Preparation and characterization of

laterite steel for biomaterial application: A

preliminary study
Cite as: AIP Conference Proceedings 2230, 020007 (2020); https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0002273
Published Online: 04 May 2020

Dhyah Annur, Muhammad Y. Hasbi, Daniel P. Malau, Muhammad S. Utomo, Talitha Asmaria, Djusman
Sajuti, and Muhamad I. Amal

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AIP Conference Proceedings 2230, 020007 (2020); https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0002273 2230, 020007

© 2020 Author(s).
 Preparation and Characterization of Laterite Steel for
Biomaterial Application: A Preliminary Study
Dhyah Annur1, Muhammad Y. Hasbi1, Daniel P. Malau1, Muhammad S. Utomo1,
Talitha Asmaria1, Djusman Sajuti1, Muhamad I. Amal1, a)
1
Research Center for Metallurgy and Materials- Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Banten, Indonesia
a)
Corresponding author: muha137@lipi.go.id

Abstract. Having abundant resource of laterite ore, Indonesia has the advantage of developing lateritic steel in many
applications. Despite the interesting properties of lateritic steel such as high mechanical properties, low corrosion rate,
and good machinability, application of lateritic steel for biomaterial application was lack of proper research. This study
aims to observe the possibility of using lateritic steel which has low nickel content to be used as orthopedic implant.
Chemical composition was analyzed by optical emission spectroscopy method (OES). Microstructure analysis was
analyzed by means of metallography using optical microscope and phase identification via X-Ray diffraction (XRD)
analysis. Mechanical properties of laterite steel were examined by tensile testing and micro hardness Vickers testing.
Biomechanical simulation and stress distribution were evaluated using finite element analysis. Corrosion behavior of
lateritic steel was observed by electrochemical testing in simulated body fluid of Hank’s solution in 37 °C. This research
showed the laterite steel has comparable mechanical properties with SS 316L with less of nickel content. Increasing the
corrosion properties of the laterite steel would increase the possibility of applying laterite steel into biomaterial.
Therefore, laterite steel, the local steel produced by Indonesia’s resources could be examined more comprehensively to
be used as biomaterial mainly for orthopedic application.

INTRODUCTION
The development of biomaterials is increasing significantly in the past few years in line with the increasing
number of human’s life expectancy. Unfortunately, the increasing number of life expectancy age is correlated with a
higher risk of osteoporosis, osteoarthritis, and other bone diseases. Millions of people worldwide undergo surgery
every year to receive orthopedic implants such as hip replacement, knee joint, bone plate, or other prosthesis
implants [1]. For years, the metallic material is considered the most favorable material to be used as a biomaterial.
In the whole world, almost 80% of orthopedic metal is based on metal [2].
Having many populations, Indonesia would have a large market demand for biomaterial. Therefore, it is
important to observe the potential application of the local product to be applied as an orthopedic implant. Laterite
steel is low carbon steel contains low nickel content which is originated from laterite ore, a potential local resource.
Indonesia has abundant deposits of laterite ore, approximately 15% of total global resources [3]. The laterite ores are
widely spread and found in the islands of Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Halmahera, and Papua [4]. In spite of the
interesting properties of lateritic steel such as high mechanical strength, mechanical properties, low corrosion rate,
and good machinabillity, the application of lateritic steel was still not fully understood. Prior studies showed that
lateritic steel can be used in various application such as tools steel, construction steel or armor materials [5, 6].
However, research on developing laterite steel for biomaterial application is still lacking particularly to be used as an
orthopedic implant.
In developing implant material, the first and foremost requirement for the choice of the biomaterial is its
biocompatibility, acceptability of the implant by the human body. The implanted material should not cause any
adverse effects like allergy, inflammation, and toxicity either immediately after surgery or under post-operative
conditions. An implant should have corrosion and wear resistance even in a highly corrosive environment and

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020007-1
loading conditions, also high fatigue strength and fracture toughness. The performance of a biomaterial is
determined by its chemical, physical and biological properties [7].
Implant failure refers to the failure of any medical implant to meet the required materials performance. Implant
failure is majorly caused by corrosion which is described by the loss of metallic ions metal surface to the
surrounding environment. Depending on the mechanism, some types of corrosion are seen. Clinical significance of
corrosion with implant means the ability to be resistant from corrosion process such as surface roughening,
weakening of the restoration, or elements release from the metal or alloy [8]. In practical use, stainless steels
biomaterials have been used for ages. Because of a large amount of nickel (Ni) content (up to 8%) in SS 316L, there
is the possibility of Ni toxicity problems [9]. For this reason, research on and the development of Ni-free stainless
steels is still in progress. Due to low nickel content in laterite steel (mostly below 4%wt.), it is assumed the laterite
steel may reduce the allergic risk than SS 316L. To prepare an orthopedic implant, the task includes searching
appropriate material selection, accurate sizing, evaluating the implant with finite element method, and determining
the final implant model [10].
The purpose of this research is to study the characteristic of lateritic steel, as a local product for biomaterial
application. It is proposed that laterite steel may have similar properties with the commonly used implant material
SS 316L. Thus, laterite steel is a promising candidate to replace the orthopedic implant from the foreign country.
Additionally, to complete this study, a finite element simulation based on Indonesian morphometry is included. It is
generally known that Indonesian people have smaller anthropometry than Caucasian ethnic. A patient-specific
design would able to reduce contact stress and friction in the implant and can provide better postoperative condition
compared to the commercially available implant which was supplied mostly from the United States or the European
countries [11].

MATERIALS AND METHOD

In this study, laterite steel was prepared from converting nickel pig iron followed by de-slagging and
decarburization process. Detailed steel making procedure was described elsewhere [12]. The laterite steel ingot will
be sectioned into the dimension of 10 mm × 10 mm × 10 mm for chemical composition analysis using Optical
Emission Spectrometer (OES) and metallography. Metallography preparation was conducted conventionally,
specimens were mechanically ground using silicon carbide papers followed by polishing in alumina to produce
mirror-like surface. The specimens were then etched using Kalling’s reagent. In order to examine mechanical
properties of laterite steel, tensile testing was performed based on ASTM E8. Whilst, the hardness values of the
polished specimens were determined using a microhardness Vickers measurement then converted into Brinell
number (HB).
Corrosion properties of the laterite steel were evaluated by the electrochemical testing in the simulated body
fluid, Hank’s solution of pH 7.4 at 37 °C in order to mimic the real environment condition [13]. In this test, a
standard three electrodes cell was used; graphite as the counter electrode; saturated calomel electrode as the
reference electrode, and a sample as the working electrode. The total amount of Hank’s Solution taken in the cell is
about 500 ml. The potential scanning rate is 1 mV/s.
Moreover, the stress distribution and biomechanical properties were evaluated through finite element simulation.
The proposed implant design and a detailed procedure were described elsewhere [11]. In this preliminary study, the
average Indonesian body weight at 75 kg and a simple assumption activity of walking in a flat surface was set as the
boundary condition. Mechanical properties of the laterite steel were added into the simulation parameters.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The chemical composition of the specimen is shown in Table 1. Based on the chemical composition
analysis, it was shown that laterite steel in this research (contain 2.74%wt of Ni) can be made from a low-grade NPI,
as an alternative way to optimize the use of the abundant laterite ore in Indonesia. Due to its carbon content, the as-
cast laterite steel can be classified into low carbon steel (less than 0.4%wt. carbon)[14]. Besides nickel (2.74 %wt),
others alloying element were shown having a low value, hence the laterite steel could also be classified into low
alloy steel.
Compared with the SS 316L, the most commonly stainless steel used in the biomedical application, laterite steel
shows less content of the toxic alloying element such as nickel and chromium. Therefore, this study was conducted

020007-2
to observe the possibility of developing laterite steel which contains less than 4% wt. nickel for biomedical
application.
Fig. 1 shows the microstructure analysis of the as-cast laterite steel. From Fig. 1a, it can be seen that the laterite
steel consists of α-ferrite phase and some microvoids. Pearlite phase structure was not shown due to the low content
of carbon in the laterite steel. Fig. 1a also shows the dominance of coarse grains which might affect on lowering
mechanical properties of the laterite steel. Meanwhile, XRD analysis confirmed the α ferrite phase as the only phase
of the laterite steel. The microstructure analysis results are in line with the composition analysis considering that the
laterite steel contained only low alloying elements.
TABLE 1. Chemical Composition of Laterite Steel and Comparison to SS 316L
SS 316 L
Laterite Steel
(ASTM F138)
C 0.055 ≤ 0.03
Si 0.405 ≤ 0.75
P 0.063 ≤ 0.025
S 0.044 ≤ 0.01
Cr 0.23 17.00-19.00
Mn 0.029 ≤ 2.00
Cu 0.04 ≤ 0.50
Ni 2.74 13.00-15.00
Mo 0.032 2.25-3.00
Nb 0.019 -
Fe Balance Balance

1000
α Ferrite

800
Relative Intensity (%)

600

400

200

0 20 40 60 80 100
2θ
(a) (b)
FIGURE 1. Microstructure analysis of the laterite steel (a) OM image, (b) XRD pattern

Mechanical testing and hardness testing are presented in Table 2. Based on Table 2, the mechanical strength and
the hardness value of the laterite steel were comparable enough with SS 316L. However, the elasticity of laterite
steel was much lower than SS 316L. Mechanical properties depend on the alloying element and the microstructure
of the laterite steel. Since lower alloying elements were found in the composition of laterite steel, laterite steel was
expected to have lower mechanical properties than SS 316L. Low mechanical properties of the laterite steel were
due to the domination of coarse grains in their microstructure and some presence of microvoid as seen in Fig. 1.
Therefore process optimization in steel making process is a must. In the previous study, Jamali et al [12] had shown
the relation between the decarburization process with carbon and other alloying element in laterite steel making
process. Longer duration of the decarburization would reduce the amount carbon content in the as-cast steel. In
addition, to increase mechanical properties some heat treatment procedure can be done. Satrio et al in the previous
study had shown that hot roll process on laterite steel could increase the mechanical strength of laterite steel (up to
25%) while maintaining the ductility [15].

020007-3
 For biomaterial, especially for orthopedic application, low elasticity is preferred because the cortical bone has
low elasticity (10-30 GPa)[9]. Low elasticity in the implant can prevent “stress shielding effect” hence the failure of
an implant and the risk of revision surgery can be reduced [16].
TABLE 2. Mechanical Properties of Laterite Steel and SS 316L By Comparison
Tensile Yield Hardness
Elasticity
Specimen Strength Strengeth (HB)
(GPa)
(MPa) (MPa)
Laterite Steel 453 ± 9.2 330 ± 12.2 7.8 ± 1.9 156 ± 4.4
SS 316 L [14] 515 205 193 149

Regarding the application of biomaterial in human body, corrosion resistance is an important requirement for
material selection. The potentiodynamic polarization curve is depicted in Fig. 2, meanwhile, the electrochemical
parameters are displayed in Table 3. From the electrochemical testing, laterite steel showed less corrosion resistance
than the SS 316L. SS 316L has more positive corrosion potential value than the laterite steel indicating the nobler
position of SS 316L. Lower corrosion resistance of laterite steel in as much as the lower alloying element on the
laterite steel. SS 316L is known as the most commonly used biomaterials due to its cost-effectiveness [7]. Although
the composition of the SS 316L might be varied, this alloy is characterized by an 18-8% Cr and Ni content, added by
molybdenum (3%), and low carbon content (reduced to 0.03%, maximum. Alloying elements in SS 316L were
intended to improve the corrosion properties.
Being a satisfactory corrosion resistance material for years, SS 316 turned out having a high risk to stress
corrosion cracking and crevice corrosion which limit its application to a shorter duration of implantation [17]. The
important issue of corrosion in SS 316L was owing to the release of nickel which was susceptible for allergic
reaction in the human body [18]. Thus, laterite steel is still a potential material to be developed as a biomaterial
implant because it has lower nickel content. Surface modification such as coating might be able to increase
corrosion properties of the laterite steel.
TABLE 3. Electrochemical properties of laterite steel and its comparison
Specimen ECorr (mVSCE) ICorr (A/cm2) Corrosion Rate (mmpy)
Laterite Steel -566 0.28 × 10-6 0.311
SS 316L [19] -303 4.2 × 10-6 0.004

Tafel Scan
-0,3

-0,35

-0,4

-0,45

-0,5

-0,55

-0,6
VSCE (V)

-0,65

-0,7

-0,75

-0,8
1,00E-07 1,00E-06 1,00E-05 1,00E-04 1,00E-03 1,00E-02 1,00E-01 1,00E+00
I (A/cm2)

FIGURE 2. Potentiodynamic polarization curve of laterite steel.

Other than mechanical testing, biomechanical simulation has also been proposed to ensure the successful
biomaterial especially as an orthopedic implant. Finite element simulation is done by assuming maximum load in a
specific condition may lead to implant failure. Using the specific morphometry data of Indonesia patient [10], this
finite analysis tried to evaluate von Mises stress distribution in the proposed implant. The computation result was

020007-4
depicted in Fig. 3. Color scale of blue to red colors implying the increasing of von Mises stress value. It was shown
from the finite analysis that the highest stress occurred at the bottom of the hip stem femoral neck implant. Under
walking condition (definitive assumption), the maximum stress would be 225 MPa. Accordingly, laterite steel is
considered safe enough to be the material of the proposed hip implant because the maximum stress is lower than the
yield strength of the laterite steel (330 MPa) as mentioned in Table 2. Meanwhile, changing material into SS 316L
might not be safe because SS 316 has lower yield strength.

FIGURE 3. Finite element analysis of the hip implant model showing von Mises stress distribution

CONCLUSION
This preliminary study is conducted to observe laterite steel potential to be a biomaterial as the orthopedic
implant. The chemical analysis has shown that laterite steel can be classified as low carbon alloy steel. Meanwhile,
metallography results illustrated the microstructure of α ferrite phase and some defects (micro voids). Mechanical
properties of laterite steel were comparable enough with SS 316L except in elasticity. Nevertheless, lower elasticity
was preferred in the orthopedic application. Thereby, process optimization of steel making and heat treatment on
laterite steel is a must. Finite element simulation also shows a possibility in developing laterite steel for biomaterial
because it had higher yield strength than the maximum stress occurred in the designed orthopedic implant. However,
corrosion properties of laterite steel were lacked due to the absence of the alloying element. Thus, it is important to
examine the possibility of increasing mechanical properties on the laterite steel to be further used as biomaterial.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI) - Research Center for Metallurgy
and Material for providing financial support and research facilities.

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