution analytique sous
une contrainte de 140 kPa dans l’échantillon se déroule dans un intervalle de temps supérieur à
400s qui indique entre autres, la fin de la phase de la consolidation initiale (primaire). Cette
réponse est légèrement en déphasage par rapport à celle obtenue à l’aide du modèle numérique
basé sur le SSM. En effet, ce dernier indique que la phase de la consolidation initiale se termine
pour un temps de 200s. Ce manque de précision a d’ailleurs, été remarqué et confirmé par d’autres
chercheurs (Agraine et al, 2020), même pour un drainage dans une seule direction.
Figure5. Courbe du degré de consolidation en fonction du facteur de temps
195
Dans le même propos de ce qui précède, la première divergence des deux courbes pour l’excès de
la pression interstitielle implique un retard de 200s pour atteindre la consolidation de la prévision
analytique.
L’erreur constatée entre les deux résultats pour la variation de l’excès de la pression interstitielle
en fonction de temps peut être calculée à partir de la courbe de corrélation suivante :
Figure 6. Courbe de tendance de l’erreur sur la variation de la pression interstitielle en fonction de Tv
La courbe de tendance qui suit la variation de l’écart relative entre les valeurs trouvées
analytiquement et ceux numériques a un coefficient de détermination R2=0,94 et donne une
équation de corrélation suivante :
E   1, 0657Tv4  15, 256Tv3  76, 305Tv2  153,18T v  2,1303
7. CONCLUSION :
Ce papier a présenté une simulation numérique de la consolidation unidimensionnelle d’un

échantillon typique de la vase de Tunis, en utilisant un modèle de comportement du type « Soft
Soil Model » intégré au logiciel de modélisation par éléments finis Plaxis2D. En comparant les
résultats des simulations numériques réalisées avec ce logiciel, à ceux obtenus analytiquement,
on peut émettre les principales remarques et conclusions suivantes :
a. Le comportement prédit par le modèle des sols mous « SSM » est en bon accord avec les
valeurs analytiques dans la courbe de l’excès de la pression interstitielle de l’eau,
b. Un équilibre entre le chargement extérieur et la pression interstitielle est atteint plus
rapidement par le modèle « SSM » que pour les prédictions analytiques. Ce déphasage de
réponse est à l’origine d’un retard au niveau de l’achèvement de la consolidation primaire
pour la solution analytique.
c. Une conséquence de ce retard se traduit immédiatement sur la courbe de dégrée de
consolidation.
d. Cette erreur des valeurs obtenues peut être traduite en une équation en polynomiale
d’ordre 4.
Références
Agraine, H., Bouali, M. F., & Messameh, A. 2020. Numerical analysis of one-dimensional
consolidation in fine-grained soils. In Key Engineering Materials 857: 334-340. Trans Tech Publications
Ltd.
196
Clayton, C. R. I., Steinhagen, M., Steinhagen, H. M., Powrie, W., Terzaghi, K., & Skempton, A. W. 1995.
Terzahi’s theory of consolidation, and the discovery of effective stress. Proceedings of the Institution of
Civil Engineers-Geotechnical Engineering, 113(4), 191-205.
Detournay, E. 1993. Fundamentals of Poroelasticity, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA.
Fjaer, E., Holt, R. M., Horsrud, P., & Raaen, A. M. 2008. Petroleum related rock mechanics. Elsevier.
Preetham, H. K., Nayak, S., & Surya, E. V. 2019. Experimental investigation on the stabilization of soft
clay using granulated blast furnace slag. In IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and
Engineering 561(1), p. 012047. IOP Publishing.
Tounekti, F., Bouassida, M., Klai, M., & Marzougi, I. 2008. Etude expérimentale en vue d’un modèle de
comportement pour la vase de Tunis. Revue française de géotechnique, 122 : 25-36.
Verruijt, A. 2017. An Introduction to Soil Mechanics. Springer.
197
198
Comparaison des mesures de Su à partir des essais de cisaillement
direct et de l’Outil de Cisaillement Cylindrique (CST)
D. Azaiez, M. Bouassida, & S.A Mnigniavy

Université de Tunis EL Manar, Ecole National d’Ingénieurs de Tunis, Laboratoire d’Ingénierie
Résumé : Le remaniement des sols mous lors d’essais au laboratoire ou en place rend difficile une
détermination fiable de la cohésion non drainée Su. Ce papier introduit un nouvel outil “ l’Outil
de Cisaillement Cylindrique” (CST) pour mesurer la cohésion non drainée des sols mous. Une
description de l‘outil est détaillée ainsi que la procédure d’essai. La méthode proposée offre
l’avantage d’éviter le remaniement du sol mou, qui se produit avant la réalisation d’un essai de
cisaillement. A partir de mesures de la cohésion non drainée et en se basant sur des considérations
d’essais de cisaillement courants, une nouvelle méthode de détermination de Su, à partir de l’essai
au CST, est proposée. Le programme expérimental comporte des essais de cisaillement en
utilisant deux modèles de l’outil de cisaillement cylindrique. Les mesures effectuées sur une argile
molle reconstituée de Tunis ont été comparées à celles obtenues à partir d’essais de cisaillement
direct effectués sur le même échantillon reconstitué. Les résultats préliminaires obtenus
constituent une première validation de la détermination de la cohésion non drainée avec le CST.
1 INTRODUCTION
Les sols mous sont caractérisés par une structure colloïdale, une compressibilité non négligeable
et une faible perméabilité. Cela rend la mesure de leur cohésion non drainée, Su, une tache
compliquée. En effet, lors de l’échantillonnage d’un sol mou, sa structure initiale est facilement
remaniée. Par conséquent, les paramètres de résistance au cisaillement déterminés à partir d'essais
en laboratoire, en particulier la cohésion non drainée dépend souvent de la qualité des échantillons
du sol (Bobei & Locks, 2013).
Dans ce cadre, des chercheurs du laboratoire de mécanique des sols de l'Ecole Nationale
d'Ingénieurs de Tunis se sont investis pour trouver une méthode fiable et efficace pour évaluer la
cohésion non drainée déterminée à partir du scissomètre au laboratoire. Elle consiste à limiter la
résistance au cisaillement du sol dans la marge des petites déformations, Bouassida & Boussetta
(1999). Plus tard, sur la base de cette condition applicable à tous types de sols (Bouassida, 2006),
Bouassida & Azaiez (2018), ont présenté plus de détails pour déterminer convenablement la
valeur de Su via une limitation du couple enregistré. Elle consiste à localiser la rupture du sol dans
le domaine des petites déformations, Bouassida & Boussetta (1999).
Plus tard, dans le même contexte, depuis 2016, Bouassida & Azaiez (2020) ont proposé une
nouvelle méthode capable de remédier aux limitations des méthodes existantes. Cette méthode a
été développée dans le cadre d’un projet de recherche, dont l’objectif est d'estimer
convenablement la cohésion non drainée des sols mous.
L'objectif principal de ce travail est, ainsi, de présenter cette nouvelle méthode de détermination
de Su mesurée avec l’Outil de Cisaillement Cylindrique dit « Cylindrical Shear Tool » (CST)). La
fiabilité de la méthode proposée est évaluée à partir d’une comparaison des mesures de l’essai au
CST par rapport aux mesures d’essais de cisaillement direct et triaxiaux.
Ce papier aborde, en premier lieu, la caractérisation du sol, la description de l’outil proposé et les
instructions pour son utilisation. Le programme expérimental réalisé comprenait des essais au
CST effectués sur des échantillons reconstitués d'une argile molle de Tunis. Ensuite, la méthode
de détermination de la cohésion non drainée est explicitée.
Les résultats obtenus à partir des essais au CST sont comparés à ceux obtenus à partir des essais
de cisaillement direct effectués sur la même argile reconstituée et à des données triaxiales UU
(Bouassida & Boussetta 1999).
199
2 PROBLEMATIQUE POSEE
Les lacs Nord et Sud de la ville de Tunis constituent des sites problématiques, en termes de type
du sol, parce qu’ils comportent des dépôts sédimentaires de l'ère quaternaire (Kaàniche et al.
2000). Plusieurs contributions, notamment expérimentales et théoriques, ont été menées au
laboratoire de mécanique des sols de l'Ecole Nationale d'Ingénieurs de Tunis, pour l’étude de
l'Argile Molle de Tunis. La caractérisation des sols, la mise en œuvre des lois de comportements
et des techniques d'amélioration ont été rapportées (Bouassida 1996 ; Bouassida & Porbaha 2004
; Touiti et al, 2009 ; Bouassida & Klai 2012 ; Frikha et al, 2013 ; Jebali et al, 2017, etc.).
Sur la base du programme expérimental mené sur l’argile molle de Tunis reconstituée, une
nouvelle méthode de détermination de la cohésion non drainée est donc suggérée. Il en résulte
l’obtention de résultats qui permettent d’évaluer la fiabilité de la méthode proposée à partir d’une
comparaison à des résultats d’essais de cisaillement direct ainsi que des mesures de l’essai
Triaxial non consolidé non drainée (Bouassida & Boussetta 1999).
3 RECONSTITUTION DE L’ARGILE MOLLE DE TUNIS

La reconstitution de l’argile molle de Tunis comprend la préparation d'échantillons et leur
consolidation dans une cellule cylindrique spécifique. Un échantillonnage sous forme de bloc
d’argile molle de Tunis à 35 m de profondeur à l'avenue J. Jaurès à Tunis a été exploité.
L’échantillon extrait est caractérisée par une granulométrie dont 98 % des particules sont de
dimensions inférieures à 80 μm (Jebali et al. 2017).
Afin de garantir, à la fois, la saturation et une faible consistance du sol reconstitué, on a
sélectionné la fraction de particules ayant une dimension inférieure à 100 µm pour être hydratées
à une teneur en eau variant de 1.25 à 1.5 fois sa limite de liquidité. Le coulis obtenu, est rempli
dans une cellule de consolidation ou il est vibré. Cette procédure de reconstitution permet
d'obtenir un échantillon de l’argile molle de Tunis ayant une structure homogène et donc des
propriétés physiques bien contrôlées, notamment sa teneur en eau (Bouassida, 1996).
Une cellule cylindrique, en matériau résine époxy, de diamètre intérieur Din = 19 cm, et de hauteur
Ht = 45 cm a été exploité pour consolider l’argile reconstitutée.
Le Tableau 1 montre les paramètres géotechniques de l’argile reconstituée. L’incrément de
charge appliquée à la cellule de consolidation a abouti à une contrainte verticale égale à 30 kPa.
Il convient de noter que les paramètres physiques de l’argile reconstituée dans la présente étude
sont assez similaires à ceux proposés par Bouassida & Boussetta (1999).
En particulier, l'indice de plasticité des deux sols reconstitués et testés correspond à une argile
très plastique. En plus, en raison d'un angle de frottement non drainé négligeable, l’argile
reconstituée correspond à un sol purement cohérent, de cohésion non drainée inférieure à 12 kPa.
Tableau 1. Paramètres géotechniques de l'argile molle de Tunis reconstituée
Bouassida et
Présente
Paramètre Boussetta
Etude
(1999)
Poids Volumique totale 16.98 16.6
(kN/m3)
Teneur en eau (%) 51.27 51
Teneur en eau moyenne - 34.45
(%)
Gravité spécifique 2.77 2.64
Limite de liquidité (%) 55.0 73.0
Indice de plasticité (%) 27.35 47.0
Indice de consistance 𝐼 0.14 0.47
Contrainte de 30 -
consolidation 𝜎 (kPa)
Cohésion non drainée - 8.0
(kPa)
Angle de frottement (°) - 3.0
200
4 PROCEDURE DE L’ESSAI PROPOSE
Comparé aux essais de cisaillement courants, l’essai au CST est conçu pour fournir une mesure
de la résistance au cisaillement non drainée des sols fins d’une façon simple et efficace. A noter
qu'avant le début de la phase de cisaillement du CST, le remaniement du sol ne se pose pas.
Contrairement à l’essai au scissomètre durant lequel l’insertion du moulinet, avant le cisaillement,
induit un remaniement de l’échantillon de sol.
4.1 Description de l’Outil de Cisaillement Cylindrique

L'outil proposé est un cylindre creux d’épaisseur négligeable et dont la pointe est biseautée sur
une courte longueur d0 = 5 mm. Une telle forme facilite l’insertion de l’outil dans les sols mous,
à une vitesse de déplacement vertical prescrite, sur une distance: 𝑑 ≤ 𝑑 ≤ 𝑑 (Figures 1a, 1b,
1c).
La conception du CST a été effectuée en deux tailles différentes : un outil de petite taille et un
outil de grande taille notés respectivement SST et BST. Le BST a un diamètre extérieur Dext=
63,55 mm et un diamètre intérieur Din = 60,50 mm tandis que le diamètre extérieur et le diamètre
intérieur du SST sont Dext = 38,0 mm ; Din = 35,20 mm, respectivement. Les hauteurs du SST et
BST sont respectivement égales à 70 mm et 100 mm.
La figure 2 montre l'outil CST [1] ; il comprend deux parties principales ; un cylindre creux [2],
pour cisailler le sol, fixé à un piston [3] qui constitue sa seconde partie.
La bague annulaire [4] est composée d'un disque inférieur [6] qui scelle la face supérieure du
cylindre creux de l'intérieur. Le disque supérieur [7] d'un diamètre égal au diamètre extérieur du
cylindre creux, empêche le piston de glisser dans le cylindre creux.
Le piston est fixé au cylindre creux grâce à trois vis à six pans creux fixées à équiangles autour
du disque inférieur [6], (Bouassida & Azaiez, 2020). Le piston [3] transmet la réaction du sol vis-
à-vis du déplacement imposé à vitesse constante de l’outil, au moyen d’une vis à six pans creux,
[5], qui le relie à la presse triaxiale.
Figure 1. Procédure de l’essai avec l’Outil de Cisaillement Cylindrique
201
[7] [3] [5]
[1] [6]
[4]
[2]
Figure 2. Composantes de l’outil proposé (CST)
4.2 Description de l’outil (CST)

Pour la mise en œuvre de l'essai proposé, la cellule de consolidation est découpée en trois portions
égales. Ceci a permis de réaliser l'essai CST de part et d’autres des sections de chaque portion
obtenues. Ces portions sont dénotées du haut en bas de la cellule ; 1, 2 et 3. Ainsi les sections
supérieures des portions ont été notée 1US, 2US, 3US et les sections inférieures 1BS, 2BS, et
3BS, respectivement.
Deux essais au CST ont été effectués de part et d’autre de chaque section, en utilisant le petit
format de l’outil SST et un essai via le grand format de l’outil, notée BST.
A noter que les résultats enregistrés par le CST proviennent d’essais effectués sur les deuxième
et troisième portions d'échantillons reconstitués (Bouassida & Azaiez, 2021).
Les distances entre les essais effectués sont :
d1 : Distance entre l’essai au CST et le bord d’une portion : 1.5 cm à 2.5 cm.
d2 : Distance entre deux essais au CST réalisés avec le SST : 4 cm à 5.5 cm
d3 : Distance entre deux essais au CST réalisés avec le SST et le BST : 4 cm à 5 cm
La figure 3 montre le CST (5) ainsi que les capteurs de mesure (3) et (4), fixés à la presse triaxiale
(2). Le CST est donc inséré dans l'échantillon par l’intermédiaire d’un déplacement imposé par la
presse triaxiale à vitesse constante.
La figure 3 montre le capteur de force de Type « S » (3), de capacité 2 kN, pour mesurer la force
P qui équilibre la résistance au cisaillement du sol produite lors de l’enfoncement de l’outil.
La figure 3 montre, en outre, un capteur de déplacement "4", VJT0271 de course 25 mm, pour
mesurer le déplacement vertical résultant au niveau de l’Outil CST, lorsque l’échantillon est
déplacé dans le sens de l’outil. Un logiciel de laboratoire GDS assure la saisie des mesures. Avant
le commencement de l'essai, on vérifie, sur l’écran de la presse triaxial, que la vitesse de
déplacement est de 1,25 mm/min de façon à satisfaire la condition de cisaillement non drainé.
202
Figure 3. Montage de l’outil CST et des accessoires et des équipements de la presse triaxiale.
Des éprouvettes intactes extraites des deux portions de la cellule de consolidation ont servi à la
réalisation d’essais de cisaillement direct (DST).
5 METHODE DE DETERMINATION DE SU A PARTIR DE L’ESSAI DE CISAILLEMENT

AU CYLINDRE CREUX
D’après la norme française NF-P 94, lors de l'essai de cisaillement direct, si l’évolution de la
courbe contrainte-déplacement ne décrit pas de pic, la résistance au cisaillement est déterminée
dans la plage d'un déplacement horizontal inférieur ou égal à 5 mm.
Par conséquent, lors de la mesure de la résistance au cisaillement, il est inévitable de limiter le
déplacement horizontal entre les deux surfaces cisaillées de l’échantillon. Westerberg et al. 2015
ont proposé la limitation de la déformation pour déterminer la résistance au cisaillement non
drainée à partir de l'essai de cisaillement direct. La limitation consiste à fixer un angle de
distorsion maximal de 15 radians pour adopter une valeur maximale de Su.
Dans cette étude, l’essai de cisaillement direct a servi de référence pour calibrer le facteur
empirique permettant de déterminer la résistance au cisaillement non drainée à partir de l’essai au
scissomètre in situ, et l’essai au pénétromètre au cône. Ainsi, Bouassida & Boussetta (1999) ont
proposé l'établissement d'une limitation pour l’angle de rotation du moulinet lors de l’essai au
scissomètre. En effet, le facteur de correction proposé antérieurement par Bjerrum, résultait d’une
surestimation de la cohésion non drainée mais qui n’était applicable pour déterminer la cohésion
non drainée d’argiles marines japonaises (Tanaka, 1994).
Plus tard, Bouassida & Azaiez (2018) ont mis en œuvre la même approche pour interpréter les
données d’essais au scissomètre in situ, et ceci à partir d’une limitation de la rotation du
scissomètre pour éviter la surestimation de la cohésion non drainée de sédiments fluviaux
assimilés à des sols mous.Lors de l'exécution de l'essai au CST, le déplacement vertical imposé
(l’insertion d) est similaire au déplacement horizontal imposé lors de l'essai de cisaillement direct.
D'après la figure 4, la distorsion de l'échantillon (déformation par cisaillement) est égale à
Sur la base de cette considération, lors de l'exécution de l’essai au cylindre creux, il est essentiel
de limiter l’insertion de l'outil afin de mesurer la force ultime Pult à partir de laquelle on
détermine la cohésion non drainée en toute sécurité. Par conséquent, la résistance au
cisaillement du sol mobilisée ne correspond pas toujours au pic de la courbe contrainte-
déformation (ou force-déplacement) mesurée à partir de tout essai de cisaillement (Bouassida,
2006).
203
Zoom plus
𝐷
2
d
Figure 4. Analogie entre les déformations de distorsion lors des essais de cisaillement direct et
de cisaillement au CST
Il convient de noter que la limitation de l’insertion du CST dans le sol mou peut aussi être adoptée
pour la surface commune entre l’échantillon et le CST 𝐴 tel que:
𝐴 = 𝛱(𝐷 + 𝐷 )𝑑 (1)
La résistance au cisaillement développée au niveau de la surface de contact 𝐴 dépend de
l'adhérence sur la surface de contact entre l’outil CST et le sol cisaillé. Dans des conditions non
drainées, pour les sols mous (par exemple les argiles molles), la résistance au cisaillement se
réduit à la cohésion non drainée, en effet leur angle de frottement à court terme est presque nul.
Le Tableau 1 illustre clairement cette propriété pour l'argile molle de Tunis.
L’évolution de la force verticale P mesurée en fonction de l’insertion d au cours des essais au
CST effectués sur les deuxième et troisième portions de la cellule de consolidation a conduit à
des courbes dont l'allure est identique à celle de la figure 5 qui montre l'évolution de la force P en
fonction de l’insertion de l’outil « d ».
A partir des courbes obtenues, la force ultime Pult à considérer pour estimer la cohésion non
drainée du sol mou, Su, est déterminée en suivant la méthode de construction représentée sur la
figure 8. La valeur de Pult correspond, en effet, au point étoilé coupant la première portion
curviligne de la courbe force-insertion de l’outil (d), avec la partie quasi-linéaire. A partir de la
courbe force-pénétration illustrée à la figure 5, on considère la valeur sélectionnée Pult et
l’insertion du CST correspondante, dult. En utilisant l'équation (1), le calcul de la cohésion non
drainée s’obtient de l'équation (2), soit :
𝑆 = ( )
(2)
204
Figure 5. Variation de la force 𝑃 en fonction de la pénétration d dans la troisième portion de la cellule de
consolidation avec 𝜎c = 30 𝑘𝑃𝑎.
6 INTERPRETATION DES RESULTATS
Il s’agit, en premier lieu, des résultats obtenus à partir des essais au CST effectués sur les portions
de la cellule de consolidation ou l’argile molle de Tunis a été consolidée sous une contrainte
verticale de 30 kPa. En second lieu, on considère les résultats des essais de cisaillement direct
effectués sur les échantillons extraits de la cellule de consolidation. Le Tableau 2 montre les
mesures de la force verticale ultime Pult ainsi que les mesures de Su à partir des essais au CST et
de cisaillement direct, tous effectués sur des portions d'échantillons obtenues à partir du sol mou
reconstitué dans la cellule de consolidation.
La validation de la méthode proposée pour déterminer la cohésion non drainée de l’argile molle
de Tunis, à partir des douze essais au CST effectués sur les échantillons prélevés de la cellule de
consolidation, est ainsi abordée.
Dans un premier temps, on détermine la moyenne des valeurs de Su obtenues à partir des essais
au CST effectués de chaque côté d'une portion de la cellule de consolidation, comme notées dans
le Tableau 2, à savoir les valeurs moyennes : 9.43 kPa, 12.51 kPa, 7.91 kPa et 9.16 kPa
En deuxième lieu, on considère deux valeurs de Su mesurées à partir de trois essais de cisaillement
direct effectués sur des échantillons extraits de la cellule de consolidation (Tableau 2). Ensuite,
en utilisant l'équation (3), on détermine les pourcentages de la différence relative calculée entre
les valeurs moyennes de Su déterminées à partir des données enregistrées lors des essais au CST
et des essais de cisaillement direct (DST).
𝛥𝑆 = (3)
D’après le tableau 2, on constate que les valeurs de la cohésion non drainée Su mesurées pour
l’argile molle de Tunis sont plutôt en bon accord pour la deuxième portion, que pour la troisième
portion de la cellule de consolidation. Ces valeurs de Su sont comprises entre 8,72 kPa et 12,41
kPa et entre 7,2 kPa et 11,38 kPa, respectivement.
205
Tableau 2. Comparaison entre les mesures de la cohésion non drainée mesurée à partir de l’essai de
Cisaillement au Cylindre Creux et l’essai de cisaillement direct réalisés sur l’argile reconstituée de Tunis.
Portions de la
𝑆 Différence 𝑆
cellule de 𝑑 𝑃 𝑆 (kPa) 𝑆
relative
consolidation (mm) (N) (moyenne) (kPa) 𝑆
(kPa) (%)
(*)
2US BST 5.59 19 8.72
2US SST 7.55 15 8.64 9.43 9.36 0.79 1.01
2US SST 6.36 16 10.94
2BS BST 8.77 45 13.17
2BS SST 8.06 23 12.41 12.51 - - -
2BS SST 7.63 21 11.97
3US BST 5.99 20 8.57
3US SST 7.1 13 7.96 7.91 10.5 24.67 0.75
3US SST 6.04 10 7.20
3BS BST 7.16 24 8.60
3BS SST 8.13 14 7.49 9.16 10.5 12.79 0.87
3BS SST 9.17 24 11.38
Moyenne 9.75 9.9 1.81 0.98
totale
Dans la deuxième portion, située au milieu de la cellule de consolidation, les résultats de l’essai
de cisaillement direct (DST) sous-estiment ceux obtenus par l’essai au CST de 0,79% ce qui
présente une différence négligeable. On retient, alors, que les valeurs de Su déterminées à partir
de l’essai au CST sont comparables à celles déterminées à partir de l’essai de cisaillement direct.
En effet, pour la portion 2US, les mesures de l’essai CST et de l’essai au cisaillement direct sont
en accord avec un rapport quasi égal à l’unité, soit : = 1.01 .
Pour la troisième portion, située en bas de la cellule de consolidation, les résultats de l’essai de
cisaillement direct surestiment ceux obtenus par le CST avec des différences relatives variant
entre 12.8% et 24,7%. Ces différences relatives, non négligeables, sont dues aux faibles valeurs
mesurées de Su. Ils correspondent à un rapport moyen = 0.82. D’après Van Impe et
Verastegui (2007), une telle différence relative est acceptable lorsqu’il s’agit de mesures de la
résistance au cisaillement non drainée.
On peut adopter une valeur moyenne de Su à partir de mesures effectuées au CST pour toute la
hauteur de la cellule de consolidation (Tableau 2). En effet, la hauteur de l'échantillon reconstitué
dans cette cellule, est de 45 cm, est quasiment égale à la longueur d'un tube de Shelby utilisé pour
le carottage d’échantillons de sol intacts.
Les mesures obtenues de l’essai de cisaillement direct présentées dans le Tableau 3, ont conduit
à des valeurs moyennes de Su égales respectivement à 9,36 kPa et 10,5 kPa dans les deuxième et
troisième portions de la cellule de consolidation. Il en résulte une première valeur moyenne
S = 9.9 kPa pour l'ensemble du sol reconstitué dans la cellule de consolidation. Il en découle
une valeur moyenne à partir des essais au CST : S = 9.75 kPa qui est en bon accord avec la
valeur moyenne de Su mesurée à partir des essais de cisaillement direct.
6.1 Comparaison des résultats d’essais Triaxiaux UU à ceux au CST

La figure 6 montre les mesures de la cohésion non drainées issues de l'essai triaxial non consolidé
non drainé, réalisé sur des échantillons initialement consolidés sous 30 kPa (Bouassida &
Boussetta 1999).
Cette figure montre également la cohésion non drainée moyenne proposée à partir des essais au
CST effectués sur trois portions consolidées sous la contrainte 30 kPa. On constate que les valeurs
de la cohésion non drainées des éprouvettes consolidées à 30 kPa sont en bon accord, la différence
| . . |
relative correspondante est :𝛥𝑆 = .
= 3.34%.
206
Figure 6. Comparaison entre les valeurs 𝑆 et celle de l’essai triaxial non drainé (Bouassida &
Boussetta 1999).
Cet accord entre le résultat de l’essai au CST et l’essai triaxial s’explique sur deux faits.
Premièrement, l’argile molle de Tunis investiguée dans la présente étude a été extraite de l'avenue
J. Jaurès à Tunis. En outre, le sol investigué par Bouassida & Boussetta (1999) avait été extrait
du lac sud de Tunis. Ces deux sites se situent dans des zones proches de la ville de Tunis. Ils
appartiennent à la même ère géologique et au même dépôt sédimentaire. Le deuxième fait
concerne la validation de la méthode proposée pour déterminer Su à partir des résultats des essais
au CST. D’où il en résulte la fiabilité de la méthode proposée pour déterminer Su. En effet, elle
fournit des valeurs assez proches de la cohésion non drainée déterminées à partir d'essais triaxiaux
non drainés. Il faut souligner que les deux échantillons de l’argile molle de Tunis reconstituée ont
des teneurs en eau égales, c'est-à-dire 51,27 % et 51,0 % (tableau 1).
On remarque que la cohésion non drainée mesurée est indépendante du diamètre de l’outil CST.
Les principaux résultats ci-dessus, obtenus à partir de l’essai au CST, nécessitent davantage de
validation en effectuant d’autres expérimentations sur d'autres sols mous.
Néanmoins, d’autres investigations avec le CST sont en cours en vue de déterminer la résistance
au cisaillement d'autres types de sols.
7 CONCLUSION
Dans ce papier, une nouvelle méthode de détermination de la cohésion non drainée des sols mous
à l'aide de l'outil appelé "Cylindrical Shear Tool" (CST) a été introduite. Le principal apport de
l’outil CST est de remédier au remaniement du sol qui se produit souvent avant le début des essais
existants tel que l’essai au scissomètre in situ, le pressiomètre. Ensuite, une description détaillée
du CST, conçu en deux formats, a été fournie. De même, la procédure de l’essai au CST a été
considérée.
Un programme expérimental a été mené, il a consisté en la reconstitution d'échantillons d'argile
molle de Tunis dans une cellule de consolidation. Ensuite, des essais au CST ont été effectués, à
partir desquels, la mesure de la cohésion non drainée de l’argile molle de Tunis a été menée avec
une nouvelle mèthode. Les résultats obtenus au CST ont été comparés à des mesures obtenus à
partir d’essais de cisaillement direct effectué sur le même échantillon de sol reconstitué. La
comparaison a été, de même, faite avec des résultats obtenus à partir d’essais triaxiaux on drainés
de Bouassida & Boussetta (1999). Ces comparaisons ont permis de confirmer l’efficacité de
l’outil CST proposé.
Il convient d’ajouter que les résultats des essais au CST peuvent sous-estimer les résultats de
l’essai de cisaillement direct avec une différence relative de 24,7 %, qui reste acceptable. Il a té
recommandé de faire d’autres essais sur des sols mous différents pour valider la méthode de
détermination de Su proposée dans ce travail.
207
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Connection Project. Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and
Geotechnical Engineering, New Zealand, 2925–2928.
Bouassida, M. and Azaiez, D. 2021. “An efficient tool to determine Su of soft soils”, Proc. 3rd
Asian conference on physical modelling in Geotechnics (Asiafuge-2021), 18-19 November.
Bouassida, M. Azaiez, D and Bouassida W. 2020. Cylindrical shear Tool. Patent Submitted
29/12/2020, INNORPI Tunisia. N° 2020/0256. Simpro.
Bouassida, M. and Porbaha, A. 2004. "Ultimate bearing capacity of soft clays reinforced by a
group of columns-application to a deep mixing technique," Japanese Geotechnical Society.
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Bouassida, M. and Boussetta. S. 1999. "On the determination of vane shear strength of soft soils,"
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sable – Application pour la validation de la résistance en compression théorique d’une cellule
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Bouassida, M. 2006. Modeling the behavior of soft clays and new contributions for soil
improvement solutions. Keynote lecture. Proceeding 2nd International Conference on
Problematic Soils. P. & J. Bujang Ed., December 2006 (Kuala Lampur, Malaysia. 1, 1–13.
Bouassida, M. and Azaiez, D. 2018. "On the Determination of Undrained Shear Strength from
Vane Test. Proc. 5th Geo-China Int. Conf. 2018 – Civil Infrastructures Confronting Severe
Weathers and Climate Changes: From Failure to Sustainability, In A., Eds, Chen., et al. Ed.,
Springer International Publishing, 1, (1), 50–68.
Bouassida, M. and Klai, M. 2012. "Challenges and Improvement Solutions of Tunis Soft Clay,"
Int. J. of Geomate., 3, (1), 298–307.
Frikha, W. Bouassida, M. and Ben Salem, Z. 2013."Estimation of Tunis soft soil undrained shear
strength from pressuremeter data" Proc. 18th Int. Conf. on Soil Mech. and Geotech. Engin.,
September, 1–6.
Jebali, H. Frikha, W. and Bouassida, M. 2017. "3D Consolidation of Tunis Soft Clay Improved
by Geodrains,"Geotechnical Testing Journal. ASTM, 40, (3), .
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geotechnical information system and elaboration of a digital geotechnical atlas" Bulletin of
Engineering Geology and the Environment. 58, (4), 321–335.
Normes Françaises. 1995. Essais de reconnaissance des sols. Edit. AFNOR Géotechnique, Tome
1.
Tanaka, H. 1994. "Vane shear strength of a Japanese marine clay and applicability of Bjerrum's
correction factor", Soils and Foundations. 34, (3), 39-48.
Touiti, L. Bouassida, M. and Van Impe, W. 2009. "Discussion on Tunis soft soil sensitivity,"
Geotechnical and Geological Engineering., 27, (5), 631–643.
Tounekti, F. Bouassida. M. and Klai, M. 2008. "Etude expérimentale en vue d’un modèle de
comportement pour la vase de Tunis," Revue Française de Géotechnique, 122, 1, 25–36.
Van Impe, W. and Verastegui Flores, D. R., 2007. Under water embankments on soft soil: a case
history, Taylor and Francis. (book).
Westerberg, B. Müller, R. and Larsson, S. 2015. “Evaluation of undrained shear strength of
Swedish fine-grained sulphide soils”, Engineering Geology. 188, 77–87.
208
SESSION 5
RISKS AND HAZARDS
Application de la mécanique des roches au nouveau barrage
Mellegue amont
H. Zbidi & B. Talbi

Technologue, Institut Supérieur Des études Technologiques de Rades, Tunisie
RESUME : Le nouveau barrage Mellegue amont est situé dans la région du Kef et implanté sur
le cours de l’oued Mellègue, le principal affluent de la Medjerda, exactement en queue de rete-
nue du barrage de Nébeur. Le projet est constitué de plusieurs ouvrages dont le barrage poids
principal est de forme symétrique en Remblai Dur à Masque amont en béton armé (RDSM). Il
présente le premier barrage RDSM à construire en Tunisie. Aujourd’hui, l’état d’avancement
des travaux de construction est d’environ 60%. Le site du barrage est déterminé par une mince
ride ressortant nettement dans le relief, recoupée perpendiculairement par l’oued Mellègue,
formant ainsi un verrou bien marqué. Afin de bien construire la fondation du barrage, assurer
l’étanchéité et la stabilité des ouvrages et caractériser la déformabilité du massif rocheux, plu-
sieurs reconnaissances géologiques et de mécanique des roches ont été réalisées. Ces essais
comprennent les essais au laboratoire tels que les essais de compression simple, et les essais in-
situ tels que les essais pressiométriques, les essais de perméabilité et la sismique réfraction. Ain-
si, l’objectif de cet article est de présenter les résultats de ces essais sur le massif rocheux du site
du barrage principal. Les résultats des essais montrent que la géométrie du substratum est très
complexe, le massif rocheux est accidenté, tectonisé et altéré et la ride est perméable à grande
échelle demandant un traitement lourd d’étanchement de la fondation. Ainsi, le barrage est prin-
cipalement implanté sur les alternances marno-calcaires, qui constituent une fondation de quali-
té moyenne et il est nécessaire de créer un voile d’injection incliné vers l’amont venant s’ancrer
dans les marnes turoniennes étanches.
1 INTRODUCTION
Le nouveau barrage Mellegue amont (en cours de construction), est situé dans la région du
Kef au Nord-ouest de la Tunisie, à environ 15 km de la ville sur la route régionale RR72 vers
Touiref. Il est implanté sur le cours de l’oued Mellègue, le principal affluent de la Medjerda,
exactement en queue de retenue du barrage de Nébeur, à environ 1,5 km à l'aval du Gué du Ca-
roubier. L’objectif de la création de ce nouveau barrage est de remplacer progressivement
l’ancien réservoir de Nébeur, qui est presque complètement envasé, afin d’assurer la protection
contre les inondations et en même temps d’assurer l’irrigation de nouveaux périmètres proches
du site de barrage.
Le projet est constitué de cinq ouvrages (APD Mellegue, 2012) : un barrage poids principal
de forme symétrique en Remblai Dur à masque amont en béton armé (RDSM) de hauteur
maximale 68 m au-dessus du fond de fouille (au centre de la vallée) et de longueur totale 432 m,
une digue en terre homogène et un évacuateur d’exception fermant deux cols sur la rive droite et
deux autres barrages de même conception que le barrage principal fermant deux cols sur la rive
gauche. Il est équipé également d'une petite centrale hydroélectrique de puissance installée de 2
MW, en pied de barrage en rive gauche à proximité de la rivière afin de turbiner les lâchures ré-
alisées pour l'irrigation à l'aval de la retenue. Le débit d'équipement de l’usine est de 7,5 m3/s et
la chute brute de l'aménagement est de 30 m.
L'étanchéité du barrage est assurée par son masque amont en béton armé de 35 cm d'épais-
seur. Il se raccorde à l'étanchéité de la fondation par l'intermédiaire de la galerie de contrôle.
Cette galerie périmétrale permet la réalisation des travaux d'étanchéité et de drainage. Des injec-
tions sous le corps du barrage en remblai dur sont également réalisées afin de réduire les infiltra-
tions et les fuites sous les fondations et améliorer leurs caractéristiques mécaniques.
209
L’objectif de cet article est de présenter les résultats des observations et des études géostruc-
turales et géomécaniques sur le massif rocheux du barrage poids principal pour la bonne réalisa-
tion des travaux de fondation (Wyllie 1999) et d’étanchéité des ouvrages et l’assurance de la
stabilité des roches pendant les travaux d’excavation et de creusement des galeries.
2 GEOLOGIE DU SITE
2.1 Structure générale du site (APD Mellegue 2012)
Le site est déterminé par une mince ride ressortant nettement dans le relief, recoupée perpendi-
culairement par l’oued Mellègue, formant ainsi un verrou bien marqué avec un lit majeur
d’environ 150 m de large et un lit mineur d’environ 50 m de large (Fig. 1). La ride est constituée
d'alternances de bancs de calcaires durs, de calcaires marneux et de marnes tendres d’âge Cé-
nomanien, très relevés à pendage amont (65° à plus de 80°). En dehors de la ride, les reliefs sont
mous, traduisant leur nature marneuse plus sensible à l’érosion.
Figure 1. Extrait de la carte géologique du site (levé de terrain phase APD Mellegue 2012).
La barre rocheuse est affectée par des failles EW déterminant sa topographie marquée par
plusieurs cols (deux sur chaque rive). Le franchissement de l'oued correspond vraisemblable-
ment à une concentration locale de ces cassures en faisceau qui a fragilisé la ride et ainsi facilité
son érosion progressive.
210
Le projet prévoit une RN (retenue normale) fixée à 295 m NGT (niveau géodésique en Tuni-
sie) et des PHE (plus hautes eaux) calées à 304 m NGT.
La rive gauche est traversée par deux cols. A l’extrémité S-W, un premier petit col est à la
côte 296 m NGT (col 2 rive gauche). Après une petite butte dépassant tout juste la côte 305 m
NGT, on trouve un col et un important thalweg qui descend presque au niveau du lit majeur. Le
thalweg est, au passage de la barre cénomanienne, à la côte 275 m NGT (il sera noté col 1 rive
gauche par la suite), le vrai col topographique est situé plus à l'aval, à la côte 287 m NGT. Ce
thalweg entaille des formations marno-calcaires finement litées à pendage subvertical situées à
l'aval immédiat des trois barres calcaires qui forment le verrou.
Les deux appuis rive droite et gauche ne sont pas strictement en vis-à-vis mais sensiblement
décalés. On retrouve la continuité de ces bancs en rive droite. Celle-ci est en effet constituée de
trois barres parallèles de calcaire et marno-calcaires espacées d'environ 15 m avec un remplis-
sage marneux plus sensible à l'érosion formant des dépressions dans le relief.
La rive droite présente également un premier col (col 1 rive droite à la côte 301 m NGT) qui
correspond à l’intersection de deux failles, l’une de direction E-W, l’autre NNW-SSE. Un se-
cond col (col 2 rive droite), éloigné de près d’1 km du barrage principal se trouve en amont de la
ride cénomanienne au niveau des marnes turoniennes, à la côte 303 m NGT.
Les bancs calcaires des deux rives s'ennoient dans les alluvions récentes du lit de la rivière
qui sont constituées de sables fins silteux et argileux, produits des dépôts de sédiments dans la
retenue de Nébeur. Au niveau de la rive gauche, les alluvions forment une terrasse de 3 m sur-
montant le lit de l'oued. L’oued initial correspondait à une gorge étroite d’environ 50 m de large
aujourd’hui invisible du fait de l’envasement qui atteint environ 15 à 20 m au niveau du site.
A l’amont immédiat du verrou, la barre cénomanienne s’enfonce sous les marnes gris-bleuté
turoniennes, qui devraient, selon les résultats des quelques essais réalisés, constituer une bonne
coupure étanche.
2.2 Discontinuités
L’étude structurale du site du barrage montre plusieurs types de failles de directions variables
NW-SE, E-W, NE-SW. Les failles de direction EW jouent en décrochement dextre, celles de di-
rection NE-SW jouent en décrochement sénestre, quant aux failles NW-SE, qui sont dans la di-
rection du raccourcissement régional, jouent parfois en dextre ou en senestre, voir en failles
normales.
La densité de la fracturation près des rives de la gorge principale (passage de l’Oued), mor-
celle les unités calcaires à marno-calcaires de la ride en une suite de blocs décalés sans rejet im-
portants, détachés et effondrés particulièrement au niveau du site du barrage. L’ensemble fragi-
lise fortement cette zone que la force hydraulique de l’oued a érodée, creusant ainsi son lit
actuel à travers les bancs durs amoindris.
3 RESULTATS DES ETUDES GEOLOGIQUES ET DE LA MECANIQUE DES ROCHES

AU NIVEAU DE LA FONDATION ET DES APPUIS DU BARRAGE PRINCIPAL
3.1 Travaux de reconnaissance réalisés
Dans le cadre des études APS (avant-projet sommaire) et APD (avant-projet détaillé), les recon-
naissances suivantes ont été réalisées :
- 21 sondages carottés de longueur cumulée égale à 1033 m et 5 tranchées de longueur cumu-
lée égale à 170 m effectués sur le site du barrage. Au cours de la réalisation des sondages et des
tranchées, des échantillons intacts et remaniés ont été prélevés pour être soumis à des essais au
laboratoire (15 essais de résistance à la compression simple et 15 essais de poids volumique sur
les matériaux rocheux).
- 10 sondages carottés, sur toute l’épaisseur du substratum rocheux rencontré, avec un total de
174 essais d’eau Lugeons (essais de perméabilité).
- 8 sondages destructifs avec un total de 125 essais pressiométriques,en remplacement des 10
essais dilatométriques initialement prévus, afin d’apprécier la déformabilité du massif rocheux
et le contraste de déformabilité entre les marnes et marno-calcaires.
- Une campagne géophysique par sismique réfraction dans l'emprise du barrage a été réalisée
211
afin de dresser une carte du toit du substratum en vallée et de détecter les failles. La longueur to-
tale des profils est de 1320 m.
- une campagne d’essais Cross-Hole a été réalisée afin de mieux caractériser les formations
marneuses et marno-calcaires. Un dispositif en triplet a été mis en œuvre avec trois sondages
destructifs de 30 ml, inclinés de 30° par rapport à la verticale.
3.2 Résultats des essais au laboratoire

Les essais de résistance à la compression sont surtout utilisés pour déterminer la contrainte de
rupture des matériaux fragiles (Hoek 2007).
La synthèse des résultats des essais de compression simple réalisés au laboratoire sont présentés
dans le Tableau 1 :
Tableau 1. Synthèse des résultats des essais de compression simple.

Essais Résistance à la compression Rc
MPa
Matériaux Marne Calcaire Calcaire marneux Calcaire franc
Nombre d’essais 4 7 4
Moyenne 22.8 29.5 82.2
Minimale 16.6 22.6 60.2
Maximale 30.1 42.7 114.4
Ecart type 5.9 7.5 24.4
Les calcaires francs possèdent une résistance à la compression élevée avec une valeur
moyenne de 82 MPa, passant à 71 MPa si l’on néglige la valeur extrême à 114MPa. Leur densi-
té moyenne est de 2,64 g/cm3. Les calcaires marneux ont une résistance à la compression
moyenne de 29 MPa avec une densité de 2,66 g/cm3. Les marnes calcaires ont quant à elles une
résistance à la compression faible à moyenne, de 23 MPa pour une densité de 2,60 g/cm3. Les
marnes franches n’ont pas pu être testées du fait de leur forte évolution dans le temps. La dé-
compression et la désaturation des faciès marneux ont dégradé les carottes avec un délitement
marqué infra-centimétrique à centimétrique reprenant les joints de stratification. L’expérience
montre qu’il faut s’attendre à des résistances à la compression de l’ordre de 10 MPa pour les fa-
ciès franchement marneux.
Une anisotropie mécanique liée au litage affecte les bancs de roche d’autant plus qu’ils sont
marneux. Cette anisotropie semble moins prononcée en profondeur où les marnes sont plus con-
finées mais elle est potentielle et s’exprime dès que les conditions s’y prêtent (dé-confinement,
pression interstitielle, cisaillement…). L’ouverture des fouilles devra être la plus courte possible
afin de limiter la décompression et l’évolutivité des faciès les plus marneux. Les calcaires mar-
neux, les marnes calcaires et les marnes franches représentent les formations majoritaires de la
fondation de l’ouvrage.
La stabilité du barrage est principalement déterminée par la résistance au cisaillement des
marnes. Néanmoins, cette résistance faible n’est pas rédhibitoire compte tenu du fort pendage
amont des bancs. Les angles de frottement et les cohésions de chaque matériau sont évalués, de
façon préliminaire, par la méthode d'Hoek-Brown (Marinos & Hoek, 2000) et en utilisant le lo-
giciel RocLab et les modules de déformation ont également été calculés en considérant
l’équation 1 (Marinos & Hoek, 2000) pour des résistances à la compression simple de la roche
intacte inférieures à 100 MPa. On néglige dans cette approche les calcaires francs, très peu re-
présentés au droit de la fondation.
E (MPa) = 1 − × 10 (GSI − 10) 40 (1)
Avec D = l’endommagement de la roche due au procédé d’excavation; ci = résistance à la

compression simple de la roche intacte (MPa); GSI = caractéristique de la structure rocheuse et
son état de fracturation.
212
Les valeurs de la masse rocheuse obtenues sont présentées dans le Tableau 2.
Tableau 2. Synthèse des résultats des essais de compression simple.

Paramètres Calcaire marneux Marnes Calcaires Marnes franches
Décomprimés Compacts Décomprimés Compacts Décomprimés Compacts
Angle de 39 43 37 41 30 34
frottement (°)
Cohésion ef- 277 422 246 367 170 233
fective (kPa)
Module de 4.3 7.7 3.9 6.9 2.6 4.6
déformation
(GPa)
3.3 Résultats des essais de perméabilité Lugeon

D’une manière générale, les formations calcaires et marno-calcaires en fond de vallée et au ni-
veau des appuis sont le siège d’une importante perméabilité de fracture observée sur l’ensemble
des essais Lugeon réalisés comme le montre sur l’exemple de la Figure 2, avec de nombreuses
absorptions totales (100 UL) jusqu’à plus de 70 m de profondeur. La corrélation entre le RQD
(désignation de la qualité de la roche) et les valeurs Lugeon reste très aléatoire ; il suffit d’une
unique diaclase ouverte et interconnectée, sur plusieurs mètres de calcaire, donnant un RQD de
100 %, pour avoir une absorption importante.
Figure 2. Corrélation entre les essais Lugeon et le RQD (APD Mellegue 2012).
Après un examen minutieux des carottes, la plupart des fortes absorptions s’expliquent par la
présence de diaclases ou de zones broyées, du moins dans le faciès à dominante calcaire. Les
valeurs de perméabilité Lugeon élevées peuvent s’expliquer par des phénomènes d’hydro-
fracturation sur les joints qui découpent la masse rocheuse, cependant les pressions d’essais ont
rarement atteint la pression standard de 1 MPa. Enfin, la concentration d’accidents transverses
au niveau de l’oued a fortement fragilisé les roches, dont les formations marneuses.
A la vue de ces résultats et en dépit de variations marquées liées aux contrastes de lithologie,
il apparaît que la ride est globalement perméable à grande échelle. Cela explique l’importance
des travaux d’étanchéité et de drainage de la fondation envisagés. Pour la voile d’étanchéité
prévue sous la fondation, il est préférentiellement se rattacher aux marnes amont turoniennes.
3.4 Résultats de la sismique réfraction

La sismique réfraction est une méthode de reconnaissance géophysique des roches fondée sur
l'étude de la propagation des ondes sismiques élastiques (Goodman 1989).
213
Les données de sismique réfraction permettent de mettre en évidence le substratum, marnes
compactes, marno-calcaires et calcaires, avec des vitesses comprises entre 2400 et 5900 m/s.
La méthode de sismique réfraction associée aux autres moyens d’investigation permet de dire
que le toit du substratum est très accidenté et correspond à un creusement profond sous
l’actuelle vallée et l’état d’altération, de fracturation ou de décompression est probablement plus
intense en rive gauche qu’en rive droite, au moins dans les 5 à 10 premiers mètres.
3.5 Résultats des essais pressiométriques

La synthèse des essais pressiométriques réalisés en fond de vallée pour apprécier la déformabili-
té du massif rocheux et le contraste de déformabilité entre les marnes et marno-calcaires sont
présentés dans le Tableau 3.
Tableau 3. Résultats des essais pressiométriques au droit du barrage principal

Zone Sondage Profondeur Nature Module pressiomé- Pression limite
m trique Ménard Em nette Pl*
MPa MPa
Appui SPs4 de 0 à 5.7 marno-calcaires dé- 23 MPa 1,8 MPa
rive comprimés et altérés
gauche de 5.7 à marno-calcaires dé- 182 à 228 MPa > 5 MPa
14.5 comprimés (avec deux points durs
à 8 m/TN de
3534 MPa et à 13
m/TN de 3589 MPa)
de 14.5 à marno-calcaires 2281 à 7688 MPa > 5 MPa
30 (avec une zone plus
tendre à 26 m/TN
de 192 MPa)
Fond de SPs3 de 3 à 9 marnes décompri- 32 à 223 MPa > 3 MPa
vallée mées et altérées
de 9 à 30 marno-calcaires af- 6 à 592 MPa 0,8 à > 5 MPa
fectés par une faille (avec deux points durs (avec deux
à 20 m/TN de points durs à 20
6795 et à 24 m/TN de m/TN et 24
6319 m/TN > 5 MPa)
SPs8 de 18.9 à marno-calcaires 1287 à 8074 MPa > 5 MPa
30
SPs5 de 20.6 à marno-calcaires 4006 à 7164 MPa > 5 MPa
30 (avec une zone plus
tendre à 30 m/TN
de 412 MPa)
SPs6 de 2 à 6.5 marnes décompri- 26 à 93 MPa 1,6 à 6,3 MPa
mées et altérées
de 6.5 à 15 marnes décompri- 198 à 683 MPa > 3 MPa
mées (avec une zone tendre
à 12 m/TN
de 46 MPa ; perte
d'eau partielle - faille
possible)
de 15 à 30 marnes consistantes 1148 à 6571 MPa > 5 MPa
Appui SPs7 de 0 à 9 marnes décompri- 73 à 175 MPa > 4.4 MPa
rive mées et altérées
droite de 9 à 30 Marnes consistantes 1883 à 8769 MPa > 5 MPa
En fonction de la localisation des sondages, un à trois horizons relativement homogènes res-

sortent :
214
- Une frange superficielle de matériaux marno-calcaires ou marneux, altérés et décomprimés,
d’une épaisseur de 6 à 9 m avec des modules pressiométriques Ménard (Em) compris entre 23 et
223 MPa et des pressions limites nettes (Pl*) comprises entre 1,8 et plus de 3 MPa,
- Un horizon intermédiaire de matériaux marno-calcaires ou marneux décomprimés, épais
d’environ 9 m, avec des modules Em compris entre 182 et 683 MPa et des pressions Pl* supé-
rieures à 3 MPa,
- Le substratum marno-calcaire ou marneux sain avec des modules Em compris entre 1148 et
8769 MPa et des pressions Pl* supérieures à 5 MPa.
Les deux sondages réalisés au droit de l’oued, sous une couverture importante d’alluvions,
SPs5 et SPs8, ont de suite rencontrés le substratum sain, la partie altérée ou décomprimée ayant
été probablement érodée par les écoulements. A noter que le sondage SPs3 a rencontré une zone
de faille subverticale. Au sein de cette zone de faiblesse comprise entre 9 et 30 m de profondeur,
les modules Em peuvent descendre jusqu’à 6 MPa, pour des pressions limites nettes (Pl*) de 0,8
MPa.
3.6 Résultats des essais Cross-Hole

Cet essai consiste à mesurer les temps de propagation des ondes sismiques de compression
(ondes P) et de cisaillement (ondes S) entre plusieurs forages afin de déterminer, en fonction de
la profondeur, leurs vitesses sismiques Vp et Vs ainsi que les paramètres géodynamiques que
sont le module d’Young Ed, le module de cisaillement G et le coefficient de Poisson ν.
Les résultats des essais Cross-Hole réalisés en rive gauche au sein de la combe marneuse au
niveau du premier tiers de la pente du versant afin de mieux caractériser les formations mar-
neuses et marno-calcaires sont présentés dans la Figure 3.
Figure 3. Résultats des essais Cross-Hole (Appui rive gauche – Combe marneuse C2)
215
Entre 0 et 6 m de profondeur, les caractéristiques des marnes sont très faibles, traduisant leur
altération et surtout leur décompression. Les vitesses des ondes de compression Vp sont infé-
rieures à 1000 m/s, les modules dynamiques de compression Ed et les modules dynamiques de
cisaillement G sont respectivement en dessous de 130 MPa et 50 MPa. Entre 6 et 12 m de pro-
fondeur, leurs caractéristiques mécaniques augmentent progressivement. Au-delà, on trouve des
vitesses sismiques supérieures à 2500 m/s caractérisant un substratum sain non décomprimé. A
partir de 12 m profondeur, les modules dynamiques de compression Ed varient de 748 à 2845
MPa, tandis que les modules dynamiques de cisaillement G varient de 250 à 968 MPa. On peut
extrapoler l’ordre de grandeur de l’épaisseur d’altération observée en rive gauche à la combe
marneuse au niveau de l’appui rive droite.
3.7 Interprétations et recommendations

La géophysique montre que les vitesses sismiques du substratum sont élevées, entre 3000 et à
4000 m/s en rive gauche et entre 4000 et 5000 m/s en rive droite, traduisant un rocher compact
et peu altéré. Ces résultats sont cohérents avec les résultats des sondages carottés et des essais-
pressiométriques réalisés.
La comparaison du toit du rocher déduit des sondages carottés et des profils géophysiques
montre que la géométrie du substratum est probablement complexe et que la présence d’un sil-
lon plus profond, non identifié par les reconnaissances n’est pas à exclure. Il est proposé de fon-
der le barrage sur le substratum marno-calcaire avec des fouilles limitées (Figure 4). On retient
une profondeur de fouille de 2 m dans le rocher après excavation des alluvions. Dans la réalité,
il est probable que la topographie du substratum en vallée est complexe comme le suggère la
carte du substratum produite à partir de la géophysique. Les excavations devront être adaptées
en conséquence.
Figure 4. Coupe transversale en vallée du barrage principal.
Sur les deux rives, le barrage est fondé principalement sur les marno-calcaires. Les résultats
des essais cross-hole montrent que le rocher est décomprimé jusqu’à une profondeur de l’ordre
de 10 m. Au-delà de 10-12 m de profondeur la vitesse des ondes de compression est supérieure
à 2500 m/s. Ce résultat est cohérent avec les log des sondages et en particulier les RQD. Donc la
profondeur de fouille à retenir est de 10 m sur les deux rives. Ce résultat a été aussi confirmé
lors de démarrage des travaux d’excavation.
Le barrage est ainsi principalement implanté sur les alternances marno-calcaires, qui consti-
tuent une fondation de qualité moyenne. La barre marneuse cénomanienne est située au pied
amont de l’ouvrage en vallée et la galerie périmétrale est fondée sur ces marnes en rive droite.
En vallée et en rive gauche, la galerie de contrôle est fondée sur les alternances marno-calcaire.
216
Quant à l’étanchéité des roches, les essais de perméabilité ont montré que la barre cénoma-
nienne, bien que composée de roches plutôt étanches, est fortement tectonisée et est le siège
d’une perméabilité élevée demandant un traitement lourd d’étanchement de la fondation. Il est
donc nécessaire de créer un voile d’injection incliné vers l’amont venant s’ancrer de 25 m dans
les marnes turoniennes étanches. Le voile est réalisé au droit du barrage et est étendu sur les
deux rives de façon à assurer la fermeture sur les marnes turoniennes. Le voile est réalisé par
des sondages inclinés à 45° depuis le pied amont du barrage en direction des marnes turoniennes
à l’amont. Il est proposé d’orienter ces forages dans la direction N140° afin de recouper un
maximum de discontinuité. Cela permet de recouper les failles à 60° en plan, à 30° en plan pour
les diaclases à N110° et à 20° pour les diaclases à N160° moins bien représentées. De même, il
est recommandé aussi de réaliser des injections de consolidation pour obtenir une amélioration
sensible de la perméabilité de masse en même temps que l’amélioration des caractéristiques mé-
caniques du rocher. Les injections de consolidation sont mises en œuvre sous le corps du bar-
rage en Remblai Dur, sur une profondeur de 10 m environ. La maille des forages d’injection est
de 3mx3m et ce résultat à été confirmé au cours des travaux par un plot d’essai.
4 CONCLUSION
Plusieurs essais géologiques et géomécaniques ont été réalisés sur le massif rocheux du barrage
Mellegue qui est principalement formé des alternances de barres calcaires, marno-calcaires et
marnes. Les essais réalisés incluent des essais au laboratoire (tels que les essais de résistance à
la compression simple et les essais de poids volumique) et les essais in situ (tels que les essais
d’eau Lugeons, les essais pressiométriques, la sismique réfraction et les essais Cross-Hole). Les
résultats de ces essais montrent que :
- La géométrie du substratum rocheux du barrage Mellegue est très complexe nécessitant une
profondeur de fouille de 2 m dans le rocher après excavation des alluvions et de 10 m sur les
deux rives)
- Plusieurs types des failles et cassures sont présentes au niveau du verrou ce qui influe sur la
perméabilité du substratum demandant ainsi un traitement lourd d’étanchement de la fondation
(voile d’injection au droit du barrage incliné vers l’amont venant s’ancrer de 25 m dans les
marnes turoniennes étanches et étendu sur les deux rives de façon à assurer la fermeture sur les
marnes turoniennes et des injections de consolidation mises en œuvre sous le corps du barrage
sur une profondeur de 10 m environ).
Ainsi, on retient que la mécanique des roches intervient avec un programme de recherches
plus ou moins complet, qui peut compromettre, ou non, la réalisation correcte des travaux.
5 REFERENCES
Goodman, R.E. 1989. Introduction to Rock Mechanics, 2nd Edition, New York, John Willy & Sons.
Hoek, E. 2007. Rock Engineering, Course Notes. British Columbia : Canada.
ISL, SCET-TUNISIE. 2012. APD Mellegue. Etude d’exécution du barrage Amont Mellegue. Tunisie.
Marinos, P. & Hoek, E. 2000. GSI: A Geologically Friendly Tool for Rock Mass Strength Estimation.
Proc. International Conference on Geotechnical & Geological Engineering, GeoEng 2000, Tech-nomic
Publ., pp. 1422-1442. Melbourne.
Wyllie, D. 1999. Foundations on Rock. 2nd Edition, London, E & FN SPON.
217
218
Waste disposal facility on limestone deposit: case of study and
how to reinforce it for environmental considerations?
H. Bannour
University of Sousse, Tunisia
ABSTRACT: The bottom and the side of a waste disposal facility (landfill) area must be de-
signed with two distinguished and complementary barriers: active barrier and passive barrier.
Passive barriers have to be designed with a very strict regulation in order to avoid the contami-
nation of subsoils and groundwater with waste. The bottom of the area must present, from top to
bottom, a soil layer with a low-permeability level equal to 10-9 m/s or less for least one meter
thick then a soil layer presenting a permeability equal to 10-6 m/s or less for at least 5 meter
thick. Sides of the area must present a permeability equal to 10-9 m/s or less for their entire
height. However with the luck of sites responding to regulatory standards and with technico
economical considerations, designers used to perform equivalency on a landfill geographical
site by considering the potential environmental impact of wastes on water resources and aqui-
fers. In that regards, this article presents a real case of study on how a landfill barrier can been
designed on a lime stone deposit and how to reinforce it for better performances and less con-
tamination effect on aquifers. The equivalency check must be based on the knowledge of the
geological and hydrogeological context allowing a reliable site model establishment.
This equivalency study is based on analytical and numerical studies of advective and diffusive
analysis about relative concentration evolution of the contaminant through the barrier and the
soil liner and their comparison with conventional passive barrier behavior in the same contami-
nation configuration. SEEP/W and Ctran from Geostudio (2012) have been coupled in numeri-
cal modeling in order to reproduce leakage and contaminant transfers into the whole barrier to
the aquifer. Results from this study show that the reinforcement of the passive barrier by a GCL
and the reduction of the low permeable layer thickness used to increase the performance of the
whole barrier by limiting the evolution of the contaminant migration into the ground water and
sub soils compared to regulatory one. In conclusion, equivalency is possible for passive barrier
however each case of study must be studied separately with a careful attention to contaminant
transfers and its amount with time.
1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

1.1 Introduction
The bottom and the sides of a waste disposal facility (landfill) area must be designed with two
distinguished and complementary barriers: active barrier and passive barrier;
- The active barrier, constituted by a drainage layer overlying a geomembrane (GMB). Its
function consists of insuring watertightness, drainage and leachate collection in order to
facilitate their treatment ;
- - The passive barrier, constituted by the existing clayey soil or reconstituted one, must con-
tain a low permeable material overlying, in the case of landfills, a much more permeable
layer called the attenuation layer. Its function consists of limiting leachate flows and its
concentration through the natural environment. (Table 1) (CFG 1998)
219
Table 1. Active and passive barrier.
_______________________________________________________________
Function Materials
_______________________________________________________________
Active barrier Drainage Granular materials,
draining sheet
Active impermeability Geomembrane
_______________________________________________________________
Passive barrier Passive impermeability . Natural clay,

fine materials, GCLs,
treated soils, SBP
Attenuation Natural soils
_______________________________________________________________
Protection and
drainage
disposal
Drainage
Geomembrane
disposal
Drainage
disposal
Passive barrier
Ground at
Figure 1. Bottom and sides’ regulatory configuration for non hazardous landfills
1.2 Background
Regulation related to passive barrier for non-hazardous landfills is very strict announcing that:
- The bottom of the area must present, from top to bottom, a soil layer with a low-
permeability level lower or equal to 10-9 m/s at least one meter thick and a soil and then a
soil layer presenting a permeability lower or equal to 10-6 m/s for at least 5 meter thick.
- Sides of the area presenting a permeability less or equal to 10-9 m/s thick for their entire
height
However, this regulatory design remains a theoretical approach. in a practical point of view,
to keep this low hydraulic conductivity at landfills sides, this requires that the storage facility
must be excavated into the entire deposit presenting a hydraulic conductivity lower than 10-
9
m/s. This situation is quiet infrequent, the regulation allows the passive barrier reconstruction;
when the geological barrier doesn’t present locally enough specific conditions, it could be com-
pleted and reinforced by other resources presenting an equivalent protection
The design of this equivalent system is justified by an equivalency study however the low per-
meable layer must be at least 0.5 m thick with a hydraulic conductivity lower or equal to 10-9
m/s.
Furthermore, the equivalency study must consider only the passive barrier without taking into
account the active barrier i.e the geomembrane.
220
2 EQUIVALENCY JUSTIFICATION ELEMENTS FOR PASSIVE BARRIER
The equivalency study must be assumed by designers for insuring an environment justification
protection in regard to legislators in the case when the geological barrier doesn’t present natural-
ly a sufficient regulatory protection.
The main target protected by the passive barrier at the bottom of landfills is the ground water.
It can be logically assumed that two distinguished passive barrier can be considered equivalents
when they insure an equivalent protection level in terms of potential impact of landfills on
ground water resources.
2.1 Geological and hydrogeological consideration for equivalency
The equivalency check must be based on the knowledge of the geological and hydrogeological
context allowing a reliable site model establishment. Geological and hydrogeological data ena-
ble whether or not to use an equivalency study.
2.2 Passive barrier thickness
In the case of equivalency, the passive barrier facility at the bottom of landfills must present at
least 1 m thick. On the sides, up to 2 m height, the minimum thickness of the passive barrier
must be at least 0.5 m.
A currant solution employed for insuring equivalency consists of reinforcing the passive barrier
by the mean of a low thick material presenting a very low permeability (⁓5.10-11 m/s).
According to the technico economic condition of the site, another solution for responding to
conformity requirements consists of increasing the thickness and/or reducing the permeability of
the attenuation layer (the high permeable soil).In fact, the passive barrier thickness represent, for
the hole barrier, a security guarantee in the manner of reducing the risk related to heterogeneous
materials and preferential flow paths. It remains also important that the distance between the
groundwater surface and the low permeable material (k<10-9 m/s). That distance must be at least
2 m thick for more protection.
2.3 Potential impact justification

When a quantitative equivalence justification is required, the geological and the hydrogeological
data obtained from the site must be used for comparative justification.
Furthermore, there is a requirement to calculate the evolution of the relative contaminant con-
centration C/C0 into the aquifer where:
- C is the contaminant concentration through the aquifer as a function of time
- C0 the source concentration through the landfill waste considered as unitary and constant
over time
In the last paragraph, it is not the time of contaminant transfer the important justification of
equivalence but the amount of the potential impact. Therefore, we will be interested in the mass
flow.
The total mass flow is defined as the mass emitted per unit of time. Regarding dissolved con-
taminant transfer though natural granular materials; there are two types of flux:
- the advective flow related to substances transport by mobile water
FA=q. C (1)
Where: FA is the advective flow expressed as the mass per unit of section perpendicular to the
flow direction and per unit of time), q is the Darcy velocity (the product of the permeability and
the hydraulic gradient per unit area of section perpendicular to the flow direction and per unit of
time); and C the contaminant concentration in the mobile water (mass per unit of volume)
- the diffusive-dispersive flow related to substances transfer by concentration gradient
c
FD  n D (2)
z
Where: FD is the diffusive-dispersive flow expressed as previously presented; n is the porosi-
ty of the soil; D is the diffusive-dispersive coefficient (expressed as the length squared per unit
of time), z is the reached depth in the barrier (expressed as a length)
221
The advective flow has an impact on both the transient and the steady state. However diffu-
sive -dispersive flow has no impact on transient state and is independent on the hydraulic con-
ductivity of the soil (Rowe 2007). As a consequence, an easy way to perform equivalency be-
tween two distinguished barriers is to compare their advective flows (ElZein & Rowe 2007).
Finally, if interested in the complete contamination prediction of the site, numerical modeling
(seepW+ Ctran from Geostudio) could be used to combine advective flow to diffusive one for
the estimation of the level of the contaminant migration into the aquifer and its corresponding
time of occurrence as described in the following case of study of equivalency
3 CASE OF STUDY: LANDFILLS DISPOSALS ON LIMESTONE DEPOSIT
3.1 Presentation of the site

The geological site is represented in Figure 2 and contains:
- 6 m of sandy silt with a hydraulic conductivity of 5 x 10-6 m/s.
- Lime stone with a thickness of more than 10 m with a hydraulic conductivity of 10-5 m/s
and not presenting a high level of karstification or cracking.
Regarding the specification of the regulation, the site natural geology is not consistent with the
requirement i.e. the absence of the 1 m thick layer of k lower than 10-9 m/s and the hydraulic
conductivity of the silt is higher than the regulatory value of 10-6 m/s
The highest known level of water is 1m below the top of the lime stone. Knowing the economi-
cal cost of passive barrier reconstruction (Figure 3a: 5 m material compaction, loss of useful
volume…) an equivalency design solution is given.
Sandy silt
K=5.10-6 m/s
Lime stone
K=10-5m/s
Figure 2: Existing situation
222
3.2 Proposed equivalency design barrier
Main solutions to address risks, difficulties and constraints associated with project implemen-
tation are presented herein:
a) the compaction of a 1 m thick clay soil in order to have a hydraulic conductivity equal
or lower than 10-9 m/s
b) reinforcing this layer by a geosynthetic clay liner (GCL) containing sodium bentonite
The proposition of the equivalent system is presented in figure 3b)
Figure 3: (a): reconstitution of the regulatory passive barrier; (b) proposed equivalent barrier
223
3.3 Results and discussions: equivalency justification elements
The equivalency justifications presented herein with major qualitative and quantitative ap-
proaches. From a qualitative point of view, it can be noticed that the hydraulic conductivity of
the sandy silt (5 x 10-6 m/s) is relatively close to that required by the regulation. However it is
important to highlight that the permeability of this layer has too little influence on the global
performance of the whole barrier. Indeed, the vertical flow is controlled by the hydraulic con-
ductivity of the top low permeable layer (i.e the 1m thick top clay layer in the case (a) and the
GCL in the case (b)). The layer presenting 10-6 m/s hydraulic conductivity has been introduced
in the regulations as a buffer zone in order to avoid the local implementation of landfills on
highly vulnerable hydrogeological environment (karstic massif, gravels…)
It remains important to take into account in the justification of the equivalency :
-The lack of a vulnerable zone (particularly fractures in the limestone)

- The guarantee of a low vertical leakage into the barrier and a low level of the contami-
nation in the aquifer
the first point has been successfully satisfied in addition to the fact the water table is 7 m
depth behind the 1m thick layer of 10-9 m/s permeability
To address the issue related to the high permeability of the sandy clay (5 x 10-6m/s) compared
to regulatory specifications, it has been suggested to reinforce the passive barrier by the mean of
a GCL (which hydraulic conductivity could be lower than 10-11 m/s) with respect to handling,
storage and applications recommendations for this material (CFG 1998). The successful associa-
tion of a low permeable material with a GCL can reduce significantly the leakage and contami-
nant migration into the subsoil and the ground water (Rowe & Abdelatty 2012, 2013). This can
be attributed to a lower mass flow than that of a regulatory barrier as shown in the figure 4. This
latter presents the result of a numerical simulation of a contaminant transfer from waste to the
aquifer through the two barriers (regulatory and equivalent one). Calculation have been per-
formed using GEOSTUDIO program (SEEP/w for modeling the flow in conjunction with Ctran
for modeling contaminant migration into he aquifer).
100
10-01
concentration in the
aquifer (C/C0)
10-02
Relative
10-03 Case (a)

Case (b)
10-04
Time (yeas)
Figure 4 Relative concentration evolution of the contaminant into the aquifer of a landfill
Curves in figure 4 show the evolution with time of the relative concentration into the aquifer of
a landfill. The case (a) represent the situation of figure 3 (a) of a regulatory passive barrier
whereas the case (b represent the situation of figure 3 (b) of the equivalent passive barrier. It
could be noticed from calculations (numerical simulations) that the case (b) is better than the
case (a) since relative concentration evolution with time is lower for the case (b). The rein-
forcement of the passive barrier by the GCL seems to be beneficial for the whole barrier and
used to limit the evolution of the contamination of the aquifer with time. This result must not to
224
be taken as it is because calculations remain based on semi quantitative approaches. As a result,
each case of study must be studied separately and other type of contaminant should be simulated
in this case (BRGM 2019).
3.4 Conclusions
Equivalency in bottom landfill barriers is a possible solution when the geological site is not
suitable for the implementation of the site or when the reconstitution of the regulatory barrier is
not possible and or/ very difficult to design.
This numerical study shows that is possible to design a landfill on a limestone deposit with an
appropriate justified equivalent barrier. The justification of the equivalency is possible through a
qualitative but also a quantitative approach based on the evaluation of the hydrogeological site
constitution and risk. It remains also important to evaluate the potential impact of the equivalent
barrier on a potential source of water and on ground soils and aquifer. As a conclusion, the
equivalency of passive barrier is not a general approach but require the treatment of each case of
study separately and give the required own justifications compared to regulatory one
REFERENCES
BRGM. 2019. Guide de recommandations pour la conception et l’évaluation de dispositifs «
d’équivalence » en étanchéité passive d’installations de stockage de déchets - Version 3
CFG (1998) Recommandations Générales pour la Réalisation d'Étanchéité par Géosynthétiques Bentoni-
tiques »
Rowe R.K. 2007. Advances and Remaining Challenges for Geosynthetics in Geoenvironmental Engineer-
ing Applications. Soils and Rocks, São Paulo, 30(1): 3-30, January-April, 2007
Rowe,R.K. & Abdelatty. 2013. Leakage and Contaminant Transport through a Single Hole in the Ge-
omembrane Component of a Composite Liner. Journal of geotechnical and geoenvironmental engi-
neering 139:357-366.
Rowe,R.K. & Abdelatty. 2012. Modeling contaminant transport through composite liner with a hole in
the geomembrane. Canadian geotechnical journal 49: 773–781
El Zein A & Rowe,R.K. 2007. Simultaneous leakage and diffusion of organic pollutants through dam-
aged geomembranes Numerical Models in Geomechanics s – NUMOGX–Pande & Pietruszczak (eds)
© 2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44027-
225
226
Analyse de stabilité des digues de rétention de boue par éléments
finis: cas d’étude tunisien
H. Karoui, M. Bouassida, E. Hamdi et N. Mezni

Université de Tunis El Manar, Ecole Nationale d’Ingénieurs de Tunis, Laboratoire d’Ingénierie Géotechnique et
de Géorisque LR14ES03
Résumé. Les ouvrages en terre, malgré leur constitution par des matériaux formulés par les
géotechniciens, nécessitent une grande attention pour procéder à l’étude de leur stabilité. Aussi bien
pour la fondation qui s’étend sur une grande superficie, que pour les éléments constituant de tels
ouvrages qui répondent à des critères de fonctionnement différents (drainage, étanchéité, etc.). La
prédiction de leur comportement devra tenir compte de plusieurs aspects dans le temps et dans
l’espace. Dans ce contexte, trois cas d’études de stabilité de digues de rétention des boues ont été
analysés. Les paramètres géotechniques à retenir pour la modélisation numérique, en vue de prédire le
comportement des digues, est un point focal. En particulier, la synthèse des paramètres proposés suite
à la reconnaissance géotechnique ; les modèles numériques à retenir pour simuler au mieux les
conditions réelles d’exploitation et les dispositions à prendre pour fixer les pentes des talus et les
traitements préconisés pour la fondation de ces ouvrages. Tout comme pour la méthode d’exécution
des volumes de déblai-remblai : choix des matériaux et paramètres de compactage.
Mots-clés : Digue - Stabilité – Etanchéité - Protection - Prédiction
1. INTRODUCTION
La compagnie des phosphates de Gafsa (CPG) utilise la technique de lavage pour le traitement des
phosphates extraits de réserves naturelles. Cette technique engendre d’énormes quantités de boues
(déchets de phosphate) qui sont généralement rejetées dans la nature ; ou stockées dans des bassins
de rétention. Ces quantités de déchets évoluent en fonction des années, elles sont passées de 438531
tonnes en 1979 à 753930 tonnes en 2000 dues à l’augmentation de la quantité d’extraction des
phosphates. La quantité totale des boues rejetées sur le bassin minier est estimée à 2 millions de
mètres cube par année. Le rejet arbitraire des boues polluantes dans la nature a engendré des dégâts
environnementaux sur l’écosystème de la région de Gafsa et sur les régions avoisinantes, et
présentent jusqu’à ce jour un problème pour la compagnie des phosphates de Gafsa. En 2001, La
CPG a lancée un projet qui vise la gestion de stockage des boues dans des grands bassins à ce que
ces boues soient réutilisées après traitement dans des projets en génie civil. Les digues de rétention
des boues polluantes, sont des ouvrages en terre construit par des matériaux miniers issus des
carrières de la compagnie des phosphates de Gafsa.
Le présent article, expose des cas d’étude sur la conception et le dimensionnement des digues de
rétention des boues de lavage de l’usine de traitement d’OM EL KHECHEB, commune El
METLAOUI. L’objectif principal de cet article est de donner une méthodologie de conception des
digues en tenant compte de la qualité des matériaux miniers qui seront utilisés dans la construction
des digues et de la stabilité de ces ouvrages afin de minimiser les mouvements de terre (volumes des
remblais).
227
La campagne de reconnaissance géotechnique a comporté sept sondages carottés et trois sondages
pressiométriques sur 20 m de profondeur. La synthèse des résultats de cette campagne géotechnique
a permis de distinguer deux couches ; la première couche est constituée par un sable fin d’épaisseur
varie de 2 à 5m de profondeur, la deuxième couche est une argile sableuse située entre 5 et 20 m de
profondeur. Sur la base d’un lever topographique du site cinq modèles géométriques de digues sont
proposés. En raison de la grande longueur des digues (quelques kilomètres) par rapport à leur
hauteur qui est inférieure ou égale à 12 m par rapport à la surface du TN, le dimensionnement est
développé dans le cadre d’une étude en déformation plane (2D) à la fois pour la stabilité vis-à-vis
d’une rupture rotationnelle et pour la prédiction du comportement vis à vis du tassement et de
l’infiltration d’eau. Ainsi, le coefficient de sécurité minimal est égal à 1,5, vis-à-vis d’une rupture par
glissement en rotation ; devra être assuré dans le cas de calcul le plus défavorable. Cette valeur est
très couramment adoptée pour la vérification de la stabilité des ouvrages en terre sujet à un
écoulement d’eau (Costet & Sanglerat, 1983).
L’étude de la modélisation du comportement des digues par le logiciel Plaxis 2D a permis de valider
l’utilisation des matériaux miniers dans la construction des digues dont les pentes peuvent atteindre
65°.
2. PARAMETRES GEOTECHNIQUES DU SOL DE FONDATION ET MATERIAUX DES

DIGUES
2.1 Le sol de la fondation des digues

A partir des coupes des sondages carottés présentées dans le rapport de reconnaissance géotechnique,
des fouilles de reconnaissance réalisées entre la surface du TN jusqu’à environ 2 m de profondeur et
des sondages pressiométriques exécutés jusqu’à 20 m de profondeur, le profil géotechnique typique
est composé de :
Une couche de sable fin d’épaisseur moyenne de 2 m qui se caractérise par une pression limite
nette égale à 3,5 MPa et un module pressiométrique de l’ordre de 14 MPa.
Une couche d’argile sableuse raide ayant une forte cohésion (supérieure à 50 kPa) et un angle de
frottement minimum de 22°. Ces paramètres de résistance au cisaillement ont été déterminés à partir
d’essais de cisaillement direct sur les échantillons prélevés à la profondeur 5,5 à 6,0 m par rapport au
TN ; ce qui confirme les valeurs des paramètres pressiométriques : EM > 1000 bars et pl*> 30 bars
enregistrées dans cette couche qui s’étend jusqu’à 10m de profondeur.
 Au-delà de 10 m et jusqu’à 20 m de profondeur, la couche traversée est assimilé à un
substratum rigide ayant un module pressiométrique supérieur à 1200 bars et qui peut être
assimilé à un substratum quasi-imperméable.
Il convient de signaler l’absence d’une nappe d’eau sur toute la profondeur des sondages carottés
exécutés, soit de 20 m. En outre, il est à noter les très faibles valeurs des teneurs en eau (inférieures à
5%) de tous les échantillons intacts prélevés entre 5,5 et 6 m de profondeur.
2.2 Echantillons prélevés au droit des fouilles

Le tableau 1 résume les paramètres de compactage et de l’indice de portance CBR des échantillons
prélevés au droit des fouilles à une profondeur variant de 0,9 à 1,7 m.
Tableau 1. Paramètres des échantillons de sol prélevés au droit des fouilles

Ech Classification opt (%)  d (kN/m3)  (kN/m3) CBR CBR imbibé
fouille N° immédiat (%) (%)
1 Sable limoneux 14 16,3 18,57 29 18
à argileux
2 Sable limoneux 14 16,3 19,2 30 19
3 Sable limoneux 13 16,0 18,3 31 20
4 Sable limoneux 15 16,25 18,7 32 21
5 Sable limoneux 14 16,3 19,2 30 18
6 Sable limoneux 14 16,3 19,2 31 19
228
La plasticité des échantillons prélevés des fouilles est négligeable, ils ont une fraction argileuse
d’environ 14% et une fraction limoneuse du même ordre de grandeur. Pour cette raison, ils sont
classés comme des sols grenus dont la granulométrie est étalée, donc favorable au compactage. Le
module de déformation (de Young) des deux couches rencontrées dans la fondation est estimé en
fonction des valeurs de CBR présentées dans le tableau 1, l’estimation de la valeur du module de
déformation a été basée sur deux corrélations proposées respectivement par Powel et all (1984) et
Nassra (1950) :
E ( MPa)  17, 6  CBR 0,64 (1)
E ( MPa)  22, 4  CBR 0,5 (2)
Estimation du module de déformation (de Young)

Dans la couche de sable fin (échantillons prélevés des fouilles), à l’état de compactage optimal le
CBR enregistré est égal à 30 ; alors qu’à l’état imbibé le CBR enregistré est égal à 20. D’après les
corrélations proposées, le cas le plus défavorable conduit à un module de Young égal à 100 MPa.
Pour la couche superficielle de sable fin, afin rester dans une marge de sécurité assez large, tenant
compte du fait que le matériau est compacté au Proctor Normal (lors de l’exécution des digues) on se
limite à un module de Young de la couche de sable fin E = 40 MPa.
La couche d’argile sableuse

Cette couche n’a pas fait l’objet de prélèvements d’échantillons de sol intacts. On considère alors les
paramètres pressiométriques qui indiquent un module pressiométrique supérieur à 100 MPa ; mais
pour rester dans une marge sécuritaire suffisante on se limite à un module de Young de l’argile
sableuse E = 60 MPa.
2.3 Echantillons prélevés des verses

Les paramètres géotechniques retenus, à partir des résultats d’essais de compactage et de cisaillement
direct effectués sur les échantillons prélevés des verses, sont fournis dans le tableau 2. Ces
paramètres tiennent compte du fait que le compactage des matériaux des digues ne se fait pas avec le
Proctor modifié. Par ailleurs, le maximum sur la contrainte de cisaillement à la rupture est limité à un
déplacement horizontal égal à 2,5 mm.
A partir du tableau 2, on remarque que les échantillons n°1 et n°4 sont des sables limoneux de faible
plasticité ; à l’état compacté à forte énergie (Proctor modifié) ils possèdent une cohésion assez bonne
et un angle de frottement assez bon.
Tableau 2. Paramètres des matériaux prélevés des verses pour la construction des digues
Ech N° Classification opt (%)  d (kN/m3)  (kN/m3) C (kPa)  (°)
Verse
1 Mzinda Sable limoneux 15 16,3 18,75 40 31,7
2 Mzinda Sable argileux 18 16,3 19,2 10 32
peu plastique
3 Jallabia (*) Sable de 10 16,1 17,62 10 31
transition
4 Zone L Sable limoneux 15 16,3 18,75 40 31
Alors que les échantillons n°2 et n°3 sont essentiellement des sables, mais à l’état compacté (Proctor
modifié) leur cohésion n’est pas négligeable, sans dépasser 10 kPa.
A partir des tableaux 1 et 2, on remarque que les paramètres de compactage sont très proches pour
les matériaux des verses et les échantillons prélevés au droit des fouilles dans la couche superficielle
de sable fin. Ceci constitue un avantage dans la mesure où dans les profils en remblai, le matériau
d’apport, qu’il soit issu des verses ou des fouilles (parcelle du projet), après compactage il aura des
paramètres géotechniques très proches de celle de la couche superficielle identifiée lors des sondages
carottés.
Les échantillons testés ont un pourcentage d’éléments de dimensions inférieures à 80 microns qui est
voisin de 30%, et par conséquent non négligeable.
229
Excepté le sable de transition de Jellabia (verse n°3), le coefficient de perméabilité adopté pour le
matériau des digues est égal à 108 m/s.
Alors que pour les deux couches de la fondation, qui constituent le sol support des digues, le
coefficient de perméabilité est égal à :
5 10 9 m/s pour la couche superficielle de sable fin ;
109 m/s pour la couche d’argile sableuse sous-jacente à la couche superficielle de sable fin.
Le module d’Young des matériaux qui seront utilisés pour la construction des digues est estimé égal
à 50 MPa.
3. MODELES DE DIGUES
Sur la base du choix fait pour la proportion « déblai/remblai » du projet de digues, à partir du plan
d’implantation fourni sur la figure 1, trois modèles de digues ont été retenus. Pour chaque modèle de
calcul deux étapes de calcul sont considérés : à savoir la fin de construction des digues, et après
remplissage total du (des) bassin(s) par la boue. Cependant, afin d’assurer une exécution facile des
digues projetées, on distinguera entre trois géométries comme l’indique la figure 1, à savoir :
 Modèle de digue n°1 : la digue périphérique du bassin n°1 ;
 Modèle de digue n°2 : la digue intermédiaire qui sépare entre les bassins n°1 et n°2;
 Modèle de digue n°3 : la digue périphérique du bassin n°2.
Figure 1. Modèles de digues retenus pour l’exécution
4. MODELE DE COMPORTEMENT DES MATERIAUX
Le modèle d’usage courant et qui fait intervenir un nombre de paramètres limité est celui de Mohr-
Coulomb. Les paramètres de ce modèle sont : le poids volumique total (humide et saturé), le module
de Young, le coefficient de Poisson, la cohésion et l’angle de frottement,  . En outre, l’angle de
230
dilatance  est un autre paramètre qui contrôle l’augmentation du volume du sol (matériau). A
défaut de cette donnée de la part de l’utilisateur, le logiciel considère (corrélation) la valeur :
    30 (3)
Lorsque   30 alors :   0 .
Lorsque l’application comporte l’écoulement de l’eau, les coefficients de perméabilité horizontale et

verticale sont à introduire également.
Le tableau n°3, résume les paramètres des matériaux considérés pour les prédictions numériques
avec le logiciel Plaxis 2D. Il convient de noter que les valeurs adoptées pour tous les paramètres
correspondent à des valeurs défavorables, donc, allant bien du côté de la sécurité. En outre, la
perméabilité a été supposée isotrope pour tous les matériaux, ce qui ne reflète pas la réalité, sachant
que la perméabilité horizontale est souvent supérieure à celle verticale. Concernant la boue, elle est
assimilée à l’eau libre.
Tableau 3. Paramètres géotechniques des matériaux constituants la digue et la fondation

Matériaux Digue Sable fin Argile sableuse Boue
Paramètres
Poids volumique humide  h (kN/m3) 18,75 18,0 18,0 11
Poids volumique saturé  sat (kN/m3) 20,0 20,0 20,0 13

Module de Young : E (MPa) 40 50 60 -
Coefficient de Poisson :  0,3 0,33 0,33 -
Perméabilité isotrope K (m/s) 10 -8 5 10 -9 10 -9 -
Cohésion C (kPa) 40 40 58 -
Angle de frottement  (°) 31 31 22 -
Les calculs numériques avec Plaxis 2D conduisent à la détermination du coefficient de sécurité

concernant une étude vis-à-vis d’un glissement rotationnel (méthode de Bishop). Ainsi, le calcul en
déformation est abordé en vue de trouver le lieu où le coefficient de sécurité est minimal dans le
corps de la digue, et les valeurs du tassement à la crête et au pied du talus.
La simulation numérique est menée avec une construction par étapes permettant de simuler les
étapes d’exécution des digues périphériques des bassins (et celle séparant les bassins) B1 et B2, trois
étapes ont été considérées dans les prédictions numériques.
 Reproduire le relief du terrain naturel, conformément au levé topographique et les profils en

long.
 Terrassement en déblai sur une épaisseur minimale du terrain de 40 cm et qui peut être
atteindre 1,8 m de profondeur.
 Construction de la digue par couches d’épaisseur 1 m.
Les trois étapes, ci-dessus, correspondent à l’exécution de la digue avant la phase de remplissage
avec de la boue phosphatée. L’étape suivante, elle correspond au remplissage des bassins B1 et (ou)
B2. Il faudra ainsi étudier l’écoulement d’eau qui en résulte dans le corps de la digue et dans le sol
de fondation.
Les dimensions du modèle numériques : Elles correspondent à l’épaisseur du sol de fondation sous la
digue ; la hauteur de la digue et la largeur totale incluant celle de la digue, et les distances de part et
d’autre de la digue, respectivement des côtés amont (boue retenue dans un bassin) et aval (côté
extérieur).
Les sondages exécutés lors de la reconnaissance géotechnique ont permis de déterminer les
paramètres géotechniques des couches traversées jusqu’à 20 m de profondeur, c’est ce qu’on adopte
dans le modèle numérique. Par ailleurs, la largeur totale du modèle est déterminée de sorte que du
côté d’un bassin de rétention on adopte une distance égale à deux fois celle qui est du côté extérieur
(talus aval). La largeur totale du modèle numérique ne devra pas excéder 130 m.
4.1 Modèles de digues analysés
231
Les coupes transversales de ces trois modèles de digue, se trouvent dans le prolongement du profil en
long traversant le bassin B1 et B2. Les modèles de digues ont été adoptés à partir des coupes
géotechniques considérées en utilisant les données de SC3, SC4, SC5 et SC6, d’une part, et SP2,
d’autre part, et également les observations des fouilles excavées F3 et F4.
Pour chaque modèle, on fait varier les pentes des talus amont et aval (figure 2) dans une marge assez
large : 18,43° (1V : 3H) ; 33,69° (2V : 3H) ; 45° (1V : 1H) et 63,43° (2V :1H).
4.2 Résultats de la simulation numérique
 Modèle de la digue 1
Figure 2. Modèle numérique de la digue 1
La Figure 2 montre le modèle numérique qui a permis d’obtenir la vérification de la stabilité pour
toutes les étapes de construction, du modèle de digue n°1. Les talus amont et aval sont identiques
avec un angle de 63,4°. Le coefficient de sécurité minimal en fin de construction de la digue est Fmin
= 1,78 (Figure 3).
Après remplissage du bassin n°1, la stabilité de la digue est vérifiée avec un coefficient de sécurité
minimal : Fmin = 2,95 qui est atteint au niveau de la surface visualisée (Figure 4). Alors que le
tassement maximum prévu au niveau de la crête de la digue après remplissage est bien admissible,
soit 2 cm.
C’est la digue qui sépare entre les deux bassins B1 et B2 des deux côtés : le bassin n°1 du côté nord
dont le fond est surélevé par rapport au bassin n°2 est atteint après excavation sur 5m de profondeur.
De ce fait, à partir de la crête de la digue, la profondeur atteinte au fond du bassin B1 est égale à
12m ; alors que du côté de B2 la profondeur atteinte est de 17 m.
Figure 3. Coefficient de sécurité après construction de la digue 1
Figure 3. Coefficient de sécurité avant remplissage du bassin 1
232
Figure 4. Coefficient de sécurité après remplissage du bassin 1
Figure 5. Tassement total après remplissage du bassin 1
Modèle de la digue 2
233
toutes les étapes de construction, de ce modèle de digue. Les talus du côté du bassin B1 et du côté du
bassin B2 ont, un angle de 34,4°.
L’analyse de la stabilité de cette digue est faite pour un remplissage sur une hauteur de 11m du côté
du bassin B1 qui est le plus proche du point d’arrivée de la conduite de rejet en provenance de la
laverie d’Om El Khecheb. Le remplissage du bassin B1 seul correspond au cas le plus défavorable
parce qu’il engendre un écoulement d’eau dans la digue et dans la fondation.
Le coefficient de sécurité minimal en fin de construction de la digue est Fmin = 2,00 ; la Figure 7
montre l’évolution du coefficient de sécurité des deux talus en fonction du déplacement. Alors que le
tassement maximum prévu au niveau de la crête de la digue est admissible, soit 5,3 cm. Dans le sol
de fondation le tassement sous la digue décroit en profondeur jusqu’à s’annuler. Dans la couche de
sable fin, ce tassement demeure faible, soit 2,4 cm
minimal : Fmin = 1,6 qui est atteint après la fin de remplissage du bassin 1 (Figure 8). Alors que le
tassement dans la digue par rapport à la phase « fin de construction » décroit à 4 cm dans la crête de
la digue et à 1,8 cm dans la fondation (Figure 9).
Figure 8. Coefficient de sécurité après remplissage du bassin 1
234
 Modèle de la digue 3
toutes les étapes de construction, de ce modèle de digue. Les talus amont et aval sont identiques avec
un angle de 45°.
Le coefficient de sécurité minimal en fin de construction de la digue est Fmin = 1,48, la Figure 11
montre l’évolution de ce coefficient. La valeur Fmin =1,5 ; demeure acceptable, notamment au début
de la phase d’exploitation.
minimal : Fmin = 1,9 qui est atteint au niveau de la surface visualisée (Figure 12). Alors que les
tassements dans la digue et dans le sol de fondation atteignent 4 cm sous la base de la digue (Figure
13).
235
Figure 12. Coefficient de sécurité afin de construction de la digue 3
236
5. CONCLUSION
Sur la base des résultats de simulation numérique présentés dans cet article on retient les résultats et
recommandations suivantes.
Le dimensionnement des digues de rétention de boue a pu être mené après avoir retenu trois modèles
identifiés à partir de l’implantation des deux bassins de superficie approximative de 100 Ha. Ce
choix se justifie par le fait d’assurer un coefficient de sécurité, vis-à-vis d’une rupture rotationnelle,
minimal égal à 1,5. Mais, également, le dimensionnement vise une construction aisée où les angles
de talus d’une même digue soient identiques.
Pour tous les modèles de digue, la stabilité est toujours vérifiée avec un coefficient de sécurité égal
ou supérieur à 1,5. En outre, les tassements prévus dans le corps de ces digues et dans le sol de
fondation demeurent admissibles.
Le dimensionnement proposé montre que les digues périphériques des deux bassins ont un talus aval
(côté extérieur) différent. Afin de faciliter l’exécution, on pourrait adopter le même angle du talus
extérieur soit de 45°. Mais la stabilité de la digue périphérique du bassin n°1 serait assurée avec des
coefficients de sécurité plus grands, donc du côté de la sécurité.
6. REFERENCES BIBLIOGRAPHIQUES
[1] Geoconseil (2022). Etude de conception et de construction des digues de rétention des boues de
lavage de l’usine de traitement D’OM EL KHCHEB située à 6km de la ville de METLAOUI – GVT
DE GAFSA. Rapport de résultats de la campagne géotechnique.
[2] Costet, J. & Sanglerat, G. (1983). Cours de mécanique des sols, tome 2 : dimensionnement des
ouvrages. Edit. Eyrolles, Paris.
[3] Marzouki, A. ; Bouassida, M. & Klai, M. (2020). Notions de base de mécanique des sols.
Imprimerie « Novaprint » (Sfax, Tunisie). 230 pages. ISBN: 978-9938-59153-8.
[4] Karoui, H., Maazoun, H., Bouassida, M. (2020) Numerical simulation of wet deposited
Phosphogypsum embankment on deposited one. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 13:817.
237
238
New computational methods embedded in Geospring 1.0
Wafy Bouassida
Tashfeen Engineering Solutions, Ariana, Tunisia
Siwar Khaled & Waad Belaid
Tashfeen Engineering Solutions, Ariana, Tunisia
ABSTRACT: This paper outlines the new computational procedures embedded in the software tool
GeoSpring 1.0. It explains how these modules has been implemented and applied in real foundation
projects. Then, it concludes how these based convergence methods are those which can be coupled
with machine learning algorithms rather than the finite element or the finite difference methods.
Keywords: Software, Foundation, settlement, embankment, rigid inclusions.
1 GENERAL PRESENTATION OF GEOSPRING 1.0
GeoSpring 1.0 carries the design of shallow and deep foundations in terms of bearing capacity
and settlements according to Eurocode 7. It also estimates the settlement of embankments and
carries the predesign of rigid inclusions as detailed in the flowchart exposed in Figure.1.
Figure. 1 GeoSpring’s Modules
The first new computational method that GeoSpring 1.0 offers concerns the settlement estima-
tion of single Recharge Impulse Technology (RIT) piles. Such a method implies the use of cu-
bic root load transfer curves as discussed by (Bohn, Santos, & Frank, 2016), combined with the
shape effect and the electrical discharge task (EDT) as detailed in (Bouassida, 2021)
The second computational procedure concerns the settlement of embankments along to their
widths. The algorithm behind implies the update of the term b(i) as defined by Osterberg and
estimates at each incremental step the excess of stress to further deduce the short and long-term
settlement.
The third method concerns the predesign of rigid inclusions using jet grouting columns.
In the next section, the theoretical framework behind each method will be explained before ex-
posing their use in real engineering projects.
239
2 SETTLEMENT OF SINGLE RIT PILES
The cubic root load transfer curves developed by (Bouassida, 2021), and used to estimate the
settlement of single piles according to the iterative process defined by (Poulous & Davis,
1980), has been modified with two amplifying factors: The first one, namely α, takes account of
the shape effect of RIT piles and the second one, namely β, takes account of the electrical dis-
charge task (Figure 2).
Figure. 2 Equipment and Execution Process of Recharge Impulse Technology (Alexandrovitch,

2006)
For normally consolidated clays,  =1,96 and δ =1,237. Figure 4 plots the load-settlement curve
built by GeoSpring for a single RIT pile anchored in a clayey deposit located in Essalema City,
Tunis (geotechnical data can be documented from (Bouassida, 2021)). It also presents the curve
of a full-scale loading test and finally the one built by the non-modified cubic root curves. It can
clearly be seen that the shape amplifying factor combined with the EDT one enhances the
agreement between the experimental and the numerical curve predicted by GeoSpring 1.0.
As established by (Bouassida. W et al, 2021), the bearing capacity of a single RIT Piles at ULS
can be written as:
CP(RIT)=* δ *CP(bored piles)
240
Figure. 3 Instrumentation of the loading test (Essalema City, Tunis, Tunisia)
Figure. 4 Calibration of the Modified Cubic Root Method to the Loading Test Results (Essalema
City, Tunis, Tunisia)
The same process has been applied to a second case study at Les Jardins de Carthage, Tunis in
which a seven-story building has been erected ( =1,9 and δ =1,2). Figures 5, and 6 presents
respectively the loading settlement instrumentation and results highlighting the good agreement
between experimental and numerical results built by GeoSpring 1.0.
In this case study, the mean amplifying factor  of the EDT contribution profile equals1,9
and δ =1,
Figure. 5 Instrumentation of the Static Loading Test carried on a single RIT Pile (Les Jardins de
Carthage, Tunis, Tunisia)
241
Figure. 6 Calibration of the Modified Cubic Root Method to the Loading Test Results (Les
Jardins de Carthage, Tunis, Tunisia)
3 SETTLEMENT OF EMBANKMENTS ALONG WITH WIDTHS
As discussed previously, the estimation of a trapezoidal or triangular embankment along its

width consists of varying the parameter b(i) as defined by Osterberg following an incremental
mesh step defined by the user (Figure.5). Although it's simple to be implemented, this method
further allows the user to track the decrease of settlement along the embankment width and
hence optimize the design of vertical drains in terms of spacing between these elements. Figures
6 and 7 plot the variation of settlements along their widths for the cases of the Korba-Menzel
Tmim project and the Tunis-Bay one.
Figure. 7 Trapezoidal embankment
242
Figure 6. Variation of the short-term settlement along the embankment width for the
Korba-Menzel Tmim bridge project (Triangular embankment)
Figure 7. Variation of the short-term settlement along the embankment width for the Tu-
nis Bay project (Trapezoidal embankment)
243
The settlement results along the embankments bases has been obtained not only rapidly in terms
of computational time but also without the need of building an FEM or a FD model in which
there is the mesh and the boundary conditions tasks added to an awkward time of calculations.
Deeper, the incrementalism process embedded in this computational procedure and in which the
a(i) geometrical Osterberg parameter is varied, can be applied to a huge database of embank-
ments having different geometries in different soils conditions. This cannot be done automati-
cally with the finite element or finite difference schemes.
4 PRE-DESIGN OF RIGID INCLUSIONS
The determination of the optimum substitution factor or improvement area ratio (IAR (%)) be-
neath a raft foundation implies a homogenization task between the deformation moduli of the
soil in place and the material constituting the inclusions. This task is obviously carried accord-
ing to a target settlement (Bouassida, 2021)Figure 8 plots the variation of the substitution factor
according to the target settlements fixed by the user of GeoSpring 1.0 for the case of the lake
bay project at Les Berges du lac 2, Tunis. What can be learned from such a case in which a nine
floors building has been built on jet grouting columns is that the designer should determine all
the IAR coefficients with respect to a given range of target settlements before carrying the glob-
al modeling of the building infrastructure. Indeed, a 0.5cm of difference in the feasible settle-
ment can lead to an increase of 7% in the IAR which refers to a high-cost increase in the foun-
dation budget since the number of jet grouting columns will drastically rise up. For this reason,
we offer in GeoSpring 1.0 the option to draw the design chart (IAR as a function of the target
settlement) of each case study in order to avoid over-design pitfalls leading to non-cost-effective
solutions.
Figure. 8 Evolution of IAR (%) according to the target settlement (Lake Bay Project, Les Berges
du Lac II, Tunisia)
244
5 SETTLEMENT OF FOOTINGS GROUP
The interaction between loaded footings pertaining to a same group can be quantified through
the evolution of the excess of stress in terms of the footings widths as shown in Figure.9. In Ge-
oSpring 1.0, we combine the Delaunay mesh with these charts to draw the settlement contours
in the studied loaded area without applying neither the variation method nor the inversion pro-
cess imposed by the finite element methods. Figure.10 presents an example of the obtained con-
tours for five spread footings.
Figure. 9 Lateral distributions of settlements for different foundation geometries
Figure. 10 Settlement contours for a group of five spread footings
245
6 CONCLUSION
Based convergence methods as those presented in this paper are the future of computational
tasks in engineering sciences since they are light to implement and precise to be used in the de-
sign process. GeoSpring 1.0 employs such a class of computational procedure not only to re-
duce the calculation time but also to let the user spend much more of his time in the conceptual
design task rather than in the building of a meshing model which should be manually updated
on each case study.
References
Bouassida. W, Essaieb. H, Bouassida. M, and Kharine. Y. (2016). On the use of RITA pile technique in
Tunisia. 4th International Conference on New developments in Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engi-
neering, 2-4 June 2016, Near East University, Nicosia, North Cyprus.
Bouassida. W, Essaieb. H, Bouassida. M, and Kharine. Y. (2017). Use of Recharge Impulse Technology
in Deep Foundations Set-up. The 2nd International Conference on Mechanics, Materials and Structural
Engineering, Beijing, China.
Bouassida. W, Essaieb. H, Bouassida. M, and Kharine. Y. (2017). Shaft Capacity Assessment of Re-
charge Impulse Technology Piles: Proceedings of the 5th GeoChina International Conference 2018 –
Civil Infrastructures Confronting Severe Weathers and Climate Changes: From Failure to Sustainabil-
ity, held on July 23 to 25, 2018 in HangZhou, China.(Bouassida. W, 2021)
246
AUTHOR INDEX
A. Kallel 47
A. Ammari 91
A. Chikh Grayaa 131
A. Kharroubi 13
A. Oueslati 155
A. Pouya 57, 125
A. Rezgui 189
A. Touekbri 85
A.Ben Salem 85
A.Daoud 169
A.V. Manko 101
B. Jellali 189
B. Njom 31
B. Talbi 209
C. Abbes 91, 163
D. Azaiez 79, 199
E. Hamdi 57, 119, 125, 141, 227
E.A. Muraveva 101
F. Louati 25, 71
F. Melki 85
F. Rekhiss 10
F. Tlili 13
G. de Saxcé 155
G. Snoussi 141
H. Bannour 219
H. Kabadou 47
H. Karoui 227
H. Sellami 9
H. Trabelsi 25, 71
H. Zbidi 209
I. Fayala 119
K. Wu 109
K.Ben Abdallah 125
L. Ajam 189
M. Abdelhedi 163
M. Bouassida 79, 169, 199, 227
M. Chalhoub 57
M. Hamlaoui 155
M. Jamei 25, 71
247
M. Q. He 109
N. Ben Jamaa 13
N. Mezni 227
O. Fouché-Grobla 141
O.Limam 119
R. Bissaya 31
R. E. Medjo 31
R. T. Ghogomu 31
R. Ulusay 1
S. Ennour 13
S. Khaled 239
S. Louati 131
S. Sghaier 169
S. Souissi 47, 57, 125
S.A. Manigniavy 79, 199
S. Ellouze 169
T. T. Li 109
W. Abdelkhalek 85
W. Belaid 239
W. Bouassida 181, 239
X. Huang 109
X. Li 109
Y. Bouassida 79
248

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PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ADVANCES IN ROCK MECHANICS, AN

TUNIROCK 2022, HAMMAMET, TUNISIA, 25 – 27 MARCH 2022

PLATINIUM SPONSOR SILVER SPONSOR

© Tunisian Society for Rock Mechanics, 2022

Dr Salma Souissi (Chair)

2 Advanced techniques for deep hard rock geothermal drilling 9

SESSION 1: SITE INVESTIGATION TECHNOLOGY

1 Caractérisations De Remblai Minier : Calage Du Modèle Numérique à partir Des Résultats 13

2 Cracking of a clay subjected to desiccation: Experimental and 3D numerical investigation. 25

5 Numerical elastoplastic homogenization of an anisotropic rock mass with non-persistent 57

2 Characterization of expansive soils using oedometer test results 79

3 Evaluation of petrophysical parameters : A case study of the Abiod formation in Pelagian 85

SESSION 3: ROCK MECHANICS IN CIVIL, MINING AND PETROLEUM ENGINEERING

3 Geomechanical Integrity of Fractured Reservoirs: Hydro-Mechanical Coupling 125

4 Numerical modeling of a pathological case: Spillway of Joumine dam Tunisia 131

5 Matériaux excavés : caractérisation en vue de leur valorisation en ingénierie pédologique. 141

SESSION 4: ANALYTICAL AND NUMERICAL MODELING OF ROCK MECHANICS

5 Prédictions numérique et analytique de la consolidation du sol mou de Tunis 189

SESSION 5: RISKS AND HAZARDS

SESSION 5: RISQUES ET ALEAS

1 Application de la mécanique des roches au nouveau barrage Mellegue amont 209

4 New computational methods embedded in Geospring 1.0 239

Edited by Essaieb HAMDI & Salma SOUISSI

Hammamet (Tunisia), 25-27 March 2022

Edités par Essaieb HAMDI & Salma SOUISSI

Hammamet (Tunisie), 25-27 mars 2022

2 Test Method, Standard and ISRM Suggested Methods

Fig. 1. (a) Repeatability and (b) reproducibility demonstrations

3 Future Trends in Rock Characterization and Testing

Fig. 4. X-Ray CT scan images and CT value distribution with height

Fig. 6. (a) Spalling in an underground opening [23], (b) core disking

Figure 1 : Localisation de la verse servie pour le calage

Figure 2 : Localisation de la verse Mont jardin

4. LES CARACTERISTIQUES MECANIQUES DES MATERIAUX CONSTITUANT LA

Figure 3 : Profil géologique de la zone d’étude

Kx = K y 10-8 à 5.10-8 10-7 10-6 m/s

Figure 4 : Géologie de la coupe modélisée

5.2. Phasage des calculs

Paramètres de latérites en verse

Tableau 5 : Caractéristiques mécaniques déduites du calage de la verse « Mont-jardin »

Paramètre Latérites en verse Saprolites Terreuses

2 LA LOI DE COMPORTEMENT UTILISÉE

1000 phase partiellement saturée

0,2 Sres ≌ 0.28

On modélise l'effet de l'évaporation en imposant la température de l'échantillon initiale à T0=35°C et la

4 INTERPRÉTATION DES RÉSULTATS

Time= 20 Time= 16.95 Time= 10.28 Time= 6.66

a) Succion - s (MPa) b) Sr (-) c) Porosité - n (-) d) Teneur en eau - ω (%)

R. Bissaya, R. E. Medjo, R. T. Ghogomu & B. Njom

2 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE STUDY AREA AND GEOLOGICAL SETTING

2.2 Geological setting

3 MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.2 Stereographic plotting

3.3 Joint networks

3.4 Kynematic analysis of the joint networks

3.4.1 Goodman and Shi’s block theory

Table 1. Data for the orientation of discontinuities (format dip/dip direction).

3.4.2 Stability analyses with VisKBT

4.1 Joint networks identification

Table 2. E. g. of mean of plans of each discontinuity set derived from RSDip.

4.2 Free planes analysis

4.3 Kynematic analysis

- If EP = vertical rock slope oriented according to F3 strike (90/307)

Potential key block Key block