A

SEMINAR REPORT

ON

IODINE AND IT’S DEFICIENCY

BY

AKINYEMI RIDWAN AKINKUNMI

ND/16/SLT/FT/077

SUBMITTED TO

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE LABOURATORY TECHNOLOY,

(CHEMISTRY / BIOCHEMISTRY UNIT). INSTITUTE OF
APPLIED SCIENCES (IAS) KWARA STATE POLYTECHNIC,
ILORIN

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT FOR THE REQUIREMENT OF

AWARD OF NATIONAL DIPLOMA (ND) IN SCIENCE
LABOURATORY TECHNOLOGY

SUPERVISED BY
MR. OSENI T.O
2017/2018 SESSION

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 OUTLINE
Introduction
History of iodide
Metabolism of iodine
Uses of iodine
Iodine needs/nutrition importance of iodine
o 1.5.1 Iodine needs during lactation
o 1.5.2 Iodine needs during pregnancy
o 1.5.3 Iodine needs in normal metabolism
o 1.5.4 Iodine needs in protection of breast diseases
Iodine deficiency disorder
Causes of iodine deficiency
Effect of iodine deficiency
Preventive measure for iodine deficiency
Treatment
Conclusion and Recommendation
References

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 INTRODUCTION
IODINE
Iodine is an element that is needed for the production of thyroid hormone. The
body does not make iodine, so it is an essential part of our diet. If we do not have
enough iodine in our body, we cannot make enough thyroid hormones. Thus iodine
deficiency can lead to enlargement of the hyroid-hyoerthyroidism and to mental
retardation in infants and children whose mothers were iodine deficient during
pregnancy (American Thyroid Association, 2007).
Iodine is found on earth mainly as the highly water soluble iodine ion (I -)
which concentrates it in oceans and brine pools. Like the other halogens, free iodine
occurs mainly as a diatomic molecule I2, and then only momentarily after being
oxidized from iodide by an oxidant like free oxygen. In the universe and on earth,
iodine’s high atomic number makes it a relatively rare element. However, its presence
in ocean water has given it a role in biology. It is the heaviest essential element
utilized by life in biological functions (only tungsten, employed in enzymes by a few
species of bacteria, is heavier). Iodine’s reprity in many soils, due to initial low
abundance as a crust-element, and also teaching of soluble iodide by rainwater, has
led to many deficiency problems in land animals, and inland human populations.
Iodine deficiency affects about two billion people and is the heading preventable
cause of intellectual disabilities (Mcxleil and Donald, 2008).
Iodine deficiency affects humans at every stage of life and leads to several
severe disorders. Iodine deficiency is the leading cause of brain damage and mental
retardation in the world. In addition to mental retardation, iodine deficiency causes
endemic goiter, cretinism dioarfism, mental retardation, muscular disorders,
spontaneous abortions sterilization and still births (Verma and Raghuvanshi, 2001).
United Nation International children’s Emergency fund (UNICEF) as declared
that 85 million children will be born free of iodine deficiency disorders (IDD) this
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year. Because of the global effort to wipe out iodine deficiency disorders (IDD) it is
now estimated that more than 70% percent of the world has access to iodized salt, the
most practical vehicle for providing iodine in the diet (Kiwanls, 2011).
Iodine is a chemical element with symbol I and atomic number 53. The name
is from Greek “Iocides” meaning violet or purple, due to the color of elemental iodine
vapor (online Etymology, 2012).
Iodine and it’s compounds are primarily used in nutrition and industrially in
the production of acetic acid and certain polymers. Iodine’s relatively high atomic
number, low toxicity and ease of attachment to organic compounds have made it a
part of many X-ray contrast materials on modern medicine. Iodine radioisotopes are
also used medical applications. Iodine is required by higher animals, which use it to
synthesize thyroid hormones, which contain the element. Because of this function,
radioisotopes of iodine are concentrated in the thyroid gland along with non-
radioactive potassium iodide treatment. Iodine normally exist as a diatomic molecule
with an I-I bond length of 270pm (Wells, 1984), one of the longest single bonds
known. The I2 molecules tend to interact via the weak Vander Weals forces called the
London dispersion forces, and this interaction is responsible for the higher melting
point compared to more compact halogens, which are also diatomic. Since the atomic
size of iodine is large, it’s melting point is higher. The solid crystallizes as
orthorhombic crystals. The crystal motif in the Hermann-Maugvin notation is (mca
(No64), Pearson symbol Os8. The I-I bond is relatively weak, with a bond
dissociation energy of 36kcal.mol. And most bonds to iodine are weaker than for the
lighter halides. One consequence of this weak bonding is the relatively high tendency
of I2 molecules to dissociate into atomic iodine.
HISTORY OF IODINE
Iodine was discovered by French chemist Bernard Courtois in 1811 (Courtois,
1813), (Swain and Patricia, 2005). He was born to a manufacturer of salt peter (a vital
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part of gunpowder). At the time of the Napoleonic wars, France was at war and
saltpeter was in great demand. Saltpeter produced from French niter beds required
sodium carbonate, which could be isolated from seaweed collected on the coasts of
Normandy and Brittany. To isolated the sodium carbonate, seaweed was burned and
ash washed with water. The remaining waste was destroyed by adding sulfuric acid.
Courtois once added excessive sulfuric acid and a cloud of purple vapor rose. He
noted that the vapour crystallized on cold surfaces making dark, crystals. Courtois
suspected that this was a new element but lack funding to pursue it further.
Courtois gave samples to his friends, Charles Bernard Desormes (1777-1862)
and Nicolas Clement (1779-1841), to continue research. He also gave some of the
substance to chemist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1778-1850), and to physicist Andre-
marie (1775-1836). On 29 November 1813, Dersormes and Clement made public
courtois’s discovery. They described the substance to a meeting of the imperial
institute of France. On December 6, Gay-Lussac announced that the new substance
was either an element or a compound of oxygen (Gay-Lussac, 1813) (Gay-Lussac,
1814). It was Gay-Lussac who suggested the name “Iodes” from the Greek word
Icodes (Iodes) for violet (because of the colour of iodine vapor (Gay-Lussac, 1813).
Ampere had given some of his sample to Humphry Davy (1778-1829). Davy
did some experiments on the substance and noted its similarity to chlorine (Davy,
1813). Davy sent a letter dated December 10 to the Royal Society of London stating
that he had identified a new element (Davy, 1814). Arguments erupted between
Davy and Gay Lussac over who identified iodine first, but both scientists
acknowledge courtois as the first to isolate the element.
FOOD SOURCES IODINE
The amount of iodine in most food is exceedingly small and can only be
determined by sensitive chemical method. The content varies widely among food and
for the same food under different soil and fertilizer condition. The richest natural
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sources are sea food and seaweed (such as kelp and Nori) because the ocean is a rich
reserve of iodine (International Council). Two or three serve a wee of sea food will
provide sufficient intake of iodine. Salt water fish have much more iodine than fresh
water fish (fish such as cod) that feed on mainly algae and other organisms that have
relatively high iodine content.
Salt water fish, seafood, iodizer slat, molasses and some plants contain various
forms of iodine, especially the leaves of plants grown near the sea. Sea salt found in
food stores, however is not a good source because the iodine is loss during
processing. Although generally lower than in most sea food, the iodine level in foods
of animal origin (eggs, meat & dairy products) are higher than in most foods of plant
origin and they may have been further enriched by the use of iodine supplemented
animal feeds.
The ocean is the source of some iodine naturally present in our diets. As ocean
mist blows to the land, it causes iodine to accumulate on the soil; hence, the iodine
content in land plant depends mainly upon the iodine content on the soil.. The leaves
and flowers of plants appear to have high concentration than the root (Medline plus)
(Zava and Lava,, 2011).
METABOLISM OF IODINE
The metabolism of iodine in the body involves four (4) processes which
include absorption, transport, storage and excretion.
Absorption
Iodine is efficiently absorbed along the Gastro intestinal Tract (GIT) in its
inorganic from which is the most common form of dietary iodine. Iodine is also easily
absorbed in other forms, such as the iodate (IO 3) form that is added to bread. Most
iodine is absorbed throughout small intestine but some of it enters the blood stream
directly from stomach. Iodine is absorbed rapidly, using Geiger’s counter.

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Radioactive iodine has been detected in the end within three to six minutes after it has
been ingested by mouth (us centers, 2006). (Ullberg and Eulardsson, (1964)
Transport
After iodine is absorbed into the blood stream, it is transported as tea ions and
bound to proteins, including thyroid-binding globulin and albumin. The transported
iodine is then distributed throughout the body extracellular compartment (Zava and
Zava, 2011).
Storage and Utilization
About three quarters of the iodine found in the adult human body is found in
thyroid gland, where its concentration is about 25 times higher than the one found in
the blood. The thyroid gland activity thyroid stimulating hormone (Felig and
Frohman, 2001). The thyroid hormone thyroxin (T4) and triodothyromine (T3) are
synthesized from the amino acid, tyrosme and iodine. If a person iodine intake is
insufficient, the thyroid gland enlarges as it attempts to take up more iodine from the
blood. Iodine also accumulates in other tissues, such as salivary gland, but in much
smaller amount when iodine intake is low, the body is able to recycle it by removing
iodine from thyroid hormones in the liver and releasing the iodine into the blood
stream from the re-absorption by the glands. Thyroxin and triodothyromine are
incorporated in protein, thymoglobulin, which is the storage form of iodine. The body
conserves its iodine supply when thyroxin breaks down (as it does in normal body
function), some of the iodine is salvaged, it combines with newly absorbed iodine in a
compound (Zaver and Zava, 2011)
Excretion
The kidney are the principal route for iodine excretion, lesser amount are
excreted through the intestine and in respiration. The amount of iodine intake, along
current blood concentration of iodine. Other paths for excretion occur through feaces

5
(most iodine in feaces is unabsorbed food iodine) and breast milk lactating women
(WaszkoWiak et al., 2008).
USES OF IODINE
Iodine is used to treat cuts and scrapes on the skin as a tincture of iodine,
which is a dilute mixture of alcohol and iodine. Iodine is also used in photography
and lasers. (Silver Iodide), in dyes and as a nutrient added to table salt. Iodsine-131 is
used for a number of medical procedures, including monitoring and tracing the flow
of thyroxin from the thyroid. With its short half-life of 8days, it is essentially gone in
less than three months. Iodine-129 has no important commercial uses (Human Health
Fact Sheet, 2005).
IODINE NEEDS/NUTRITION IMPORTANCE OF IODINETHE ESTIMATE
Average requirement of iodine for adult is 95g per day. This amount of iodine
is needed to maintain adequate uptake and turnover of the thyroid. The stimulate
average requirement is increased by 40% to account for individual variability yielding
the recommended dietary allowance (RDA) for iodine for adult of 150g/day.
Probably, the minimum intake to prevent goiter is 50g/day, the intake of iodine is
important in RDA for the following; infacts, pregnant woman and during lactation.
The breastfeeding infant whose mother is adequately nourished receives
sufficient iodine. If the infact consumes 850ml human milk a day, she may get
between 60g or 120g of iodine. The REDA for the first 6 months is 35g and between
6 and 12 months 45g. The infrequently of iodine deficiency in infants indicates that
the cow milk and prepared formula also provide sufficient iodine (Bell et al., 2002).
It may be necessary to add iodine to soya milk formula several investigation
have reported the development of goiter in infants, who ingested on soya milk
containing commercial formula when iodine was subsequently added to the mixture,
the problem was corrected (King and Hartman, 1943).

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Iodine needs during Lactation
The iodine content of milk varies according to the amount in the mother’s diet.
It may range from 70g to 4g per 100ml. this level actually higher than that in the
blood. Iodine is quickly absorbed and transmitted to the milk. Radioactive iodine has
been identified in milk 5minutes after it has been ingested. The RDA during lactation
is 250g per day. This recommendation is allowed for secretion of iodine into the milk.
The most effective way to supplement dietary iodine is by using iodine salt (King and
Hartman, 1943).
Iodine needs during Pregnancy
Iodine plays a crucial role in promoting a healthy pregnancy. Iodine deficiency
during pregnancy can cause high blood pressure in the mother and mental retardation
in the baby. In extreme cases, iodine deficiency during pregnancy can cause the baby
to be born with a disorder that involves severely stunted physical and mental growth.
The lines paling institute indicates that iodine deficiency during pregnancy may also
increase the risk of miscarriage, still birth and birth defects (Brownstein, 2008).
During pregnancy, there may be an increased need for iodine. The RDA for
iodine is 125g per day. Although a pregnant woman total iodine level is lower than
that of a non-pregnant woman, the protein bound iodine in the blood gradually
increases until the last trimester. The normal physiological range for the pregnant is
higher, almost certain due to the increase in a globulin to bind it after delivery. The
level rations to the pre-gravid state. The thyroid gland, and goitrous tends to enlarge
during pregnancy (Katherine, Eva and Mary).
Iodine needs in normal Metabolism
Iodine is needed for the normal metabolism of cells. Metabolism is the process
of converting food into energy. Insufficient iodine can slow down the body’s
metabolism which can result in weight gain. “Because thyroid hormones regulate
metabolism and growth, when production of those hormones is slowed or stopped due
7
to iodine deficiency, your metabolism can become sluggish”, notes Beth Reardon,
registered dietitian and director of nutrition at Duke university integrative medicine.
The metabolic rate determines how fast calories are burned. A higher metabolic rate
is thought to speed up weight loss (Brownstein, 2008).
Iodine needs in protection of Breast Diseases
It is hypothesized that dietary iodine deficiency is associated with the
development of mammary pathology and cancer. A review of the literature on this
correlation and of the author’s own work on the antioxidant function of iodide in
iodide concentrating extra thyroidal cell is reported. Mammary gland embryo
genetically derived from primitive iodide concentrating ectodemy and alveolar and
doctoral cells of the breast specialize in uptake and secretion of iodine in milk in
order to supply offspring with this important trace-element. Breast and thyroid share
an important iodide concentrating ability and efficient peroxide, forming iodoproteins
and iodolipids and so protect the cell from per oxidative damage (Brownstein, 2008).
IODINE DEFICIENCY DISORDER
Iodine is an element that is needed for the production of hormones. The body
does not make iodine, so it is an essential part of the diet. If we do not have enough
iodine in our body, we cannot make enough thyroid hormone. Thus, iodine deficiency
can lead to enlargement of the thyroid hypothyroidism and to mental retardation in
infants and children whose mothers were iodine deficiency during pregnancy
(American Thyroid Association, 2007).
The significance of iodine in fetal development and thyroid health is not
prioritized by majority of the population very few people realize that iodine
deficiency is a serious health problem currently affecting over 740 million people in
130 countries (WHO). In many area around the world the soil does not contain an
adequate amount of iodine. In mountain region, especially the Himalayas, Andes, and

8
Alps and in areas of frequent flooding, the soil has an adequate amount of the
essential element, leading to the prevalence of iodine deficiency disorders (IDD).
Iodine deficiency affects humans at every stage of life and leads to several
disorders. Iodine deficiency is the leading cause of brain damaged and mental
retardation in the world. In addition to mental retardation and mental retardation in
the world. In addition to mental retardation, iodine deficiency cause endemic goiter,
cretinism, dwarfism, mental retardation, muscular disorder, spontaneous absorptions
sterilization and still births (Verma and Raghovanshi, 2001).
In addition to these specific effect on the individual, IDD also negatively
affects the community as a whole since iodine deficiency id prevalent in entire
community, where the soil is iodine-depleted the entire community may suffer from
levels of mental retardation, cretinism, e.t.c. according to the ICCIDID, the average
IG of an iodine deficient community about 13.5 point lower than other communities.
CAUSES OF IODINE DEFICIENCY
Worldwide, we are experiencing epidemic proportion of iodine deficiency in
part due to deforestation, soil erosion and poor farming practice that deplete minerals
from the soil and yield iodine deficiency crops. These are other contribution factors
that exacerbate this disturbing global problem. Exposure to toxic chemical hinde the
uptake of iodine in the body as the toxins complete for iodine receptor sites and
inhibit that body’s ability to absorb this valuable minerals. These toxins include a
group of elements know as halides (and the derivatives), all of which have similar
chemical structure. The halide consist of bromide, fluoride, chloride and iodide, the
latter being the only one with therapeutic effects in the body. Bromine is known as
breast carcinogen. This singular changes by the food industry results in an epidemic
of bromide toxicity and increase in thyroid disorder, thyroid cancer and other illness
resulting for iodine deficiency.

9
 Exposure of chlorine, as well as fluoride found in toothpaste, the water supply
and man y pharmaceutical drugs, father compound the deficiency dilemma as those
toxins compete with iodine for absorption by the bodily tissues. Sufficiently iodine
saturation in bodily tissue preventing the binding of halides and allows for their
elimination from the body (Brownstein, 2008).
Since the body does not make iodine, it relies on the diet to have enough
iodine. This iodine deficiency is caused but not having enough iodine in the diet. The
availability of iodine in foods differ in various regions of the world. (American
Thyroid Association 2007).
EFFECTS OF IODINE DEFICIENCY
1. Enlargement of the thyroid goiter cretinism.
2. Mental retardation.
3. Subtle iodine deficiency affects the woman’s ability to have pregnancy,
increase foetal loss.
4. It leads to lack of concentration, poor memory and sluggishness.
5. When the availability of iodine is low, the thyroid gland grows bigger and
longer. Iodine deficiency is the major causes of endemic goiter (Behrouzain
and Aghadami, 2004).
Neck irradiation for lymph node maligners, radiation exposure following
nuclear accident and even repeated X-ray of the neck increases the neck tendency of
thyroid cancer is subject with iodine deficiency goilter (Behrouzain and Aghadami,
2004).
- Iodine deficiency during reproductive age may cause inability to conceive. Higher
rate of pregnancy loss and most importantly mental retardation and various
neurological manifestation in the new born are well known as squeegee of iodine
deficiency. While iodine deficiency early in pregnancy account for neurological
cretin that occur latter in foetal life and continue throughout infancy leads to a
10
profound decrease in the thyroid function, resulting in mycodenatrals cretin (Abnet et
al., 2006).
PREVENTIVE MEASURE FOR IODINE DEFICIENCY
Iodine is an element that the human body doesn’t produce on its own, but is
dependent upon it for its existence. There was a time in the United states that iodine
deficiency was a major concern. Thankfully, now, iodine deficiency in the United
state is almost non-existent. Infact, people living in the United state at risk of
consuming too much iodine.
Here are 5 ways to prevent an iodine deficiency, but also make don’t consume
too much.
1. Eat healthy breakfast: Breakfast is the best meal of the day as it provides the
fuel to get you doing at the start of the day, consider eating an iodine breakfast
that include rye toast, almond butter and a cup of plain yoghurt and strawberries,
all of which contain iodine and help to control weight gain.
2. Eat kelp at launch: A large green leaf, vegetable salad is always a wise choice as
it helps (health-wise) on so many levels.
Sprinkle salad with kelp, and you have just ensured your iodine intake, if kelp isn’t
handy, add a little iodine and taste to your launch salad by including a little cheese.
3. Eat seafood a few times a week: Seafood is rich in iodine, enjoy salmon or tuna
steak with a large salad and wild rice. Sea weed wrap, used in making sunshine,
provides an excellent source of iodine.
4. Take a supplement: Yengas choose not to eat dairy, seafood or any animal
product and take iodine supplements or simply a multi vitamin that contain iodine,
to ensure iodine deficiency doesn’t exist. Another option is to eat vegetable and
fruit grown in soil with a high content of iodine.
5. Consume iodized salt in small amount: Regular table salt is one of the best
ways to get iodine in the body system. Unfortunately, too much salt is not good,
11
 as it is linked to heart disease, hypertension and stroke, therefore, salt should be
consumed in small amount.
Caution
Without iodine, important hormes cannot be produced. The good news is a
tablespoon of iodine is all that is needed over the course of a life time. Unfortunately,
the body does not store iodine and thus small amounts are needed to replenish the
body. In Americans, it is easy to see how can get too much iodine, which can be just
as bad as not getting enough. Excess iodine can causes problems with the thyroid,
ultimately reversing the benefit when iodine levels are low, the thyroid kicks into
over drone to compensate. The same hold true if there is too much iodine. This taxing
experience on the thyroid can eventually cause an abundance of health concerns
throughout the body.
TREATMENT
The solution to iodine deficiency disorder (IDD) is relatively simple and
inexpensive compared to other prevalent disease such as AIDs. Iodized salt, the
preferred method of intervention, cost only $0.05 per person per year to prevent IDD,
according to the world Health Organization (WHO). A teaspoon of iodized vegetable
oil, which is all ministered orally or by intramuscular injection, iodized drinking
water, vitamins, sugar, bread and tea (ICCIDD), since even mild deficiency during
pregnancy can have effect is on delivery and the developing baby, all pregnant and
breast feeding woman should take a multivitamin containing at least 150 Ng Iodine
per daily (American Thyroid Association, 2007).
Iodine deficiency disorder (IDD) are recognized as a major global public
health problem. According to the recent estimate, about 2.5 billion people worldwide
have insufficient iodine intake, of which 313 million are in the Southern Asian region
that include Bangladesh (Wtt, 2005) iodine deficiency in the single most preventable
cause of neurological and intellectual impairment (cretinism) in the world. The
12
government of Bangladesh is officially impairment committed to IDD elimination
through national, as well as international commitment.

The determination of iodine in salt is due to the fact that iodine is very
important in our body. The salt samples used were Mr. Chef and Dangote salt. All the
samples used were having iodine content but the concentration of iodine present in
each are different. The factor that influence the stability of iodine in the household
salts include the duration of storage, the size of the crystals, impurities and moisture,
the ambient temperature of the storage temperature of the humidity and the sunlight
exposure.

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CONCLUSION
The cause, prevention and care of goite and cretinism, now included in the more
general term iodine deficiency disorder (IDDE) have been know for more than half a
century, yet their total eradication remain elusive goal. We now know that iodine
deficiency cause a spectrum of effect on growth and development, particularly brain
development in foetus, neonate and child, justifying a much higher priority.
The use of iodine salt is believed to be the major factor in the decline of
endemic goiter, the food like seafood (fish, crab, snail etc.) and sea weed plant grown
in iodine rich soil will also prevent the risk. Iodine deficiency is prevented mostly in
industrialized countries by iodine. Fortification of salt, iodine is efficiently absorbed
along gastro intestinal treat (GIT) in its inorganic from which is the most common
form of dietary iodine.
Recommendation
As a result of insufficient body intake of iodine, Nigeria has adopted food
fortification as a major strategy for preventing micronutrient deficiencies (iodine
deficiency disorders) IDD), which led to the enrichment of self with iodine, because
salt is consumed in roughly equal daily amount by the entire population. I recommend
that Federal Government should make move effort in organizing more programs for
those in the rural areas in order to know the importance of iodine deficiency and its
toxicity. I still recommend that the Federal Government should organize many
programme for the eradication of iodine deficiencies.

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