1environment Ecosystem and Biodiversity

POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
College of Engineering
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
ENVIRONMENT, ECOSYSTEMS
AND BIODIVERSITY
Aguirre, Bobby R
Aliboso, Gdan Paul T.
Amoyan, Kyro C.
Banan, Michael R.
Barbosa, Shane Benedict D.
Barte, Jan Rommel L.
Bataller, Eunice G.
Borla, Austin Clyde P.
Buenaventura, Bobbe A.
Calata, Paula Jean T.
Cantuba, AJ R
Castañeda, Joseph Euan T.
BSEE 3-3
ENVIRONMENT
The study of nature and environmental facts is known as the environmental science.
Environmental factors can be defined as "all the social, economic, physical, and chemical variables
that surround man" (or "all abiotic and biotic components around man-all living and non-living
objects that surround man").
Environment Components can be divided into biotic and abiotic components.
• The Panchaboodhas (air, water, land, sky, and energy) were considered the
environment by ancient man. Humans were nature's disciples. They were able to defend
themselves as well as the others from damage. However, modern man believes that the
environment consists solely of air, land, and water.
• Exploitation of various earth resources to meet the growing requirements of the human
population has resulted in (1) resource depletion and (2) pollution.
PRINCIPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION
• Examine the major environmental issues

• Discover the root cause
• Develop problem solving skills
• Promote co-operation in solving problems
• Emphasis active participation in prevention and solution to problems.
SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
• Studying the interrelationship between the components of env.

• Carrying out impact analysis and env. Audit
• Preventing pollution from existing and new industries
• Stopping the use of biological and nuclear weapons
• Managing unpredictable disasters etc.
NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS

The deterioration of the environmental quality due to the human activities, pollutants and
even natural disaster is one of the global environmental concerns, thus requires the public to be
informed on this issue.
1. To integrate knowledge on environmental aspects pertaining to the curriculum of the

students that will serve as a fundamental investment in building a solid foundation in
understanding environmental matters and desensitize its misconceptions.
2. To have a proper coordination with the policymakers and the public in establishing a
concrete planning in improving measures ecologically, to avoid the extinction of life.
3. To formulate an alternative solution on the alternative goals, a goal that is
environmentally sound and sustainable, specifically on developing countries.
CONCEPT OF ECOSYSTEM
Ecology - the study of organism distribution and abundance, as well as energy and material
transfers between abiotic and biotic ecosystem components.
Brief history of the word ecosystem
The term ecosystem comes from the Greek words oikos, which means "home," and
systema, which means "system." Ecologists in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries coined
terms like biocoenosis, microcosm, holocoen, biosystem, and geobiocoenosis to describe the
complex interdependence of living and nonliving matter. It wasn't until the British
environmentalist A.G. Tansley coined the term "ecosystem" in 1935, while American Raymond
L. Lindeman provided the now-standard definition in 1936.
Definition
• An ecosystem is a naturally occurring community of life and its surroundings. The biotic
community, which includes plants, animals, and other living organisms, is referred to as
life.
• Different ecosystems are frequently separated by geographical barriers, such as deserts,
mountains, or oceans, or are otherwise isolated, such as lakes or rivers.
• Because these boundaries are never rigid, ecosystems tend to blend together. As a result,
depending on the scale used, the entire Earth can be viewed as a single ecosystem, or a lake
can be divided into several ecosystems.
• The ecosystem is a free and open system. It receives energy from an external source (the
sun) as input, fixes, and utilities the energy, and finally dissipates heat into space as output.
• Terrestrial – Forest and etc.

• Marine – open Ocean, deep sea – ocean, coral reefs and etc.
Difference of Ecology and Ecosystem
Ecology is the comprehensive study of organisms and their interactions with the
environment in which they live. It includes the number and distribution of organisms, as well as
how and why their distribution is influenced by their relationship with the environment. An
ecosystem, on the other hand, is a subset of ecology that refers to all of the complex interactions
that occur between living and non-living things in a given area.
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF AN ECOSYSTEM

Ecosystem Structure: The living components of an ecosystem
The roles of organisms in an ecosystem
• Producer (autotrophy): make food; plants, algae

• Consumer (heterotrophy): eat other organisms
• Decomposer: Decomposers – organisms that digest parts of the dead organisms into
simplest chemicals (bacteria, fungi)
• Scavengers – feed on dead organisms (vultures, flies, crows, lobsters)
• Detritus feeders – organisms that extract nutrients from fragments of dead organisms into
more simple organic waste (termites, earthworms, crabs)
Classes of Consumers
• Herbivore - primary consumer – eats plants

• Carnivores – secondary – meat eaters; eat herbivores
• Omnivores – eat plants/animals.
ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEM

Flow of energy in an ecosystem takes place through the food chain and it is this energy
flow which keeps the ecosystem going.
Biogeochemical Cycles
Refer to the flow of such chemical elements and compounds between organisms and the
physical environment. Chemicals taken in by organisms are passed through the food chain and
come back to the soil, air, and water through mechanisms such as respiration, excretion, and
decomposition.
Carbon Cycle
Carbon enters into the living

world in the form of carbon dioxide
through the process of photosynthesis
as carbohydrates. These organic
compounds (food) are then passed from
the producers to the consumers
(herbivores & carnivores). This carbon
is finally returned to the surrounding
medium by the process of respiration or
decomposition of plants and animals by
the decomposers. Carbon is also
recycled during the burning of fossil
fuels.
Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen is present in the atmosphere

in an elemental form and as such it cannot be
utilized by living organisms. This elemental
form of nitrogen is converted into combined
state with elements such as H, C, O by certain
bacteria, so that it can be readily used by the
plants. Nitrogen is being continuously
expelled into the air by the action of
microorganisms such as denitrifying bacteria
and finally returned to the cycle through the
action of lightening and electrification.
Water Cycle
The evaporation of water from

ocean, rivers, lakes, and transpiring
plants takes water in the form of vapors
to the atmosphere. This vaporized water
subsequently cools and condenses to
form cloud and water. This cooled
water vapor ultimately returns to the
earth as rain and snow, completing the
cycle.
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
Ecological succession is defined as an orderly process of changes in the community
structure and function with time mediated through modifications in the physical environment and
ultimately culminating in a stabilized ecosystem known as climax. The whole sequence of
communities which are transitory are known as Seral stages or series whereas the community
establishing first of all in the area is called a pioneer community.
Process of Succession
The process of succession takes place in a systematic order of sequential steps as follows:
a. Nudation: It is the development of a bare area without any life form.

b. Invasion: It is the successful establishment of one or more species on a bare area through
dispersal or migration, followed by establishment.
c. Competition and co-action: As the number of individuals grows there is competition,
both inter-specific (between different species) and intraspecific (within the same species),
for space, water and nutrition. They influence each other in a number of ways, known as
co-action
d. Reaction: The living organisms grow, use water and nutrients from the substratum, and in
turn, they have a strong influence on the environment which is modified to a large extent
and this is known as reaction.
e. Stabilization: The succession ultimately culminates in a more or less stable community
called climax which is in equilibrium with the environment.
FOOD CHAINS, FOOD WEBS, AND ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

FOOD CHAIN
It is a linear sequence of organisms where nutrients and energy are transferred from one
organism to the other. This occurs when one organism consumes another organism. It begins with
producer organism, follows the chain, and ends with decomposer organism.
The food chain consists of four major parts, or also called as the trophic levels. Trophic
level refers to the sequential stages in a food chain, starting with producers at the bottom, followed
by primary, secondary and tertiary consumers
a. The Sun - it is the initial source of energy, which provides energy for everything on the
planet.
b. Producers - this is the first stage in a food chain. The producers make up the first level of
a food chain. The producers utilize the energy from the sun to make food. Producers are
also known as autotrophs as they make their own food. Producers are any plant or other
organisms that produce their own nutrients through photosynthesis (phytoplankton,
cyanobacteria, algae, green plants.)
c. Consumers - are all organisms that are dependent on plants or other organisms for food.
This is the largest part of a food web, as it contains almost all living organisms.
(Herbivores, Carnivores, Parasites, Scavengers)
d. Decomposers - are organisms that get energy from dead or waste organic material. The
last stage in a food chain. They convert organic waste materials into inorganic materials
like nutrient-rich soil or land. Recycling the nutrients as they provide nutrients to soil or
oceans, that can be utilized by autotrophs or producers. Thus, starting a whole new food
chain.
Types of Food Chain
a. Grazing food chain: a type of food chain that starts with green plants, passes through
herbivores and then to carnivores. energy in the lowest trophic level is acquired from
photosynthesis.
b. Detritus food chain: begins with dead organic material. includes different species of
organisms and plants (algae, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, mites, insects, worms) begins with
dead organic material.
FOOD WEBS
It consists of a number of food chains meshed together. This shows how energy flows
through an ecosystem. It also helps to explain how the diversity of species is related to and how
they fit within the overall food dynamic. They may also reveal critical information about the
relationships between invasive species and those native to a particular ecosystem. The organisms
are arranged according to their trophic level.
Types of Food Web
a. Connectance Food Webs: scientists use arrows to show one species being consumed by
another species. The degree of strength of the consumption of one species by another is not
depicted.
b. Interaction Food Webs: the arrows used are weighted to show the degree or strength of
consumption of one species by another. The arrows depicted in such arrangements can be
wider, bolder, or darker to denote the strength of consumption if one species typically
consumes another. If the interaction between species is very weak, the arrow can be very
narrow or not present.
c. Energy Flow Food Webs: depict the relationships between organisms in an ecosystem by
quantifying and showing the energy flux between organisms
d. Fossil Food Webs: Food webs can be dynamic and the food relationships within an
ecosystem change over time. scientists attempt to reconstruct the relationships between
species based on available evidence from the fossil record.
e. Functional Food Webs: depict the relationships between organisms in an ecosystem by
depicting how different populations influence the growth rate of other populations within
the environment.
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
A graphical representation of the relationship between different organisms in an ecosystem.

Each of the bars that make up the pyramid represents a different trophic level, and their order,
which is based on who eats whom, represents the flow of energy
a. Pyramid of numbers
This shows the number of organisms in each trophic level without any
consideration for their size. This type of pyramid can be convenient, as counting is often a
simple task and can be done over the years to observe the changes in a particular ecosystem
b. Pyramid of biomass
This indicates the total mass of organisms at each trophic level. Usually, this type
of pyramid is largest at the bottom and gets smaller going up, but exceptions do exist. The
biomass of one trophic level is calculated by multiplying the number of individuals in the
trophic level by the average mass of one individual in a particular area. This type of
ecological pyramid solves some problems of the pyramid of numbers, as it shows a more
accurate representation of the amount of energy contained in each trophic level, but it has
its own limitations.
c. Pyramid of productivity
The pyramid of productivity looks at the total amount of energy present at each
trophic level, as well as the loss of energy between trophic levels. Since this type of
representation considers the fact that the majority of the energy present at one trophic level
will not be available for the next one, it is more accurate than the other two pyramids.
INTRODUCTION, TYPES, CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES,

STRUCTURE, AND FUNCTION OF THE:
A. FOREST ECOSYSTEM
Introduction
It is a natural ecosystem consisting of dense growth of trees and wild animals. An

ecosystem sheltering plant, animal and micro-organism communities and their abiotic
environment interacting as a functional unit, where trees are a key component of the system.
Types
1. Tropical Forest Ecosystem – also known as tropical rainforest, receives almost 100 inches of
rain every year
Example:
a. Evergreen Forest – heavy year-round rainfall with no dry season

b. Seasonal Forest – host evergreen flora with a short-time dry season
c. Dry Forest – experience a long period of the dry season
d. Sub-tropical Forest – found in North & South regions of tropical forests, flora adapts to
survive adverse conditions of summer drought
2. Temperate Forest Ecosystem - experience all four seasons with variation in temperature,
receives less rainfall compared to tropical forests, approximately 30-60 inches every year.
Example:
a. Temperate Deciduous Forest – receives annual rainfall of 30-60 inches, soil is quite
fertile with a variety of vegetation (ferns, wildflowers, mosses)
b. Temperate Coniferous Forest – receives heavy rainfall of 50-200 inches per year, floor
is mostly covered with thick layer of decomposed matter.
3. Boreal Forest Ecosystem - also known as Taiga forests, generally found in Siberia, Northern
Asia, Canada and Scandinavia, short summers and very long winter seasons.
Characteristic Features:
1. Seasonal Variation – somehow related to the forest ecosystem of a region, in example

tropical rainforest receives heavy rainfall while temperate forest experiences four seasons
2. Deciduous or Evergreen in Nature – forest ecosystem may be deciduous or evergreen,
or a mix of both
3. Soil Fertility – different forest ecosystem has varying levels of soil fertility, temperate and
tropical deciduous – very fertile, boreal forest – acidic, tropical rainforests – soil is
impoverished due to continuous leaching on nutrients caused by heavy rainfall
Structure:
• Abiotic: soil, sun light, temperature etc

• Biotic: forest trees, shrubs, and animals
• Producer: trees and shrubs
• Consumer: Primary – elephants, deer etc.
Secondary – snakes, birds, lizards etc
Tertiary – lions, tigers etc
• Decomposers: fungi, bacteria
Function:
1. Climate regulation
2. Photosynthesis
3. Conserve wildlife
B. GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM
Introduction
An area characterized by a dry climate where vegetation is dominated by grasses and other
herbaceous plants. These ecosystems experienced average rainfall.
Types
1. Tropical grass lands – found near the boarders of tropical rain forests. Eg. Savannas in
Africa.
Animals – Zebra, giraffes etc. – fires are common in dry seasons – termite mounds produce
methane – leads to fire – high in photosynthesis – deliberate burning leads to release of
high CO2 – global warming.
2. Temperate grasslands – flat and gentle slopes of hills. Very cold winter and very hot
summer - dry summer fires do not allow shrubs and trees to grow – soil is quite fertile –
cleaned for agriculture.
3. Polar grasslands – found in arctic polar region – organism – arctic wolf, fox, etc. – A thick
layer of ice remains frozen under the soil surface throughout the year – known as
permafrost – summer insects and birds appear.
4. Steppe grasslands – borders on semi-arid deserts. Grasses found here are much shorter
than those of temperate and tropical grasslands. It also lacks trees except along the banks
of rivers and streams.
Characteristic Features
1. Limited annual rainfall

2. Dry climate throughout the year
3. Lack of nutrients in the soil
4. Grasslands are prone to drought and uncertain precipitation
5. Frequent fire due to semi-arid climate and flash lighting
6. Poor vegetation growth dominated by grasses
7. Grasslands are home for a huge variety of animal species.
Structure
• Abiotic: soil pH, nutrients, soil moisture, temp, climatic conditions, etc.
• Biotic: grass, caterpillar, butterfly, worms, insects, birds, etc.
• Producer: Grass, herbs, and shrubs
• Consumer: Primary – worms
Secondary – insects
Tertiary - birds
Function
• Provides forage for livestock, protection and conservation of soil and water resources and
furnishing wildlife habitat
• Enables food chain and nutrient cycle
C. DESERT ECOSYSTEM
Introduction
The driest ecosystem of the Earth and this is the reason it has less vegetation and less
diversity of life. These are the regions with very little rainfall and have the least amount of
precipitation among the other ecosystems. Plants and animals living in desert can survive its harsh
conditions.
Types
1. Hot and Dry Desert Ecosystem – has hot and dry climatic conditions through the air and
has very low annual rainfall, extreme variations in temperature and the soil are rough and
harsh. Mostly found in Central and North America, South Asia, Africa, Australia.
2. Semi-arid Desert Ecosystem – quite similar to hot and dry desert ecosystem, has hard
rocks, stable ground, less sand dune, though the temperature is not as extreme. Great Basin
is an example of this ecosystem.
3. Cold Desert Ecosystem – comprises of abundant rainfall throughout the winters and less
in summers and generally has chilling winters with snowfall. Summers are short,
moderately hot and moist. Mostly found in Greenland, Antarctica, and Nearctic Realm.
1. Air is dry
2. Climate is hot
3. Annual rainfall is less than 25 cm
4. Vegetation is poor
Structure
• Abiotic – nutrients in the soil and aerial environment

• Biotic – plants, locust, lizards, fox, camel
• Producer: plant (cactus)
• Consumer: Primary – locust
Secondary – Lizards
Tertiary – Fox, camels
Function
• Habitat to various species of plants and animals that has adapted to its extreme
environment.
• Acts as carbon sink to store carbon dioxide and prevent it from entering the atmosphere
again
• A big source of minerals, oils, and natural gas
D. AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM
Introduction
Deals with water bodies and biotic communities present in them-Classified as fresh water
and marine ecosystems. Fresh water systems are classified as lentic and lotic ecosystems.
Types
1. Lentic Ecosystem – these includes all standing water habitats. These shelters algae rooted
and floating-leaved plants. Algae, Invertebrates such as crabs and shrimp, amphibians such
as frogs and salamander, and reptiles such as alligator and water snake are found here.
Ponds and lakes are prime examples of lentic ecosystem.
a. Pond: Small freshwater ecosystem – seasonal in nature – organisms: algae, aquatic
plants, insects, fishes etc. Ponds are very often exposed to anthropogenic pressure
like cloth washing, bathing, cattle bathing, swimming etc.
b. Lake: Big freshwater ecosystem – Zonation or stratification, especially during
summer is a common one.
Top layer – shallow, warm, prone to anthropogenic activities – Littoral zone
Second layer – enough sunlight, high primary productivity – Limnetic zone
Third layer – very poor or no sunlight – Profundal zone
2. Lotic Ecosystems – These refers to rapidly flowing waters moving in a unidirectional way.
These ecosystems have numerous species such as beetles, mayflies, stoneflies, and several
species of fishes including trout and eel.
a. Streams: freshwater ecosystem where water current plays a major role. Oxygen
and nutrient content are uniform. Stream organisms have to face extreme difference
in climatic conditions, but they do not suffer from oxygen deficiency as pond and
lake organisms. This is because large surface area of running water provides more
oxygen supply. Streams are usually smaller compared to rivers.
b. River: large streams flowing from mountain highlands are rivers.
Three phases:
i. First phase: mountain highlands – rushing down water fall of water – large
quantity of dissolved oxygen – plants attached to rocks and fishes that require
more oxygen are found.
ii. Second phase – gentle slopes of hills – warmer – supports the growth of plants
and fishes that require less oxygen are seen.
iii. Third phase: river shapes the land – lots of silts, nutrients are brought –
deposited in plains and delta – very rich in biodiversity.
3. Ocean Ecosystem - reservoirs of water covering >70% of earth surface – 2,50,000 species
– huge variety of sea products, drugs etc. – provide Fe, Mg, oils, natural gas, sand etc. –
major sinks of carbon di oxide – regulate biochemical cycles.
Two zones:
• Coastal zone – warm, nutrient rich, shallow – high sunlight – high primary
productivity.
• Open sea – away from continental shelf – vertically divided in to 3 zones.
1. euphotic zone – abundant sunlight
2. bathyal zone – dim sunlight
3. abyssal zone – dark zone – world’s largest ecological unit.
4. Estuary - coastal area where river meet ocean – strongly affected by tidal actions – very
rich in nutrients – very rich in biodiversity also – organisms are highly tolerant – many
species are endemic – high food productivity – however to be protected from pollution.
1. They can be freshwater or saltwater.

2. Provide living space for many underwater species.
3. Flora is mainly composed of algae and corals.
Structure
• Abiotic: pH, nutrients, D.O, temp, climatic conditions, etc.

• Biotic: Phytoplankton, fishes, snails insects, birds, etc.
• Producer: aquatic plants, algae
• Consumer: Primary – worms
Secondary – fishes
Tertiary – huge fishes
Function
• Aids in purification of water

• Provides home for aquatic vegetation and fauna
INTRODUCTION TO BIODIVERSITY DEFINITION: GENETIC,

SPECIES, AND ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY
Biodiversity
Biodiversity is an abbreviation of Biological Diversity (bio-life or living organisms,

diversity-variety), thus Biodiversity refers to the number of variations of life on our planet and
variability among each species. It refers to every living thing on our planet such as plants,
microbes, animals, and humans. It also includes terrestrial, and marine ecosystem. According to
IUCN Red List (2020), about 2.12 million species are already identified, mostly small creatures
such as insects. However, scientists believed that the total number exceeds 100 million, or as low
as 3 million.
Levels (Types) of biodiversity
1. Genetic diversity
This refers to the variation of genes among individuals of the same species. The genetic
diversity happens because everyone has different exact DNA code from one another, and also
because of geographical location.
Genetic diversity is important because it ensures that certain groups of individual or species
will be able to adapt to certain environmental factors.
Example: Species of Tiger
• Bengal Tiger – is a native to the Indian subcontinent and located in India,

Bangladesh, Nepal, and Bhutan. They are the largest tiger that can be found in the
wild.
• Siberian Tiger – it is a native to Northern Asia and located in China, Russia, and
Korea. They are smaller compared to Bengal tiger, but they have broad chest, large
skull, and thick fur to protect itself from winters of Northern Asia
• Sumatran Tiger-they live on the Indonesian island of Sumatran and considered to

be the smallest subspecies of tiger because it lives on an island, isolated from its
“mainland cousin”. Their stripes are darker, and it covers their whole body
including their forelegs.
2. Species diversity
Refers to the variation of species and the abundance of each species that lives in a particular
area, or ecosystem.
Example:
• Tropical Rainforests – contains different species of Insects, Birds, Flowering

plants, Mammals, etc.
• Coral Reefs- contains different species of fishes, corals, mollusks, turtles, etc.
Species Richness- the number of different species in a community or in ecosystem. The higher
the number of species, the greater the species richness.
Species Evenness- the relative abundance of individuals of each of those species. If the number
of each species is constant across communities, it has high evenness.
3. Ecosystem diversity
Refers to variety of both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems in a region or the whole planet,
and their overall effects on people and the environment.
It also includes the variation of biological community, ecological niche, trophic structure,
food webs, nutrient cycling etc.
Example:
• Terrestrial ecosystem: (Desert, Forest, Grassland)

• Aquatic ecosystem (Freshwater, Marine)
THE BIOGEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION OF INDIA

Biogeography - is the study that deals with the geographical distribution of plants and animals.
The Biogeographical Classification of India
• The Biogeographic zones of India was made by Rodgers and Panwar in 1988
• Climate, soil, topography, and biodiversity are all unique to each zone.
1. Trans-Himalayan Region
• Upper region
• The Trans Himalayas is the range that lies north of the great Himalayan range. It is also
called the Tibetan Himalaya since most of it lies in Tibet. This region stretches for a
distance of about 1000 km in east-west direction and it covers 6% of the country’s land
mass.
• Its sparse vegetation has the greatest wild sheep and goat in the world.
Flora & Fauna: Pine, deodar, leopard, wild sheep, yak, wolf
2. The Himalayan Region
• north-west, east, and central Himalayan

• The youngest mountain chains are found here. It has high altitude, steep gradient, and has
rich temperate flora that contains extensive growth of grass and evergreen tall trees. There
is no vegetation above the snowline.
Flora & Fauna: Pine, Cork tree, sikkim stag, musk deer, wild bear, ibex, shrew, tapir
3. The Indian Desert
• Gujarat desert, Himalayan cold desert, Thar

• The Indian part of the Thar Desert occupies 170,000 km2 (66,000 sq mi).
• The climate here is very hot and dry in summer; and cold in winter; It also experiences less
rainfall compared to other regions. The plants that grow here are xerophytic and the
common animals in this area are lizards and snakes.
Flora & Fauna: Thar, Ladakh, acacia, date palm, camel, desert cat, mice, fox
4. The Semi-Arid Region
• Between desert and deccan plateau-Aravalli hills

• This is a transitional zone between the desert and the denser forests of the western ghats.
The common vegetation here is thorn forest.
• There are few species of xerophytic and ephemeral herbs that can be found in this semi-
arid tract
• This region has discontinuous vegetation cover with open areas of soil and has soil-water
deficit throughout the year.
Flora & Fauna: Date, palm, acacia, tiger, jackals, leopards, eagles, snakes, foxes
5. The Western Ghats
• Mountain range along the western coast of India

• It extends from the southern tip of the peninsula (8°N) northwards of about 1600 km to the
river Tapti (21°N)
• The average mountain rise altitude is between 900 and 1500m above sea level
• It is also amongst the top 25 biodiversity hot-spot regions of the world.
Flora & Fauna: Tuna, tortoise, lizards, frog, snakes. Supports the life of 7,402 species of watering
plants and, 1,814 species of non-watering plants. Supports the life of 508 bird species, 179
amphibian species, 139 mammal species, 6000 insect species and 290 freshwater fish species
6. The Deccan Peninsula
• The Deccan Plateau is a large plateau that occupies major parts of western and southern
India, which is about 43% of the Indian landmass.
• South of Narmata Valley, Satpura mountain covers the north side, Western Ghats west
side, Eastern Ghats east side
Flora & Fauna: Hardwickia woodlands, gaur, chinkara, blackbuck, four-horned antelope, tiger,
wild buffalo, wild dog, chousingha
7. The Gangetic Plain
• This is the largest unit of the Great Plain of India stretching from Delhi to Kolkata.
• The ecoregion's natural biodiversity has been replaced by one of the world's densest human
populations.
• Ganges riverside, 600mm average rainfall, Sunderban forest
Flora & Fauna: Freshwater Gangetic dolphins and Gharial crocodiles, Indian bustard, Bengal
florican, red silk cotton trees, Sal trees.
8. The Coastal Region
• East and western coastal area

• Sand beaches, mangroves, mud flats, coral reefs, and marine angiosperm pastures account
up 2.5% of India's entire geographical area
Flora & Fauna: Coconut, rice, banana, turtle, alligator, dolphin, mangroves, corals
9. The North-east Region
• A wide biodiversity
• The Northeast Region accounts for 5.2% of the country's total land area. This region is a
meeting place between the Himalayan mountains and peninsular India, as well as a
transition zone between the Indian, Indo-Malayan, and Indo-Chinese bio-geographical
regions.
Flora & Fauna: Bamboo, tuna, chestnut, elephant, rhinoceros. Mammalian species include 390
species out of which 63% is found in Assam. Out of 15,000 blooming plant species, 80,000 are
found in the woodlands. In terms of floral species variety, the states of Arunachal Pradesh (5000
species) and Sikkim (4500 species) in the Northeastern region have the most.
10. The Indian Island
• Andaman-Nicobar, 300 islands with high biodiversity

• The Arabian Sea Islands (Laccadive, Minicoy, and so on) are the shattered remains of an
ancient landmass and its succeeding coral formations. The Bay Islands, on the other hand,
are just approximately 220 kilometers away.
Flora & Fauna: Plants, mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fishes, corals, sponges, oysters,
clams, insects
VALUE OF BIODIVERSITY
Each organism has its own significance in an ecosystem, and it is vital for healthy
biosphere. Main uses of biodiversity are the following:
1. Consumptive values
Consumptive value is the value put on the products of nature which are consumed directly
without passing through a market.
Consumptive value is typically ascribed to items consumed locally but not bought or sold,
and hence do not contribute to a country's economy. People who "live off the land" rely on the
nature to provide them with the necessities of life. Their level of living would undoubtedly drop if
environmental quality deteriorated for whatever cause.
a. Food
Human beings consume a significant variety of wild plants as sustenance. There are
around 80,000 edible plant species that have been discovered in the wild. Approximately 90%
of today's food crops were tamed from wild tropical plants.
b. Drugs and medicine
Plants or plant extracts are used to treat around 75% of the world's population.
Penicillin, the wonder antibiotic, is generated from a fungus known as Penicillium.
c. Fuel
Our woodlands have been utilized for fuel wood for millennia. Fossil fuels, such as
coal, petroleum, and natural gas, are likewise the result of petrified biodiversity. Individually
harvested firewood is not generally sold but is instead used directly by tribes and local
communities, and hence falls under the category of consumptive value.
2. Productive Values
Goods extracted from the environment that are bought and sold locally, nationally, or
worldwide are given productive use values. Construction lumber, fuelwood, fish and shellfish,
fruits and vegetables, and seaweed are only a few of the major goods.
3. Social Value
These are values related to people's social lives, customs, religion, and psycho-spiritual
components. Tulsi (holy basil), Peepal, Mango, Lotus, Bael, and other plants are regarded holy
and sacred in our culture. These plants' leaves, fruits, and petals are utilized in worship.
• Holy plants – tulsi, lotus, vembu

• Holy animals – cow, snake, peacock
• Holy River – Ganga, Cauveri
4. Ethical Value
It's sometimes referred to as "existence value." It raises ethical concerns such as "all life
must be saved." It is based on the "Live and Let Live" philosophy. We must safeguard all
biodiversity if we want our species to thrive, since biodiversity is valuable.
The ethical value indicates that we may or may not utilize a species, but simply knowing
that it exists in nature provides us pleasure. When we discover that the "passenger pigeon" or
"dodo" is no longer alive, we all feel sad. We don't get anything directly from kangaroos, zebras,
or giraffes, but we all believe that these animals belong in the wild. This indicates that each species
has an ethical or existence worth tied to it.
5. Aesthetic Value
Nature makes a significant contribution to the world's beauty. Therefore, biodiversity has
a high aesthetic value. No one wants to explore enormous swaths of desolate country with no
evident indications of life. People go from all over the world to visit wilderness areas where they
may appreciate the aesthetic value of biodiversity; this sort of tourism is now known as eco-
tourism.
The "willingness to pay" notion of eco-tourism provides us with a monetary gain for
biodiversity's aesthetic worth. Eco-tourism is predicted to bring in $12 billion per year,
approximately equaling the aesthetic value of biodiversity.
6. Option Value
Many plants and animals are yet to be discovered, and even if they have been discovered,
we don't know if they can be useful to humans. Option value refers to this unrealized potential.
For example, there may be a plant or animal that we can use to find a treatment for corner in the
future. We will lose the possibility to develop a cancer treatment if we eliminate biodiversity. As
a result, biodiversity has a tremendous deal of potential to benefit us in the future.
BIODIVERSITY AT GLOBAL, NATIONAL, AND LOCAL LEVELS

GLOBAL LEVEL
In this world, there are many unknowns. However, through conducting extensive research
and analysis, there are a lot of species that have been named and identified. Currently, 17 countries
are rich in biodiversity, known as megadiverse countries. On a global scale, there are 36
biodiversity hot spots recorded. According to the IUCN Red List (2020), 2.12 million species have
been discovered all over the world. It is also evident in their charts that there are 1.05 million kinds
of insects, 35,000 kinds of fishes, 11,000 kinds of birds and reptiles, 8,000 kinds of amphibians,
and 6,000 kinds of mammals.
Biodiversity, on the other hand, is not limited to animals. It is a variety of life in the world
in a certain habitat. Mora et. al (2011) calculated that there were roughly 8.7 million species on
Earth today, which is one of the most generally referenced statistics.
As a result of multiple research and studies, it generates numerous estimates. Due to the
fact that several species were synonyms/duplicates, there are gaps in the figures as well. Those
species were already known, but a separate name was given to them. As stated by Costello et. al
(2013) there are 20% possible duplicates in described species. That is also a factor in the disparity
of figures. Costello et al. (2013) estimate 5 ± 3 million species; Chapman (2009) estimates 11
million, and Mondal (n.d.) estimates 10 million species.
There are different types of ecosystems in Earth’s biodiversity. For example, tropical
rainforest, temperate forest, taiga, tundra, desert, tropical grassland, etc. Tropical rainforests were
recorded to have the highest biodiversity. The main factor of it is the abundance of sunlight/energy
that enables to support large numbers of species. That is also the reason for tropical rainforests to
have such a high level of stability. In addition, 50% to 80% of the species in the world are in the
ecosystem of tropical rainforests, whereas Tundra has the least biodiversity due to their extremely
low temperature which hinders the growth of life.
The World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) identified that 70% of biodiversity
in the world exists in megadiverse countries.
NATIONAL LEVEL
The Philippines, as an archipelagic country, creates a perfect spot for biodiversity to

develop and flourish. According to the Convention on Biological Diversity (2020), the Philippines
is one of 17 mega-biodiverse countries in the world. Of the 53,000 species that can be found here,
most of them are endemic. 15,000 are plant species, and 38,000 are animal species.
The Biodiversity Management Bureau (BMB) stated that there is an estimated 1,437
terrestrial wildlife, and 49% of those are endemic. It indicates that the animal diversity in the
country is evident. In accordance with the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the country
has a large number of plant species, with endemic plants accounting for more than 25% of all plant
species in the world. It leads us to be in the 5th rank in terms of quantity of plant species. Also, the
data from the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) indicates that there are
an estimated 207 terrestrial mammals (133 endemics), 691 birds (239 endemics), 419 reptiles (241
endemics), and 120 amphibians (98 endemics).
India is likewise an excellent example of a country with lots of biodiversity. It was also
featured in the list of megadiverse countries. In addition, this country is home to 7-8% of the
world's species (7-8% in fauna and 10-11% in flora). In this country, 62% of amphibians, 36% of
reptiles, 10% of mammals, and 33% of flowering plants are endemic. Having 96 national parks,
572 wildlife sanctuaries, 14 biosphere reserves, and four biodiversity hotspots is also a sign of
their richness in biodiversity.
LOCAL LEVEL
Zambales-Philippines
• Subic Bay Forest Reserve
The diversity in flora and fauna is present in Subic Bay Forest Reserve. In terms of variety,
there are many variations except for the arthropod fauna. This forest reserve has a land area of
17.5 hectares and consists of 745 identified plant species. They belong to 429 genera and 122
families. For fauna, there are 117 recorded species of wildlife vertebrates. 69 of these are
endemic. It includes birds (55), mammals (11), reptiles (1), and amphibians (2).
• Mount Tapulao
Fernando et. al (2008) stated that they discovered five forest types in Mount Tapulao.
Those forest types are tropical semi-evergreen rainforest, tropical lowland evergreen
rainforest, tropical lower montane rainforest, pine forest, tropical upper montane rainforest,
and subalpine forest. In plant variety, there are 304 species but only 102 are considered at the
species level, with 40% (41 species) of them being endemic. Only 6% of the 102 species are
found on the island of Luzon. There are approximately 142 species of fauna in total, including
birds, reptiles, amphibians, and mammals. In addition, 55% (78 species) of which are classified
as endemic.
Other Biodiversity at Local Level
• Bogtong (within Busuanga Forest)

• Cheey (within Busuanga Forest)
• Cleopatra's Needle Critical Habitat (Puerto Princesa, Palawan)
Odisha-India
National Parks in Odisha
1. Simplipal National Park
It is the largest wildlife sanctuary in India. More than a thousand plant species are
present in this national park. Also, it is considered a Simplipal Elephant Reserve.
2. Bhitarkanika National Park
This National Park is known for its mangrove species and is India's second-largest
mangrove habitat. Saltwater crocodiles, Indian pythons, king cobras, and other reptiles can all
be found in this national park.
Wildlife Sanctuary in Odisha:
1. Satkosia Wildlife Sanctuary

2. Sunabeda Wildlife Sanctuary
3. Nandankanan Wildlife Sanctuary
4. Chilka Wildlife Sanctuary
Flora and Fauna diversities within global, national, and local are nonidentical. Looking at
biodiversity on a global level, the insects dominate any other species. One of the factors for the
insects to bloom on a global level is that insects can reproduce even in the most toxic environment
caused by industrialization and modernization while other species such as birds need forest for
their survival.
The beauty of conducting research on different biodiversity locations is that new species that
are not known of, are explored, and discovered. By having these records, it can be used as guides
on how species act in different scenarios. The primary importance of knowing the biodiversity at
every level is to discover the unknown, be aware of the existing species, and prevent them from
extinction.
MEGADIVERSITY NATION
Megadiversity nations is the term called for nations that harbor a high number of endemic
species all throughout the world. A megadiverse country must have at least 5,000 species of
endemic plants and must border marine ecosystems. Many of these countries are located in tropical
and subtropical regions. Understanding megadiversity starts with understanding biodiversity.
Biodiversity includes all of the plant and animal species on the planet, their genetic differences,
and the ecosystems where they form interconnected communities. Megadiversity refers to the
countries with a high total number of species including a significant percentage of endemic species.
According to Conservation International in 1998, there are 17 megadiverse countries.

These countries are as follows:
India
India despite having only 2.4% of the land area of the world, it accounts for 7.8% of the
recorded species of the world, making India one of the most megadiverse countries among others.
Within India are two of the world’s bio-diverse hotspots: The Western Ghats and the Eastern
Himalayas. India is known for its rich heritage of biological diversity, having already documented
over 410 mammal species, 408 reptile species, 197 amphibian species, and 1,250 bird species etc.,
which totals to 91,000 varieties of species of animals, 45,500 species of plants in its 10
biogeographic regions. Nearly 6,500 native plants are still used prominently in indigenous
healthcare system. The Nicobar Tree Shrew, Black-footed Gray Langur, Malabar Civet, and Jungle
Striped Squirrel are some of the examples of endemic animals that cannot be found outside of
India.
Nicobar Tree Shrew Black-footed Gray Langur
Climatic Diversity in India
Climatic condition of India ranges from cold

temperature and frost-covered regions of
Himalayan to low rain fall regions of dry
tropics in the North-Western part of the
country. On annual rainfall, India can be
divided to 4 climatic range:
• Wet zone (more than 200cm)

• Intermediate zone (100-200 cm)
• Dry zone (50-100cm)
• Arid zone (below 50cm)
Mexico
The coastlines, rainforests, scrublands, temperate forests, and mangroves of Mexico

provide a home to some of the most diverse wildlife on earth. Mexico hosts the second largest
number of ecosystems anywhere. Of 536 species of mammals, 30% are endemic. This high level
of endemicity is seen in reptiles and amphibians as well. There are 290 amphibian species (47%
endemic), 704 reptile species (more than half are endemic), and 1,054 bird species. The number
of flora species is well over 25,000. Some examples of endemic wildlife include the Cozumel
Thrasher, Alamos Mud Turtle, and the Chinanteco Deer Mouse.
Cozumel Thrasher Alamos Mud Turtle
Australia
Australia is an interesting case of mega-biodiversity as it is one of the two developed

countries in the list. The country harbors between 600,000 and 700,000 different plants and
animals. There are more than 378 species of mammals, 828 species of birds, 300 different lizards,
140 species of snakes, etc. Australia is 1st in the world for endemics. Particularly well-known
endemics include the kangaroo, the dingo, and the koala. Lesser-known species include the Hakea
flower, clusters with pointed leaves and the Banksia Nutans, a small shrub with small pink to rusty
brown flowers.
Hakea Flower Banksia Nutans

Ecuador
Ecuador is the smallest country on this list. The Galapagos Islands are within its borders, a
self-contained and highly biodiverse ecosystem. These islands helped Charles Darwin author his
famous “Theory of Evolution”. Scientists have estimated 16,087 plant species of which 4,173 are
endemic. There are also 52 endemic bird species with an overall total of 1,616. Other species
include: 394 reptiles, 415 amphibian (60% endemic), and 369 mammals (30% endemic). The Tanti
Rocket Frog, Ecuadorian Sac-winged Bat, and the El Oro Parakeet are all native to the country.
Ecuadorian Sac-winged Bat El Oro Parakeet

Philippines
Another island nation, the Philippines, hosts a megadiverse collection of plants and
animals, many of which are native. There are 612 species of birds of which, 194 are endemic. In
addition, 111 amphibian species and 270 reptile species live here. Interestingly, not one plant
family is endemic to the island though there is a wide variety of more than 9,250 vernacular plants
(33% of which are endemic). The country also hosts almost 10,000 marine species which
equivalents to one-fifth of the world’s marine species, where 121 species are endemic. Overall, it
is estimated to a total of 53,000 described species (almost 15,000 species of plants and 38,000
species of animals).
Philippine Tarsier Tabyos or “Sinarapan” Philippine Teak
Other countries listed as megadiversity countries:
• Brazil
• Malaysia
• China
• Papua New Guinea
• Colombia
• Peru
• Democratic Republic of the Congo
• South Africa
• Indonesia
• United States
• Madagascar
• Venezuela
HOT-SPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY
Importance of Hot-Spots Biodiversity
Earth’s biodiversity is facing a historic crisis. Species are the fundamental components of
the Earth's life-support systems, and we all rely on them. To avert this disaster, we must safeguard
the habitats of biodiversity. These are the biodiversity hotspots, 36 locations where conservation
can make a significant difference.
Hot-Spots Biodiversity means
Biodiversity (from "biological diversity") refers to the diversity of life on Earth at all
levels, from genes to ecosystems, and can include evolutionary, ecological, and cultural processes
that keep life going.
Hot-Spots are regions that harbour a great diversity of endemic species and, at the same
time, have been significantly impacted and altered by human activities.
Simply, a Biodiversity Hotspot is a biogeographic region with a significant reservoir of

biodiversity that is threatened with destruction.
The Concept of Biodiversity Hot-Spots Begin
In 1988, British ecologist Norman Myers published a seminal paper identifying 10 tropical
forest “hotspots.” These regions were characterized both by exceptional levels of plant endemism
and serious levels of habitat loss.
According to Norman Myers to qualify as a biodiversity hotspot, a region must meet two strict
criteria:
1. It must have at least 1,500 vascular plants as endemics — which is to say, it must have a high
percentage of plant life found nowhere else on the planet. A hotspot, in other words, is
irreplaceable.
2. It must have 30% or less of its original natural vegetation. In other words, it must be threatened.
• Why plants? Plants particularly in terrestrial environments are crucial. Animals go where
plants are. Plants are the primary producers; they are at the base of food webs.
• When Life attracts other life, and it depends on other life.
During the last five hundred years, many species were harvested to the last individual. Today,
the fast-growing human populations in the hotspots contribute to their deterioration by the
following actions:
• Introduction of exotic species

• Illegal trade in endangered species
• Industrial logging
• Slash and burn agricultural practices
• Mining
• Construction of highways, dams, and oil wells
Hot-Spots Biodiversity Timeline
In 1988, British ecologist Norman Myers published a seminal paper identifying 10 tropical
forest "hotspots."
Three years later an extensive global review was undertaken in 1996, which introduced
quantitative thresholds for the designation of biodiversity hotspots and resulted in the designation
of 25.
In 2005, an additional analysis brought the total number of biodiversity hotspots to 34,
based on the work of nearly 400 specialists. Conservation International, one of CEPF's global
donor organizations, adopted Myers' hotspots as its institutional blueprint in 1989.
In 2011, the Forests of East Australia was identified as the 35th hotspot by a team of
researchers from the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO)
working with Conservation International.
In February 2016, the North American Coastal Plain was recognized as meeting the criteria
and became the Earth's 36th hotspot
Around the world, 36 areas qualify as hotspots. Their intact habitats represent just 2.5% of
Earth’s land surface, but they support more than half of the world’s plant species as endemics and
nearly 43% of bird, mammal, reptile, and amphibian species as endemics.
The following is the list of identified biodiversity hotspots of the world.
1. Carribean Islands
2. Brazil’s Cerrado
3. East Melanasian Islands
4. Guinean Forest of West Africa
5. Madagascar and Indian Ocean Islands
6. Indo-Burma
7. Mediterranean Basin
8. Mountains of Central Asia
9. Tropical Andes
10. Wallacea
11. Brazil’s Atlantic Forest
12. Caucasus
13. Cape Floristic Region
14. Eastern Arc and Coastal Forests of Tanzania/Kenya
15. Eastern Afromontane, Tanzania/Kenya
16. Eastern Afromontane
17. Himalaya
18. Maputaland – Pondaland Albany
19. Mesoamerica
20. Mountains of Southwest China
21. Polynesia - Micronesia

22. Philippines
23. Succulent Karoo
24. Sundaland
25. Tumbes- Choco Magdalena
26. Western Ghats and Sri Lanka
27. California Floristic Province
28. Chilean Winter Rainfall Valdivian Forest
29. Horn of Africa
30. Irano Anatolian
31. Japan
32. Madrean Pine-Oak Woodlands
33. New Caledonia
34. New Zealand
35. Southwest Australia
36. Forest of East Australia
37. North America Coastal Plain
There are certain regions around the world that are distributed with high concentrations of
biodiversity. They are naturally gifted with a vast existence of biological resources. However,
many of these resources are already at risk of extinction because of man-made destruction resulting
to habitat degradation and biodiversity loss. We call these places biodiversity hotspots.
There are 36 biodiversity hotspots found all over the world. These hotspots serve as a
repository of a remarkable life-forms which unfortunately are found to cover only about 2.3% of
the planet’s land area1. It is indeed alarming to know that this number could further be reduced
each year as our environment face greater risk of destruction.
1. Indo-Burma
Where? The Indo-Burma Biodiversity Hotspot, which covers Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar,
Thailand, Viet Nam, and parts of southern China,
Why & How? In terms of species diversity and endemism, it is one of the most biologically rich
− and highly threatened − places on the globe. The hotspot is home to more than 300 million
people, more than any other hotspot. As a result, the concerns of poverty reduction and biodiversity
protection are closely connected. A remarkable diversity of tortoise and freshwater turtle species
are found here, too, as are some 1,200 species of birds
What are some of the endangered species?
a. Saola - One of the most iconic animals in the Indo-Burma region is the saola, or "Asian
unicorn." It can only be found in Lao PDR and Vietnam's Annamite Mountains. Its current
population is unclear due to its rarity and elusiveness. It might be anything from 70 to 700
individual, according to speculative estimates.
b. Eld’s deer - Rucervus eldii siamensis, a subspecies of Eld's deer, is extinct in China,
Thailand, and Vietnam. In Cambodia, Lao PDR, and Myanmar, only a few populations
survive. Since the last decade, the species has seen dramatic population losses of up to
90%. Because of widespread hunting for its meat as "medicine" and as trophies (because
of its antlers)
c. Sarus crane is the world's highest flying bird, standing up to 1.8 meters (six feet) tall. Crane
populations are declining, mainly in major part to habitat loss. Cranes are finding less and
fewer places to dwell when huge wetlands are converted to farmland or aquaculture.
2. Western Ghats and Sri Lanka
Where? The Western Ghats region, which runs across 180,000 square kilometres along India's
west coast and the geology, climate, and evolutionary history of the highlands of south-western
Sri Lanka are surprisingly similar.
Why & How? It covers less than 6% of India's total land area but is home to more than 30% of
the country's plant, fish, amphibian, reptile, bird, and mammal species. They are one of the 36
worldwide biodiversity hotspots with the highest population density. The Western Ghats are one
of the world's biodiversity hotspots with over 5,000 flowering plants, 139 mammals, 508 birds and
179 amphibian species. At least 325 globally threatened species occur here.
Due in part to the varying effect of the yearly monsoons and the high mountain regions,
this hotspot is home to a rich endemic assemblage of plants, reptiles and amphibians. Iconic
mammal species—the Endangered Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) and Endangered tiger
(Panthera tigris) among them—are found here, too.
3. Philippines
Where? It is located in the southeast region of Asia and westernmost Pacific Ocean. It is consider
to be a mega – diversity country because of the exceptional diversity in ecosystems, species and
genetic resources found within its 7641 island territory.
Why & How? Philippines is known to be a home to 52,177 described species of which 50% or
more are believed to be endemic. Threats come from habitat alteration and loss brought about by
destructive resource use, development related activities and human population pressure. The
overexploitation of natural resources reduced the forests to an alarming 24% from its original
cover.
Tarsier, Visayan Warty Pig, Philippine Eagle
Biodiversity Hot-Spots Matter:
According to the Conservation International, they recognize that it is not enough to protect
species and places; for humanity to survive and thrive, the protection of nature must be a
fundamental part of every human society.
The hotspots remain important for two important reasons:
a. Biodiversity underpins all life on Earth. Without species, there would be no air to breathe,
no food to eat, no water to drink. There would be no human society at all. And as the places
on Earth where the most biodiversity is under the most threat, hotspots are critical to human
survival.
b. The map of hotspots overlaps extraordinarily well with the map of the natural places that
most benefit people. That’s because hotspots are among the richest and most important
ecosystems in the world — and they are home to many vulnerable populations who are
directly dependent on nature to survive. By one estimate, despite comprising 2.5% of
Earth’s land surface, the forests, wetlands and other ecosystems in hotspots account for
35% of the “ecosystem services” that vulnerable human populations depend on.
Impact of Biodiversity in our Lives?
Biodiversity loss has a wide range of consequences. For starters, it causes a disruption in
the supply of commodities it offers. It also contributes to environmental hazards such as flooding,
sickness, insect proliferation, and rising temperatures. These are merely the visible impacts,
though. What we don't see directly is the greater impact, which affects the planet from the
atmosphere to the core on a scale that will take a long time and a lot of effort to recover from.
Our Hope
There is still hope for the future with all the current actions being implemented at the local
and international levels to combat rapid biodiversity loss. Let us put things back together, and it
takes a community people working together.
The loss of biodiversity is primarily due to human consumption. Nature and man must be
brought back into balance. Individuals must appreciate and implement sustainable natural resource
management. Yes, we need to be reminded and educated. We also require a willing heart that is
concerned about the future. It has the potential to inspire all of us to use our natural resources
properly. What steps do we need to take to make this a reality? By remaining engaged and
participative until we become aware of these sensitive matters.
THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
Extinction is a part of the evolutionary process in a geological perspective. It is a natural
process for which is justified accordingly to the fossil record, which states that there are still no
species to be proven immortal, only as few as 2-4% of the species that have ever lived are believed
to survive today. But today’s rate of extinction is much greater than the recorded scale of extinction
of the past decades at which species disappear due to evolution alone. In the latest report of
Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES),
there are about a million of animals and plants species are threatened of extinction within the
decades to come. This rate has drastic implications on both human and environmental security
considering that mass extinction of multiple species would result to a grave imbalance of the
ecosystem. These consequences are due to the complex interrelations among the species where the
extinction of one species may cause the extinction of the other.
Below are some of the main threats contributing to the decline of biodiversity.
1. Habitat loss
Habitat loss includes habitat destruction, conversion and fragmentation is the most
dominant threat to biodiversity. This may either be caused by natural and geological events or
anthropogenic disturbance such as deforestation, agricultural expansion, pollution,
overpopulation, and man-induces climate change.
Forests are significantly necessary in sustaining life on Earth and play a vital role in
fighting climate change. However, due to the population growth and rapid industrialization which
have resulted to massive mankind’s destruction of ecosystem to meet the needs of increasing
consumption rate. The data below flaunted that the world has lost one-third of its forest caused by
agricultural expansion. The disappearance of forest certainly also represents the extinction of
species unique to those areas.
Habitat destruction may define as the elimination of conditions for animals and plants to
survive. Sometimes it may start as installments in which it is divided into small and scattered
patches, where a phenomenon known as habitat fragmentation. Consider the exceptional
biodiversity of Sumatra where half of Sumatra’s Forest is now gone as well as the neighboring
island of Borneo. The first area is the home of one species of orangutan, a species of critically
endangered elephant, and the Sumatran tiger and the latter is the home of other species of
orangutan. These species require a larger territory for them to survive. Reducing their home area
severely threatened them as they breed only in the interiors of the forests.
2. Poaching of wildlife
The emergence of illegal trading and killing of wildlife animals significantly resulted to
the decline in number of species. For instance, the rhinoceros has been haunted for its horn, to use
in medicinal purpose, is now labeled as critically endangered with Black Rhino’s population
decreasing by 97.6% since 1960.
Others has been exploited such as elephant for ivory and tigers for their skin and bones.
Due to lax regulation system on wildlife trade, smuggling of endangered species continues which
directly threaten the species survival. However, not all trading is illegal. There are legitimately
sold as food, pets, ornamental plants, leather, tourist ornaments and medicine.
The United Nations General Assembly formally adopted a resolution in 2015 to combat wildlife
trafficking. The Sustainable Development Goals also set specific aims regarding the poaching and
trafficking of protected species.
3. Man-Wildlife conflicts
It is the interaction of wildlife and man that has resulted to negative impact on both. As the
human population grows, the demand for space expand to the wildlife habitats in which imperils
natural wildlife territory, resulting to the increase in interaction of wildlife and man through
competition for resources. The major consequences of man-wildlife conflicts are as follows:
• Destruction of wildlife habitat

• Injury and loss of life of both humans and wildlife
• Crop damage and livestock depredation
• Damage to human property

• Decrease in wildlife population and reduction in geographic ranges
• Trophic cascades
However, coexistence of human and wildlife might be possible by integrating proper

approaches in reducing the conflict with the help participation of local communities. For instance,
Kavango Zambezi Trans frontier Conservation Area in Southern Africa, where an integrated
approach to managing human-wildlife conflict has led to a 95% reduction in livestock killings,
resulting in zero retaliatory killings of lions in 2016 (at least 17 were killed in 2012 and 2013) and
by allowing previously threatened lion populations to recover. Reducing the man-wildlife conflict
led to opportunities for sustainable development, global economy, and conservation of
biodiversity.
Apart from the above threat to biodiversity, these are also other threats that contribute to
the biodiversity loss.
• Invasion of non-native species

• Pollution
• Overexploitation of Resources
• Global Environmental Change
• Epidemic and Infectious Disease
ENDEMIC SPECIES
Endemic species is a species native and confined to a specific region. Most species are
restricted because their ecological requirements are only met over a small area and are not capable
of dispersing great distances to other suitable habitats.
Endemism & Uniqueness of Philippines Biodiversity
Over 7,000 islands cover the large landscape and long coastline; The Philippines is among
the 17 countries in the world considered mega-biodiverse countries when it comes to the variety
of ecosystems and species (Rank Red, 2020).Many of the islands comprising the archipelago are
believed to have a very high degree of animal endemism. (Conservation International, 2019)
The Philippines has many endemic plant and vertebrate species. The Philippines has more
than 52,177 described species, half of which are endemic or found nowhere else on earth. In terms
of terrestrial vertebrates, the Philippines is known to host 1,238 species, of which 618 (or 50%)
are endemic. In terms of fishes, the Philippines counts at least 3,214 species, of which about 121
are endemic and threatened.
A large percentage of all species can only be found (Endemic) in the Philippines.
4th in Bird Endemism. The Philippines has 685+ known species which Monkey-eating eagle
231 species are endemic
5th in Land Mammal The Philippines has 207 known species which 133 Tamaraw
Endemism species are endemic
8th in Reptile The Philippines has 118 known specie which 97 Philippine Crocodile
Endemism. species are endemic
5th in Plant Species 16 species of Seagrass are endemic, and 40 out of
54 mangrove species are endemic. Five hundred of
the known coral species are also endemic.
5 of the Known Marine Turtles in the world are endemic in the Philippines
(Philippine Statistics Authority, 2021)
Endangered Species
The Red List maintained by The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
defines the severity and specific causes of species’ threat of extinction. The Red List composed of
seven levels of conservation: least concern, near threatened, vulnerable, endangered, critically
endangered, extinct in the wild, and extinct. Each level represents a different threat level.
Classifying species are based on its range, habitat, and its actual population. However,
species threat level may vary in different locations.
First Two Categories: Species that are not threatened by extinction
Least Concern: Least concern is the lowest level of conservation. A species of least concern is
one that has widespread and abundant population such as Human beings, domestic animals and
many wild animals.
Near Threatened: A species still has healthy population, but their rainforest habitat is halting at
a fast pace. Most likely to qualify for a threatened category in the future.
Next Three Categories or “Threatened Categories”
Composed of three categories: Vulnerable, Endangered, Critically Endangered. Qualifying

into threatened categories are based on five criteria with certain thresholds: population reduction
rate, geographic range, population size, population restrictions, and probability of extinction. As
the population and range of the species decreases, the species becomes more threatened.
Vulnerable Species: A Species considered to be facing a “high” risk of extinction in the wild.
1. Population reduction rate: rate at which the numbers of a specific species are declining.
Between 30 and 50 percent of its population is shrinking. It is measured on three

generations or over 10 years. A generation is the period between the birth of an animal and
the time it can reproduce.
A species is qualified to vulnerable categories if at least its population reduces to 50

percent with known cause or 30 percent with unknown cause.
2. Geographic range
Extent of occurrence – smallest area that could contain all of a species’ population
– is estimated to be less than 20,000 kilometers falls under vulnerable category. Moreover,
area of occupancy – where a specific population of that species resides – is estimated to be

less than 2,000 square kilometers. It is where often the breeding or nesting site in a species
range.
3. Population size
A species contains less than 10,000 mature individuals are vulnerable. The species
is also vulnerable if that population declines by at least 10 percent within 10 years or three
generations, whichever longer.
4. Population restrictions
Population restriction is a combination of population and area of occupancy. A

species is vulnerable if it is restricted to less than 1,000 mature individuals or an area of
occupancy of less than 20 square kilometers.
5. Probability of extinction
At least 10 percent within 100 years
Example:
Sailfin Water Lizard Palawan Flying Fox Palawan Litter Frog Electra's Tree-nymph
Endangered: A species considered to be facing a “very high” risk of extinction in the wild.
1. Population reduction rate
Under endangered categories, a species’ population has decline between 50 and 70

percent. It is measured on three generations or over 10 years. Including the species with 70
percent decline in population with known causes or at least 50 percent decline with unknown
cause.
2. Geographic range
An endangered species’ extent of occurrence is less than 5,000 square kilometers.

An endangered species’ area of occupancy is less than 500 square kilometers
3. Population size
A species is classified as endangered when there are fewer than 2,500 mature
individuals. When a species population declines by at least 20 percent within five years or
two generations, it is also classified as endangered.
A species is classified as endangered when its population is restricted to less than

250 mature individuals. When a species’ population is this low, its area of occupancy is
not considered.
At least 20 percent within 20 years or five generations, whichever is longer.
Example:
White-throated Haynald's Philippine Pangolin Yellow-faced

Jungle-Flycatcher Paphiopedilum Flameback
Critically Endangered: A species considered to be facing an “extremely high risk” of extinction

in the wild.
1. Population reduction rate
A critically endangered species’ population has declined between 80 and 90

percent. This decline is measured over 10 years or three generations of the species,
whichever is longer.
A species is classified as critically endangered when its population has declined at

least 90 percent and the cause of the decline is known. A species is also classified as
endangered when its population has declined at least 80 percent and the cause of the decline
is not known.
2. Geographic range
A critically endangered species’ extent of occurrence is less than 100 square

kilometers. A critically endangered species’ area of occupancy is estimated to be less than
10 square kilometers.
3. Population size
A species is classified as critically endangered when there are fewer than 250
mature individuals. A species is also classified as critically endangered when the number
of mature individuals declines by at least 25 percent within three years or one generation,
whichever is longer.
A species is classified as critically endangered when its population is restricted to

less than 50 mature individuals. When a species’ population is this low, its area of
occupancy is not considered.
At least 50 percent within 10 years or three generations, whichever longer.
Example:
Alocasia Quilted Visayan Warty Pig Attenborough's Ross' Wolf Snake

Dreams Pitcher Plant
Last Two Categories
Extinct In the Wild
A species is extinct in the wild when it only survives in cultivation (plants), captivity
(animals), or as a population well outside its established range. A species may be listed as extinct
in the wild only after years of surveys have failed to record an individual in its native or expected
habitat.
Extinct
A species is extinct when there is no reasonable doubt that the last remaining individual of
that species has died. (Stanley, 2019)
Species become endangered for five main reasons: Loss of Habitat, Invasive Species,
Overexploitation of Resources, Pathogens and diseases, Environmental Pollution.
Loss of Habitat: A loss of habitat may be due to natural forces. However, human activities can
contribute to it, such as the development of housing, urbanization, and agriculture that reduces the
habitat for native organisms.
Invasive Species: Introducing invasive to the habitat of the native organism will result in reducing
biodiversity, competing with native organisms for limited resources, and altering habitats.
(Natioanl Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2021)
Example: Lake Lanao, Mindanao, seems likely to have become the site of one of the hotpot's worst
extinction catastrophes, with nearly all of the lake's endemic fish species now almost certainly
extinct due to the introduction of invasive species (like tilapia).
Overexploitation of Resources: disrupting the resources by harvesting in exceed of reproduction:

Pathogens and Disease: Native species which had little or did not develop resistance to foreign
disease may decrease the number of populations.
Environmental Pollution: Pesticides and other chemicals introduced to an ecosystem may

significantly harm untargeted species. Other forms of pollution such as thermal, light and noise
pollution can reduce the survival rates of native populations. (Chandler, 2019)
CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
It refers to the protection, restoration, preservation, and management of ecosystems and
natural habitats ensuring that they are healthy and functional in order to derive sustainable benefits
for present and future generations.
Why is it important?
• Biodiversity is a Vital Part of the Solution to Climate Change

o Forests and wetlands store vast amount of carbon
• Biodiversity is Good for the Economy
o More than half of the world’s total GDP is highly dependent on nature
• Keeping biodiverse ecosystems helps humans stay healthy
o 70% of emerging viral diseases have spread from animals to humans. As the global
wildlife trade continues, humans have more exposure to wild animals.
Methods to Conserve Biodiversity
• In-situ Conservation
• Ex-situ Conservation
IN-SITU CONSERVATION
It is the conservation of species in their natural habitat. In this method, natural ecosystem
is maintained and protected.
Advantages:
1. It is cost-effective and convenient method of conserving biodiversity

2. A large number of living organisms can be conserved simultaneously
3. Since the organisms are in a natural ecosystem, they can evolve better and can easily adjust
to different environmental conditions.
Examples of protected areas that in-situ conservation takes place are National Parks, Wildlife
Sanctuaries, and Biosphere Reserves
National Parks
These are small reserves maintained by the government. Its boundaries are well demarcated
and human activities such as grazing, forestry, habitat and cultivation are prohibited.
The hundred Islands National park
Minalungao National Park

Wildlife Sanctuaries
These are the regions where only wild animals are found. Human activities such as timber
harvesting, cultivation, collection of woods and other forest products are allowed here as long as
they do not interfere with the conservation project. Also, tourists visit these places for recreation.
Olango Island Wildlife Sanctuary
Tarsier Conservation Area

Biosphere Reserves
These are multi-purpose protected areas where the wildlife, traditional lifestyle of the
inhabitants and domesticated plants and animals are protected. Tourist and research activities are
permitted here.
Palawan Biosphere Reserve
EX-SITU CONSERVATION
It involves the breeding and maintenance of endangered species in artificial ecosystems

such as zoos, nurseries, botanical gardens, gene banks, etc. There is less competition for food,
water, and space among the organisms.
Manila Zoo
Baguio Botanical Garden
Methods of Ex-Situ Conservation
• Long term Captive Breeding

o Species are cultivated for scientific, educational, and ornamental purposes
o Vital conservation action for all critically endangered species.
o Zoo’s, botanical gardens, and arboreta
• Short term propagation and breeding
o Endangered species bred in captivity and released in the wild later.
o Practiced when the population declines due to temporary setback in living conditions
• Cryo-Preservation
o Preservation of seeds, gametes, and embryos of endangered species using liquid
nitrogen at low temperature
• Seed bank and Gene Banks
o Seeds and genetic resources of different strains of commercially important plants can
be stored for long periods in seed banks
STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS, INSECTS, BIRDS
Environmental Study
By: Raghu Roy
Common Plants
There are 3 life histories that which plants are characterized: haploid, diploid, and haploid-
diploid. Plants with a haploid-diploid life history undergo an alternation of generations. Asexual
reproduction may occur, but it is the sexual reproduction that is responsible for genetic diversity.
Before, land plants, alga with mostly haploid life cycles existed, but land plants later originated
from a haploid-diploid ancestor.
Insects
Insects are more than half of all known living species and new species of insects are
continually being found all over the world. There is an estimate of 2 million to 30 million different
kind of species of insects in our planet. With this number there is no wonder they play a lot of
important roles in nature. They aid bacteria, fungi, and other organisms in the decomposition of
organic matter and in soil formation. Many plants depend on insects for pollination.
Birds
The birds’ species spatial distributions are directly affected by global warming and is being
altered by climate change. Their pattern of movement is already larger and more immediate than
other organisms. This would mean for species shift is occurring.
Study of Simple Ecosystem
By: Shaunak De
Pond
The pond ecosystem includes all the pond plants and animals also the water and other
substances that make up the pond itself. Individual organisms interact with each other and with
their environment in a variety of relationships, such as two organisms in a food chain. These
relationships are usually complex and finely balanced, and in natural ecosystems should be self-
sustaining. However, major changes to an ecosystem, such as climate change, overpopulation, or
the removal of a species, may threaten the system's sustainability and result in its eventual
destruction.
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1environment Ecosystem and Biodiversity

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POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

Aliboso, Gdan Paul T.

Barbosa, Shane Benedict D.

Barte, Jan Rommel L.

Borla, Austin Clyde P.

Calata, Paula Jean T.

Castañeda, Joseph Euan T.

Environment Components can be divided into biotic and abiotic components.

PRINCIPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

• Examine the major environmental issues

SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

• Studying the interrelationship between the components of env.

NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS

1. To integrate knowledge on environmental aspects pertaining to the curriculum of the

Brief history of the word ecosystem

• Terrestrial – Forest and etc.

Difference of Ecology and Ecosystem

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF AN ECOSYSTEM

The roles of organisms in an ecosystem

• Producer (autotrophy): make food; plants, algae

• Herbivore - primary consumer – eats plants

ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEM

Carbon enters into the living

Nitrogen is present in the atmosphere

The evaporation of water from

a. Nudation: It is the development of a bare area without any life form.

FOOD CHAINS, FOOD WEBS, AND ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

Types of Food Chain

Types of Food Web

A graphical representation of the relationship between different organisms in an ecosystem.

INTRODUCTION, TYPES, CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES,

It is a natural ecosystem consisting of dense growth of trees and wild animals. An

a. Evergreen Forest – heavy year-round rainfall with no dry season

1. Seasonal Variation – somehow related to the forest ecosystem of a region, in example

• Abiotic: soil, sun light, temperature etc

1. Limited annual rainfall

• Abiotic – nutrients in the soil and aerial environment

1. They can be freshwater or saltwater.

• Abiotic: pH, nutrients, D.O, temp, climatic conditions, etc.

• Aids in purification of water

INTRODUCTION TO BIODIVERSITY DEFINITION: GENETIC,

Biodiversity is an abbreviation of Biological Diversity (bio-life or living organisms,

Levels (Types) of biodiversity

Example: Species of Tiger

• Bengal Tiger – is a native to the Indian subcontinent and located in India,

• Sumatran Tiger-they live on the Indonesian island of Sumatran and considered to

• Tropical Rainforests – contains different species of Insects, Birds, Flowering

• Terrestrial ecosystem: (Desert, Forest, Grassland)

THE BIOGEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION OF INDIA

The Biogeographical Classification of India

2. The Himalayan Region

• north-west, east, and central Himalayan

3. The Indian Desert

• Gujarat desert, Himalayan cold desert, Thar

4. The Semi-Arid Region

• Between desert and deccan plateau-Aravalli hills

5. The Western Ghats

• Mountain range along the western coast of India

6. The Deccan Peninsula

7. The Gangetic Plain

8. The Coastal Region

• East and western coastal area

9. The North-east Region