D E SC RI P T I V E G E O ME T RY

FO R

STUD E NTS O F E NGI NEE RI NG

BY

J A ME S A MB RO SE
A ss i s ta n t P r of ess o r o
M O YE R, S B . .
,
E B . .
,
AM .

f M ec h a n i c a l E ngi n eer i ng i n C h ar ge of th e Il l ech a ni c a l L a bo r a to r i es i n

th e Un i ver s i ty of IlI w h i ga n; f o r mer l y I n str u c tor i n D es cr i p ti ve G eo m etry i n
Ha r var d U n i vers i ty : E n gi n eer w i th th e G en er a l E lectr i c Co mp a n y
a n d wi th W es ti ngh o u s e C h u r ch K er r a n d Co mp a n y
, ,

M em ber of th e A mer i c a n So ci ety of M echan i c a l E n gi n eer s ; Jl I i tgl i ed d es V er ei n es d eu ts ch er

I n gen i eu r e; M em ber of F r a n k l i n I n s ti tu te; B o s to n A ss oc i a ti o n f o r th e A d van c e
men t of Sci enc e; A mer i ca n S o c i ety of C i vi l E n gi n eer s ; S o ci ety f o r th e
P r omo ti o n of E n gi ne er i n g E d u c a ti o n etc
, .

T H I RD E D I TI ON

T H I RD T H O U S A N D

NE W YO RK

J O HN W I LE Y SO NS

LO ND O N : C H A P MA N H ALL L M T D
,
I I E

1 9 09
 copy ri gh t, 1 904 and 1905

BY

J AME B OSE MO YER

S AM R
 P RE FA CE .

TH I S b ook i s the result Of teachi n g desc ri ptive geometry to

stude n ts o f e n gi n eeri n g My aim is to presen t the su bj ect SO as
.

to make it most easily applicab le to the requireme n ts of rece n t

e n gi n ee ri n g practice The methods Of prese n tatio n i n thi s b ook
.
,

therefore are no t tra di tio n al E xperie n ce has shown that most

,
.

stude n ts i n o u r b est tech ni cal schools have difficulty i n applyi n g

their k n owledge o f thi s subj ect to subs eque n t work i n structural
an d machi n e desig n .Two thi n gs have bee n attempted i n thi s
b ook to overcome thi s failure Of o u r stude n ts : ( 1 ) The n otatio n
is essen tially the same as that used i n mechani cal drawi ng Fo r .

a lo n g time practical drafti n g and desc ri ptive geometry have had

,

to o little i n commo n ( ) The exercises have b ee n carefull y

2 .

graded to e n courage a studen t to do thi nk i ng fo r hims elf ; an d ,

to stimulate h i s i n terest man y co n crete exercises showi ng usually

, ,

practical applicatio ns have b ee n i ns erted S uch exercises I thi nk

,
.
, ,

should be i n troduced from the b egi n ni ng so that the studen t may ,

see the practical applicatio n o f his pro blems as he goes alo ng .

The data for the exercises are stated by the system Of coor
di n ates used i n a n alytic geometry Reaso n s for choosin g this
.

system are O b vious Fo r a class b egi nn i n g thi s subj ect there is

. _

a great adva n tage i n statin g the exercises wi th ab solute defi ni te

n ess. If a defi ni te pro blem i s n o t gi ven man y studen ts i n order
, ,

to Show a sat i sfactory solutio n will waste much time selecti n g

,

data ; an d others will presen t drawi ngs that fo r their complicatio n

are mostly u ni n telligi b le .

2 36 38 4
 Illustratio n s are of more u se than much wordy desc riptio n .

Fo r this reaso n an u n usually large n umb er of perspective an d

orthographic drawi n gs have b ee n i n serted The il lustratio n s i n .

perspective are very helpful Whe n ever it is possi ble however .

, ,

stude n ts should b e en couraged to make models o f bardbo ard an d

“
pe n cils that they may b uild W hat they are drawi n g .

This b ook is n o t i n te n ded for self ins tructio n Like lan guages -
.
,

this su b j ect can be learn ed successfully o n ly from a teacher an d ,

"
n o t alo n e from b ooks an d lectures The stude n t must take the .

time to work out ma n y exercises S pace h as b ee n left o n the right .

han d pages for lecture n otes an d Sketches The studen t may well .

put the solutio n s for man y of the exercises o n these pages .

A good deal O f space is take n to explai n P ro b lems 6 7 an d 8 , ,

.

These are co n sidered fun dame ntal ; an d the teacher Shoul d be sure
they are mastered before the studen t goes further With these
"

pro blems well i n mi n d there should be no difficulty w ith those

,

that follow It has b ee n my O bj ect to make the explan atio n s

.
‘

Of the pro blems throughout the b ook co n siste n tly b riefer as the
su bj ect matter i s developed
-
.

I am u n der great O bligatio n to P rofessor Ira N Hollis an d .

P rofessor Le w is J J oh n so n fo r much assistan ce an d e n couragemen t

.

i n prepa ri n g this b ook I o w e S pecial ack n owledgme n t however

.
, ,

to P rofessor He n ry S J aco by who led i n teachi n g thi s subj ect

.
,

with its practical app l icatio ns He has carefully read much Of .

this book an d I have received man y suggestio n s from him

, .

Fo r assista n ce i n ma n y ways I wish to tha nk my b rother Mr ,

.

J Clare n ce Moyer M E O f P hi l adelphi a Mr C B Lewis o f

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,
. .
, ,
. . .

C i n ci n n ati an d Mr B rya n t White O f C ambridge

,
. .

J A MO Y E R . . .

CA M R D G
B ID mbE , 1 503
ece er, .
 P RE FA CE T O T HE SE CO ND E D I TI O N .

T HE gratifyi ng results with the first editio n showed that the

methods O f this b ook were appreciated b eyo n d my expectatio n s ,

I n the seco n d editio n I have added a n um b er O f n e w exercises .

Man y O f these appear throughout the text .

I n prepa ri n g the seco n d editio n the help O f Mr A E N orto n . . .

,

P h B has b ee n i n valuab le to me
. .
,
Fo r valua ble suggestio n s an d .

criticisms I am much i n deb ted to C omma n der B arto n U S N aval ,

. .

A cademy ; P rof A dams Mas s I n st of Tech n ology ; P rof Ke n n edy

.
,
. . .
,

H arvard Un iv P rof O gde n C orn ell Univ P rof Ra n dall B rown

. .
,
. .
,

U n iv P rof S pan gler U n iv O f P en n sylva n ia ; P rof Tilde n U n iv

. .
,
. .
, .

Of Michigan ; P rof Tracy Y ale Un iv ; an d Mr W V Moses of

.
,
. . . .

the Ge n eral E lectric C ompan y .

The A merican B ridge C ompan y an d the B osto n B ridge “o rk s l

have ki n dly supplied drawi n gs from whi ch the data for some O f the
exercises have b ee n take n .

I am much gratified that i n P rof Ferri s s b ook o n descriptive .

’

geometry which h as just b ee n pu blished an e ff ort is sho w n to ,

meet i n a d egree pra c tical requiremen ts S i n ce the first edi tio n

,
.

,
.

Of this b ook appeared I have received man y letters regard i ng the

, .

relative importa n ce to b e given this sub j ect from a practical View

poi n t i n a course i n e n gi n eeri n g These i n qui ri es i n terest me much .

an d i n replyi n g I have gladly give n the results Of my expe ri e n ce .

J A MO Y E R . . .

CA M R D B IJ y 1 9 05
GE ,
an u ar , .
 P RE FA CE T O T H E T H I RD E D ITI O N .

IN D U STRI AL educ atio n is bec omi ng every day more important

, ,

i n all systems O f teachi ng . The te n de n cy i n educ atio n is toward

the ec o n omic applic atio n s The advan tages o f teachi ng with the
.

help o f practic al pro blems an d exercises is more appreciated tha n

ever with c orrespo n di ngly more satisfactory results These n ew
,
.

requireme n ts are measured i n a degree by the success Of this

, ,

b ook .

I n this editio n s me cha nges mostl y suggested by teache rs

o , ,

have bee n made i n the text and an i n dex h as bee n added to make
,

the b oo k more c o n ve n ie n t f o r refere n ce Fo r very valuable cri ti

.

c i sm s I am especially i n de b ted to P rof Dr Li nse l O f B erli n Ge r

. .
,

ma n y and P rof J aco by Of Ithac a Much Of the work o f revisio n

,
. .

h as falle n to my c olleague Mr A E N orto n of C am b ridge whose

. . .
,

services I c ann o t to o highly appreciate .

J A MO Y E R . . .

LY NN De cem be 1 906
,
r, .
 CO NT E NT S

I NT R O D U CT I O N 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

C HA PT E R I
E L E M E N TARY PRI N C L E S AND IP NOTA T I O N

The Pl an es o f P o j ecti o n
r

P ro j ecti o n s o f Po i n ts an d L i n es .

H A PT E R II C

PRO MS R A T N G TO H PO N T L N
B LE EL I T E I ,
I E ,
AND PL AN E

P bl m
ro d P
e ti l E x m pl
s an r ac ca a es

C HA P T E R III
PRO B LE M S R LAT I NG E To PL AN S TANG E N T
E To S OL I D S
Class i fi cati o n of S u rfaces .

Co n v o l u te Su rfaces

H A P T E R IV C

I N T RS E T O N S AND D
E CLO M N T
I E VE P E S OF S OL I D S
I n terse cti o ns o f Su r f ac e s w i th P l an es

De v l p m ent o f S
e o u rf a c e s .

I ntersecti o ns o f Su rf aces

CHA PT E R V

MI SCE LLAN E O U S PRA CT I CA L E xE R CI SE s .

 C HA PTE R VI

SH AD S AND
E SH AD O W S

C HA P T E R VII
VVA R P E D SU R F A S
CE

C HA PT E R V III
P RS
E PE C T I VE

Th e P ipl s f P sp
ri n c e o er v
e c ti e D r aw i n g
P p tiv D i t ti n
e rs ec e s or o .

P p tiv Sk t h f
e rs ec e e c es ro m W kior ng D raw i n gs
P acti al E xe ci s
r c r se .
 D E SC RI P T I V E G E O ME T RY

I N TRO D U CTI ON
D escri ptiv e G eometry
treats of th e m eth o ds of maki n g draw
‘

I .

ings to represen t o b j ects w ith mathematical accuracy There are .

two commo n methods for such represe n tatio n B y o n e method .

,

all ed perspective d rawi n g the chief purpose is to produce a picture

,

which will b e plai n to a perso n u n familiar wi th the methods used

for tech n ical drawi ngs B y the other method however the chief
.
, ,

aim i s to Show an O b j ect with the true dime n sio n s that are n eeded
i n the co n structio n O f b uildi n gs an d machi n es The drawi ngs are
.

the n made b y a method which does n o t give a pictorial effect ;

bu t
,
o n th e Other ha n d shows views
,
O f the O b j ect fro m which by
, ,

very S imple processes true dime n sio n s Of all parts can b e quickl y
,

O b tai n ed This latter method is called o rth ograph i c proj e ctio n

.
.

I t i s the method with w hich the stude n t must b ecome most

~

familiar an d with which this treatise must most c o n c ern hi m

‘

for some time Pers pective drawi n g will b e discussed later The
.
.

method Of orth ographic proj ectio n represe n ts the outli n es Of the

O b j ect as they might b e traced o n trans pare n t plan es placed arou n d
the Ob j ect as shown i n Figs 1 ( fro n tispiece ) an d 2 a where three
.
,

views o f a hexago n al pyramid are S hown pictorially o n horizo n tal

an d vertical plan es D raw i n gs represe n ti n g these vi ews b y the
.

orthographic method are made i n the same way as i n mechani cal

drawi n g The O b j ect i s thus represe n ted as though the eye were
.

infi nitely distan t ; that is the vani shi ng Of the l i nes Of the O bj ec t
,

i n the dista n ce is n o t represe n ted .

 C HA PT E R I

E L E ME NT A R Y P R I NCI P L E S A ND N O T AT I O N
2 . The ho ri zo n tal and two vertical plan es upo n which the
three vrew s Of the pyramid are show n i n Fi g 2 a are called the .

p l an e s o f p r oj e ctio n These pla n es are always

. take n at right
a ngles to each other an d are desig n ated accordi ng to their positio n
as h ori zo n t al fro n t verti c al an d si de v e rtic al
,
The li nes Of i n ter
, .

sectio n o i the horizo n tal w i th the fro nt vertical and side vertical
plan es are called respectively the X an d Y axes The i n tersectio n .

Of the fro n t vertical and side vertical plan es is called the Z axis .

These axes are show n plai nl y i n the figure an d the poi n t where ,

they i n tersect is called the o ri gi n and is usually marked O , .

3 . the
I n Fi g 2 a pla n es Of proj ectio n are shown i n a pic torial
.

drawi ng where they are placed arou n d a pyramid which is the

,

O bj ect to b e represen ted The pla n es are arranged as we must

.

imagi n e them placed to Sh ow the top fro n t an d side views Of the , ,

pyramid accordi ng to th e co n ve n tio n al methods used i n prac

,
e

tical drafti ng I n this figure the views Of the p y ra mi d Shown

.

o n the pla n es Of proj ectio n are its outli n es made b y rays O f li ght
,

reflected from poi n ts o n the pyrami d perpe n dicular to a pla n e

Of proj ectio n The poi n ts where the rays pierce these pla n es
.

are called the proj ectio n s of poi n ts o n the surface Of the pyra
mid Thus i n the figure two corn ers O f the pyramid are marked
.
, ,

a an d b From these poi n ts dotted li n es are draw n represe n tin g

.

rays of ligh t reflected from them perp en dic u l ar to th e pl an es

o f pro j ectio n The i ntersectio ns Of these dotted li nes from
.
‘

a an d b with the pla n es are marked respectively a

h
at an d a
s
, ,

O f th ese th e first three are called the pro j ec

'

h
a d b bf an d b
8
n , ,
.
,

tio n s o f th e poi n t a ; an d the last three the pro j ectio n s o f th e ,

p oi n t b The
. proj e c tio n s o f other poi n ts are fou n d i n the same
w ay , SO that the complete proj ectio n s O f the outli n es o f the pyra
mid can be made o n each Of the plan es Of proj ectio n The co m .

p l e te proj ectio n s o f the outli n es Of an o bj ect are called its h o ri

z o n tal fro n t v e rti c al
, an d si de v e rti c al proj ec tio n s
, Fo r o b j ects .

with a ngular outlin es o nl y the proj ectio ns o f the corn ers are
,

us ually n eeded The views Of the o bj ect are the n o f course

.
, ,

drawn b y j oi ni n g the proj ectio ns Of the corn ers The dotted .

li n es i n the fi gure represe n ti ng the rays from the poi n ts o n the

,

pyramid to the proj ectio ns are called proj ectin g l in es ,

.

I n Fi g 2 a we see the plan es O f proj ectio n the hexago n al pyra

.
,

mi d an d the proj ectio ns o f the outli n es Of the pyramid o n the

,

pla nes as i n a picture A l l is shown as o ne complete view such

,
.
,

as we see whe n several sides O f an O b j ect we are looki n g at are

see n from a si ngle viewpoi n t If however the eye is moved SO .

, ,

that we see o nly o ne proj ectio n at a time a set o f three difi eren t
'

views would b e Ob tai n ed called o rth o gr aph i c proj ectio n s B y the

, .

methods o f orthographic proj ectio n these views wo u ld be arrang ed ,

as i n Fig 2 b . I n this latter fi gure a horizo n tal li n e is first drawn

.
,

to represe n t the X axis usually n ear the middle O f the space to

,

be take n for the drawi ng The n at right angles to this li n e the

.

Y an d Z axes are drawn as show n To represe n t b y t hi s method

.

the views shown pictorially i n Fig 2 a the hori z o n tal proj ectio n .
,

is drawn behi nd the X axis an d o n the left han d Side Of the vertical -

Y axi s . The fro n t vertical proj ectio n is drawn b elow the X axis
an d vertically b elow the horizo n tal proj ectio n The side ver .

tical proj ectio n is also draw n b elow the X axis b u t o n the other
side Of the Z axis As the views are thus show n the hori z o n tal
.

proj ectio n shows the outli n es O f the pyramid when the eye is i m
mediately over the horizo n tal plan e The fro n t an d side vertical .

proj ectio ns represe n t the outli n es as they appear whe n the eye
is moved i n fro n t Of the fro n t an d side vertical plan es This is a .

very co n ve nie n t way to arran ge the proj ectio ns O f an Ob j ect an d ,

it h as the advan tage that it is more easily u n ders tood by mecha nics
Of ordin ary ab ility than some other arra ngeme n ts o f the same
,

proj ectio ns that will b e discussed later .

I n Fi g 3a the same pyramid that is Show n i n Fi g 2 a is rep

. .
rese n ted in a
differe n t positio n with respect to the plan es of pro
j e ti I Fi 2 the pyramid is placed b l w th h i t l
‘

c o n . n g a . e o e o r z o n a

plan e an d b ehi n d the fro n t plan e ; i n Fi g 3a it is placed above .

,

the horizo n tal plan e an d b ehi n d the fro n t plan e Fo r this arra n ge .

me n t the drawi n g made by orthographic proj ectio n is show n i n

,

Fi g 3b
. . This method however is scarcely ever used as it crowds
, , ,

the proj ectio n s too much for ordi n ary purposes O b serve that i n .

the orthographic proj ectio n the fro n t vertical proj ectio n is ab ove
the X ax
’

is an d th e h o ri z o n tal proj ectio n is b ehi n d as b efore It

, .

thus happe ns that for this method Of arra n gemen t Of views b oth ,

the hori z o n tal an d the vertical proj ectio n s are shown i n ortho
graphic proj ectio n O n the same side O f the X axis I n Fi g 4 a . .
,

however a little b etter arra ngeme n t of views is S hown H ere the

,
.

pyramid is a bo ve the hori z o n tal plan e an d i n fro n t o f the fro n t

plan e I n orthographic proj ectio n the same views are show n i n
.

Fi g 4 b
. This arran geme n t o f the proj ectio n s was o n ce much used
.

i n practical drafti ng It does n o t crowd the views as i n Fi g 3b

. . .

I n Fi g 5 a the pyram id is bel o w the horizo n tal pla n e an d i n f ro n t

.

O f the fro n t plan e O rthographic proj ectio n s O f these Views are

.

shown i n Fi g 5 b This last arra n geme n t O f the proj ectio n s i s also

. .

likely to produce crowdi ng and h as n o Sig n ifica n ce i n practical

,

drafti n g .

It should b e me ntion ed here that the arra ngemen t o f Views Shown

by orthographic projectio n i n Fi g 2 b is adopted almost exclusively .

f o r e ngi n eeri ng drawi ngs i n the U n ited S tates This arra ngeme n t .

is almost universally applied i n modern machi n e d rawi n g B this .

y

method the views are placed i n the most n atural positio n s to S uggest
,

a me n tal picture Of the Ob ject represe n ted b y the drawi ngs ; the to p
proj ectio n is at the top Of the drawi n g an d the fro n t View j ust i n ,

fro n t of the top view The right han d side view is at the right
.
-

han d side of the Sheet The views are thus arran ged where they
.

can b est suggest a me n tal picture to a workma n .

4 The
. actual method of maki n g a drawi n g like Fi g 2 b b y .

orthographic proj ectio n will n o w b e take n up It can be most easi

,
.

l y explai n ed b y S howi n g how the pri n cipal poi n ts i n the drawi n g

w ere lai d o ut A corn er o f the pyramid marked a has b ee n referred
.

to b efore ; an d i ts proj ectio ns a h

af an d a were poi n ted o u t, ,
s
.

They are als o marked in the orthograph ic proj ectio ns i n Fi g 2 b . .

These proj ectio ns are located by their distan ces fro m the X Y
w

, ,

an d Z axes Thus the dista n ce from the hori z o n tal proj ectio n a h
.
, ,

to the vertical Y axis measured ho ri z o n tally sho ws the dista n ce

, , ,

i n Space from the poin t a to the Side pla n e

,
The distan ce from .

a
h
to the X axis meas u red verti call y shows the dista n ce Of the
, ,

p oin t a b ehi n d the fro n t vertical pla n e The fro n t ver tical projec tio n .
,

af is b elow the X axis an d the dista n ce measured vertically from

, , , ,

this proj ectio n to the axis shows the distan ce that the poi n t a
, , ,

is b elow the horizo n tal plan e The Side vertical proj ectio n a is
.
,
s
,

fou nd by layi ng o ff a di stan ce measured hori z o n tally equal to , ,

the dista n ce that the poin t a is b eh in d the fro n t vertical pla n e .

O f course the tw o pro j ectio n s a f an d a are at equal distan c es

,
8

b elow the X axi s .

5. The methods o f d e sc r i pt iv e o r p r act i c a l g e o m e tr y are useful

to e ngi n eers and a rchitects i n ma n y structural an d mechanical
Operatio ns I n desig ni ng and co n structi n g b u ildin gs and machi n es
.
,

it is Ofte n n ecessary to fi n d the true size an d Shape Of parts Shown

o n drawi n gs Wh e n the n ecessary dimensio n li n es are no t shown
.
,

and whe n some Of the actual le ngths are fo resh o rten ed i n di rect , _

geometric al methods Of measureme n t must be used The study .

Of this su b j ect is useful however fo r more than its i n dustrial utility

, , .

The stude n t b ecomes accustomed to co n sideri n g very complicated

geometri cal comb i n atio ns an d to follow accu ratel y t h e correspo nd
,
'

“
e n ce b etwee n the drawin gs an d the O b j ects represe n ted De .

“
scriptive Geometry a well k n own e n gi n eer h as said trai ns o n e
,
-
,

to see arou n d corn ers I ndeed it exercises i n the most precise

”
.

mann e r the power to vi sualize which is represe n tin g to ourselves

, ,

clearl y an d easily ideal Ob j ects as if they were really b efore us

,
.

The importan ce o f this sub j ect i n trai n in g stude n ts fo r work i n

des i gn i ng b ridges b uil di ngs an d machi n ery can hardly b e over
, ,

es timated N
.
everthel ess if th e ,
s t u d y o f thi s su b j e ct d o e s n o t

teach th e stu de n t to t hi n k t h e g o a,
l i s m i s se d .
 The methods Of d escri p tive geome try are a bsolu tely gen eral i n
their app licatio n so tha t i n the w or k that follows if the solutio n
, ,

o f a p ro b lem is give n for an y o n e o f the arra ngeme n ts o f views

that have b ee n explai n ed it is applica ble as well for all the others
, .

T h e pl an es o f proj ectio n also ar e i n de fi n it e i n ext en t ; that is

, , ,

they ex tend withou t limit i n every directio n P roj e ctio n s o f l i n es .

m ay be p r o d u c e d as f ar as the y are n e eded wh en th e solutio n o f ,

a p ro bl em r e q uir es it .

6 P l an es
. other than the plan es Of proj ec tio n must be O fte n
repres en ted A ny plan e that can b e Show n withi n the limi ts o f
.

the drawing wi ll i n tersect o n e o r more o f the plan es Of proj ectio n

,

i n s traight l i n es These li n es o f i n tersectio n called the tra ce s o f

.
,

the plane are made use Of to represe n t plan es i n orthographic pro

,

j ec ti o n draw i n gs A n O b
. lique pla n e i n te rsectin g the three pla n es

o f proj ect i o n i s sho n i n Fi g 6a The i n tersectio n o f the pla n e

w . .

with th e horizo n tal pla n e Of proj ectio n i s called its h orizo n tal
trace . I ts i ntersectio ns with the fro n t an d side vertical pla n es
are called respectivel y i ts f ron t vertic al an d si de vertic a l tr a c e s .

The same pla n e is Shown i n Fig 6b by its traces as it is represe n ted

.
,

b y the me thod O f orthographic proj ectio n Fo r b revity however .

, ,

these traces will be called simply h o ri z o n tal fro n t an d si de tr a ce s , ,

.

The Simpler n ame for the last two traces can lead to n o co n fusio n
an d short n ames are prefera ble to a bb reviatio n s o r s y m bols Fo r .

th e same reas o n the pla n es Of proj ectio n wil l b e called hereaf ter
, , ,

simply h o rizo n tal fro n t and si de pl an e s ; and w e shall use the

, ,

correspo n di ng simpler n ames fo r the proj ectio n s o f poi n ts and li nes .

N O TA T I ON .

7 The
.
proj e ctio n s Of a poi n t i n Space are desig n ated b y a small
letter w i th h f o r s placed above it to i n dicate w hich proj ectio n is
, ,

meant ; thus the h ori z o n t al fro n t and si de proj ectio n s o f apo i n t

, ,

a are mark ed respectively a

h
a f an d a I n th e drawi ng these
, ,
s
.
,

proj ec tio ns are located by the di stan ces o f the poi n t a from the
plan es o f proj ectio n measured parallel to t h e X Y an d Z ax es ;
,
, ,
and in the geometry o f space the di stances alo ng these axes are
,

represented respecti vely by the co Ordi nateS as y and z , ,

.

D i st an ces al o n g th e X axi s ( represen ted by th e a: co o rdi n ates)

are m e asu red to th e l ef t o r ri gh t f r om th e si de pl an e Lo n g .

u sage h as e stabli sh ed th at th ese di stan ce s sh al l b e c o n si dered

n egativ e w h en m e asu r e d to th e l e f t o f th e si d e pl an e an d po si

tiv e w h en m easu red to th e rig h t .

D i stan ces al o n g th e Y axi s ( represen t ed by th e y co o rdi n at es)

are m e asu red b ehi n d o r i n f ro n t o f th e f r o n t pl an e T h ese are .

n egati ve w h en b e hi n d an d po sitiv e w h en i n fro n t o f th e f r o n t

pl an e .

D i stan ces lo n g th e Z axi s ( represen te d by th e z c oordi n ates)

a

are m easu re d b el ow o r ab ov e th e h ori z o n t al pl an e ; n eg ativ e

w h en bel o w po sitiv e w h en ab ov e
,
.

If a poin t is represe n ted as: a — 2 — 3 we mean that the

, ,

poi n t a h as fo r its c rdi n ates a: = — 3 an d z = — 4 — that

y ; ,

the poin t a is 2 u ni ts Of le ngth to the left o f the side plan e 3 u nits ,

b ehin d the fro n t pla n e an d 4 u nits b elow the horiz o n tal plane
, .

8 . The proj ection s o f a l i n e are den o ted by the pro j ectio ns O f

tw o o r more po i n ts i n the li n e ; thus a li n e co n tai ni ng the tw o
poi n ts a and b i s called the li n e a b and is represen ted by the co br
di n ates o f these tw o po i n ts .

The poin t where a l i ne i n tersects the horizo n tal plan e Of pro

j ec ti o n is marked b y the letter s h i ; an d the i n tersectio ns o f a
lin e with the fro n t and side pl an es by i i and s i T O locate thes e .

poin ts more plai nl y draw a small circl e arou n d th eir pro j ectio ns
a s show n i n Fi gs 8 and 9 o n pag es 2 1 an d 2 9
.
, .

9 The
. tr a ces O f pl an es are repres e n ted i n a w ay sugges ted by
the method Of co Ordi nates fo r poi nts A plan e is shown in Fi gs
.
.

6a an d 6b T h e horizo n tal and fro n t traces i n tersect o n the X

.

axi s to the left o f the origin and make with thi s axis the a ngles
mark ed a and fi B y symb ols such a pla n e P is represen ted as
.
, ,

a
°
,
T his n otatio n fo r planes is rememb ered b es t by
o b servi n g that the fi rst numb er ( the x co Ordi n ate) represe n ts the
i n tersectio n o f the traces o n the X axis ; and that the seco n d an d
thi rd refer to the n umb er o f degrees the horizo ntal an d fro nt
traces make with the X axis These a ngles are measured i n anti
.

cl ockwise direc tio n as i n trigo n ometry I n Fig 6b the a n gles a

. .

an d fl are respectivel y ab out 2 0 an d I n such a n otatio n

°

for the traces it is n o t n ecessary to desig n ate the side trace as

, ,

an y two traces deter mi n e the pla n e an d data co n cer n i n g a third

,

is usually superfluous I n the drawin gs the traces of a plan e are

.
,

marked with the same letter used i n nami ng the plan e with H , ,

F o r S w ri tte n b efore i t
,
Fo r example i n Fi g 6b the hori
.
,
.
,

z o n tal
,
fro n t an d side traces of the pla n e P are marked
, , ,

respectively H P F P a ,
nd S P
, .

I n all drawin gs the horizo n tal an d fro n t traces must in tersect

o n the X ax i s an d testi n g f or this i n tersectio n is a check o n the
,

accuracy O f the co n structio n s .

10
. Li n es an d traces O f pla n es give n or required are r epr e
, ,

sen ted i n orthographic proj ectio n s b y full li n es whe n visible by ,

dotted lin es whe n in v isible P roj ecti n g lin es are i n dicated by

.

short dashes Traces O f auxiliary pla n es are usuall y represen ted

.

by o n e lo n g an d two S hor t dashes .

 C HA PT E R II
P R O B L E MS R E LA T I N G T O T HE P O I NT LI NE
, ,
A ND P LAN E
The relatio n b etween the actual positio n of a li n e i n spac e
I I .

an d its pro j ectio n s o n a d rawi n g is easily co n ceived for a li n e tha t

b ,

is parallel to a pla n e O f proj ectio n D i fficulty is ho w ever usually .

, ,

experien ced i n co n c eivi n g this relatio n for a li n e that is O b lique to

all th e pla n es Of proj ectio n A pictorial drawi n g of such a lin e is
‘

Shown i n Fi g 7 a The proj ectio ns Of the li n e are drawn by j oi n i n g

. .

th e proj ectio n s O f an y tw o poi n ts i n the lin e Fo r the li n e show n .

i n the figure the poi n ts most easily determi n ed i n the drawi n g are
,

i ts i n tersectio n s with the horizo n tal and fro n t plan es These i n ter .

sec tio n s are marked a and b The former a has its horizo n tal
h i h
.
, ,

proj ec tio n coi n cide n t w ith the poi n t itself and i ts fro n t proj ectio n ,

is of cour e i n the X axis at a f S imilarly the la tter i n tersec tio n

,
s
,
.
,

bf has its horizo n tal an d fro n t proj ectio n s at b ( i n the X axis )

,
h

an d at bf The horizo n tal and fro n t proj ectio ns Of the li n e are

"
.

”
the n draw n by j oi n i n g a with b an d a f w ith bf .

12 reversin g the process the i n tersectio ns o f the li n e w ith

. By
the pla n es o f proj ectio n can be fOu n d whe n the proj ectio n s O f the
li n e are give n ; thus i n Fi g 7b the i n tersec tio n Of the li n e a b with
.

th e horizo n tal pla n e is the poi n t a Show n by its horizo n tal pro , ,

j ec ti o n a
h
( b ehi n,
d the i n tersectio
,
n of the fro n t proj ectio n Of the

li n e with the X axi s ) an d its fro n t pro j ectio n a f (i n the X axis ) , , .

The in tersectio n Of the same lin e with the fro n t pla n e is the poi n t
"
,

b,
show n Similarly by its proj ectio ns I a n d bf ) .

Wh e n o n l y tw o pl an e s o f proj e ction ar e m en tio n ed ( as i s

the case for mo st pr o bl em s) it i s assu me d th e si de pl an e i s n o t
,

n ee de d .

1 3 . P ROBLE M 1 . To draw the pr o j ecti ons o f a li n e havi ng gi ven

the i n ter secti o n s o f the l i ne wi th the ho r i zo ntal and fron t planes .
 Method Draw th e horizo n tal pro j ectio n Of the li n e by j oi ni ng
.

the horizo n tal proj ectio ns Of the two in tersectio ns Draw the .

fro n t proj ectio n Of the li n e by j oini n g the fro n t proj ectio ns o f the
tw o in tersectio ns .

E XE R CIS E S
otatio n — —Th e oor di n ates
Fo r n see A rts .
7 9 . c of poi n ts are

expressed i n i n ch es .

1 .
( )
a A li n e i n te rsects the horizo n tal pla n e at the poi n t a
— 3 — 2 0 an d the fro n t pla n e at the poi n t b — 1 0
, , ) , ,

Draw the proj ectio n s Of the li n e .

) A li e passes t hrough the poi t — — d

( b n n e 2 2 a n , ,

i n tersects the horizo n tal an d fro n t plan es at o (0 0 , ,

Locate the proj ectio ns Of the lin e .

I4 . PROBLE M ; Gi ven the proj ecti o n s of a l i ne to find the poi nt

2 .
,

wher e the l i ne i n tersects (a) the hori z on tal pl an e ( b) the fro n t pl an e , .

Method Fo r (a) produce if n ecessary the fro n t proj ectio n o f

.

the li n e to the X axis This is the front proj ectio n o f the required
.

poi n t Of i n tersectio n TO fi nd the hori z ontal pro j ectio n draw a

“

.
.
,

pe rpen di cular to the X axi s through the fro n t proj ecti o n j us t fou nd ,

to meet the hori zo n tal pro j ectio n Of the give n li n e ; Fo r ( b) pro

duce the horizo n tal pro j ectio n o f the li n e to the X axis This is .
‘

the hOri z onta l proj ectio n o f the requi red poi nt o f i n tersectio n Th e .

front pro j ectio n o f the poi n t is the n e asily fou n d .

E XE R CI SE S
Give n a li n e p assi ng through the po rn ts c 3 —1 — 2
2 .
, , )
an d d 1 — 2 Fi n d the poi n ts where this li n e
, ,

i n tersects ( 1 ) the horizo n tal plan e (2 ) the fro n t plan e , ,

( )
3 the side pla n e .

3 .
( )
a Draw the proj ectio ns Of tw o li n es o n e parallel to th e ,

horizo n tal plan e an d O blique to the fro n t pla n e the other ,

parallel to the fro n t plan e and O bl ique to the hori zo n tal

 ( b) Fin d the in tersectio ns o f each li n e wi th the horizo n tal
an d fro n t pla n es o f proj ectio n .

O n the li n e give n i n E x 2 locate a poi n t k 1 i n ch b elow

.
, , ,

the horizo n tal pla n e an d a n other poi n t l i i i n ches , ,

b ehi n d the fro n t pla n e S ho w three proj ectio n s of each

.

poi n t located .

5 . Give n the li n e through the poi n ts e — 3 — 1 4 2 ) an d f , ,

— 1 — 2
,
Locate its proj ectio n o n the side pla n e
, .

6 . A ssume any l i rie i n space an d draw its proj ectio n s Fi n d

,
.

the n ew proj ectio ns o f this li n e ( a) when the X axis is

perpe n dicular to its former positio n ( coi n cidi ng with the
vertical Y axi s ) ( b) whe n the X axis is revolved 30
,
°

( ti clockwise ) from its first positio n

a n -
.

S uggesti o n The exercise i s easily solved b y fi n di n g h i

.

an d f i o f the li n e Whe n the plan es of proj ectio n are

.

revolved the positio n s of these poi n ts with respect to the

,

axes will n dt b e cha n ged .

1 5 A li n e lyi ng i n a give n pla n e i n te rsects the horizo n tal plan e

.

o f proj ectio n at a poi n t i n the hori z o n tal trace ; that is i n the lin e ,

showi ng the i n tersectio n of the give n pla n e with the horizo n tal
plan e The same li n e i n tersects also the fro n t pla n e at a poin t i n
.

the fron t trace o f the given plan e This is illus trated b y a pictorial .

d rawi n g i n Fi g 8 a where a li n e a b lyi ng i n a plan e P is shown

.
, , , ,
.

The li ne is here produced upward u n til i t i n tersects the hori z o n tal

plan e at h i and down ward to i n tersect the fro n t plan e at f i .

The pro blem n o w takes this form (see Fi g 8b) z G ive n o nly .

the fro n t proj ectio n af bf of the li n e a b determi n e the h o rizo n t al

, , ,

p roj e ctio n a
h
bh
,
so that th e ,
li n e a b shall lie i n the pla ne P .

I nstead of fi ndi ng at o n ce the poi n ts a b it is first n ecessary

h h

to loc ate b oth proj ectio n s of th e poin ts h i an d i i where the , ,

give n li n e a b i n tersects the hori z o ntal and fro n t planes respect

i vel y .The n the hori z o n tal projectio ns of the poi n ts hi an d i i
provide wh e n j o i ne d th e required horizo n tal projectio n of the li n e
, , ,
.

O bvi l y th h i tal p j ti f th p i t h i i i n th h i t l
ous e or z o n ro e c on o e o n s e or zo n a

t
r ac e o f th pl eP d t
an e h f t p j
,
t
ani f t h em p i
ro n t i i t h ro ec on o e sa e o n s n e

X xi
a s S i m i l l y t h f t d h i t l p j ti
. ar e ro n an f fi e p ti v l y
or z on a ro e c ons o a re r s ec e
i n th e f r o n t trace of P an d i n th e X axi s . I n th e fi gu r es th e pro ec ti o n s o f j
hi an d i i i n th e X
.
axi s a r e n o t m ar k ed to v
a o i d co n f u si n g th e dra w i n gs w i th

to o m any l e tte r s .

On the horizon tal projectio n of th e li n e b etwee n h i an d f i ,

thus fou nd the required projectio ns a an d b are loc ated b y p ro

,
h h

j i li perpe dicular to the X ax i through f an d bf

'

ec t n g n e s n s a .

1 6 P R O BLE M 3
. Gi ven o ne proj ecti o n o f a l i n e o r a po i n t i n a
.
, ,

gi ven pl an e,
to find the o ther p j
ro ecti on .

Metho d (a) Give n so n e proj ectio n

. a li n e Determi n e the of .

po sitio ns o f the in tersectio ns o f the li n e i n the give n pla n e w ith

th e horizo n tal an d fro n t pla n es and draw the re q ui red proj ectio n ,
.

M ethod ( b) Given o ne pro j ectio n o f a poi n t Draw a pro

. .

i f an y li n e through the give n proj ectio n o f the oi t Fi nd

j e ct o n o p n .

the other proj ectio n o f this li n e as descri b ed ab ove A t the i n ter .

sectio n o f the proj ectio n that has b ee n fou n d with a proj ecti n g ,

li n e from the given proj ectio n o f the poi n t is the required pro ,

j ecti o n .

E X E R CI SE S
7 The lin e through a an d b —2 i s in a —1
.
, ,

plan e P (0 ,
Draw the fro n t an d side pro
i s o f the li n e
j ec t o n .

8 . G iven o n e proj ectio n o f a li n e which is o b lique to the X

axis i n a plan e Q with traces parallel to th is axis Fin d
, ,
.

an other proj ectio n o f the lin e .

9 . Locate a poin t m i n the pla n e P give n i n E x 7 that

, , , ,
.

shall b e i n ch b ehin d the fro n t plan e I n the same .

plan e locate also a po i n t n 1 1 in ches b elow the hori

, , ,
»

z o n tal pla n e .

Draw the three projectio n s o f a poin t 0 i n a plan e R , , , ,

which is perpen dic ul ar to tw o plan es o f pro j ection .

Draw the three proj ectio n s o f a po i n t at in a plan e S , , ,

which is parallel to the horizo n tal plan e .

The s10 pe o f a roof o n a b uildin g is represen ted by i ts hori

z o n tal an d fro n t traces maki ng an gles respectivel y of
,

1 50 an d 2 2 5 with the X axi s There is a hole i n th e

0 °
.

roof for a chimn ey of which the horizo n tal projectio n is

"

shown i n th e drawin gs as a regular hexago n ( length o f

 sides is i n ch ) The horizo n tal pro j ectio n o f the cen ter
.

o f the hole is located 1 ? i n ches to the left o f the in ter

sectio n o f the traces and i n ch b ehin d the X axis Draw .

th e fro n t proj ectio n of the hole ( The required p j

r.o e c

tio n is fou n d readily by drawin g the proj ectio n s of the

diago n als of the hexago n ) S tate the usual n otatio n fo r
.

the plan e of the roof (A rt .

13 A circular wat r pipe o f which the diameter is 1 i n ch

.

e , ,

passes through an i n clin ed floor represen ted o n a draw

i n g b y h orizo n tal an d fro n t traces makin g a n gles respect
i vel y of 1 5 0 an d 2 1 0 with the X axis T h e ce n ter lin e
° °
.

o f the pipe is parallel to the horizo n tal pla n e The fro n t .

proj ectio n of the pipe is therefore a circle an d its cen ter ,

is shown 3 i n ches to the left o f the i n tersectio n of the

traces an d 5 i n ch b elow the X axis C omplete the draw
?
.

in g b y fi n di n g the horizo n tal proj ec tio n of the hole

through which the pipe passes ( D raw a n umb er of .

diameters of the circle, produci n g them whe n n ecessary ,

an d fi n d the horizo n tal proj ectio n s of these li n es The .

poi n ts i n the outli n e of the hori z o n tal proj ectio n of the

hole will b e vertically over the correspo n din g poi n ts i n
the g i ven fro n t proj ectio n ) .

14 . The hori z o n tal trace of a plan e i n tersects the X axis at

x = — 1 % an d makes with it an a n gle of A poi n t
0 — 1 — 1 — 4 ) lies i n the pla n e D etermin e the fro n t
, 5 .

trace o f the plan e ( D raw through 0 an y lin e that will

.

have its hori z o n tal i n tersectio n (h i ) i n the horizo n tal

trace The i i of this li n e determin es the fro n t trace )
. .

1 7 . P R O B LE M 4 . T o draw thro ugh a i

g n poi n t
ve a li ne para llel

to a gi ven pl a n e .

Method Draw o n e proj ectio n of an y l i n e an d b y the method

.
,

o f the last prob lem determi n e its oth er pro j ectio n so that the
,

lin e will lie i n th e given plan e Through the two proj ectio n s of.

th e gi ven poi n t draw the proj ectio n s of the required li n e parallel

'

to the correspo n di n g proj ectio n s of the l i n e which has b ee n drawn

in the plan e The li n e through the poin t and the lin e in the plane
.
,

shown t hus by parallel proj ectio n s are parallel to each other ; and ,

the lin e passi n g through the poin t b ei ng parallel to a lin e lyi ng i n ,

the pla n e is parallel to the pla n e

,
.

P a rall l l i h v p
e ll l p j t i n
n es a n ny p l
e a ra e ro e c o s o a an e .

E XE R CISE S
15 Through a poin t a —3
draw a li n e parallel to
— 1
. , ,

the pla n e R — 3 ,

16 . Draw through the poi n t of i n tersectio n o f th e li n e b — 3 ,

0 ,
c — l% { ) with the horizo n tal pla n e
,
-
s
,

a lin e parallel to the pla n e T (0 ,

17 . Fin d the i n tersectio n with the side pla n e 8 i of a lin e with , ,

b oth proj ectio n s paralle l to the X axis .

18 . Fin d the i n tersectio n o f the li n e d — 3 e ,

1 1 3) wi th the side pla n e

,
7 Through thi s poin t draw .

the side proj ectio n of a lin e wh ich is to b e parallel to the

pla n e U o f which the hor i zo n tal and fro n t traces are li nes
parallel to the X axis The former trace is 1 5 i n c h es .

behi n d an d th e latter is 2 i n ches b elow the X axis .

18 . Rememb er that the lin e a b i n Figs 8a and 8b which are , , .

agai n shown o n the Opposite page is in the pla n e P O bse rve , .

,

also that the i n tersectio n s h i an d i i o f th i s li n e are respectivel y

, , ,

i n the horizo n tal an d fro n t traces of the pla n e No w if the pro .

i s O f a seco n d li n e i n the same pla n e were give n its i ter

j e c t o n n ,

sectio ns h i an d i i wo uld b e poi n ts also i n the traces of th e pl an e

‘

, , .

The n suppose the co n di tio n s of the pro blem are reversed and the ,

p jr o e cti on s o f two lin es i n a pla n e P are gi v e n an d we are to co n , ,

struct the traces H P an d F P The horizo n tal an d fro n t i n ter

,
'

sectio n s h i an d f i o f each lin e are usually very easily fou n d T he

, , .

tw o horizo n tal i n tersectio n s will determi n e th e horizo n tal trac e ;

and the tw o fro n t i n tersectio n s will determin e the fro n t trace .

Le t us n o w appl y this method to a co n cre te pro blem I n Fi g . .

9 the horizo n tal an d fro n t projectio n s o f a tria n gu lar p yramid are

shown and w e w i sh to sh o w th e pl an e o f a si de a b c by i ts traces
, .
 The proj ectio n s o f two li n es a b an d a c in this side are marked
i n the figure The horizo n tal an d fro n t i n tersectio n s of each lin e
.

with the pla n es of proj ectio n are marked respectively h i an d f i .

The horizo n tal trace O f the plan e is O b ta in ed by j oin i n g the two

horizo n tal i n tersectio n s an d the fro n t trace by joi n in g the two
,

fro nt i n tersec ti o ns
'

If we call the side a b c the plan e P the

.
,

horizo n tal trace should b e marked H P an d the fro n t trace F P .

The accuracy o f the drawin g should b e checked b y O b servin g

whether these trace s i n tersect o n the X axis .

I n the example j ust explai n ed the li n es determin in g the pla n e ,

i n te r se ct ed each other ; b u t the solutio n is the same for paral l el r ’

li n e s A pla n e is determi n ed also b y an y three poin t s n o t i n the

.

same straight lin e o r b y a poi n t an d a l i n e The first case that

,
.
,

of the three poi n ts is most easily solved by j oi n i ng them by straight

,

“
li n es two an d two ”
I n th e seco n d case that of the poin t an d
.
,

li n e solve by drawin g through the poi n t an y lin e i n tersecti ng the

,

given lin e B oth bases are thpn resolved in to that of drawi n g a

.

pla n e through tw o i n te r se cti n g l i n es .

9 1The pro b.lems of d raw in g p

a l an e t h r oug h o n e li n e par a ll el
to an oth e r o r th r ou gh a giv en poin t p a rall e l to tw o gi v en lin e s are
, ,

scarcely more tha n variatio n s of this same pro blem I n the firs t .

case o n e lin e i n the required pla n e is give n b y its proj ectio ns

,

an d the directio n Of a n other Through an y poin t i n the first li n e

. .

draw a li n e parallel to the seco n d an d the problem is easily ,

solved I n the last case the directio n s of two li n es are given an d

.
,

the pla n e is determin ed b y drawi ng two li n es parallel to them

-

through the give n poi n t B oth cases are resolved agai n i n to .

passi ng a pla n e through two i n tersecti n g li n es .

I n tersecti ng l i nes m e et i n a o i n t p
I f tw o l i n es i n te rse c t, th e h o riz o n tal ,
.

p j
fr o n t , an d si d e r o e cti o n s i n te r se c t i n th e c o rres on d i n g p
r o ec ti o n s o f th ep j
p o int .

TP a r a l l el l i nes ha v e th e i r h o ri z o n tal , f ro n t , an d si d e p j
r o ec ti o n s p a ral l el ;
th a t i s , i f tw o l i n e s are p a r al l el th e tw o h o ri z o n tal , th e tw o fro n t , an d th e

tw o si de p j
ro e c ti o n s are p ar al l el .
 20 . PR OBLE M 5 . T o pass a pl an e th r o u gh tw o i n ter secti n
g or

r a l l el l i n es
pa .

Method Fi n d the poi n ts of in tersectio n of the given li n es with

.

the hori z o n tal an d fro n t pla n es The lin e j oin i n g the i n tersectio n s .

i n the hori z o n tal pla n e i s the hori z o n tal trace of the pla n e The .

lin e j oi n i n g the i n tersectio n s i n the fro n t plan e is the fro n t trace .

The side trace is located by the horizo n tal an d fro n t t races .

E X E R CIS E S

In the f o llowin g exerci ses m ark the hori zon tal fro n t an d , ,

si de trace s o f a pl an e n o t other w ise desi gn ate d by the l etters ,

H P P P an d S P
, ,
.

1 9 The li n e through a — a d b —
.
2 n 1 i , ,
“

m ter sec ts the li n e thro u gh c 2 0) an d d -

,

at e — l% — 1 Pass a pla n e through , ,

these two li n es .

20 D.
raw the proj ectio n s O f a n y two li n es i n ter s ecti n g at the
poi n t m — 1 Determi n e the pla n e i n which ,

these two lin es lie .

21 D .
raw the traces o f a pla n e through the p ar a l l e l li n es
— — — a m i — —
a i 1 ) b 2 2 g t) ; ,
-
d ,
I i l i ,
_
, , ,

—1 d — 1
i
)
-

, ,

P ass a plan e through the three poi n ts : —2 —

22 .
a , i ,

b — 1, — 1 —
, t) , an d 0 —
t ,
w
t ,
— i‘
r )
—1 —
23 . F i n d the pla n e passi n g through the li n e d , 1
—
e a n d the po i n t f 2 § 1 -
,

—1
( )
a Through the li n e g h ,

pass a plan e parallel to the li n e i

i) — —
i ( i ~

( )
b Through i j pass a pla n e para l lel to g h .
( O bserve
that the traces O f the two plan es are parallel ) .

25 .
Through the poi t n 0
— 1 pass a pla n e parallel ,

— — d
to the li n es It 4
g 1 ) l 2 i a n
, , ,

— 1 —2 — 2
m ,
n , ,
Pass a plan e whi ch is parallel to the X axi s through the
poi n t p — 2 — 1 Draw the trace of the plan e ‘

, ,

o n the side pla n e .

A skew b ridge is shown i n the figure below The corn ers .

of the portal Of the b ri dge are give n by the poi n ts a

—4 —2 —2
,
-
2i .
b i . s a )
, ,
c ( a s ,
w

it
d (0, the figure The po rtal is the plan e
as in .

b ou n ded b y the li n es a b c d an d b d The li n es a b , ,

.

an d c d are called the en d po st s an d b d is the po rtal

stru t D etermi n e the pla n e o f the portal

. .

The en d posts of the portal Of a skew b ridge are show n o n

— —
an e n gi n eer s drawi n gs
’
b y the l i n es r 2 i , ,

— — 1 }
s — ll a v
—
>
i ; a ,
n d t H i i s u a ,
-
, , , ,

The horizo n tal proj ectio n shows the plan an d the

ro
f n t proj ectio n the elevatio n D raw o n the three
. pla n es

Of proj ection the traces o f the plan e i n which the li n es

r s an d t u lie Measure i
.
n degrees the a n gle b etwee n

th e pla n e Of the en d posts a n d the ho ri z o n tal pla n e .

b — 2
Th e poi n ts a c
,

an d d
— 1 deter ,
m i n e a surface .

you fin d a pla e which will i n clude these poi n ts ?

Can n

Is it then a plan e surface ?

pyramid is give the poi ts — 2

A tria n gu lar n b y n a .

b( — 2
2) an d c
1
7
,
— at the co r n ers o f u

its b ase and its vertex d which i s 1 % i n ches ab ove the

,

b ase an d equidista n t from a b a n d 0 F i n d the traces

, ,
.
 Of plan es
th e of a db an d bd c, mark i ng them P an d Q
respectively .

2 1 . In practice the prob l ems o f des c ri pti ve geome try are

,

mai nl y those o f fi n di n g the i n tersectio ns o f plan es with other

plan es ( P ro blem the in ters ectio ns o f l i n es with planes ( P rob
lem o r the true le n gt h s o f lin es ( P ro b lem These may be
spoken o f as the fun dame n tal prob lems o f descriptive geometry .

E very stude n t mus t n o w learn these solutio ns so that he can use ,

them immediately u n der any co n ditions .

I n Fi g 1 0a two pla n es P an d Q are shown by their tra ces

. A .

tria n gular pyramid i s also shown by its proj ectio n s The plane .

o f its side a b d is the pla n e marked P ; an d a n other side b d o

i s the plan e Q O b viously the i n tersecti o n o f these tw o sides

.

( pla n es ) is the edge d b o f the

,
pyram ,
i d ; an d n o co n struct i o n is
n ecessary whe n the poi n ts b an d d are give n b y their proj ecti o ns .

The first o f the fun damen tal problems me n tio n ed ab ove arises
'
,

however when the poin ts b and d are n o t k n own the traces

, ,

o f the plan es are give n an d the li n e in which the pla nes in

,

tersect must b e foun d The pro blem to be solved is shown

.

more simply in Fi g l ob where the traces H P F P H Q an d F Q

.
, , , ,

are shown without the pyrami d Explan atio n is u nn ecessary .

to show that if a li n e i n the pla n e P i n tersects a li n e i n th e

plan e Q a po in t i n th e lin e o f i n terse ctio n o f th e tw o pl an es
,

i s determ i n ed The hori z o n tal trace H P is a l i n e i n the plan e

.
, ,

P ; an d the hori z o n tal trace H Q is a lin e in the plane Q Where .

H P and H Q i n tersect is a poin t then i n the requi red lin e o f i n ter

, ,

sectio n Of the two pla n es The horizo n tal proj ectio n o i this poi n t
"
.

is n a,
n d the fro n t pro j ectio n n f is eviden tly in the X axis S im
, , .

il a y
rl ,
where the fro n t traces F P an d F Q i,
n tersect is o f th e , ,

fro n t proj ectio n of an other poi n t i n the li n e o f i n tersectio n The .

hori z o n tal proj ectio n o f this poi n t is o i n the X axis The hori
k
.

z o n tal an d fro n t proj ectio n s Of the li n e o f i n te rsectio n are fou n d

the n by drawi n g n o an d rd o f If these proj ectio n s are dra wn

h h
.

also i n Fi g l 0a we can check the accuracy o f o u r work by O bserv

.
,

i n g whether n o coi n cid es with d b as i t sh o ril d .

 2 2 some pro blems where the li n e o f i n tersectio n Of tw o
. In
plan es is to b e fou n d the traces o f the plan es do n o t in tersect
,

o n the sheet o n which the drawi n g is made S uch a case is shown .

i n Fi g 1 1 where the fro n t traces do n o t i n tersect i n the limi ts of

.
,

the dra w i n g Fo r the solutio n o f this pro blem an auxiliary plane A

.
, ,

parallel to the fro n t plan e o f proj ectio n is draw n to i n tersect the

pla n es P an d Q The hori z o n tal trace of this plan e is shown b y H A
. .

Thi s auxiliary pla n e cuts auxiliary li n es from the plan es P an d Q .

The horizo n tal proj ectio n s o f these li n es are Of course coin ciden t , ,

with the trace H A an d the fro n t proj ectio n s are parallel to the
,

fro n t traces The i n tersectio n o f o f the fro n t proj ectio n s Of

.
, ,

these auxilia ry li n es determi n es o n e poi n t i n the li n e Of i n tersec

tio n an d th e h o ri z o n tal proj ectio n o is vertically over o f i n
,
‘
h
, ,

the ho ri zo n tal pro j e cti o ns o f b oth lin es A s explai n ed in the pre .

cedi n g paragraph the poi n t n is also a poi n t i n the lin e o f i n ter

,

sectio n o f the plan es P an d Q B y drawi n g the n n o an d n f o f

h h
.

we O b tai n the tw o proj ectio n s of the required li n e o f i n tersectio n .

I f i n this pro blem the hori z o n tal traces did n o t i n tersect o n the
paper an auxi liary plan e would b e n eeded parallel to the hori
,

z o n tal pla n e .

2 3 .a case where b oth plan es are parallel to the X axis

In
their li n e o f i n tersectio n is likewi se parallel to the axis ; an d the
req u rred li n e is determi n ed by the i n tersectio n o f the side traces

o f the give n pla n es I n Fig 1 2 the pla n es P an d Q are repre

. .

se nted by their horizo n tal an d fro n t traces parallel to the X axi s .

The side traces o f the plan es are shown at the right o n the draw
i ng i n tersecti n g at the poi n t as ”
The ho ri z o n tal an d fro n t pro
" "
.
,

j ecti o n s o f the required li n e o f i n tersectio n are show n b y x x

a d
n x7 at ".

2 4 . P R OBLE M 6 . To nd
fi th e li ne o f i ntersecti on o f two pl an es .

M etho d The poin t where the ho ri z o n tal traces i ntersect i s th e

.

poi n t o f i n tersectio n o f the required li n e with the ho ri z o n tal plan e .

The poin t where the fro n t traces i n tersect is the poi n t o f i ntersec
tio n Of the required lin e with the fro n t plan e A fter locatin g the .
tw o proj ectio n s o f each o f these poin ts j oin the like pro j ecti o ns ,

to O b tai n the li n e o f i n tersectio n .

E X E R CIS E S
31 . Fni d the li e
°
n of in tersectio n o f tw o plan es M —3
,

an d N — 1,
32 . Draw the horizo n tal and fro n t proj ectio ns o f the li n e o f
i n tersectio n o f the plan e of the end posts i n E xercise 2 8
with ario th er plan e parallel to the X axis making an , ,

an gle o f 30 with the ho ri zo n tal pla n e an d pas si n g through

°

a poi n t 1 i n ch b ehi nd the fro n t plan e an d l i n ch b elo w

the horiz on tal plan e ( Use the side plan e ) . .

33 . Fin d the proj ectio n s o f the i n tersectio n o f the plan e M , ,

i n E xercise 3 1 with the pla n e P — 1 ( O b ,

serve that the li n e o f i n tersectio n is parallel to the fro nt

plan e an d that the fro n t proj ecti on i s parallel to th e
fro n t traces ) .

34 . Fi n d the lin e O f in tersectio n O f the pla n e Q ( 0 ,

with a vertical plan e paral lel to the fro n t plan e and 1

i n ch b ehin d i t (The fro n t proj ectio n of the lin e o f
.

i n tersectio n is parallel to the fro n t trace of Q T he .

h o ri o z ntal projectio n is parallel to the X axis ) .

35 . Fin d the l i n e O f i n tersectio n o f the pla n e M i n E xercise 3 1 , ,

with the plan e Q in E xercise 34 ( Draw an auxili ary

, ,
.

plan e parallel to the fro n t plan e cutti ng the planes M ,

an d Q .It will cut from each of these pla n es a lin e

parallel to the fro n t plan e The in tersectio n of the two .

l i n es thus o b tai n ed is one poi n t in the required li n e o f

in tersectio n ) .

Take the lin e a b — 2 — 1 as t he li n e o f

36 . , ,

in tersectio n o f tw o plan es R and S I n an y direc tio n .

,

through the fro n t proj ectio n of a draw the fro n t traces ,

o f the two pla n es Determin e the horizo n tal traces

. .

I n Fi g 1 3 the pla n
. an d elevatio n s o f the roofs of a stab le

P la n i s an o th er n am e f o r th e h o ri z o n tal pr oj ecti o n , an d elevati on fo r

th e f ro n t o r si d e pro j ecti ons .
 adjoin i n g shed are shown C omplete the draw
an d an .

i ngs by showin g the proj ectio n s of the li n e where the

two roofs i n tersect The dime n sio n s an d slopes n eces .

sary for drawi n g the traces of the roof plan es are give n .

Mark the stab le an d shed roofs respectively R an d S .

Take scale
Su ggesti on —I n th e fi u re th e h o ri z o n tal l an e o f pro e cti o n i s ta en
.
g p j k
th r o u gh th e b o tto m o f th e sh ed r o o f thu s l aci n g th e X axi s as i t i s sh o w n
,
p
i n th e d raw i n g . T h e f r o n t t r a ce s Of th e ro o f pl an es , FR an d F S, are ,

th e n , c o i n c i de n t w i th th e l i n e s sho w i n g th e r o o f sl o pe s i n th e fr o n t pro j e c
ti o n . Th e h o ri z o n tal tr ace s , H R an d HS , ar e d raw n th ro u gh th e i n te rsec
ti o n s of th e f ro n t trac e s w i th th e X a xi s, an d p a ral l el to th e l in e s i n th e
pl an w h i ch sh o w th e i n te rse c ti o n s of th e r o o fs w i th th e h o ri z o n tal pl an e o f

p j ecti o n
ro .
’

T h e l in e Of i n te rse cti o n Of th e se tw o pl an es , R an d S , d e te r
m i n e s th e mpe O f th e l i n e O P — th e l ine sh o w i n g th e i n te rse c ti o n s of th e
r o o fs pl
i n th e an .

Th p e p tiv e rs ec e d raw i n g F
( g
i 1 4 ) is . add e d m erel y to m a k e th e o th e r

d ra w in g p l i s a n er .

2 5 . O f the fun dame n tal prob lems the fir st that of fi n din g the , ,

in tersectio n of a pla n e with a n other pla n e should b e no w well i n ,

min d We shall n o w take up the seco n d of these most importa n t

.

prob lems that of fi ndi ng the i n tersec tio n of a give n lin e with a
,

give n pla n e It should b e plai n that if ot —

an h e r pl an e called ‘

.
,

usuall y an auxiliary plan e —i s passed th rou gh th e gi v en lin e th e , ,

p o i n t wh e r e th e giv en l i n e i n t e rs ec t s th e giv en pl an e i s i n th e l in e

o f i n te r sectio n o f th e a uxi li a ry p l an e with th e giv en pl an e To .

illustrate take two sheets of card board and a pe n cil Place o n e

,
.

sheet o n a tab le an d hold the pe n cil i n an y way to in tersect this

sheet N ow hold the other sheet soli th at o n e of its edges touches
'

the first sheet while at the same time the pe n cil lies i n its pla n e
,
.

O b serve that th e pen c il n o w to u ch es th e sh ee t o n th e t abl e i n th e

li n e o f i n ters ecti oir o f th e tw o sh ee t s This same prin ciple is
'

show n also in the pictorial drawi n g i n Fi g 1 5 H ere we wa n t to . .

show the in tersectio n of the li n e 0 d with the plan e Q The lin e .

is shown b y its projectio n s c d a d df an d the plan e by its

h h
n of
, ,

traces H Q an d F Q The auxiliary plan e A marked by its

,
.
, ,

traces H A an d F A is passed through the lin e c d The plan es

, ,
.
Q and A in tersect i n the li n e represen ted by the pro j ectio ns ,
in
"
n h

an d ml 111 . Rem ember th at th e po i ri t w h ere th e li n e cd i n ter

sects th e pl an e Q m u st be i n th e l in e
This re q uir ed poin t is mn .

also o f course i n the lin e 0 d We k now then that the poi n t we

, ,
.
, ,

are seekin g is in both O f the lines m n and c d and therefore at ,

the poin t i where they in tersect

, ,
.

The same pro blem is shown in orthographic proj ectio n in Fi g .

16 . The lin e 0 d i s shown by its proj ectio n s an d the plan e Q by

ts traces The a u xil iary pla n e A is passed through the li n e 0 d
.
, , .

The solutio n is ge neral so tha t any other plan e in cludin g the l i n e

,

0 d could be take n for the auxili ary pla n e Fewer lin es are n eeded .

for the drawing ho wever if the auxiliary plan e is drawn perpen

, ,

di cul ar to o n e o f the pla n es o f proj ectio n I n Fig 1 5 it is per . .

p en di c ul ar to the fro n t plan e so that the horizo n tal trace, H A , ,

is perpe n dicular to the X axis The plan es Q and A in tersec t .

, ,

i n the li n e m n ; an d the poin t where the lin e c d in tersects the

pla n e Q is at the in tersectio n of m n an d c d — at the poin t i shown , _
,

b y its horizo n tal an d fro n t proj ec tio ns i and 17

h
I n this partie .

ul ar case the projectio n i is determi ned by the in tersectio n o f

h
,

the horizo n tal proj ectio n s o f m n and e d The fro n t proj ectio n .
,

17 is fou n d b y drawi n g a proj ecting lin e thr o ugh i to i n tersec t

h
,

the fro n t proj ectio ns o f m n and c d which are coin cident , .

2 6 . PR OB L E M 7 . To fi nd the poi nt i n whi ch a i

g n li ne i nter
ve

sects a gi ven pla n e .

Method Pass plan e through the given li n e tusrfii l ly a

'

. an y

plan e perpe n dicular to the fro n t plan e) The l in e o f in tersecti o n .

o f this auxiliary pla n e with the give n plan e i n tersec ts the gi ven ,

l i n e at the poin t that is requi red .

E XE R CIS E S
i
Fn d the poi n t where the li n e j — 1 k — 15 , ,

— 1 in tersects the pla n e U 0

) ( ,

Determi ne where the lin e j lc give n i n the precedi ng exer

c ise in tersects the pla n e W ( 0 ,
 Draw the plan e P Fi n d where the lin e
— — i n tersects it
a i) ,
b ( 0, 2, .

Locate the poin t where the lin e c —1 — —1

i d § ,

—1 passes through the plan e Q o f which b oth the

,

horizo n tal an d fro n t traces are parallel to the X axis

.
,

an d are respectively 5 5 in ch b ehi n d an d i i i n ches b elow

this axis .

42 . The top of th e desk shown i n the accompa n yi n g figur e is

located by the poin ts a — 10 — 8 b 12
, , ,

c (0 — 6 an d d — 4 2 A light placed
-
"

, , , ,

at l 1 4- — 1 0 + 2 ) h as its rays reflected so that the

, ,

most i n te n se light is i n cli n ed 60 from the verti cal S how°

.

the curve O f i n tersectio n o f the rays o f maximum i n ten

,

si ty with the pla n e Of the desk

‘

43
. The plan e M represe n ts a mirror Fi nd .

the poin t where a ray of light passi ng through the poin ts

 —1 —
r -
2, ) an d s 5) is reflected from
the surface of the mirror .

44 . A steam pipe i n a b uilding passes through a slopin g floor

-
.

The axis of the p i pe i s located b y the poi n ts v

an d w —1} The plan e of the floor ma y 1

b e represe n ted b y the plan e F Fin d

the in tersectio n o f the axis o f the pipe with the floor .

2 7 . Lin e s th at ar e paral l el to
pl an e appe ar i n th e i r tru e l e n gth a

i n th eir proj ectio n s o n th at pl an e I n Fi g 1 7 the horizo n tal and . .

fro n t proj ectio n s o f a hip roof are shown Lin es that are parallel .

either to the horizo n tal plan e o r to the fro n t plan e such as the ,

lin es o d or c e i n the figure are here drawn i n their true len gth ,
.

A lin e that is o blique however to b oth pla n es of proj ectio n as

, , ,

fo r example the lin e b i i s n o t sho wn in its true le n gth i n the

,

drawin g ; b u t i n this case a thi rd view may b e made to show its

true dime n sio n s This is illustrated i n the right han d drawi ng i n the
.
-

fi gure . The roof is here proj ected o n a vertical plan e V drawn , ,

through the lin e b f an d the n this vertical plan e is revolved i n to

,

the plan e of the drawin g This proj ectio n is co n structed b y draw

.

i ng the b ase li n e V V parallel to V V A t g o n the proj ectin g

’ ’ ’
,
.
,

lin e b b produced the li n e g b is laid o ff perpe n dicular to V V

h ’
,
’ ’ ’ ’
.

Its le ngth is equal to the altitude Of the poin t b o r to the ,

dista n ce bf gf i n the fro n t view The li n e b f shows the n the .

’ ’

true le n gth O f b f The completed drawin g shows also the true

.

le ngth of the lin e a c as it is parallel to the vertical plan e V

, ,
.

2 8 practice these co n structio n s are simplified by passi ng the

. In
auxiliary vertical plan e throu gh b i The lin e V V is the trace of
h h
.

this plan e i n the plan e of the b ase Of the roof If this plan e i s .

rev olved together with the lin e b i about V V to coi n cide with
, ,

the plan e o f the b ase the lin e b f wil l then lie i n a pla n e where
,

true dimen sio n s can b e measured .

The revolutio n o f o n e lin e about an other lin e as an axis is ao

complish ed usually by the revolutio n of two poi n ts i n th e lin e A .

poin t revolved thus ab out a lin e as an axi s describ es a circle with

a radius equal to the actual perpe n dicular distan ce from the poin t
to the axis I n this case the po i n ts b an d f must b e revolved ab out
.

the axis V V The axis is here i n the pla n e o f the b ase so that the
.
,

perpen dicular dista n ces o f the poin ts from it can b e measured in

th e fro n t view Fo r the poi n t b this dis ta n ce is gf bf which is laid
.
,

O ff o n the lin e through b perpe n dicul ar to V V The revolved

h
.
,

positio n of b is at b ”
The poin t f i s i n the axis so that i n r evo l u
.
,

tio n it is statio n ary The lin e b f i s then the positio n Of b f when

” h
.

revolved i n to a plan e of the drawin g an d shows its true le ngth .

2 9 If it is required to l ay off a gi ven di stan ce o n a lin e n o t shown

.

i n its true le ngth i n a drawi n g we must first revolve the li n e ab out ,

an axis to b ri n g it i n to a pla n e where its true le n gth i s shown an d

the n measure the dista n ce Fo r example if we wish to measure a .

,

dista n ce b 33 alo n g the li n e b i ( Fig 1 7 ) from the poin t b we lay

, , .
,

o ff the give n le n gth o n the revolved positio n b f locating the

” h
,

poi n t x an d then reversi ng the preceding process we revolve at ,

b ack i n to the li n e b i The horizo n tal proj ectio n o f b x i s the n b sc

.
h h

3 0 Usually whe n the true le n gths of lin es are to b e fou n d i t is

.
,

most co nve n ie n t to revolve them i n to either the horizo n tal or

fro n t pla n es rather tha n in to an auxiliary pla n e which is parallel
,

to o n e Of the plan es o f proj ectio n O f course an y lin e which lies .

'

i n o n e of the pla n es o f proj ectio n i s sho w n there i n its true le ngth .

This method o f solutio n is illustrated i n Fig 1 8a where a li n e .

,

m n is show n as i t is located in space an d also by its proj ectio n s

"
, ,

in n
h
an d mi ni The poi n t i n in this lin e lies i n the horizo n tal
.

pla n e so that this poi n t is marked o nl y by its proj ectio n m

,
h
Th i s .

figure shows the lin e m n also whe n it is revolved in to the plan es

Of proj ectio n Let us co n sider first how i t is revolved in to the
.

hori z o n tal pla n e The poin t 777 b ei ng already i n this plan e i n r evo
. .
,

l u ti o n remai n s statio n ary O nly th e poi n t n therefore must b e

.

revolved to s h ow the revolved positio n o f the lin e This poi n t

'

moves i n the arc of a circle ab ou t its horizo n tal proj ectio n m as a h

ce n ter an d with a radius equal to the distan ce the poin t n is b elow

,

the horizo n tal plan e Its revolved positio n is at n . In a ’

drawi ng however this revolutio n is shown by constructing at n

, ,
h
a l i ne perpen dic ul ar to th e axi s m n o ff o n the per ,
h
n
"an d layi g
,

n di cul ar the dis ta n ce the poi n t n is b elow the horizo n tal pla n e
p e .

B y the d i mensio n lin es in the figure this dista n ce is marked s , .

The lin e m n is thus ob tai n ed It i s a lin e i n the horizo n tal

h '
.

plan e and is therefore shown i n its true length I n the same

, , .

way the true length Of the lin e w as foun d b y revolving i nto the
fro n t plan e The po i n ts m an d n revolve n o w respectively to
.

m an d n i n the fro n t plan e

’ ’
Dimen sio n lin es t an d u show the .

distan ces that i n this case are e qual The true length is shown
, ,
.

by m n ’
If the lin e m n is revolved in to the side plan e the same
’
.
,

r esult is ob tai n ed .

Figure 1 8a shows all th i s very pla i nl y as i n a picture This .

method however is the same fo r prob lems in orthographic pro

, ,

j e c ti o n I n this
. way the same li n e m n i s represe n ted
,
i n Fi g 1 8b .

b y its horizo n tal an d fro n t proj ectio ns an d its true le n gth is shown ,

n o w very accura tely by m n an d m n The studen t shoul d meas

h ’ ’ ’
.

u re these le n gths to satisfy himself that they are equ al .

A case occurs sometimes where the horizo n tal an d fro n t plan es

have n o t b ee n advan tageously located so that lin es pass through ,

an d co n tin ue b eyo n d the pla n es of proj ectio n The n the pro jec .

tio n s o f parts o f the li n e fall o n Opposite sides of the X axis Whe n .

such a l i n e is revolved i n to the pla n e which i t p asses through ,

distan c es must b e laid o ff o n opposite sides o f the axis o f rev o

l u ti o n .

a lin e a c is shown i n tersecti ng and p assin g thr ough

I n Fig 1 9 .

th e horizo n tal pla n e at b If this lin e is revolved in to the horizo n tal

.

plan e ab out a c as an axis the poi n t b remai ns station ary an d

h h
, ,

a an d c revolve i n o ppo si te di r ecti o n s The distan ce that ai is b elow .

the X axis is me asured o n o ne side o f a c an d the dista n ce that

h h
,

a is ab ove is measur ed o n the other side The n a c is the true

‘ ' ’
.

le ngth o f the lin e If however the same li n e is revolved in to the

.
, ,

"
fro nt plan e this diffi culty is n o t met as a c shows n o w the true ’
, ,

le ngth .

31 . PRO B LE M 8 . To fi nd the tr ue l ength o f a l i ne gi ven by i ts

p ro ecti on s; or
j to fi nd the di stance betw een tw o poi nts .
 Method P ass an auxiliary plan e through the li n e perpendi cu
.

lar to a plan e i n which lin es are shown i n their true le ngths o n the
drawin g ( usually a pla n e o f proj ectio n ) With the lin e of i n ter .

section of the two plan es as an axis revolve the lin e i n to the seco n d
,

plan e where it is shown in its true length

,
.

E X E R CIS E S

Fi n d the distan ce b etwee n the poin ts a —5 l an d

, ,

b —l -
3,
,

Fi n d the t rue dista n ce b etwee n the poi n ts —6 — 1 —2

0 , , )
an d d — 2
,

Locate , i n a pla n e parallel to the fro n t pla n e two poi n ts ,

that are two i n ches apart an d are n o t equal dista n ces

b elow the horizo n tal pla n e .

A li n e passes through the poi n ts e — 5 0 an d f ( l , , ,

D raw the side proj ectio n of this li n e Fi n d .

the len gth o f this li n e i n cluded b etwee n its i n tersectio ns

with the horizo n tal an d fro n t plan es ; an d w ith the fro n t
an d side pla n es .

Two statio n s 3 1 an d 3 2 are to b e co nn ected by a telegraph

li n e The locatio n s are 1
.
3 — 3 an d 3 2 ,

Fi n d the le n gth O f the shortest li n e that

will co n n ect the two statio n s .

50. Fi n d the le n gth Of the shortest b elt to co n n ect two pulleys .

B oth are two i n ches i n diameter an d are i n the same

plan e Their ce n ters are at b — 1 an d
.
,

—
c i ,

A lin e is i n ches lo n g The proj ectio n s of i ts en ds are

43
1
.

located b y the poi ts n a 5 — 1 an d-

b 1 — 3 -
, , , ,

Determi n e the pro jectio n that is n o t give n .

A li n e lies i n the pla n e M 3 O n e proj ectio n

-

o f the l rn e i s give n b y the poi ts gn — 1% an d

h — 1 O n this li n e lay O ff 1 } i n ches from its

,
7

i n tersectio n with the fro n t pla n e .

 32 . Li n es P erpen di cul ar to plan es P an d H are a P l an e . Tw o
shown in Fig 2 0 A lin e a c is perpe ndicular to the plan e P
. . .

From the poin t a the pro j ecti ng li n e a a is draw n perpe n dicular

h

to the pla ne H The plan e determin ed by the lines a c an d a a

.
h

is perpen dicular to the plan es P an d H It is therefore perpen .

, ,

di cu l ar to the trace H P which is the i n tersectio n o f the plan es

h "
.

Then a c which is a lin e lyin g i n th is plan e is perpe n dicular to

, ,

H P C o ns ider n o w the plan e H as a plan e of proj ection ; the n

.

h
a c
h
is the proj ec tio n O f the li n e a c while H P is the trace o f the ,

plan e P We have show n then that when a li n e a c i s perpen dic ular

.
, ,

to a plan e P its horizo n tal proj ectio n is perpe n dicular to the hori
,

z o n tal trace The same relatio n holds o f course fo r the other

.
, ,

proj ecti o ns o f the li n e an d the correspondin g traces o f the plan e .

I f th en a straigh t li n e i s to be dr aw n perpen di cu l ar to a
, ,

p l an e ,
i t i s o n l y n ece ssa r y to dr aw i ts proj e ctio n s pe rpen di cu l ar

to th e co rrespo n din g tr aces o f th e pl an e An d to dr aw a pl an e .

p p
e r en d i cu l ar to a l i n e draw th e t race s perpen di cul ar to th e
,

ro j e ctio n s o f th e l in e
p .

33 . PR OBLE M 9 . To fi nd the di stan ce from a gi ven poi n t to a

gi ven pl a n e .

Method D raw
through th eg ve n poi n t a l i n e perpendi cu lar to
.

the plan e Fin d the poin t where this lin e i n tersects the give n plan e
. .

“
The required distan ce is the true length o f the l i n e j oin in g t hi s
last poin t with the give n poi n t .

E X E R CISE S

A plan e Q —2
is perpendicular to a l i n e drawn
,

through the poin t j 2 Draw the proj ectio ns ,

Of the lin e ; an d fi n d the distan ce from j to Q .

54 . I n E x 4 2 fi n d the dista n ce from th e poi n t t to the pla n e

.

Of the top O f the desk .

Fi n d the dista n ce from the poin t w in the axis of the steam

pipe give n i n E x 4 4 to the pla n e O f the floor . .

A hillside is represe n ted by the pla n e S (0 A ,

 p ole is pla n ted o n it perpe n dicular to its plan e The .

b ottom of the pole passes through the poi n t t — li ,

—1 ,
1i )
-
Measuring by the same scale as for th e
.

c o ordin ates of t locate a poi n t that is 1 i n ch ab ove th e

,

grou n d What is the length O f the part o f the pole i n

.

the groun d ?
A poin t i is ab ove the roof represen ted
by the plan e R ( 0 ,
A shaft for tra n smitti n g
“
power to an other b uildi ng passes through this poin t
perpe ndicular to the roof Locate poin ts o n the shaft .

1 i n ch ab ove the roof an d 2 i n ches b elow .

Draw the proj ectio n s Of a cub e an d fi n d the distan ce from

any cor n er to an o b lique pla n e passin g through it The .

plan e should n o t b e parallel to an edge .

Fi n d the dista n ce b etwee n two parallel pla n es o f which ,

all the traces are Ob lique to the X axis .

34 . PROBLE M 1 0 To proj ect a gi ven li ne u pon a gi ven plan e

. .

Method S elect any tw o poi n ts i n the li n e an d through each

.
,

draw the proj ectio n s of a lin e perpen dicular to the pla n e T h e li n e .

j oin ing the poin ts where these perpe n dicular lin es in tersect the given
plan e is the pro j ectio n o f the lin e upon tha t plane .

E X E R CISE S

60 P roj ect
. the li n e m 1 1 n - —1 ) upon
-
,

the plan e P — 1 ,

The maj or an d min or axes of an elliptical cam wheel are -

determi n ed respectively b y the lin es d 14 ,

— 1 t, — 1 t, —l
i —
e ( , i ,

Draw the proj ectio this cam wheel o n the pla n e

n of -

T — 5 by proj ecting a n umb er O f diameters

’

o f the ellipse .

The vertices Of a triangle shown i n the figure are at

th e po in ts : a i b ( 1F _
li ’

c
1
_
r
_ '

)
 ( ,
0 Proj ec t this triangle upon th e pl ane R

35
. If o n e li n e i s give n b y its proj ectio,
n s an d a pl an e is to be
draw n perpe n dicular to it it follows from the explan atio n i n A rt
, .

32 that the traces o f the required pla n e must b e draw n perpen di cu

lar to the c orrespon di ng proj ectio n s O f the give n li n e I n Figs
. .

2 1 a an d 2 1 b a lin e a b is shown by its tw o proj ectio n s an d it is re

,

quired to draw through a give n poi n t 0 a plan e perpe n dicular

to the lin e a b . Through the poin t 0 draw a lin e m 0 parallel to
th e horizo n tal pla n e which shall lie i n the required pla n e . A
l in e which is parallel to th e horizo n tal pla n e is commo n ly called
“horizo n tal ” an d is a lin e with its fro n t proj ectio n parallel
a ,

“
to the X axis . A n d if this horizo n tal shall lie i n the required
p la n,
e its hori z o n tal proj ectio n must b e parallel to the horizo n tal

trace O f the pla n e to b e draw n . I n other words i n this case the

, ,

co nditio n s to b e satisfied are : ( 1 ) that the fro n t proj ectio n W o f

o f the horizo n tal must b e drawn parallel to the X axis ; an d (2 )
”

that the horizo n tal projectio n m o must b e drawn perpe n dicul ar

h h
to the horizo n tal proj ectio n o f the g i ve n lin e a the same as sayin g b—

i t mus t b e parallel to the horizo n tal trace Of the required pl an e .

H avi n g thus determin ed a lin e m o lyi n g in the required pla n e ,

the fro n t trace F P is drawn through the in tersectio n ( f i ) o f

, ,

the lin e m o with the fro n t plan e an d perpe n dicular to a) bf The , .

horizo n tal trace H P is drawn through the in tersectio n of F P

, ,

with the X axi s an d perpe n dicular to a b A pla n e P perpen

h h
.
, ,

di c u l ar to the lin e a b an d passi n g through a give n poin t 0 is thus , ‘

determi n ed .
i

A lin e parallel to the fro n t p an e an d i n tersec ti ng the horizon ta l

l
pl an e (d e termi n i ng the horizo n tal trace first) might O f c ourse b e , ,
“ ”
used i n the place o f the hori z on tal to Ob tai n the same result ,
.

36 . PR OBLE M 11 . T o pass a pla ne thr ou gh agi ven poi nt perpen

di cu l ar to a gi ven l i n e .

Method D raw through the give n poin t a lin e which will lie
.

“
i n the requ i red plan e ( a horizo ntal lin e is usually most e asil y
”

used ) Through the i n tersectio n Of this li n e with o n e of the plan es

.

o f pro j ectio n draw o n e trace Of the required pla n e perpe n dicular

to the correspo n di n g proj ectio n o f the give n li n e The other .

trace is drawn perpe n dicular to the correspo ndi ng proj ectio n o f

the li n e an d through the i n tersectio n o f the first trace with the X
,

axis .

E X ER CIS E S
Draw throu gh the poi n t e — 1 — 1 , , a plan e ,
U,
which shall be perpe ndicular to the li n e —3 —l
g , } ,

—1 ) h ( ,
“
Z —
i ,

The poi ts b n 0 5 , are i n the an d 0 —

,

eaves of a roof The poi n t g . is i n the

ridge D raw through the poi n t w (0
. the ,

p r oj ecti o n s O f an arrow that will show the directio n of

a force due to win d pressure o n the roof Make the tip .

o f the arrow tough the surface Of the roof ( P ressures .

o f fluids are perpe n dicular to the pla n es o n which they

are exerted ) .

D raw a pla n e parallel to the pla n e P ( 0 at a ,

distan ce of two in ches from it o n th e right han d side -

.
 37 .a complicated drawing it is ofte n n ecessary to fin d the
In
true size o f the a n gle b etwee n li n es i n a pla n e surface which is n o t
parallel to any pla n e showing true dimen sio n s The usual process .

is to imagi n e the plan e Of the surface exte n ded to i n tersect the plan es
o f projectio n thus determini n g the horizo n tal an d fro n t traces
,

o f the pla n e i n which the surface lies A b ou t o n e o f these traces .

as an axis the pla n e is the n revolved till it coin c ides with the
,

hori z o n tal o r fro n t plan es .

The simplest case of fi n din g the true size o f a plan e surface is

illustrated at the left han d side of the roof shown i n Fig 2 2 The
-
. .

side a b c is n o t shown i n its true size n either are its angles If , .

,

however the side is revolved ab out its in tersectio n with the plan e
,

o f the b ase of the roof b c i n to the plan e of the b ase its true size
h h
, , ,

will b e see n The n the lin es a b an d a c will be see n i n their true

.

le ngths and with th e tru e si z e o f th e an gl e betw een th e m I n this .

revolutio n ab out the axis a b the path traced by the poi n t a

h h
, ,

is show n i n its fron t proj ectio n by the dotted li n es of the arc o f a

c ircle through of with its ce n ter at bf d The poi n t a shows its '
.
,

revolved positio n i n the pla n e o f the b ase an d a b c shows true

h h
,
’

dime n sio n s for any part Of the outlin e of the surface .

38 I n the preceding case the problem was simplified b ecaus e

'

.
,

the surface to b e determ i n ed was perpe n dicular to the fro n t plan e

o f proj ectio n so that the radius for the revolutio n of the cor n er a
,

w as show n i n its true le n gth i n its fro n t proj ectio n A t the right .

ha n d side o f Fi g 2 2 where the side o f the roof d e f is represen ted

.
, ,

a more diffi cult pro b lem is prese n ted H ere whe n the revolutio n .

is made ab out the lin e e f ( the in tersectio n o f the side wi th the

h h

plan e o f the b as e) as an axis the poi n t d will move i n the arc Of a ,

c ircle wi th a radius equal to the perpe n dicular dis tan ce from d to

the axis O bviously the lin e d g is this radius The p erspe ctive
. .

vie w in Fi g 2 3 shows this radius and b y the arrow o n d d the

.
,
’

direc tio n of revolutio n The r u l e gth is fou nd e asily from its

t e n * .

T h e t e l n gth i m
ru d b y th e h y p th n
e s f th e i gh t t i n gl e
easu r e o e u se O r r a

d dh gh i n th e h o i o nt l p o j ti o n I n th i t i n gl d dh i l ai d o ff eq u al to
r z a r ec . s r a e s

th e d i stan ce f ro m df to th e l in e o f th e b ase o f th e ro o f bf of cf f f .
two pro j ectio n s The true len gth d gle o f th i s radius whe n laid o ff o n
.
,
f
-

d g produced shows the revolved positio n Of the cor n er d at d

h h ’

The true size O f the gi v eri surface is show n by the tria ngle d eh f"
, , , .

’
,

fro m which true an gles can b e measur ed .

The perspe cti ve v i ew o f this roof represen ted in Fig 2 3 shows

/
.

more plai n ly the right tria n gle called d d g i n th e precedin g co n

h h

structi o n togethe rwith the ar e describ ed by the poi nt d i n rev o lv

,

i n g to d a b out e f as an axis
h h ’
.

The tri an gl e d dh g ( Fi g 2 3) sh o w s al sO th e tr u e an gl e th e si d e d
r i gh t .
e f
mak es p
w i th th e l an e o f th e b ase T h i s angl e 1s m ar ed a i n th e fi gu re
. k .

Fig: 2 4 sh o w s th e sirnpl est

sta temen t o f the problem to fin d
5
39 .

th e tru e an gl e betw een tw o in t erse cti n g l in e s m n an d o p N on e .

Of the angles b etwee n the proj ectio n s Of these lin es show the true
a ngle b etwee n the lin es ; an d they must b e revolved i n to a plan e
where true dime n sio n s are shown B efore however the lin es .
, ,

c an b e revolved in to o n e o f the pla n es of proj ectio n the traces o f the ,

pla n e i n which they lie must b e determi ned The i n tersectio ns .

o f the li n es with the horizo n tal an d fro n t pla n es are marked respect

i vel y h i an d f i The lin es j oi n i ng these po in ts that are correspo n d

.

i ng are the traces o f the required pla n e The li n es mus t the n b e .

revolved ab out o n e o f the traces in to the correspo nding plan e o f

proj ectio n ; that is we must revolve ab ou t the horizo n tal trac e
,

i n t o the hori z o n tal plan e ab out the fro n t trace i n to the fro n t p l an e
, ,

etc I n the figure the li n es are show n revolved i n to the hori z o n tal
.

plan e ab out the horizo n tal trace H P as an axis The true le ngth , , .

o f the radius for revolvi n g the poi n t of i n tersectio n i o f the two , ,

lin es is fou n d by co n structin g the right tria ngle shown at the righ t
O f the drawin g The hypothe nuse of this triangle is equal to the
.

true distan ce from i to H P The revolved positio n of i is shown .

at i by layi n g o ff a d i stan ce equal to th e le ngth of the hypothe n us e

’
(

at right a ngles to H P The e nds of the li n es m n an d o p are .

In p r a c ti ce , u su a l l y , thi s r i gh t tr i a n gl e c an be pl a ced o n t h e d ra w i n g so

th at o nl y o n e l e g m u s t b e t ra n s f e r r e d . Fo r e x a p
m l e i n s tea d
, o f c o n s tr u c ti n g

the ri gh t tri an gl e as s h o w n , th e d i s ta n c e m a rk e d a v
m i gh t h a e b ee n l a i d O ff
v X xi d i stan c e m ark e d b an d th e
‘

w i th d i i d e rs on th e s , a t ri h t an gl es tO th e
a
g
hy p o th en u se c o ul d b e m ea su red i n one o p e rati o n .
in H P; and i n revolving the lin es these poin ts remain s tationary , .

The lin es show n by heavy dashes i n the figure represe n t the lin es
m n and o p whe n they are revolved i nto the horizo ntal plane .

The angle [9 is the true size o f the acute a ngle b etween the tw o lin es .

O b serve that for the co nstructio n o nl y o ne trace is n eeded the o ther ,

might be omitted .

40 . PR OBLE M 12 . To fi nd the tru e si z e o f the angle between two

i ntersecti ng li nes .

Method Determi n e o n e o f the traces o f the plan e i n which

.

th e give n li n es lie With this trace as an axis revolve the tw o

.
,

li n es in to the plan e o f pro j ectio n i n which the axis lies The angle .

b e twee n the li n es i n their revolved positio n is the tru e siz e o f the

re q u i red angle .

E XE R CISE S
66 . De termin e the plan e of the lines a b and b0 gi ve n by the
co brd i n ates : a —2 b an d
,

—l — With the horizo n tal trace O f this

c i , 1 ,

plan e as an axis revolve these lin es in to the horizo ntal

,

plan e .

The li n e a — —
2 b 1-
, 1) i ntersect s ,

the li n e 0 — 2 d — l % ) at 6
,

1,
Fin d the true size o f the ob tus e a ngle betwee n
these two lin es .

68 . A b oat is towed alo n g a ca n al by tw o mul es o ne walki n g o n ,

each b ank I n proj ec tio n drawi ng the b oat is shown at

.
,

b —2 ,
The to w paths are n o t at the same -

level an d the po si ti o n s o f the mules are sho wn at m 1

, c

—1 —1 — — Fi n d th e true
, i ) and m2 ,1 ,

size of the angle b etwee n the to w ropes -

.

If i n the precedi ng exercise the forces exerted by the tw o

mules are the same show the course the boat will take , .

S uggesti o n If the forces in the tw o to w ropes are

.
-

equal the c ourse of the b oat is shown by the bis ec to r

,

Of the a ngle b etwee n them .

 The vertices of a triangle are at the poin ts a —3
,

—2 —1
Draw the an d c
b , i ,

projectio n s o f the b isector o f the a ngle b etween the sides

a b and b c o n the horizo n tal fro n t an d side pla n es , , .

Th e mast o f a derrick i s shown b y the li n e c — 2 ,

—2 Gu y ropes attached to the to p

g ) d ,
2 i) ,
-
.
-

o f the mast at c are faste n ed to the grou n d at a

—2 — 2 ) and b — 4 — i
, , ,

( a) Fin d th e a n gle b etween the guy ropes a c and b c

i -
.

( b) Fi n d the a n gle b etwee n the mm b c an d the mast

c d .

C heck this las t res ul t by revolvi ng b 0 i n to the fro n t

plan e .

Su ggesti o n . Ob serve th at the h i fo r c d is at c

h
d inh

th e drawi ng .

41 .The a ngle which a line m ak es wi th i ts pro j ection o n an y

p la n e measures the true a ngle b etw ee n the li n e an d the plan e .

B y drawi ng a lin e perpe n dicular to the plan e from a poi n t i n the

—
give n li n e a right a ngled triangle is formed i n which the perpen di c u ,

lar is o ne leg the proj ectio n of the li n e is an other leg an d the li n e

, ,

itself is the hypothen use The required a ngle is that b etwee n .

the hypothe n use and the leg lyi n g i n the plan e ; b u t the other acute
a ngle o f this triangle the compleme n t Of the angle b etwee n the lin e
,

an d the pla n e is more easily fou n d b y the method of Ar t 4 0

,
. .

42 . P R OBLE M 13 . To fi
nd the angle betw een a gi ven l i ne and a

gi ven pla n e .

Metho d . From
poi n t i n the give n lin e draw a lin e perpen
any

di cul ar to the pla n e Fi n d the angle b etwee n these tw o li n es

. The .

complemen t o f this angle is th e required a ngle b etwee n the lin e

an d the plan e .

E X E R CIS E S
72 . Fin d
the angl e the li e n a — 1 — 1 —l
, ) b
,
—5
makes with the plan e P -
1,
 Fin d the a n gle the l i n e c 4 —2 d ,
— —
1 ,
—1
, ,

makes with the plan e M — 3 ( O b serve

,

that the an gle most con ve n ie n tly foun d i n this case is

the supplemen t o f the an gle b etwee n the perpe n dic ular
an d the give n li n e as show n i n the right tria n gle men

ti o n ed i n Ar t .

The slope Of the b ank o f a can al makes an angle of 30 °

with the water level so that the plan e o f the b ank is

-
,

r eprese n t ed b y P ( 0 ,
as shown i n the figure A .

mule o n the b ank draws a b oa t i n the can al The traces .

o n the mule are attached to a rope at a po i n t m

—3 ,
The other en d Of the rope is faste n ed to a
b oat at b -
4 — l , ,
As sumi n g there is n o s ag
i n the rope ( th a t the poi n ts m an d b i n the figure are i n a
straight li n e ) fi n d the true an gle b etwee n the rope an d
,

the b ank o f the ca n al .

75 I n
. co n structi ng shadows o n we take rays o f light
that are reflected down ward from the left han d side an d -
,

are show n b y lin es whose hori z o n tal an d fro n t proj ectio n s

 make respectively angles o f 4 5 an d 3 1 5 with the X ° °

axis .

( a) Fi n d the a ngle b etwee n these rays an d a roof R

(0,

( b) Fi n d
the an gle b etween these rays and the hori
z o n tal an d fro n t pla n es of proj ectio n .

A ray of light passes through the poin t p — 1

)
an d is reflected from a poin t r i n a pla n e
mirror repres e n ted b y M (0 Fin d the a n gle ,

Of refl ec ti o n an d the distan ce o f the poin t p from the

*
,

mirror .

Fi n d the an gle b etwee n a li n e with b oth proj ectio n s parallel

to the X axis an d the pla n e Q (0 ,

S u ggesti on S i n ce the pla n e Of the give n lin e an d th e

.

perpe n dicular must i n clude a lin e parallel to the X axis

‘

its traces are parallel to the axis .

43 . two
I n Fi g 2 5pla
. n es L M N an d L N 0 are shown i n , ,

a pictorial drawi n g an d we wish to determi n e the a n gle b etwee n

,

them If from an y poin t p we draw the lin es p g an d p r perpen

.

d i c u l ar respectively to the pla n es L M N an d L N 0 these perpen ,

d i c u l ar li nes will determin e a plan e whi ch is perpe n dicular to b oth

o f the give n pla n es an d i n tersects them i n the lin es g e an d e r
,
The .

a ngle q e r is therefore the a n gle b etwee n the two give n plan es .

This angle is n o t usually determin ed directly The method o r .

di n ar il y used is to fi n d the true an gle g p r b etwee n the i n tersec t

i ng lin es p g an d p r ( A rt This angle is the suppleme n t o f
'

the an gle g e r O f course either o f the an gles g e r ( gt) o r q p r

.

( 1 80
°
is the a n gle b etwee n the two pla n es .

T he a b o ve m eth od is p ra c t i c al l y th e sam e as fi n d i n g th e a n gl e be tw ee n
th e l i n e s cut f ro m th e tw o gi e n v pl an e s by an au xi l i a ry pl an e p a ssed th ro u gh
th e m , p p er e n d i c ul a r to th e i r l i n e Of i n te rse c ti o n .

T he a n gl e o f re fl e c ti o n is equa l to th e a n gl e b etw ee n th e ray an d th e

mi rro r b efo re refl ec ti o n ,
w h i ch is c all ed th e an gl e o f i n ci d en ce .
 44 . PROBLE M 14 . To fi
nd the an gl e between two o bl i qu e pl a n es .

Method From any poin t in space draw a lin e perpe n dicular to

.

each o f the give n pla n es The true a ngle b etwee n these tw o li n es

.

is th e angl e b e twee n the plan es .

E XE R CIS E S

Fin d the angle b etwee n the pla es n S —3 an d

,

T (0 ,

The corn ers a hip roof are give n by the poi ts —2

Of -
n a §
1) y — an d
_
i
'

:
b ( "
F r
_

i
’
i
_
C i
'

i
_
21 d
The ridge is the li n e e
—2 —2
, ,

—1 ( 1 ) F i n d the a n gle b etwee n the sid es

g ,

Of the roof c d e g an d a b g e ( Use the side traces o f the .

pla n es ) ( 2 ) Fi n d the an gle betwee n the sides o f the

roof a b g e and g b c .

80 . Fi n d the angl e b etwee n th e pla e R n — 1 an d ,

a plan e parallel to the X axis with its horizo n tal an d fro nt

traces respectively 1 i n ch b ehin d an d 1 } in ches b elow 1

the X axis .

Su ggesti on The i n tersectio n o f o ne o f th e perpen

.

di cu l ars with either th e horizo n tal o r the fro n t plan e

is foun d easil y by usin g the side pro j ectio n s .

Make a drawi ng similar to the figure o n p 7 6 taki ng th e

"
.
,

followi ng data : Draw i n n with a slope o f 30 to the

h °

X axis Take fi = 60 a = 4 b = 2 c = 1 % d = 2 e = l i
.
°
, , , , , ,

f 1 g
1 5
2 1 h ,
C omplete ,
the dr aw i n g b y determ i n in g
a ccurately the l i n es o t an d 0 q .

( 1 ) F i n d the a n gle b etwee n the roof pla n e t o

p an d the o n e

i n which the li n e r s lies .

( 2 ) The li n e r s represe n ts a rafter i n the ro o f F i n d t h e .

an gle o f the b evels to b e cut at its e n ds so that it may ,

b e j oi n ed to the ridge at r an d to th e valley rafter o g ,

at s .

The corn ers an d ridge of the i rregular hip roof shown In th e -

fi gure at the top o f p 78 are loc ated by the follow in g .

 poin ts : a
( 0, 0,
b 0, 0 -
5,
d ( 0, -
4, — l
% ,
e — 3
,
D eter
min e the poin t e by fi n ding the lin e Of in tersectio n of th e
sides meeti ng in the ridge (g e) .

( )
a Fi n d the a n gle b etwee n the sides of the roof meet i ng
i n the ridge .

( b ) Fi n d the a n gle of b evel for the to p side Of the hip

rafter e c ; tha t is fi nd the an gle b etween the plan es
,

o f the sides d e c an d b c e g .

( c) The li n e m n represe n ts a rafter i n the side b0 eg .

Fi n d the a n gle of b evel for its en d at m to j oi n the hip

rafter e c The fro n t proj ection of m n must be supplied
.
.
83 Th e fi gure b elow shows a square b utt j oin ted h O pper
-
.

The edges o f the outside to p an d b ottom squares are re

spec ti v el y -5 i n ches an d 2 in ches
. The outside mpi ng
edge is 3 in ches long Find the a ngle o f b evel for th e
.

j oints b etween the sides o f the hopper .

By th e gen eral method used i n the precedin g exercises .

fi n d the an gle b etwee n the pla n e P (0 ,

an d

the horizon tal plan e o f proj ectio n

.

The horizo n tal trac e o f a plan e makes an an gle of 4 5 with

°

the X axis an d the plan e itself makes an an gle o f 60

,
°

with the fron t plan e Draw the fro n t trace of the pla n e
. .

Take the data given fo r the skew b ridge i n E x 2 7 and

.

fi nd
 (a) The a n gle b etwee n the pla n e Of the portal an d a horizon
tal plan e .

( b ) The a n gle b etwee n the pla n e of the portal an d a vertical

plan e through o n e O f the en d posts .

( 0) The a n gles b etwee n the p o rtal strut b d an d the e n d posts

a b an d c d .

( )
d The a ngle b etwee n the portal strut b d an d the li n e Of
i n tersectio n o f a vertical plan e through o n e of the end
posts with a plan e through the portal strut perpe n dicular
to the pla n e o f the portal .

S u ggesti on A simple way to pass a plan e through

.

a give n lin e perpe n dicular to a give n pla n e is to draw

through any poi n t in the give n l i n e a lin e that will b e per
e n d i cu l ar to the give n pla n e The required pla n e is
p .

determin ed by these tw o i n tersecti n g li n es .

( e) Measur e i n degrees the a n gle fou n d i n ( )

d an d the a n gles
marked a an d [i i n the figure B y trigo n ometry the tan
.

ge n t O f the angle foun d i n (d) is equal to si n a tan fl .

With this formula check the an gle fou nd .

45 . very s i mple method for fi n ding the angle b etwee n tw o

A
sides o f an O b j ect i s explai n ed i n A r t 38 It is shown there h o w
. .

the a ngle a b etwee n the side O f the roof d c i i n Fi g 2 2 and the .

plan e of the b ase is fou n d immediately from the proj ectio n s The .

an gle b etwee n the side d e f an d the fron t plan e can n ot however , ,

be fou n d so easily without fi n di n g th e traces o f the pla n es The .

method to b e explain ed i n this article applies particularly to

fi n di n g the an gles b etwee n a plan e give n b y its traces an d the
horizo n tal an d fron t plan es O b serve that the prob lem is the same
.

as that solved i n E x 84 The problem ho w

. . ever appears so Ofte n
, ,

for solutio n that a Special case should b e made o f it .

If an ob lique plan e is pepen di cu l ar to either the horizo n tal o r

the fro n t pla n e Of proj ectio n o n e o f its traces w il l b e perpe n dicular
fi

to the X axis an d the other trace will show by its s 10 pe the a ngle
,

the plan e makes with o n e of the plan es o f projection I n Fig . .

2 6a a plan e P is show n perpe n dicular to the horizo n tal pla n e an d

'

, , ,
th e s 10pe horizon tal trace shows the angle b etwee n the plan e
of th e
P and the fron t plan e The same plan e i s shown by orthogr aphic
.

projection in Fig 2 6b and the an gle mark ed 0 measures accur atel y

.
,

the same angle .

The prob lem is a little more complicated when the plan e is

oblique to b oth plan es o f proj ectio n as shown in Fig 2 7a In . .

this case o f c ourse the a ngle b etwee n o ne o f the traces and the X
, ,

axis does no t show the an gle b etwee n the plan e P an d a pla n e

o f proj e ction If ho wever an auxi liary plan e marked by its
.
, , ,

trac es H A and F A is placed so that it in tersects the plan e P

, , ,

an d is perpe n di cul ar to th e horizo n tal pla n e as shown i n Fi g .

2 7 a th e a ngle 0 b etwee n the lin e of in tersection o f the plan es P

,

an d A an d the trace H A is the angle b etwee n the plan e P an d

the hori z onta l plane The method o f findin g this angle from th e
.

orthographi c pr o j ec ti o ns is shown in Fi g 2 7 b The given plan e . .

i s shown by its tr aces H P an d F P ; and the auxiliary plan e

,

by its traces H A ( perpe n dicular to H P) an d F A ( perpe n dicular

,

to the X ax i s ) The lin e of in tersectio n o f these tw o plan es is

"
.

shown by its pro j ectio n s i j and 17 j f This l i n e whe n revolved

h

"
.

into the horizo t pla e ab out its horizo tal proj ection i j as
n al n n h
, ,

an axi s takes the positio n i shows the a gle true size

h ’
, j an d n 0 i n i ts .

A di me nsio n l in e marked s is shown to make the co n struction

plainer It sho ul d b e evi den t that the auxiliary plan e A can
.
, ,

b e drawn through any poin t i n the trace o f the give n plan e

S imilarl y we can fin d the angle b etween the same plan e P , ,

an d the fro n t pla n e b y drawin g the fro n t trace F B O f an au xfl i ar

y ,

plan e B perpe n dicular to the fro n t trace Of P an d makin g th e

, , ,

horizon tal trace H B perpe n dicular to the X axis The required

, , .

angle b etwee n the plan e P an d the fro n t plan e o f proj ection is

, ,

shown by the true size o f the angle b etwee n the fron t plan e and
the lin e o f in tersectio n O f the auxil iary plan e B with the plan e P , , .

46 .The reverse o f this last operation is m ade use o f in draw in g

th e traces o f pla n es whe n o nl y o n e o f them is give n o n the draw i n g .

If the horizon tal trace o f a plan e is given an d the angle the plan e
makes with the horizo n tal plan e is kn own the fro n t trace c an ,
be constructed A ssume n o w that i n Fig 2 7b the horizon tal
. .

trace of the pla n e P an d the angle 0 the pla n e makes with the , ,

horizo n tal plan e are given Through any poin t in H P draw th e .

horizon tal trace H A o f an auxiliary plan e an d the line i j

,
”

,
h
,
’

makin g with H A an angle equal to the angle the plan e makes with
the horizo n tal plan e This l ast li n e is the revolved positio n in the
.

horizon tal plan e of a l i n e i j of which we k n ow the horizo n tal

proj ectio n i an d the dista n ce ( 3 ) o f the poin t j b elow the hori
h h
°

, ,

z o n tal pla n e The fro n t proj ection o f j is located by layin g O ff o n a

.

lin e perpe n dicular to the X axis through j the distan ce marked s

h
.

The lin e i j determi ned n o w by two proj ecti on s is a li n e i n th e

required pla n e an d j f is a poin t i n its fro n t trace
,
The requir ed .

fro n t trace is drawn the n through the proj ectio n j f and the in ter
sectio n o f the give n horizo n tal trace with the X axis .

The meth o d is ex ac tly sim ilar when the fro n t trace and the angle
the plan e makes with the fro n t plane are give n and the horizo n t al ,

trace is to b e co nstru cted .

47 . PR OBLE M 15 . To nd
fi the an gl e made by a gi ven pla ne wi th
ei ther the hori z on ta l or fron t pla n es of pro ectijon .

Metho d To measur e the in cli n atio n to the horizo n tal plane

.

Through any poin t i n the horizo n tal trace of the grven plan e pass
an auxiliary plan e perpe n dicular to this trace ( It will b e .

perpe n dicular to the horizo n tal plan e ) The true angle b etwee n .

the horiz o n tal plan e an d th e li n e of i n tersectio n O f the auxiliary

plan e with the give n plan e is the required an gle .

TO me as ure the i n cli n atio n to the fro n t pla n e : P ass an auxil

i ary pla n e perpe n dicular to the fro n t tra c e The true a n gle b etwee n .

the fro n t plan e an d the lin e Of i n tersectio n Of the a u xiliary pla n e

w ith the give n pla n e i s the required a n gle .

E X E R CISE S

Fin d the a n gles b etwee the pla e P ( 0 1 2 0 an d th e

°
87 .
n n ,

horizo n tal an d fro n t plan es Of proj ectio n .

Take the data give n fo r the skew b ridge in Ex 2 7 an d

88 .
.
 find the angle b etween the plan e o f the portal an d th e
horizon tal an d fron t plan es o f proj ection .

48 . PROBLE M 16 . Gi ven one trace an d the angl e a g n

i ve pl an e

mak es wi th the correspondi n g plan e of pr oj ecti on ,

to find the o ther trace .

Method . Revers e the method of the precedin g problem .

E XE R CIS E S
The fro n t trace Of a plan e Q makes an an gle o f 315 with , ,
°

the X axi s The plan e itself makes an angle of 4 5

.
°

wi th the fro n t plan e D raw the horizo n tal trace . .

The horizo n tal trac e o f a plan e R makes an angle of 30 , ,

°

with the X axis The plan e itself makes an an gle O f 4 5

.
°

with the horizo n tal plan e Draw F R . .

The pla n o f a dry dock is shown b y the poin ts a 4 — 2

— -
, ,

—2 — 4 —1 an d d —3
b , ,
c ( , ,
T he
plan es o f the sides through a b an d c d slope toward the
middle Of the dock an d make an gles of 4 5 with the ,
°

hori z on tal D raw the traces o f the plan es of the two

.

sides me n tion ed .

49 Whe
. n n o n e of the traces Of a pla n e are give n an d we k n ow
onl y the angles the plan e makes with the plan es o f projection ,

we have a more complicated problem than the last I n Fi g 2 8a . .

a plan e P is shown i n a pictorial drawing A sphere is also repre

, ,
.

sen ted w ith its ce n ter o n the X axis at e an d is ta n ge n t to the plan e ,

P at i An auxiliary plan e A is represe n ted as drawn perpen di cu

,
.
, ,

lar to the fron t plan e an d passin g through the po int i an d th e

,

ce n ter o f the sphere e This auxiliary plan e cuts a great circle

,
.

from the Sphere an d a li n e a b from the plan e P This last lin e is .

tangen t to the circle at i It is evide n t that the angle or b etween th e

.

lin e a b and the trace F A shows the an gle between the plan e P and
the fro n t plan e If the n the lin e a b is revol ved ab out the trace
.
, ,

F A into the fron t plan e its revolved position wil l b e shown b y a b

’
, .

Lik ewise if the circular sectio n cut from the sphere bythe auxiliary
plan e is also revolved in to the fro n t plan e it wi ll be a c i rcle ,
coi n ciding however w ith the outli n e o f the sphere By this rev o
, , . ~

l u ti o n in to the fro n t plan e the lin e a b an d the circular sectio n O f

,

the sphere are shown in their true relative positio n and the poin t o f ,

tange n cy i is shown at i The angle b etwee n a b an d F A

, ,
’
.
’
,

marked a is the true size Of a

’
,
.

S imilarly an auxiliary plan e B is represen ted i n the figure , , ,

perpe ndicular to the horizo n tal plan e an d passing through the poin ts
e an d i. This plan e cuts from the give n plan e P the lin e 0 d an d , ,

a circular sectio n fr om the sphere The an gle fl b etwee n the lin e .

c d an d the trace H B shows the a n gle b etwee n the pla n e P an d the

horizo n tal pla n e B y revolvi ng c d an d the c ircular sectio n in to

.

the horizo n tal plan e the true size of Bcan be show n .

This method of a n alysis is most useful whe n the co n dition s

are reversed whe n o nl y the angles a an d fi are give n and the traces
—
,

H P an d F P are to be determi n ed The actual process for the so

,
.

l u ti o n of this case is shown i n Fi g 2 8b Through a poin t e o n the . .

X axis as a ce n ter draw a circle of any co n ve n ie n t radius This

. .

represe n ts i n orthographic proj ectio n the revolved position in either

the horizo n tal o r the fro n t plan es of an y sectio n s of the sphere
cut b y auxiliary plan es passin g through the ce n ter I n order t o .

show the revo l ved po si ti on of the l i n e o f i ntersecti on with the plan e P , ,

o f an auxiliary pla n e perpe n dicular to the fro n t pla n e draw the lin e ,

a b ta n ge n t to the circle at any co n ve n ie n t poi n t an d draw a radius

’
,

e a so that the a ngle b a e is equal to the give n a ngle or b etwee n

’
, ,

the plan e P an d the fro n t plan e The lin e e b is drawn perpen di cu .

’

lar to a e The triangle a b e that is thus formed correspo n ds to the

.
’

revolved positio n O f the trian gle a b e shown very much fo resh o rt

e n ed i n Fig 2 8a If n o w the le ngth e b ( Fig 2 8b) is measured
. .
’
.

an d laid O ff perpe n dicular to the X axis b ehi n d the poi n t e the ,

poi n t marked b is Ob tained A n d this is a poi n t i n the hori

h
.

z o n tal trace H P C on ti nui n g with the same ge n eral method draw

.
,

c d ta nge n t to the circle at a co n ve n ie n t poi n t an d by drawin g the

’
,

radius 0 e lay o ff the angle 5 The i n tersectio n Of c d with e d .

’ ’
,

perpen dicular to e c determines the poi n t d which is the revolved ’

"
, ,

positio n of a poin t located o n the trace F P Layin g O ff then e d .

equal to e d the poi t n

’
df is Ob tain ed If n o w a e happen ed to .
be taken in such a position that it is perpen dicul ar to F P i n i ts
true locatio n this trace could b e drawn immediately through d}
"
,

an d a ; an d similarly H P c oul d be drawn through b an d 0

, , .

S i n ce however a e was drawn in an y con ven ien t direction i t

, , ,

c ould n o t b e taken n ecessarily perpe n dicular to F P bu t O b vi , ,

o u sl y if an arc with a radius a e is draw n as shown i n the figure

, ,

F P must b e draw n ta n ge n t to this are an d through the poi n t d ’

.

Fo r the same reaso n H P will b e draw n ta nge n t to the arc with

a radius c e and thr ough the poi n t bh

50 . PR OBLE M 17 . To nd
fi the traces o f a pla n e w hen the angl es

the pl an e ma kes w i th both the hori z on tal front plan es are gi ven an d .

Method Imagine a sphere placed tange n t to the plan e Of which

.

the traces are to b e foun d an d tw o auxiliary pla n es are passed ,

‘

through t h e ce n ter Of the sphere an d through the poi n t where the

sphere touches the pla e n — o n e perpe n dicular to the fro n t pla n e
,

the other perpen dicu lar to the horizo n tal plan e These plan es .

will each cut a c i rcle from the sphere an d a tange n t li n e from the
give n plan e The a ngles these tange n ts make with the fron t an d
.

horizo n tal plan es resp ec tively are the a ngles the give n plan e make s
, ,

with the fro n t an d horizo n tal plan es .

E XE R CISE S
Draw the traces o f a plan e P which makes angles o f 4 5 , ,
°

an d 60 respectively with the horizo n tal an d fro n t pla n es

°
.

Draw the traces of a plan e which is i n clin ed 1 2 0 to the °

hori z o n tal plan e an d 7 5 to the fro n t plan e °

.

The side of a b ridge pier i n a river makes an angle o f 60 °

with the plan e o f the water an d 50 with a vertical plan e ,

°

at right an gles to the course o f the river Represe n t .

the plan e o f the side of the pier by its traces o n ass umed
plan es o f projectio n .

5 1 . PRO BLE M 18 . To fi nd the tru e di stance from a gi ven poi nt

to a gi ven l i ne .

Method . D etermi n e the pl a n e Of the poin t an d the li n e by

drawi ng through the poin t a l in e parallel to or in tersecti ng the
given lin e Fi n d the i n tersectio n s of b oth lin es with either the
.

horizo n tal or the fro n t pla n e With a trace of this plan e as an .

axis revolve these lin es i n to the correspon ding plan e o f proj ection
, ,

and measure the dista n ce required .

E XE R CIS E S
Fi n d the distan ce from the poi n t i — 2 — l L} ) to the , ,
-

lin e 7 — —
°
— — — —
2 t i) k , i li , t) ,
~

. ,

The telepho n e wi res ru n n in g from a village to a house o n

the side o f a mou n tain follow the shortest lin e b etwee n
the poi ts v — A camp
n 2 )a d
n h 3 0 -
, ,

at c is to b e co nn ected to the telephon e

system o f the v illage by erecti ng a li n e j oi n in g the o ne
b etwee n v an d h Draw the proj ectio n s of the shortest
.

li n e th at can b e put up ; an d find the le ngth of the lin e

'

thus located .

I n the tria ngle give n i n E x 62 fi n d the dista n ce from .

the poin t e to the li n e a b .

Fo r supporti ng a cran e a cab le is to b e attached at o ne

en d to a poi n t c — 1 — 1 — 2 ) o n its mast an d at the, , ,

other en d to a steel b eam a b

— 1 o n an adj oi n i ng b uildi ng
) S how the pro jec .

tio ns o f the shortest cab le that c an b e u sed .

5 2 . PROBLE M 19 . To fi nd the shortest di stance betw een two l i nes

n ot i n the sa me plan e .

Method Tw o li n es a b an d c d n o t i n the same plan e are sho wn

.

i n Fig 2 9 . P ass a plan e M N through a b parallel to c d ( Ar t

.
, ,
.

Proj ect 0 d upo n this plan e A t the poi n t e where the pro .
’

n c d in tersects a b draw a li n e perpe n dicular to the pla ne

’
j i
’
e c t o .

i n tersecti ng c d at e The true leng th o f the perpen dicular e e

.
'

i s th e r e q ui red distan c e .
 E XE R CIS E S
99 . Fin d the shortest distan ce b etween th e lin es to l an d m n in
Ex . 25 .

Fi n d the distan ce b etwee n a lin e from a to b an d the m ast

o f the derrick i n E x 7 1 . .

Through each o f tw o lin es pass a pla n e parallel to the other

l in e Fin d the shor test d i stan ce b etwee n these tw o
.

planes .

S olve Ex 65 by the method o f this article

. .

53 . PR O B LE M 20 . Gi ven the proj ecti on s of the cen ter of a ci rcl e

o f k n o wn di ameter , to draw i ts pr oj ecti o n s s o that i t sha l l l i e i n a

gi ven p l a n e .

M
ethod The cen ter o f a c ircle is shown by its proj ectio n s c
.
h

an d d i n Fi g 30 as lyi n g i n the give n pla n e P

. The horizo n tal .

an d fro n t proj ectio ns o f the circle are to b e drawn so that the

circle also shall lie in the plan e The ce n ter o f the circle is revolved
'
.

ab out F P as an axis in to the fro n t plan e an d the true siz e o f the ,

c ircle is draw n When th i s circle is revolved b ack i n to the plan e P

.
,

b oth proj ectio n s will b e ellipses b ecause the proj ectio n s o f a circle o n ,

p la n es of proj ectio n that are O b lique to its pla n e are ellipses The .

le ngth o f the maj or axis of the ellipse in the fro n t projectio n is the
same as the diameter o f the circle an d is o f course parallel to F P , , .

As all le ngths which are perpe n dicular to the axis o f revolutio n

ar e foreshorte n ed i n the fro n t proj ectio n the mi n or axis is the fore ,

h o rten ed diameter perpe n dicular to F P The fro n t proj ectio n s .

o f the min or axis is the n o n a li n e o f i n defi n ite le n gth drawn through

, ,

c perpe n dicular to F P Mark the poin t where this proj ectio n.

crosses the fro n t trace i f an d revolve the lin e i 0 i n to the fro n t plan e
,

ab out i f cf as an axis The revolved positro n 1s shown by i f c.

’
,

o n which true le n gths c an b e measured F o m c lay o ff the le ngth ’

r .

c e equal to the radius ( r ) of the circle I n coun ter revolutio n

’ ’
-
.

the poi n t 0 revolves b ack to c} and e to ef Then er of is the semi

’ ’
.

mi n or axis o f the ell iptical fron t proj ectio n of the give n circle .

The horizon tal proj ection o f the circle is the n easily foun d by
d r aw in g lin es that lie i n the pla n e P ( suc
,
h as diameters through
th e ce n ter c ,
an d ta,
n ge n ts to the fro n t projectio n ) an d p j
r o ecti n g
poin ts o n them from the fro n t proj ection o f the circle The hori .

z o n tal proj ectio n o f the circle could b e fou n d also b y repeati n g the

method used for ob tain ing the fro n t proj ectio n .

54
. This p ro b lem has a n importa n t applicatio n i n determi n i n g
th e plan e Of guide pulleys to direct b el ts ru nn ing b etwee n pulleys
which are o n shafts at right angles to each other I n Fig 3 1 two
? . .

pulleys are shown with ce n ters at e an d b The directio n of motio n .

i s shown b y arrows . The b elt must b e led O ff the pulley at b i n

i ts plan e an d led o n the pull ey at ai n i ts pla n e
,
To accomplish this.
,

a guide pulle y is n eeded to direct the b elt Usually th e guide pulley

.

may b e placed at any co n ve n ien t poin t b etween the two pulleys

at a an d at b S elect a poin t where the directio n Of the b elt is to
.

be cha n ged as the poi n t d i n the figure an d draw the l i n es f d an d

“ "

, , .

d e ta nge n t to the p ulleys The plan e of the guide pulley mus t

.

be the n in the plan e o f these tw o ta n ge n t li n es This plan e .

is shown by the traces H P and F P The proj ection s o f the .

guide pul ley are fou n d b y revolvi n g the lin es f d an d d e i n to th e

horizo n tal plan e of proj ectio n ab out H P as an axis The revolved .

positio n o f d is show n at d The actual size O f the guide pull e i s

’
y

shown tan ge n t to the revolved positio n s O f f d an d d e A fter r ev o l v .

i ng b ack i n to the plan e P the cen ter ( c ) O f the guide pulley is shown
,
’

by its proj ectio n s c

h
a n d cf The proj ectio n s O f the gu ide pu ll ey
.

are fou n d b y the method explai n ed i n the last article The shaft .

Of the guide pulley b ei n g perpe n dicular to its plan e is shown by

proj ectio n s perpe n dicular to the co rrespo nn i ng traces .

I n Fi g 31 o n o n e side the b elt is led O ff the pulle y a i n l i n e with

.
, ,

the rim o f the p ul ley b so that o n this side there is n o cha nge i n
,

the direction o f the b elt I n practice however very often the give n
.
, ,

pulleys are n o t placed so advan t ageousl y an d tw o guide pul leys

are n eeded .
 E X E R CIS E S
1 03 . Draw the proj ectio n s o f a circle diameter 1 5 i n ches l yi ng , ,

i n the plan e Q — 3 ,

1 04 . Two pulleys revolvi ng o n li n es of shafti ng at right angles

to each other are to b e co nn ected by a b elt Determ in e .

the plan es of i n termediate pulleys to properly d i rec t

the b elt drawi ng also the proj ectio n s of all the pulley s
,

that are n eeded .

55 . PR OBLE M 21 . Gi ven a f
su r ace by i ts co ntou r ed pl a n ,
a nd

a pl a n e by i ts sl o pe, to determi n e the secti o n o f the f

su r a ce cu t by the

Method Draw the horizo n tal proj ection s o f a n umb er o f

.

horizon tal lin es lyi n g i n the give n plan e an d havin g the same ,

i ndices as the co n tour lin es The poin ts where these li n es mee t

.

th e co n tour li n es with the same i n dices are poi n ts i n the required

s ectio n The compl ete sectio n is Ob tain ed by draw i ng a fair curve
.

thr ough the poin ts th u s O b tai n ed .

E X E R CIS E S

1 05 The figure b elow represe n ts a hill b y its co n tour li n es

. .

D raw plan es to show the emb a n kme n ts o f a rai lroad

“
cut
”
passi ng through it S how the i n tersectio n s o f .

these plan es with the surface of the hill .

j p
Co n to u r l i n es a re u se d to o i n o i n ts a t th e sam e el e a ti o n ab o e a l an e v v p
v
o f w h i c h th e el e a ti o n i s a ss u m e d to b e z ero Num b e rs o n th ese l i nes , c al l ed
.

p
i n dices re r ese n t th e el e ati o ns
,
v .
 CHA P T E R II I
P R O B L E MS R E LAT I N G TO P LA NE S T ANGE NT TO SO LI D S

56 . E very s u rface may gen erated by the motio n of a li n e

be ,

an d the diff ere n t positio ns assum ed by this li n e are called the

el e m en ts o f the surface .

A pla n e s urface o r a pl an e is ge n erated by a straight li n e movi ng

alo n g a n other s traigh t lin e an d remain in g always parallel to its fi rs t

p ositio n *
.

A si n gl e curved surf ace IS ge n erated b y a straight lin e movi n g

so that any tw o o f its co ns ecutive positio n s are i n the same pla n e .

A w arped o r tw i sted su rf ace is ge n erated b y a straight lin e

movin g so tha t n o tw o o f i ts co nsecutive position s are i n the same
pla n e .

Plan es sin gle c u rved sur faces and warped surfaces are ge n erated
, ,

by the motio n of a straight lin e an d therefore all have eleme n ts ,

that are straight l ines E very warped surface however is curved

.
, , ,

an d it is therefore possib le to co n ceive i t also as b ei ng ge n erated by

a curve which as i t moves c o n tin ual l y cha n ges its form accordi n g
, ,

to a de fi n ite l aw .

A d o u bl e c urved su rf ace is ge n erated b y a curve movi n g alo n g

an other curve I t has no elemen ts that are straight lin es
. .

57 . o nAe is
c a si n gle curved surface ge n erated b y a straigh t
lin e moving along a curve an d also passi ng through a poin t n o t i n
the plan e o f the curve This poin t is the v ertex Of the con e
. .

A cy lin der is a si ngle curved surface ge n erated b y a straight li n e

movi ng alon g a cur ve with all its positio n s parall el It may b e .

regarded as a Special case o f a co n e with th e vertex at in fi n ity .

A kn o w l edge o f th e p p ti ro er es o f pl an e s w a s assu m e d i n th e b egi nn in g

.

T h e m eth o ds o f re p re sen ti g p l
n a n es , a n d p o in ts an d l i n es i n th em , h ave b een
di scu sse d i n th e p recedi n g h pt c a e rs .
P roblems relating to cylin ders are solved therefore the same by
methods that are applied for similar prob lems relati n g to co n es .

A pla n e cuttin g all the straight li n e eleme n ts of a c on e or o f ,

a cylin der i n tersects it i n a curve called the base

, .

If all the eleme n ts of a co n e make the same a n gle with a straight

lin e passin g through the vertex it is a righ t c on e ; otherwise it is , ,

an O bli qu e c o n e If all the eleme n ts of a cylin der are pe rpen dicular

.

to the b ase it is a righ t cyl in de r ; otherwise it i s an o bli qu e cyl i n

,
)
,

der .

58 . o n vol u te is a Single curved surface ge n erated by a straight

A c

li n e m o vrng alo ng a curve of doub le curvature SO that it is always ,

tange n t to the curve The co n secutive positio n s o f the straigh t

.

li n e ge n erating the surface i n tersect two an d two n o three i n ter ,

sec ti n g i n a commo n poi n t .

There are as many ki n ds o f co nvolutes as there are curves o f

doub le curvature S ome are importan t for their practical appl i
.

catio n s The methods o f co n struct in g an d represe n ti ng them will

.

b e discussed i n Ar t 7 6 . .

59 . u rf a c e o f revo l utio n is o n e that is ge n erated b y the rev

A s

o l u ti o n of a straight li n e or a pla n e curve ab out a straight li n e i n

,

the same pla n e as an axis .

There are o nly two Si ngle curved surfaces of revolutio n the —

,

right co n e an d the right cyli n der whe n they have circular b ases , .

The prin cipal doub le curved surfaces O f revolutio n are the S phere ,

the ellipsoid the torus the parab oloid

,
an d the hyperb oloid sur
,
—
,

faces which are explain ed later .

60 . poi n t i n an y plan e or curved surface is determi n ed b y

A
tw o proj ectio n s If the n a su rfa ce is give n by the proj ectio n s of
.
, ,

its outlin es an d a poi n t o n the surface is give n by o nly o n e proj ectio n

, ,

an other projection c an b e located after determi n ing two proj ectio n s ,

o f an el emen t of the surface passi ng thr o u gh the po i n t .

I n Fi g 32 a con e is Show n b y the hori z o n tal an d fro n t proj ectio n s

.

Of i ts outlin es A poi n t a o n the surface Of the co n e is give n b y its

.
~
horizont al pro j ection The horizo n tal proj ectio n o f an element
.

o f the co n e is draw n through a and the vertex As the poi n t a

h
.

may be o n the top side o f the co n e n earest the horizo n tal plan e o r ,

o n the lower side there are two eleme n ts b v and c v with hori z o n tal
, , ,

proj ectio n s passi ng through a h

The fro n t proj ectio n s of these .

two eleme n ts bf vi an d cf vf are drawn through the vertex and

, ,

through the fro n t proj ectio n s of the i n tersectio n s of the two ele
me n ts wi th the b ase, The required fro n t proj ection s O f the poi n t
a are the n o n the eleme n ts bf vi an d o
f vi at a l f an d a zf , .

Fo r the case Of the cyl i nder the same method o f solutio n is

applicab le .

61 . PROBLE M 22 . Gi ven on e pr o j
ecti o n o f a poi nt on the su r

face o f a con e to find the o ther pr oj ecti on

, .

Method Through the give n proj ectio n O f the poin t an d th e

.

vertex of the c o ne draw eleme n ts Of the surface Fi n d the required

‘
.

projectio n s o f the poin t o n the other proj ectio n s o f these eleme n ts .

62 . PR OBLE M 23 . Gi ven on e pr o ej
cti o n o f a po i n t o n the su r

face of a cyl i nd er , to find the o ther pr o j ecti o n .

Method Through the give n proj ection o f the poin t d raw

.

eleme n ts o f the surface parallel to an y eleme n t shown A s i n th e .

case o f the co n e precedin g the required proj ection s o f the poin t ,

are fou n d o n the other proj ectio n s o f these eleme n ts .

63 . Whe n a po in t o n a double curved surface such as a Sphere ,

ellipsoid torus etc is give n by o nly o ne pro j ectio n a differe nt

, , .
, ,

method is used for fi n din g the other projectio n o f the poin t o n the
surface tha n that employed for the co n e an d the cyli n der I n Fig . .

33 the horizo n tal an d fro n t proj ectio n s O f an ellipsoid are shown .

A poi n t a o n the surface o f the ellipsoid is give n b y its fro n t pro

, ,

j e c ti o n a i A
. pla ne P is draw n through a an d the ce n ter o f the
, ,

ellipsoid perpe n dicular to the fro n t plan e Its fro n t trace i .

s

marked F P If this plan e is the n revolved SO that it is parallel

.

to the horizo n tal plan e the fro n t trace is shown by F P and the ,
’ ’
,

fron t projectio n o f a is at M The plan e F P cuts from the ell i p .

’ ’

so i d a secti on o f which th e h o ri z o n tal proj ectio n o f the surface is an

,
~
exact represen tatio n ; an d a ( the revolved positio n o f a) h as i ts
horizon tal proj ectio n at a h
I n revolvi n g the pla n e P b ack to its .
,

o rrgl n al positio n the poi n t a moves to a i n a circular arc l yi n g m

,

a vertical plan e The fro n t proj ection of this ar e is M of ; an d its

.

horizon tal proj ectio n is O f course a a parallel to the X axis

h h
, , , .

The required hori z o n tal proj ectio n a is then determ i n ed b y

h
, ,

drawi g proj ecti g li es from

n n n a f O b serve that the solution gives .

also an other projecti o n a l h s h ow n at the top o f the fi gure , , .

PROBLE M 2 4 Gi ven o n e proj ecti on of a poi nt o n a dou bl e

64 . .

cu rved su r face to find the o ther proj ecti o n

, .

Method Through the give n projectio n of the poi n t an d the

.

cen ter o f th e double curved surface draw the trace of a pla n e

perpe ndicular to the pla n e of proj ectio n i n which the proj ectio n o f
the poi n t is give n Revolve this plan e SO that it b ecomes parallel
.

to a seco n d plan e O f prO jec ti o n D etermi n e the projectio n s of

.
.

the poi n t i n its revolved positio n B y revolvi n g b ack to the .

origi n al positio n the required proj ectio n o f the poi n t is located *

, .

65 gen eral a pla ne is tangen t to a surface at a give n poi n t

. In ,

when it passes through tange n ts to tw o li n es of the surface meeting ,

i n the give n poi n t If the n through a given poin t any two i n ter
.
, , ,

se cti n g li n es of the surface are drawn an d a ta n ge n t to each l i n e is ,

drawn at the poi n t the required pl an e is determi n ed by the ta n gen ts

, .

Fo r drawin g a pla n e ta n ge n t to a si n gle curved surface the ,

ge n eral method is somewha t simplified I n the case of the co n e .

,

we may ob serve that if a plan e is tan ge n t to the surface at a give n

poin t it is tange n t to the surface thoughou t the le ngth of an
,

An o th er m e th o d i s to d r aw a ri gh t c yl i n d e r w i th i ts a xi s on th e xi
a s of

th e d o u b l e c u rved su f ac e r ,
and w i th one o f i ts b as es p as s i n g th ro u gh th e pro

jec ti o n O f th e p o in t th at i s gi v en .I n Fi g 34 th e o i n t a i s
. p v
gi en by
th e pro

j ec ti o n of a s i n th e p re c e d i n
g fi gu re D ra w th ro u gh (Lf th e f r o n t
. p ro j ec ti o n
of th e b ase Of a ri gh t c yl i n d e r T h e h o ri z o n tal . p j
ro ec ti o n s o f th e b a se a e r

b, h
c,
h
an d b,
h
a d O f th e
n oin t a a r e a ,
h a p
nd a

I f th e p jro ec ti o n o f a p o int 1s gi v en by i ts h o ri z o n tal p j

ro ec ti o n as dh ,
i ts f ro n t p j
ro ec ti o n is in an arc w i th th e f ro n t p j
ro ec ti o n o f th e a xi s Of th e

"
su rf a c e as a c e n te r , a n d a rad i u s e q u al to th e h o ri z o n tal d i stan ce f r o m eh to
th e o u tl i n e o f th e el l i p so i d . T h e f ro n t p j ro ec ti o n s ar e th en dl f an d d .
element passing through the give n poin t and is therefore tangent ,

to the co n e at the poi n t where this elemen t meets the b ase T he .

con structio n o f tange n ts at the gi ven poi n t makes it n eces sary

to represe n t sectio n s o f the con e which is usually a lab orious ,

process A tange n t to the base at its i n tersection with the eleme n t

.

is more easil y co n structed an d is used i n stead o f the ta nge n t to a

,

sectio n at the g ive n poin t .

I n Fig 35 a co n e i s Shown with a poin t a marked o n its surface

.
, ,
.

The plan e ta n ge n t to the co n e at this poi n t is determi n ed by th e

elemen t b v through a an d by a ta ngen t b c to the curve o f the b ase
at its i n tersectio n with b v T w o i n tersectin g lin es b v and b c
.

are thus represe n ted They determi n e the plan e P which is tan
.
, ,

gen t to the co n e at the poi n t a .

As a cylin der may b e regarded as a special case o f a co n e wi th

th e vertex at i n fi n ity the problems relati n g to the cyli n der will
,

be solved b y the s ame methods as fo r similar pro blems relati ng

to the c o n e .

66 . PROBLE M 25 . To pass a plan e tangent to a con e or a cyl i n

der thro ugh gi ven o i n t o n th e s u rface

a p .

Method Through the give n poi n t draw an eleme n t O f the

.

surface A t the i n tersectio n Of this eleme n t with the b ase draw a

.
,

line tange n t to the b ase The required plan e is determin ed b y the

.

elemen t and this tange n t l i n e .

E XE R CISE S
1 06 . Pass a plan e tange n t to an Oblique cyli nder through a

poin t b o n its surface :

1 07 . The b ase o f an i nverted right c i rcular c on e is i n the ho ri
z o n tal pla n e an d the a ngle b etwee n the eleme n ts of the
,

surf ac e and the axis is P ass a plan e tangen t to

the co n e through a poin t c o n its s urface .

67 . plan e may b e drawn tange n t to a co ne a l so through a

A
poin t which is ou tside the surface B oth the vertex o f the con e an d
.

the given poin t must b e o f course in the tangen t plan e A lin e .

j oini ng the vertex the give n poin t and another line tangent
an d ,

to the b ase o f the con e an d i n tersecting the fi rst lin e determin e the ,

ta nge n t plan e .

I n Fig 36 .
a
a poin t 0 outside o f it are shown A
co n e an d .

lin e 0 v is drawn through the poin t 0 an d the vertex v Through the .

intersectio n o f o v with the plan e B o f the b ase the lin e i t is drawn , , ,

ta nge n t t o the b ase The tangen t plan e P is determin ed by these

.

li n es o v an d i t .

Whe n for the same co n dition s a cyli nder is used instead of a

con e the solutio n is the same except that the lin e drawn through
,

th e vertex for the c o n e i s replaced by o n e through the give n ,

poin t parallel to an eleme n t .

68 . PROB L E M 26 . T o pass a pla n e ta ngen t to a cone o r a eyli n

der throu gh a gi ven poi n t o u tsid e the su r face .

Method Through the give n poi n t draw the proj ection Of a lin e
.

which i n th e case o f the c o ne passes through th e vertex an d

, , , ,

i n the case o f the cyli n der is parallel to an eleme n t Produce this ,

.

lin e to in tersect the plan e o f the b ase and draw a tange n t to the
b ase through the poin t o f in tersectio n The required plan e is de .

term i n ed by this ta nge n t li n e and the lin e already drawn through

the give n poin t .

E X E R CI SE S
P ass a plan e tange n t to an oblique co n e and through a poin t
i n the X axi s .

P ass a pl an e tangen t a cylinder which h as o n e b ase

'

to
i n the horizo n tal plan e an d a n other i n the fron t plan e ,

an d throu gh a poi n t i n the fro n t pla n e outside the b ase .

69 . PROB L E M 27 . To pass a pla n e ta n gen t to nd

a co n e a par a ll el
to a gi ven l i n e .

Method Through the vertex Of th e co n e draw a lin e parallel

.

to the given lin e A t the poin t where this lin e in tersects the plan e
.

Of the b ase draw a lin e tangen t to the b ase These tw o lin es de

, .

termin e the required plan e .

 E X E RCIS E S
Pass a plan e tangen t to an in verted Obli que co ne and paral
lel to an Oblique li n e .

P ass a plan e tange n t to a right c ircular con e an d parallel

to a lin e i n the side plan e .

P ass a plan e tangen t to a right c ircul ar con e an d parallel

to an Ob li q ue lin e .

70. PR O B L E M 28 . T o pa ss a plane tangent to a cyl i nder and

para lle l to a gi ven l i n e .

Method Through any poin t i n the give n lin e draw a li n e parallel

.

to an eleme n t o f the cyli n der The pla n e determ i n ed by the give n

.

line an d the l i n e j ust drawn will be paral l el to the required plan e .

A pla n e ta nge n t to the cyli nder is the n determi n ed b y a lin e tan

g e n t to the b ase an d p arallel to the pla n e already fou n d and the ,

eleme n t o f the c y linder which the t ange n t l i n e in tersects .

E XE R CIS E S
P ass plan e tangen t to an Obli q ue c yl inder and parallel
a

to the X axis .

P ass a plan e tangen t to a righ t circular c y lin der wi th i ts

b ase i n an oblique plan e an d parallel to a li n e i n the
,

same Oblique plan e .

7 1 . PRO B L E M 29 . To pass a plan e ta ngen t to f

a su r a ce o f revo

l uti on thro ugh a gi ven poi n t on i ts f

su r ace .

Metho d Draw through the given poi n t a lin e tangen t to the

.

i ntersectio n o f the surface with a plan e passi n g through the po in t

and the axis Whe n this lin e is revolved ab out the axis it ge n erates
.
.

a right con e tange n t to the surface i n a circum fere n ce which c o n

tain s the give n poi n t A plan e tan ge n t to the con e at the given
.

poin t is the re quired plan e tange nt to the surfac e .

 R CISE S E XE

1 15 . Th ro ugh any point a o n the surface o f an ellipsoid wi th a

, ,

vertical axis pass a tange n t plan e

, .

1 16 . A circle 1 in ch i n diame ter with its plan e perpe n dicular

to the horizo n tal plan e r evo l ves a bo u t a ver ti ca l a xi s
,

which is three in ch es from the cen ter o f the circle A .

surfac e o f revolutio n called a to ru s is thus ge n erated .

Thro ugh a poin t b o n t his surface draw a tangen t plan e .

7 2 . PRO B LE M 30 . To p ass a pla n e tangen t to a pher e

s and

thro ugh a gi ven l i ne .

Method P ass an auxil iary plane perpendicular to the give n

.

line through the ce n ter o f the sphere (This plan e cuts a great circle .

from the sphere an d wi ll cu t a li n e ta nge n t to this circle from th e

requi red tan ge nt plan e ) Revolve the auxil iary plan e with i ts
.

in tersec tio ns with the given l i n e and the sphere in to a plan e o f pro
j ec ti o n Through
. the poin t Of i n tersectio n o f the give n li n e with

the auxiliary plan e draw a lin e ta ngen t to the circular i n tersectio n

o f the auxiliary pla n e with the Sphere A plan e passed through .

th e ta n ge n t li n e ( whe n revolved to i ts o riginal o r true position )

and th e giv en li ne is the o n e r eq uired .

R CIS E S E XE

Draw a pl ane tange n t to a Sphere and passi ng thro ugh

an y ob lique lin e .

P ass a plan e through a lin e parallel to the X axis an d

tange n t to a sphere wi th i ts cen ter in the horizo n tal
plan e .

73 . Convo l utes . regular prism wi th sixteen sides

I n Fig 37 . a

is Shown Th e studen t must n o w f orm a me n tal pic ture o f a righ t

.

tria n gle made o f thi n card b oard resti n g o n th e pro j ectio n i

,
h 3 k

in the figure This proj ectio n shall be al so the horizon tal leg o f
.

the trian gle The vertical leg is Shown in the fron t pro j e ction o f
.

the prism by the distan ce from 17 to the bas e We c an imagi n e .

then suc h a paper triangle wrapp ed aro und th e pri sm wi th th e ver

tical leg through i held station ary and the long leg of th e triangle
always touches the b ase of the prism The fro n t proj ectio n .

o f the hypothe n use o f this paper tria n gle is the n a b roke n li n e

co nn ectin g the front proj ectio n s Of the poin ts i h g c b a , , , , , .

E ach portio n of this b roke n li n e i s equ al l y in cl in ed to the edges

o f the prism The horizo n tal proj ectio n Of the h ypothe n use is
.

the broke n lin e j o in ing the horizo n tal proj ectio n s of the same poi n ts .

The surface o f the paper trian gle i s n o w u n wrapped tak i ng it o ff ,

o n e S ide of the prism at a time A n d if i t is tur n ed o n each

.

edge of the prism i n successi on as o n a hinge till each un wrapped ,

portio n co i ncides with the plan e of the n ext Side the portio n o f ,

the hypothe n use that has b ee n released b ecomes an exte n sio n an d

a tange n t Of the portio n o f the b roke n li n e o n that side of the prism .

Thus whe n the portio n b etwee n a and b is u nwr apped it b ecomes ,

tange n t to the S ide in which b c lies ; an d whe n also the portio n

b etwee n b an d c is u n rolled the portio n a b c o f the h ypothe n use i s
,

tan ge n t to the side co n tain i n g 0 d .

Let us n o w co n sider the properties Of this b roke n li n e from

a to i The portion a b i n tersects b c b c in tersects c d etc ; tha t
.
, ,
.

“
is the y in tersec t tw o an d two ; b u t a b does n o t i n tersect c d
”
,

no r does b c i n tersec t d e etc , .

74 . C o n sider also an other property of the li n e o n the b roke n

prism If the n umb er of S ides of the prism is in creased in defi n itely
.
,

the b roken lin e o n its surface b ecomes a curve called a h eli x It is .

a curve ge n erated by a poin t movi n g o n the surface Of a cylin der

Of revolution SO as to cut all the eleme n ts at a co n stan t a ngle The .

movi n g poin t has u n iform motio n ar o u n d an d at the same time ,

pa r a ll e l ,
to the axis o f the cyli n der The method for
. co n struc ti n g

a helix i s Shown i n Fig 38 The axis of the hel i x is vertical SO

. .
,

that the horizo n tal proj ection is a circle with its cen ter at o in
the axis N ow if the ge n erati n g poin t moves the d istan ce from
.

m i to vf i n maki n g o n e complete revolutio n a b out th e axis ,

passin g th rough the poi n ts m p s t u an d v the vertical dista nc e

, , , , , ,

b etwee n W an d vf is called th e i tch Of th e helix

p .
 75 . A cu r e d v
is formed o f the tangen ts to th e
su rf ace

broke n li n e in Fi g 37 whe n the n umb er O f S ides O f the prism

.

has b een in creased in defi n itely an d it b ecomes a cylin der ,

.

The elemen ts o f this surface are the li n es m b n c o d p e q f , , , , ,

etc S uch elemen ts when tange n t to a cyli n de r form a co n

.

volute su rf ace P ortion s o f such surfaces are represe n ted i n

.

Figs 39 an d 4 0
. They are surfaces ge n erated by a str aigh t
.

lin e m ovi n g alon g a c u rve o f dou bl e cu rv atu re so th at th e li n e ,

i s alw ay s t an gen t to th e cu rv e I n this surface agai n an y two .

, , ,

b u t n o three c on secutive straight l i n e eleme n t lie i n the same

,

plan e .

The co nvolute surface i n Fig 4 0 can b e regarded as formed .

by the co n secutive positio n s of the hypot he n use O f a paper tria n gle

as it is u n wou n d from the surface of a cylin der o f which the b ase
h "
is the circle a d n e
h h
The poin t a at the en d of the u n wi n din g
.

tria ngle will always lie i n the curve a c i f i n the hori z o n tal plan e
h h h h
.

This curve is the in v o lute of the circular b ase of the cyli n der ;
b u t it is also the hori z o n tal trace o f the co n volute surfac e The .

cyli n der itself i s n o part of the s u rface O b serve the striki ng .

resemblan ce b etwee n the way this surface wi n ds arou n d a cyl i n der

an d the c o n volutio n s o f a sea —S hell .

Whe n a helical co n volute is to be represe n ted o n a drawi n g

the curve of the hel i x to which the surface is ta nge n t should
b e accurately co n structed — draw i ng first the top and fro n t views ,

Of the cylin der o n which it lies If the axis is vertical with the .
,

b ase i n the horizo n tal pla n e it is show n ab ove that the horizo n ,

tal trace of the co n volute is the in volute Of the c i rcular b ase .

If a poi n t m o n the con volute surface i n Fi g 4 0 is given

76 . .

o nly by the horizon tal proj ectio n m the fro n t proj ectio n can be
h
,

foun d by co n structio n The horizo n tal proj ectio n o f an elemen t

.

If a tan gen t ro l l s u pon a fix d c u ve an y p i n t

e r ,
o o mi t d esc ri b es a s ec o n d

cu r v e c al l e d an in v o l u te O f th e fi st I n Fi g 4 0 su pp
r . . o se a th re a d to b e w o u n d
on th e c i rc u l a r b ase an d k pt
e tau t as i t is u n w o un d f ro m th e e nd O f th e
th re ad at a , th en th e en d a t a w i l l d es c ri be th e c ur v h h
e a c i h
f
"
, al l c ed th e
i n vo l u te of th e c i rcl e .
pass i ng through the poin t m can b e drawn tangen t to the c i rcul ar
b ase at n " an d it will in tersect the in volute at i
,
" The front .

proj ection s o f n an d i are respectively in the helix at rd an d at 17 ,

.

B y drawin g the proj ectio n i n} i a

f n d a projecti n g lin e from m
h
the ,

fro n t proj ectio n o f m is determi n ed .

The solution can b e reversed : If the fron t proj ection Of a poin t

o n the c o n volute surface is give n the horizo ntal proj ectio n c an b e ,

fou n d .

77 . PR OBLE M 31 . Gi ven o ne pr o ecti onjo f a poi n t on a co n vo lu te

Method Draw a proj ec tio n o f an eleme n t through the give n

.

proj ec tio n Of the poin t D etermin e the other proj ection of this
.

eleme n t an d locate o n it the required projec tio n o f the poi n t .

E X E R CIS E S
Draw the pro j ectio n s o f ten equidis tan t elemen ts o f a
helical co nvolute surface with a vertical axis The .

diameter an d pitch of the helix are respectively 2 i n ches

an d 3 in c hes .

Fi n d the i n tersectio n s o f the con volute surface give n i n

E x 1 1 9 with tw o plan es perpen dic ul ar to the ax
. is of
the hel i x Ob serve the Shape o f the c urves cut by these
.

plan es .

Draw the pro j ections o f six elemen ts o f a con volute sur

f ace O f which the axi s is parallel to the X axis The .

diameter and pitch o f the helix are respectivel y2 % i n ches

an d 4 i n ches A ssume o n e pro j ectio n of a poi n t o n the
.

surface an d locate the other proj ection (Use the Side .

plan e ) .

D raw tw o helices o n e right han ded an d the other left

,
-

han ded o n a cylin d er 1} in ches I n di ameter an d 2 i n ches

,
7

high the former to b e Of 1 in ch pitch an d the latter

,

Of in ch pitch
1
2 .

Represe n t a square thread ed screw Of the followin g -

 dimen sio n s : O u tside diameter o f the thread is 2 } in ch es 7 .

Diameter at the b ottom o f the thread is 1 5 i n ches .

Pitch is 1 inch Thick n ess O f the thread is 4 i n ch

. .

S how two complete turn s of the thread .

A Spiral sprin g is O f the form of a square screw thre ad .

The cross sectio n is 4 i n ch square and the outside diam

-
,

eter an d pitch are respectively 3 i n ches an d 2 in ches .

Draw two complete turn s of the sprin g .

”
A Spiral Sprin g is made Of rou n d wire as S hown i n the fi gure
b elow .The diameter o f the wire is 5 in ch The outside «
.

diameter O f the spri n g is 2 } in ches an d the pitch is 2

i n ches Draw the plan an d elevation o f tw o tur ns O f
.

the Sprin g .

Su ggesti on If a Spiral Spring is made Of roun d wire

.
,

w e co n ceive its surfa ce to b e ge n erated by a sphere m o v

i ng alo ng a helix which is the ce n ter li n e o f the wire .

The proj ec tion s o f the helix are fi rst drawn and the n
th e projectio n s o f the sphere i n a n um b er o f di fferent
positio n s .

7 8 . PROBLE M 32 . To pass a plane tangen t to a co nvo lu te sur

face through gi ven o i n t on the su rface

a p .

Method (The same as for the con e o r the cylin der ) Through
. .

th e give n poi n t draw an eleme n t of the surface A t the in tersectio n

.

o f this eleme n t with the b ase draw a ta nge n t The requi red plane
.

is determin ed b y the eleme n t an d the tan ge n t lin e .

79 . PROBLE M 33 . To pa ss a pla n e tan gen t to f

a co n vo l u te su r ace

and throu gh i v i t o u tsi de the su r face

a g n e po n .

Metho d . Through the give n poi n t pass a p lan e w hi ch is per

en d i cu l ar to the axis of the Surface The i n tersectio n of thi s pla n e
p .

with the surface is an i n volute to which a tan ge n t is then drawn

,

from the give n poi n t Draw an eleme n t o f the surface at the poin t
.
of ta n ge n c y T his element
. an d the tan gen t lin e determi n e
req uired plan e .

E XE R CISE S
12 6 . Draw a plan e tange n t to the helical c onvolute c onstructed
i n E x 1 1 9 at any poi n t o n the surface
.
,
.

127 . Draw a plan e tangen t to the con volute surfac e c onstruc ted
in E x 1 2 1 and through any po in t o u tside th e surface
. .
 C HA P T E R IV

I N T E R SECT I O NS A ND DE V E L O PME NT S O F SO LI D S

80 .The i n tersectio n o f an y su r f ace with a gi v en pl an e is fou n d

by passi n g a series o f au xi li ary pl an e s I n such a way that they cu t
,

from the sur face strai gh t lin es c i rcl es o r oth er cu rv es th at can

, ,

b e qu i ck l y dr awn ; an d from the give n plan e strai gh t l i n e s The,

.

in tersectio n s o f these li n es cut from the surface with the l in es cut ,

from the plan e determin e poin ts o n the required i n tersectio n

, .

Whe n straight li n e elemen ts can b e cut from the surface the aux
il i ary plan es are usually passed perpe n dicular to o n e o f the pla n es
o f proj ectio n Wh en circles c an b e cut from the surface the aux
.
,

i l i ary plan es should b e drawn par a llel to the plan e o f pro j ection o n
which the proj ection s o f the circles w il l appear i n their true form .

The tan gen t to a cu rve o f i ntersectio n at a give n poin t o n a su r

face lies i n the plan e which cuts from the surface this lin e o f i n
tersecti o n It is als o a li n e i n the tange n t plan e to the surface at
.

the give n poin t .

81 . The curve o f i n tersection o f an o bli qu e c on e with a plan e P

is Shown i n Fig 4 1 . The required curve o f in tersectio n is shown
.

i n the figure by its elliptical proj ectio n s o n which the po m ts s an d t

are marked The curve is Ob tai n ed b y drawi n g a series o f au xili ary
.

p l an e s t h r o u g h th e v e rtex o f th e c o n e an d p p
e r en di c u l ar to th e f r o n t

p l an e ( the horizo n tal traces wil l b e perpe n dicular to the X axis ) i

.

E ach auxiliary plan e cuts from the c on e el em en t s an d from the ,

given plan e a strai gh t li n e I n the fi gure o ne o f these auxiliary

.
,

plan es is marked b y its traces H A an d F A This auxiliary plan e .

cuts from the c on e the elemen ts a v an d b v an d from the plan e

a straight lin e m n The in tersection s o f the proj ection s o f this last
.

lin e with the proj ection s o f a v an d b v give respectivel y the poin ts

3 an d t o n the re q uired li n e o f i n tersec ti o n .
 The curve o f in tersection o f an obli que c ylinder with a given
plan e is foun d by the same ge n eral method usin g auxiliary planes ,

that will cut eleme n ts from the surface o f the cyli n der and straigh t
lin es from the give n plan e .

82 . A pl an e w h i ch i s tan gen t to a gi ven c o n e o r a cyli n der,

c o n tai n s an el em en t o f i ts su rf ace If , then , the surface o f a co n e ,
.

or a cylin der is rolled o n a tangen t plan e u n til each o f its eleme n ts

,

has come in to this plan e the par t Of the plan e passed over and
,

i n c luded b etween the extreme elemen ts is a pl an e su rf ace equ al to

th e gi v en su rf ace The surface thus p as sed over is called a dev elop
.

men t I n o rder to determin e the positio n s o f the diff ere n t ele

.

me n ts o f the surface as they come in to the plan e o f developme n t ,

it is n ecessary to lo cat e so m e c u rv e o n th e su rf ace w h i ch wi ll

dev elo p i n to a str aigh t l i n e Or a sim pl e curv e upo n which the actual ,

distances betw een th e eleme n ts can b e laid o ff

.
.

I n Fig 4 2 an Ob lique cyli n der is Shown

. The sectio n cu t .

f rom thi s c y li n der b y a hori z o n tal pla n e happe n s to b e a circle .

Through the poin t a a plan e is passed cutting the surface i n the ,

straight li n e through the poi n ts a c and e The curve of in ter, ,

.

sectio n whe n revolved through 90 in to the plan e o f the drawi n g

°

is shown as the circle 1 2 3 4 5 T h e ci rcumferen ce o f th i s

, , , ,
.

c i rc l e i s th e a ctu al l en gth o f th e dev elo pm en t o f th e cyli n de r .

If we wish to develop the part Of the cylin der ab ove the i n ter
sectio n we draw the b ase li n e a a making its le n gth equal to the
, ,

c ircumfere n ce of the circular i n tersectio n A poi n t b o n the curve

'
.
, ,

of the dev elopme n t is immediately located over the poin t a at a ,

distan ce laid o ff o n an eleme n t equal to that from a to b i n the

,

to p b ase .O ther poin ts are take n in the same way To locate .

an other poi n t o n the curve of the devel o pm en t th e distan ce 1 2 ,

'

is laid O ff o n the b ase li n e equal to the arc 1 2 an d the le ngth

, ,

c d is the width at this poi n t o f the surface we are developi n g .

B y co n ti n uin g the process a series o f poin ts is Ob tai n ed an d the ,

surface in cluded b etwee n the curve drawn through these p oin ts

an d the b ase li n e is the developme n t o f the surface o f the cyli n der

ab ove the in tersectio n with the plan e passed through a .

 The method for the developmen t o f a con e b ei ng similar it ,

ne eds n o expl an ti o n .

The problems relating to developme nts Of surfaces are co n

stan tl y appl i ed by w o rk e rs i n sh ee t m etal O f course theoretic .
,

ally i t makes n o diff ere n ce which elemen t o f the surface is cut

,

“
for the developmen t ; b u t practically it is eco n omical to ou t
, ,

”
so as to make the shortest seam unless however there are good , , ,

reaso n s for doi ng otherwise .

83 . PROBLE M 34 . To fi nd
‘

the i n tersecti on o f an y cone wi th an y

pla n e .

Method P ass through the co ne a series o f aux i liary plan es

.

take n either perpe n dicular to its axis or through the vertex an d ,

perpe n dicular to o ne of the plan es o f proj e ctio n Fo r the curve .

o f i n tersectio n j oi n the poi n ts where the l i nes cut from the c o n e

in ters ect th e l in es cu t from the plan e

’

. .

E XE R CIS E S

Draw the c urve o f i n tersectio n o f a right c one axis ver ,

tical with an Ob lique plan e Draw the devel opmen t

,
.

o f the portio n Of the co n e b etwee n the li n e o f i n ter

sectio n an d the vertex .

Taking the data of E x 4 2 determin e the curve o f i n ter

.
,

sectio n o f the co n e of rays of maximum in te ns ity with

the plan e Of the desk .

Make the draw i ngs for the patterns o f the b ath tub -

shown i n the figure o n page 1 34 .

S u gg ti n Th is exercise requires merely the devel

e s o —

O pm e n t of porti on s o f tw o c o n es with vertices at n and

o an d the patter n s o f pla n e surfaces

,
As sume sui table .

dimen sio n s for those n o t give n i n this exercise and i n ,

those that follow .

Draw a pattern for the sheet metal for a regularly flaring

( co n i ca l ) roof co n n ectio n lik e the o n e Shown i n the
 figure . xis o f the cyli ndri cal p1pe is vert i cal and
Th e a

th e pla n e o f the roof is represen ted by R( 0 ,

A con ical tower is to b e placed o n the righ t han d s i de -

o f the irr egul ar hi p roof shown i n E x 82

. S how the .

true size of the hole to b e cut i n the roo f .

Sugge ti on
s — Fi n d the true size o f the curve o f in ter
sectio n b y r evo l vi ng the cu rve ab out o ne o f the traces

o f its pla n e in to a plan e of proj ectio n . C f A rt 5 3 . . .

Dr aw the pattern fo r a b oot to j oin two pieces o f stove

pipe o n e o f which is c ircular and the other oval
, .

The circul ar pipe is 6 in ches i n diameter an d the oval

,

pipe is represen ted by parallel sides 2 } in ches apart

,
1

an d 5 4 in ches long wi th se micircles at the en ds o f

,

th e parallel Sides I n other words the over all di men

.
,
-

s io ns o f the oval are 8 in ch es by 2 k in ch es Mak e the .

“ oo ” 1 0 in ches long
b t . .
 84 . PRO B L E M 35 . To nd
fi the i n tersecti o n o f an y cyli nder wi th

any pl an e .

Method Pass through the cylin der a series o f auxili ary plan es
.
,

taken either perpen dicul ar to its axis o r parallel to its axis and
,

p erpe n dicular to o n e o f the pla n es o f proj ectio n Fo r the cu rve o f

.

in tersectio n joi n the poi n ts where the l in es cut from the cyli n d er
in tersec t the l i n es cut from the give n plan e .

EXE R CIS E S
Fin d the true size and shape o f the hole cut fo r a circular
chi mn ey i n a ti n coveri n g fo r the right ha n d S ide o f the -

hi p roof give n i n E x 7 9 . .

Draw the pattern for the i n cli n ed en d o f a b ath tu b with a -

semicircular cross —sectio n ( The

. in cli n ed e n d is as
sumed to be a plan e surface .

Fi n d the true size of the Ope n i n g to b e cut in the wal l

Shown i n Fig 5 1 for a pipe 3 feet in diameter maki n g
.
,

an gles o f 30 an d 2 0 respecti vel y wi th the hori z o n tal

° ° ‘

an d with the vertical pla n e Of the b ack o f the wall .

I n the figure a flue from a b oiler house is Shown pass -

in g through the roof o f a smal l Shed Fi n d the true .

 i e o f the hole that w as cut in the roof for the flue
s z .

Make a pattern to Show a Sheet o f ti n to cover this roof

w ith the hole cut o u t f o r the flue D evelop th e i n
.

cl i n ed portio n o f the flue ab ove the roof (S elect suit .

ab le data fo r the co Ordinates o f the poin ts that are

marked in the fi gure ) .

85 . PRO B LE M 36. To fi nd the o f i nter secti on f

o f
an y su r a ce

o f revo l u ti on wi th any pl a n e
.

M ethod Pass through the surface o f revolutio n a series o f auxil

.

i ary plan es perpe n dicular to its axi s These plan es cut circles from
.
curve of in tersectio n .

E X E R CIS E S
1 38 . Fi n d
the i n tersectio n o f the torus given i n E x 1 1 6 with
.

an O b lique pla n e .

139 . Draw the proj ecti o n s of the hexago n al n u t S hown i n the

figure represen ti n g accurately the lin es o f in tersectio n
, .

“
1 40 . Draw accurately the curves o f the stub end of a co nn ec t
i n g rod
-
.

14 1 . The b lades Of a ve n tilatin g fan are plan e surfaces attached

to a Spherical h u b S how the in tersectio n s
. .
 86 The in tersecti o n o f any two curved su rf aces is fou nd by
.

p as sing auxiliary plan es to cut from each surface l in es tha t can

be easily co n structed The in tersectio n s Of these li n es give
.

poin ts o n the required curve o f in tersectio n The auxil iary .

plan es should b e selected so that the li n es cut f rom the surfaces

are straight lin es circles parallel to a plan e o f proj ectio n o r some
, ,

other curve o f which the proj ectio ns can be easily drawn .

87 . A shaded drawi n g of tw o i n tersecti ng co n es is shown

I n Fi g 4 3
. . The same co n es are shown i n orthographic pro j ectio n
i n Fi g 44
. . The curves o f i n terse ctio n that are shown were o h
tai n ed b y the use o f auxiliary pla n es passed SO as to cut elemen ts
from each co n e ; i n other words the auxiliary plan es were passed
,

through the vertices Of b oth c o n es The elemen ts cut from each

'

co n e b y an auxiliary plan e are drawn through its i n tersectio n s with

the b ase an d through the vertex .

I n Fi g 4 4 an auxilia ry plan e A i s marked

.
,
S in ce it is a
,
.

plan e passin g through the vertices o f b oth c on es its horizo n tal ,

trace H A is draw n through the i n tersection o f the lin e v w with

"
, ,

the p lan e of the b ases marked x ,

O b serve that the horizo n tal
.

p rojectio n s O f the co n es are represe n ted o n the pla n e of the b ases

an d that n o w the li n e through d d i x i

,
is used as the axi s S howin g
,

the intersectio n Of the hori z o n tal an d fro n t plan es The auxiliary .

plan e cuts from the co n e with vertex v the eleme n ts c v an d d v; ,

an d from the co n e with vertex w the eleme n ts a w an d b w

,
.

The i n tersectio n s of the horizo n tal proj ection s of these elemen ts

two an d two determin e the horizo n tal proj ectio n s Of four poin ts
”
,

o n the curves o f i n tersectio n . The curves in the fron t proj e ction

are Ob tain ed b y drawin g the proj ection s Of the eleme n ts Of o n e
con e an d proj ecti ng o n them the poin ts in the horizon tal pro
,

i o n s o f the curves of i n tersectio n The pro j ectio n s o f two

j e c t .

p oi n ts i n the curves are m arked m an d n .

88 PROBLE M 37 To find the curve of i ntersecti on o f two cones

.
.

Method P ass through the con es auxiliary plan es drawn through

.
th eline j o mmg their vertices E lemen ts cut from each con e by
.

these pla n es determin e by their in tersection s the requir ed curv e .

E X E RCI SES
Fi n d the curve o f in tersection of tw o right con es with axes
that do n o t in tersect The axis of o n e co n e is horizo n
.

tal the o ther verti cal Draw the developme n t of the

, .

co n e with the horizon tal axis showing the curve o f

‘

i n tersection .

Draw the curve o f in tersection o f two oblique con es with

i n tersecting axes S how the developmen t o f o n e o f the
.

c on es .

89 . the meth od most comm onl y used for fi n din g

I n Fi g 4 5 .

the in tersectio n of two cylin ders is shown The solutio n is a

~ .

si mplified met h od o f passing plan es perpen dicular to the fro n t

plane— o ne set parallel to the axis o f the smaller cylin der an d
an other set parallel to the axis of the larger cyli n der The figure .

is lettered so that n o other explanatio n is n eeded .

90 . P R O B LE M 38 . To fi nd the cu r ve o f i n ter secti o n o

f two

cyl i nders .

Method P ass through the cylin ders tw o sets of auxiliary

.

plan es o ne set parallel to each axis The eleme n ts cut from each
,
.

cyli nder b y these planes determi n e by their in tersection s the re

quired curve .

E X E RCI SES
D raw accurately the li n es o f i n tersectio n appearing o n th e
surfac e o f the flanged pipe fitti n g shown i n the figure ,

o n page 1 44 The fitti ng is made u p of two cyli n ders

.

with their axes i n tersecti n g each other symm etrically .

Fi n d the i n tersectio n of tw o ob lique cylin ders with their

b ases i n the hori z o n tal plan e .

A vertical steam drum is to b e put o n a horizo n tal cyl i n

-
 dri cal b oiler .Make a pattern to show the size of th e
h ole to b e cut i n the b oiler plate
.
(C f Fig
. .

147 . Fin d the intersection o f tw o cyli n ders forming a b ran ch

“
Y fo r a b lowpipe as show n i n the figure o n page 14 6 .

D evelop b oth cylin ders to show the curve of in tersection .

91 . a very
I n Fi g 4 6
. simple case o f the i n tersectio n of a co n e
an d a cyli n der i s shown
s
The horizo n tal proj ectio n of the c yli n der
.

shows immediately the hori z on tal proj ectio n of the curve of in ter
section an d th e front proj ection o f the curve is fou n d by proj ection
. .
Horizon t al lines
drawn through the fro n t pro j ections of the
are

po in ts a b and c to show a simple method for fi n di ng the tr ue

, ,

le ngths o f elemen ts of the c on e an d the true distan ces from the

,

vertex o f poi n ts o n an eleme n t These true le ngths are needed for

.

a d evelopme n t o f the surface o f the co n e

. .

This is a special c ase . The ge n eral method is stat ed i n the

n ext pr o bl em .

92 . P RO B LE M 39 . To find the cu rve o f i nter secti on of a cyli nder

and a con e .

Method P ass through the vertex o f the c o n e auxiliary p lan es

.

parallel to the axis o f the cylin der The eleme n ts cu t from each .

surf ace by these plan es determin e b y their i n tersectio n s the requ i r ed

curve .

When th e two surfaces have circular b ases i t is most ad van ,

tageo us to use aux i liary pla n es which cut circles from each s u rface .

E X E RCI SES
A c ircular tower has a co n ical roof through which a hori
z o n tal pipe passes Fi n d the size of a coverin g for the
.

roof an d show i n the developme n t the hole cut for the

pipe .

Fin d the i n tersectio n o f an o b lique c o n e with a righ t

cylin der The axes do n o t in tersect and o ne axis is
.
,

parallel and the other perpe ndicul ar to the front plan e .

Make the n ecessary pa tter ns fo r an arch stone o f a coni c al

arch i n a c ircular w all .
 A horizo n tal steam pipe 1 1 i n ches i n diameter is in tersected
7
;

b y a co n ical n o z z le an d two smaller vertical pipes as

shown i n the figure The s10 pe o f the curved s u rface o f
.

the n oz z le is 7 53
.

( a ) D etermi n e the developed true size o f the hole c u t in

the hori z o n tal pipe by the n o z zle .

( )
b Develop the c o n ical surface of the n ozzle .

1 52 . Fin d the i ntersectio n of the co n e an d the cylin der formin g

the steam exhaust head shown i n the figure o n page 1 5 0
- .

93 . P RO B L E M 40 . To fi nd the l i n e o f i n ter secti o n o f an y tw o

f f
su r a ces o
r evo l u ti o n ( spher e el li pso id to ru s
, , ,

Method If the axes of the two s u rfaces of revolution in tersec t

.
.
th e poi n t of in tersection of the axes is taken as the cen ter fo r a
series o f auxiliary spheres These plan es cut c ircles from each
.

surface The in tersection s o f these circles with each other are

.

poin ts o n the required curve .

If the axes do n o t in tersect pass through the surfaces auxiliary

,

pla n es perpe n dicular to the ax i s of o n e surface an d cut ti n g circles

from that surface an d cuttin g some other curve from the

,

surface . The i n tersectio n s of the correspo n din g proj ectio n s o f the

curves give the poin ts to b e foun d .

Fig 47 shows the in tersectio n o f a sphere with an ellipsoid

. . T he
poin t m is take n as the cen ter for the auxiliary spheres ( at the i n
terse c ti o n of the axes ) The arcs of the auxiliary circles shown de
.

termin e b y their i n ter sectio n the poi n t xf B y co n ti n ui n g this

.

co n structio n a series o f poin ts is ob tai n ed which whe n conn ecte d

by a smooth curve gives the li n e o f i n tersectio n at bf .The hori
z o n tal proj ectio n is ob tai n ed easily b y proj ectio n .

E X E R CI SES

1 53 . Draw the curve o f i n tersectio n o f a sphere and an ob lique

co n e
.

1 54 . Draw the lin e of i n tersectio n o f the ellipsoid and th e toru s

shown i n the first figure o n p age 1 52 .
 Suggesti o n U se th e a
pp x i
rom a te meth o d t
o f ol rc u l ar arc s f or co n str u cti n g

th e el li p se i n th e fi gu re ,
mak i ng C D A B F'
E Oh Oh F an d G 0h
oh H r E o h .

1 55 A pi pe fitting is shown i n the figure bel ow The cente r

"
. .

line of o n e portio n is the arc o f a circle i n tersectin g

the axis of the smaller portion whi ch is cylin drical .

Make the diameters respectively 1 } i n ches an d 1 i n ch 7

.

Draw the curves o f i n tersectio n o n the outside

o f the fitt i n g .
T h e sewer show n i n the figure b elow by its sectio n is i n ter
se cted by two elliptical sewers with ma j or an d m in or

axes o f 4 feet an d 2 % feet . The dimen sion marked r

for the large sewer i s 5 feet S how i n a pl an drawi n g
.

the li n es o f i n tersectio n to be made i n the mason ry where

the sewers meet The b ottoms o f the three sewers
.

are i n the same pla n e . The small s ewers are o n o p

o si te sides o f the large sewer
p ,
.
 CHA PT E R V

MI S CE LLANE O U S P R A C TI CAL E XE RCI S E S

'

A shaft o f a min e follows approximately th e l i n e b etwee n

the poi tsn a — 3 an d b 1 -
, ,

A tu nn el is to be made from a poi t e n — 1§

o n the side of a mou n tai n to i n tersect the shaft Fin d .

the shortest le n gth o f the tu nn el an d the a n gle be ,

twee n the ce n ter lin e o f the shaft and the ce n ter li n e

of the tu n n el .

I n Fi g 4
. 8 a cha nn el an d an I —
b eam are show n as the y
i n tersect i n a roof Take the followi n g co ordi n ates
.

fo r the poi n ts mark ed i n the figure : a

b _
4) C ( + 5% _
47 d
—
e ,
a s) ,
e (w e 2 , ,
—l
i) , i (w e ,
4 4
,
n

u) ,

(9 4-
3 3,
1
5
—21
5, 7 O) h
, Draw the proj ections
-
2,
o f a bent pl a te con n ecti o n an d in a secti o n drawi n g
Show the true a n gle b etwee n its sides .

A cylin drical pipe 2 feet i n diameter passes through the

, ,

roofs shown i n Fi g 1 4 a t a poi n t i n the i n tersectio n

.

o f the roofs The axis o f the pipe is perpen dicular

.

to the l in e o f i n tersectio n an d is i n cl i n ed 4 5 from th e

°

vertical Fin d the true size of the hole cut o u t o f

.

the roofs for the pipe .

O b tain by developme n t the true si z e and shape o f the

coverin g n eeded for a sy m metrical dome with eigh t
sides .

I n Fi g 4 9 a portio n of a locomotive b oiler is shown

. .

Make the to p elemen t o f the slope sh eet at an in cli n a

tion o f 30 to the hori z o n t al and show the true srz e
°
,

o f a steel plate to b e used i n maki n g the slope sheet .

The san d —b o x o n a locomotive sta n ds partly o n the slope

 sheet and partl y o n the cyl in drical portio n Fin d .

the shape of the b ottom o f the sa n d b o x to fit the -

b oiler draw n for E x 1 61 . .

163 .
Make the pattern for the co ni cal portio n o f the eave
t ro ugh outlet shown in the figure .

164 . A b loc k wood with a s quare cross sec tion has b ee n

of -

turn ed i n a lathe to the shape shown i n the figure .

S how the lin es of in tersection b etween the part with

the square sectio n and the c o n ical portio n .

Make the patterns for the —

oil can an d grocer s scoop
’

shown o n page 1 60 .

The stack of a b oiler is supported b y gusset plates as —

show n i n Fi g 50 Make the pattern s for the gusset

. .

plates .

Fin d the i n tersectio n o i a sphere with a cyli n der whose

axis does n o t pass through the ce n ter of the sphere .

Fin d the in tersectio n of the cyli n drical ceilin g o f a corridor

with the hemispherical ceil i n g of a vaul t .
DO ME
4

O
D EVE L P ME NT O F T H E SLO P E SHE ET .

FI G . 49 .
 A semicircul ar wire loop 1 } in ches i n diameter rotates on
,
7
,

a vertical axis supported at the poin ts a — 1 ,

an d b —1 — 1f
}) at the en ds o f its vertical
’

diameter A b all in ch i n diameter is attached to the

.
, ,

en d o f a hori z o n tal supportin g arm

an d revolves ab ou t

the poi n t c The distan ce from th e

cen ter o f the b all to the ce n ter of revolution is 1 inch .

Will the ball meet the wire loop ?

A metal shade for an electric lamp is made up o f a hemi

sphere and half o f a circular cylin der The axis o f the
.

cyli der passes through the ce n ter o f th e Sphere D raw

n
.

the i tersection of the two surfac es an d a pattern to b e

n

u ed i n cutti ng o u t the metal to m

s
ake the shade .

Fin d the i n tersectio n of a hexago n al prism with

an o b liqu e

pla e
n . D raw the developme n t of the par t o f the prism
ab ove the li ne o f in tersectio n .
1 72 . Make a pattern for o n e of the section s of the stovepip e
el b ow shown i n the figure .

I n Fi g; 5 1 a b uttress i n a slopi ng wall is

shown T h e .

d i me n sio n s c an d 9 are 1 0 feet an d 8 feet

. respectively .

As sume other suitab le dime n sio n s and make all the

,

pat tern s a sto n e cutter wil l n eed for makin g the top
-

sto n e of the buttress .

Make the patter n s for the furn ace setter s o ffset b oot
-
’

shown i n the figure The sectio n of the top portio n is

.

oval an d of the lower portio n circular .

1 75 . the size o f the hole tha t must be cu t i n the roof of

Fi n d
th e shed i n E x 1 3 7 to allow a tigh t b el t to ru n betwee n
.

the pulleys q a n d r .

1 76 . Make the pattern s for the ash chute head show n i n F1g 52
-
. .
1 77 . D evelo p a portio n of the vertical pipe i n the accompan y
i n g fi gure to show the true si z e of the hole to b e cut s o
that the smaller pipe i n clin ed 30 to the vertical may
,
°
,

b e j oi n ed to it
. B oth pipes have circular sectio n s
.

1 78 . Make the pattern s for the tran sitio n conn ectio n b etween
a square duct an d a circular pipe .
 CHA PT E R VI

SH A D E S A ND S HAD O WS

94 . p erson w h o un derstan ds descriptive geometry can usuall y

A
get a correct co nception o f an ob j ect from the orthographic pro
j ec ti o n s o f its edges or other lin es of its co n tour A proper .

c o n ceptio n o f the form an d relatio n s of the d iff ere n t parts of some

o b j ects requires however more careful study o f the proj ection s

, ,

than is desirab le fo r practical purp oses Fo r this reaso n drawi ngs

.

are sometimes made to show an e ffect simil ar to that produced b y

the shad ows from illumin ation This eff ect is a great assistan ce
.

also i n makin g draw i n gs plain to person s who are un familiar with

th e methods of ort hographic proj ectio n .

The subj ect o f sh ades an d sh adow s treats o f the application

o f the methods f descriptive geomet ry to produce the e ffect o f
q
il lumi n atio n which gives a more real appearan ce to the proj ectio ns
,

o f an o b j ect .

If an Opaque b ody is placed n ear a source of light par t of th e ,

surface wi ll b e bright and the remain der will b e dark A portio n .

o f the li ght from the lumi n ous b ody wil l b e in ter cepted an d a

portio n of the space b ehin d the b od y will b e i n dark n ess Thi s .

dark space is call ed the sh adow o f the b ody and the lin e o n its ,

surface separatin g the b righ t side fro m the dark is the sh ade
lin e .

95 . co n e is shown near a vertical plan e P P aral

I n Fi g 5 3
. a .

lel rays of light are represe n ted pass in g through the poin ts a b c d , , , ,

an d v The i n te rsectio n s o f these rays wi th the p l a ne determi n e

.

the sh ado w o f the co n e o n the plan e The sh ade lin e is foun d by

.

j oini ng poin ts o n th e s urface where ravs are ta nge n t

‘
.

9 6 U nless it i s o therwise specified the rays o f light are

.
, to
be represe n ted by parallel lin es B y the usual co nve n tio n
. in
practical drafti n g the rays are take n as comin g over the left
shoulder so that the horizo n tal an d fro n t proj ectio n s o f a ray
,

make respectively an gles o f 4 5 an d 3 1 5 with the X axis

° °
.

97 . The method for co n structi n g the shadow of a co n e o n the

hori zo n tal plan e through its b ase is shown i n Fi g 5 4 The pro f . .

i n s of a ray through the vertex v are first draw n

j e c t o , an d
, th e ,

i n tersecti o n o f this ray with the plan e of the b ase is fou n d at the
poi n t marked by the proj ectio ns v and v Li n e s are drawn i n
1 2
.

the hori z o n tal proj ectio n tan ge n t to the b ase and through v These
1
.

are the limiti n g l i n es of the shadow an d determi n e at the poi n ts

o f ta n ge n cy the shade li n es e v an d d v .

“
Fi g 55 shows the shadow of a circular cap o n a cyli n drical
.

colum n S carcely an y expla n atio n is n eeded Rays are drawn

. .

”
through poi n ts o n the cap and their in tersectio n s with the sur
face o i the colum n are easily foun d The horizo n tal projecti o n s
.

of the rays determi n e the poi n ts of i n tersectio n The xerti c al .

shade li n es at ti and 37 are determi n ed by ta ngen t rays .

98 .The shadow of an ellipsoid o n a hori z o n tal pla n e P is show n , ,

i n Fi g 5 6
. The l i n e o f shade is made use o f to determi n e the shado w
. .

“
O bviously it is the li n e of co n tact with the ellipsoid of a cyli nder ”

of rays ta nge n t to the surface This li n e of co n tact is of course

.
, ,

an ellipse I n the figure two proj ectio n s of an ellipso i d are shown

. .

If a vertical auxiliary plan e A is draw n parallel to th e dire ctio n

,
’
,

o f the rays an d through the ce n ter 0 o f th e ellipsoid i ; will c u t an

‘

, , ,

elli p se from the ellipsoid an d two eleme n ts ta nge n t to the ellipse

“ ”
from the cyli n der of rays These poi n ts of tan ge ncy w ill b e the
.

highest an d lowes t poi n ts in the ellipse of shade I f the pla ne 4 i s . .

'

revolved ab out a vertical ax i s through 0 so that it is parallel to

the fro n t pla n e the sectio n cut from the ellipsoid by the auxiliary
,

pla n e will b e made to coin cide with the fro n t proj ectio n A ray .

drawn through the ce n ter 0 i n tersects the horizo n tal pla n e P at th e

poin t marked b y the proj ectio n s o an d 0 A fter revolutio n wi th
'
2
.

the auxiliary plan e th is ray is shown b y the proj ectio n s o 0 1 an dh

0 70 2 D r aw the fro n t proj ectio n s o f rays parallel to ta nge n t

to the revolved sectio n o f the ellipsoid at a l f an d bl f Whe n the .

plan e A is revolved b ack to its former positio n these tange n t

’

poin ts are at a an d b I n the fron t proj ection then ai bf is the

.
, ,

maj or axis of the ellipse of shade I n the horizo n tal proj ectio n o f
.

the ellipsoid a b is the min or axis of the ellipse of shade an d

h h
, ,

h h
e i perpe n dicular to a b is the maj or axis
h h
.

The shadow o f the ellipsoid o n the horizo n tal plan e P is the , ,

shadow ca st by a sec ti on of the ellipsoid i n cluded b y the ellipse of

shade T 0 fi n d this shadow determi n e the i n tersectio n s with the
.

plan e P o f rays through the poin ts 0 a b e an d f These poi n ts

, , , , ,
.

determi n e the maj or an d mi n or axes a b an d e f of the elliptical

,
’ ’ ’ ’
,

shadow .

E X E R CI SES
Fin d the shadow of an ellipsoid o n a vertical plan e .

Fi n d the shadow of a sphere (a ) o n a pla n e b elow an d

,

parallel to th e hori z o n tal plan e ; ( b) o n an o blique plan e .

D raw the shadow of a dormer wi n dow o n a roof .

D raw the shadow o f a chi m n ey o n a roof .

The stair ramp show n i n the figure i s parallel to the slope

o f the steps The i n cli n atio n o f the stairway i s 1 ver
.

tical to 2 hori z o n tal C o ns truct the shadow o f the

.

I m p o n the ste ps
'
.

Draw the cap an d column i n Fig 5 5 with the axis .

ho ri z o n tal i n stead of vertical S how the shade an d .

shadow .

Make a simple drawing o f a sectio n of an e n gin e cyli n der

through the cen ter li n e Represe nt the whole p isto n
.

i n the cylin der b y showin g the shadow o n the i n s i de

o f the cyli n der o f the po rtio n that proj ec ts b e y on d the

se ctio n .
 CHA PTE R VI I

W A R PE D S U R FACE S

99 . W arped are distinguished from plan e surfaces

su rf ac es

and surfaces of si n gle curvature ( co n es cyli n ders an d co n volutes ) b y , ,

a differen t positio n of the ele me n ts with respect to each other I n .

all the surfaces that have been discussed a plan e could always be ,

passed through at least tw o o f the co n secutive eleme n ts This

'

property was very serviceable for the solutio n of pro blems I n .

warped surfac es however n o two co n secutive eleme n ts lie i n the

, ,

same plan e ; t hat is li n e s draw n th rough an y tw o co n s ec utive

,

p ositio n s o f t h e str ai g h t li n e ge n e r ati n g t h e m ar e n e ith e r pa r

allel n o r i n te rse ctin g E xamples o f warped surfaces are show n i n

.

Figs 5 7a 5 7 b an d 58
.
, ,
.

A Warpe d su rf ace therefore may be ge n erated by a s trai gh t

, ,

lin e movi ng so th at it al w ays to u ch es tw o giv en lin es an d rem ai n s

.

p a r al l e l t o a g i ve n pl a n e * The fixed li n es which the

. movi n g li n e
touches are called t h e di re ctri ces an d the plan e is called the pl an e
di re cto r .

1 00 The h yperb oli c parab o l o i d is a warped surface with a

.

plan e director an d two straight li n e directrices which are n o t i n

the same plan e It takes its n ame from the fact that curved
.

sectio n s made by plan es cuttin g the surface are either hyperb olas
o r para b olas ( cf Fi g A s the directrices
. approach paral
.
«

l el is m the surface approaches a pla n e as a l i mi ti n g surface This .

surface is o f some practical importan ce as it is used i n maso n ry ,

co n structio n an d the cow—catcher o f a locomotive ( Fi g 60) is

,
.

usually o f this form .

Th e re is a gr eva t ari e t y of w ar p ed s u r f a c e s , al l d i ff e ri n g i n th e i r m o de
of ge n e rati o n a n d p p ro e rti es ; b u t th i s e x pl an ati o n is s uffi c i en t f o r th e s u rf aces

t h a t w i l l b e d i s c u sse d .
 Ina hyperb olic parab oloid any plan e parallel to a plan e director ,

will o u t each directrix i n a poin t an d the l in e j oi n i ng these two ,

poi n ts will b e an eleme n t o f the surface The eleme n ts may be .

regarded as lyi n g i n a series o f pl an es which are paral lel to the

plan e director an d dividing the two directrices proportio n ally .

If the n an y two straight li n es n o t i n the same plan e are divi ded

, ,

i n to proportio n al parts the straight li n es j o i n in g the correspo n d

,

i n g poi n ts o f divisio n are elemen ts o f the surface o f the hyperb olic

9
parab oloid .

101 The characteristic properties o f this surface can b e mos t

.

co n ve n ien tly i n vestigated by refere n ce to a pictorial drawi n g

showi n g the directrices an d the plan e director I n Fig 61 we . .

shall take for simplicity of represe n tatio n the horizo n tal plan e ,

marked H for the pla n e di recto r The li n es a c and b d shall be .

the di r ectri ces From poi n ts o n these li n es the elemen ts o f the

.

surface a b and c d are drawn parallel to the plan e director H

, , ,
.

Fo r the n ecessary co ns tructio n draw through the directri x a c ,

a vertical plan e V 1 parallel to b d an d cutti n g the plan e director

, ,

i n the lin e x1 1171 Then draw an other vertical plan e V2 parallel

.
, ,

to V I through b d cutti ng the plan e H i n the li n e x2

,
The lin e
c f is draw n perpe n dicular to xl x1 an d d g is draw n perpe n dicular ,

to x2 x2 ; therefore i g will b e parallel an d equal to c d Through .

an y poi n t i o n a c draw i j parallel to the pla n e director H an d

, , , ,

cutti n g b d i n j ; the n i f is an other eleme n t o f the surface The .

li n e i h is drawn perpe n dicular to x2 x2 an d i t perpe n dicular to ,

x1 ; the n l k will b e p arallel an d equal to i i A lso .

,

235—
4 }
1

l f
'

a t b h
Therefore an d I t foll ows that l ie an d f 9 cut a b In th e

same poi n t r N ow draw a plan e parallel to V I cutti n g a b i n

. , an y

poin t n the n its i n tersectio n wi th H w i ll b e parallel to xl x1

, , an d

n o li
W l ll cut lh In 0 , jg In m, an d - — also 0 9 is parallel an d
5771 c
e qual to ti an d mp is parallel an d equal to i a
. Therefore
which proves n qp i s a straight lin e i n tersectin g the
,

three elemen ts a b ,
i j ,
an d c d, an d dividi ng these elemen ts pr o

portion ally so tha t ,

a n i q cp
= '

n b qj p d

If the elemen ts a b an d c d are take n as directrices an d the vertical

plan e V1 as a plan e director the surface which is ob tain ed will be ,

ide n tical with that havin g a c and b d as directrices an d the plan e

H as its plan e d i rector The elemen ts a b i j etc are called
.
, ,
.
,

eleme n ts o f the fi rst gen e rati on an d those o f the other set as a c , , ,

n p etc
,
which are parallel to the vertical plan e VI are call ed
.
, , ,

eleme n ts of the sec on d gen eratio n We have show n the n that .

, ,

every eleme n t of eith er ge n eratio n i n tersects all those of the other .

Th is surface is do u bl y ru l ed; that is it h as two s ets o f ,

straight li n e eleme n ts an d through an y poin t o n the surface two

-
,

straight lin e eleme n ts can b e always drawn E ach elemen t o f

-
.

o n e ge n eratio n i n tersects n o eleme n t of its o w n se t b u t meets all ,

the eleme n ts of the other set The lin es o n the surface i n Fig 5 8 . .

show t h is doub le ruli n g very plai nl y .

102 . E lemen ts of the surface

a hyperb olic parab oloid are of

represe n ted i n Figs 62 an d 63 Two straight li n es a b an d c d

. .
,

o f defi n i te le n gth an d n o t i n the same pla n e are divided i n to th e

, ,

same n umb er of equal parts The lin es j oin in g correspon din g poi n ts .

o f divisio n are eleme n ts o f the surface A n eleme n t marked my .

is shown i n each figure O b serve that the di ffere n ce b etween .

the two figures is merely that the same poi n ts of division o n a b

an d c d are j oi n ed up di ffere ntly I n Fi g 62 the method of j oin i n g . .

the poi n ts of divisio n is the same as shown i n the pictorial drawi ng

i n Fi g 61 . .

If the di t i f a d f i ge eral are

'

319 .rec r c e s o w a r
pe s u r ac e n n no t

limited i n l en gth it is n ecessary to have give n the directrices o f

,

“
b oth systems o f rulin g o r the directrices an d plan e director o f
o ne sy stem This las t case is il lustrated i n Fi g 64 The lin es q r
. . .

an d s t are the direc trices an d th e pla n e director is give n b y its

,

tr aces H P an d F P To draw an elemen t of the surface then

.
, ,

s ome poi n t as e o n the directrix s t is assumed Through this poin t .

draw two lin es d l bl an d cl d l parallel to a b an d c d which are ,

an y two lin es i n the pla n e director The in tersection o f the plan e .

o f the tw o lin es through e with the directrix q r i s a poi n t i n the

required eleme n t of the surface This i n tersection can b e fou n d .

very simply with out fi n di ng the traces o f the plan e of the lin es
a l bl an d c l d l First pass through the li n e q r a plan e perpen
.

di cu l ar to the fro n t pla n e an d fi n d the in tersection s o f the li n es

a ; b1 an d c l d l with this pla n e The i n tersectio n o f a l bl with
.

th i s plan e has of course its fro n t proj ectio n i n the fro n t trace at
, ,

g
f
,
a n d a proj ecti n g li n e determ i n es the horizo n tal proj ectio n .

S i milarly cl d l i n tersects th e pla n e of q r at f an d the plan e o f

'

, ,

th e lin es a l bl an d c l d l i n tersects the directrix q r at i The , ,

.

lin e c i is in a plan e parallel t o the plan e director an d touches the

two directrices It is therefore an eleme n t of the surface through
.

an assumed poin t e B y this process any n umb er o f eleme n ts c an

.

b e draw n .

1 04 . If o ne proj ectio n o f a poin t o n any warped surface is

k n own an other proj ectio n may b e located b y drawi ng through
,

the give n proj ectio n a li n e perpe n dicular to the plan e of projectio n

i n which the give n proj ectio n is represe n ted Through this per .

e n d i c u l ar li n e pass a pla n e which will i n tersect the eleme n ts o f

p
the surface i n poi n ts which whe n j oin ed will give a lin e o n the , ,

surface The in tersectio n of this li n e with the other proj ectio n

.

of the perpe n dicular li n e is the required proj ectio n o f the poin t .

105 The h ype rb o l oi d o f revolution is a warped surface ge n e

.

rated by a straight lin e revolvi n g ab out an axis n o t lyin g i n the

same plan e wi th it Usually a vertical lin e is take n for the axis
. .

P roj ectio n s o f this surface showi n g a n umb er o f eleme n ts are

represe n ted i n Fi g 65 The method for co nstructi ng this surface
. .

is shown i n Fi g 66 The axis a b is vertical A n elemen t of th e

. . .
surface as m n is called a gen eratrix b ecause the surface can be
, , ,

gen erated by revolvi n g this lin e a b out the axis E ach poin t i n .

m n as it revolves ab out the axis descri b es a hori z o n tal circle T he .

true radius o f each circle is seen i n the horizo n tal proj ec tio n .

Thus the poin t r o n the ge n eratrix n earest the axis descri bes the
circle of which the diameter is shown i n the fro n t proj ectio n of
the surface as u f rf vf This smallest circle described by a poin t
.

i n the ge n eratri x i called the ci r cl e o f the go rge

s The diameter .

of the circle describ ed by a poi n t p is gl f (M which is equal to ,

h h
2 >< b p
The hyperb oloid o f revolutio n is a dou bl y ru led surface as ,

it h as tw o sets o f straight li n e eleme n ts O n e eleme n t o f each set

-
.

c an b e draw n through an y poi n t o n its surface A n eleme n t o f .

o n e ge n eratio n c an b e produced to i n tersect all those of the other

gen eratio n for the s imple reason that they lie upo n the same sur
,

face If the n an y three eleme n ts of either ge n eratio n are taken

.
, ,

as directrices an y eleme n t o f the other ge n eratio n may b e take n as

,

a ge n eratrix which when movin g will produce the same surfa ce

, , .

The method for drawi n g a plan e tan ge n t to a hyperb oloid o f

revolutio n is show n i n Fig 67 The plan e P shown i n the figure . .
, , ,

is ta n ge n t to the surface at the poi n t e i f o n ly o n e proj ectio n O f .

0 is give n as s ay c draw an eleme n t of th e surface d 6 through

h
, ,

c a n d fi n d cf b y proj ectin g to the fro n t proj ectio n of d e O ne .

o f the other se t of eleme n ts passi n g throug h the poi n t is show n

b y f g The two eleme n ts determi n e th e pla n e t ange n t to the

.

surface at the poi n t e .

106 . A h eli co i du rf ace is a surface ge nerated by a

or screw s

straight lin e moving so that it is always touchi ng tw o h el i cal d i rec

trices lyi ng upo n co n ce n tric cyli n ders I n Figs 68 an d 69 tw o cy l i n . .

ders of revolutio n are shown O n each is a port i o n o f a helix . .

The straight lin e m n ge n erates the surface o f the helicoid I n bot h

fi gures The differe n ce is merely i n the slope of th e ge nerating
.

lin e Whe n b oth o f the directi n g helices of a helicoid h ave the

.

same pi tch i t is called a helicoid of u n i for m pi tch If the pitches , .

ar e n o t the same the surface is called a h elicoid o f va ryi ng pi tch .

 The tw o examples of helicoids of un iform pitch in Figs 68 and .

69 di ff er o nly in the relative positio n o f the movin g o r ge n erati n g

lin e I n b oth cases this lin e moves un iformly aroun d the vertical
.

axis while at the same time all the poi n ts o n it move u n iformly
, , ,

in a directio n parallel to the axis I n either figure the poin t b

.

i n the ge n eratin g li n e m n will describ e the helix a b c d lyi ng o n the

inn er cylin der an d the po in ts m an d n will describ e helices o f the
,

same pitch lyi ng o n the outer cyli n der These helices traced by .

m an d n are marked respectively c i g an d h i j The ge n eratin g .

li ne m n will always lie i n a plan e tan ge n t to the i nn er cyli n der ,

an d will in tersect the vertical eleme n t at the poin t o f ta nge n c y

at a co n stan t angle .

I n the helicoid o f Fi g 68 t h e ge n erati ng lin e m n is always

.
, ,

perpen dicular to the vertical eleme n ts o f the i nn er cylin der an d is ,

called a ri ght heli coi d The helicoid of Fi g 69 has the gen erati ng
.
‘

lin e m n i n cli n ed to the vertical eleme n ts of the i nn er cylin der

, , ,

an d is called an o bl i qu e hel i co i d .

Whe n the elemen ts o f a helicoid are perpen di cu l ar to the axis .

,

the surface i the same as that o f a square threaded screw (Fig

s
-
.

an d whe n th e a n gle is less it i s that of a V —thr eaded screw ( Fig .

Fo r the V thr ead of the U n ited S tates stan dard screw th e

-

an gle b etwee n the elemen ts and the axis is

1 07 . a satisfactory represe n tation of a helicoid it is not

Fo r
n ecessary to draw a large n um b er of eleme n ts of the surface Usu .

ally i t is shown b etter b y drawi n g a few elemen ts for a small portion

o f the surface I n Fi g 7 2 an ob lique helicoid is sho w n resemb li ng
. .

the o n e i n Fi g 69 The small po rti o n o f the outlin e that is repre

. .

sen ted is easily recog n ized as like that i n the groove of an auger
or a twist drill -
.

If o n th i s surface it is required to locate say the fro n t pro , ,

i n o f a poi n t whe n the hori z o n tal proj ectio n is give n draw

j ec t o ,

the hori z o n tal proj ectio n of the eleme n t o f the surface at the poi n t .

The requi red fro n t proj ectio n of the poi n t is the n foun d by
projectin g to th e fro n t proj ectio n of the eleme n t If o nly the .

fro n t proj ection o f a poin t is k n own the horizo n tal proj ectio n ,
is determi n ed by drawin g a lin e through the fro n t proj ectio n
parallel to the horizo n tal plan e A n y plan e passed through this
.

li n e will cut the eleme n ts i n poi n ts determin i ng a curve The .

h ori z o n tal proj ectio n of this curve will i n tersect the correspo n d
i n g proj ectio n of the li n e at a poi n t which is the required pro

j ecti o n .

If the surface of the helicoid i n the last figure is cut b y a vertical

y la n e thr o u gh the a xis an d perpe n dicular to the fro n t pla n e the ,

sectio n cut out will be like the shaded drawi n g at the ri ght h a n d -

side of the figure Half o f the curve shown i n the sectio n i s marked
.

3 1 x1 y1 This figure is easily co n structed by drawi n g eleme n ts

.

o f the surface The poin ts i n which the eleme n ts are i n tersected

.

by the cutti n g pla n e determi n e the curve of the sectio n . Thus

an eleme n t i j i n tersects the cutti n g pla n e at x . This poi n t is
located On the curve i n the sectio n b y proj ecti n g hori z o n tally
from xf and layin g o ff from the axis the len gth 0 1 x1 equ al to
o
h
as
k
. The other poi n ts n eeded to determi n e the curve are fou n d
i n the same way S uch a sectio n cut from the surface by a plane
.

through the axis is called a meri di a n secti o n .

1 08 A plan e is drawn tan gen t to the surface of a helicoid at a

.

give n poi n t b y drawi n g an eleme n t through the give n poi n t an d

a ta n ge n t to the helix lyi n g i n the surface an d passi n g through the

give n po i n t These .t w o l i n es determi n e the required t a n ge n t

plan e As the surface is warped the pla n e w ill n o t be tan ge n t

.

throughout the le ngth of an eleme n t an d will n o t co n tai n there

, ,

fore a tan ge n t to the b ase at its i n tersectio n with an eleme n t

,

p assi n g through the poi n t .

1 09 The i n tersectio n of the helicoid with an y give n plan e is

.

fou n d by passin g hori z o n tal auxiliary pla n es through it These

.

“
plan es will cut from the surface S pirals equ al to the base an d
”
,

from the give n plan e horizo n tal li n es The in tersectio n s O f these

.

li n es will give poi n ts o n the required li n e of i n tersectio n The .

“
proj ectio n s of the differe n t S pirals are no t n eeded if a curve of
”

the b ase is made o n a tra n spare n t shee t .

 E X E R CI SES
Locate a poi n t o n the surface o f a hyperb olic parabo l o id
give n b y two limited lin es Draw a tangen t plan e
.

through thi s poin t .

Three o b lique li n es are give n as b elo n gin g to o n e set o f

eleme n ts o f a hyperb olic parab oloid Fin d three ele
.

me n ts o f the other set .

S how several elemen ts of the surface of a hyperboli c

)

parab oloid give n by tw o directrices and a plan e director .

Draw the proj ectio n s o f a hyperb oloid o f revolutio n an d

assume a poi n t o n the surface Draw a plan e tan ge n t
.

to the surface at thi s poi n t .

A ssume the proj ectio n s of an o blique helicoid .Locate

a poi n t o n the surface an d draw a tan ge n t plan e at
thi s poin t
.

Take the proj ectio n s o f the h elicoid co nstructed for th e

preceding exercise an d draw a meri dian sectio n an d
three tra nsverse sectio ns .

Draw the proj ectio n s of ( a) a sq uare thre ad ed screw ( b)

-
,

—
a V thre aded sc re w .
 CHA PT ER V II I

PE R S P E CT I VE

I Io . the art of represen ti ng ob j ects as they

P E RSP E CT I V E Is

appear to the eye The pri n ciples are n o t diffi cult for a stude n t
.

who u n derstan ds the methods of orthographic proj ectio n .

The sig n ifican ce o f perspective drawi n g can be explain ed b est

by Showi ng i n what way it di ffers from orthographic proj ectio n .

I n perspective the eye o f the o b server is at a fi n ite dista n ce from

the o bj ect I n orthographic proj ectio n the views r eprese n t the
.

o bj ect as see n whe n the eye is i n fi n itely distan t B y the per .

Specti ve method the ir the li n es drawn from poi n ts o n the o b j ect

, ,

to the eye co n verge an d i n tersect at the poi n t o f sight

, .

A perspective drawi ng represen ts an o bj ect as s ee n through

1 1 1 .

a vertical plan e which is assumed to b e tra nspare n t I n Fig 7 3 . .

the eye at S the o bj ect ( a square pyramid v a b c) an d the perspe c

, ,

tive proj ectio n v a? bp 0 are plai n ly shown The light solid li n es

i? 19 .

i n the figure represe n t the rays from the corn ers o f the o b j ect to the
eye The straight li n es j oi n i n g the i n tersectio n s o f these rays with
.

the vertical plan e form the outli n e o f the o b j ect If this perspec .

tive picture is shaded an d co lored it will exactly represe n t the

‘
,

o bj ect as see n from the viewpoi n t .

The vertical plan e o n which the perspective drawi n g is made

is called the pi ctu re pl an e and the positio n of the eye is called
,

the poin t o f si gh t .

The simplest co n structio n o f a perspective drawi ng is o b tai n ed

by the use of two proj ectio ns o f the poi n t o f si ght together with ,

the two correspo n di ng proj ectio ns o f the obj ect T he method is .

i l lustrated i n Fi g 74 The light solid li n es show the horizo n t al an d

. .

fro n t projec tion s o f a rectan gular c ard held n early hori o n tally T w o , z .
corn ers are marked a an d b The proj ectio ns of the poi n t of sight
"
.

are S a d S Dotted li n es are drawn j oi ni ng the corn ers o f the

n f

"
.

card i n the horizo n tal proj ectio n with S an d j oi ni ng the corn ers
i n the fro n t proj ectio n with Sf These are respectively the hori
.

z o n tal an d fro n t proj ectio ns of rays from the corn ers to the poi n t

o f sight From the poi n ts where the hori z o n ta l proj ectio ns of

.

these rays i n tersect th e X axis li n es are drawn perpe n dicular to ,

the axis to i n tersect the correspo n di n g fro n t proj ectio n s o f the

s

rays The corn ers of the perspective proj ectio n are thus deter
.

mi n ed an d by j oi n i ng these corners the outli n e of the card show n

,

by the heavy solid li n es is o b tai n ed Fi g 75 shows a perspective .

“
drawi ng of a scree n with three blades made by this method .

The poi n ts a b and c are marked tomake the co n structio n plai n er

, , .

Usually whe n represe n ti ng an o b j ect i n perspective the horizo n tal ,

plan e o n which the o b j ect rests is shown I n the figure the li n e .

marked GL is the fro n t trace o f the horizo n tal pla n e throug h th e

b ottom edges o f the scree n If a house is to be represe n ted i n a
.

drawi n g the level o f the grou n d is represe n ted by a hori z o n tal

,

plan e The fro n t trace is the n very properly called the grou n d
.

l in e
. This n ame is give n however to the fro n t trace of any hori
, ,

z o n tal pla n e o n which an o b j ect is imagi n ed to b e placed .

1 12 A picture may be made very simply by the met h od de

.

scrib ed if there are n o t ma n y details to b e shown I n practical

,
.

drawi ng however this method is n o t ofte n used The difficulty

, ,
.

is that for a picture o f suitab le proportio n s the horizo ntal proj ect i o n
o f the poi n t of S ight S
h
must be usually lo cated so far from the X
, ,

axis that it is b eyo n d the limits o f th e drawi ng board Al so f o r -

.

an o b j ect with ma n y details the n umb er o f co nstructio n li n es

b ecomes so great as to b e very co n fusi n g It is the n ofte n difficul t .

to decide which poi n ts are to be j oi n ed Fo r these reas o ns the n .

, ,

an ab ridged method o f perspective drawi ng is commo n ly used .

I n Fi g 76 a li n e a
. b is show n by its proj ec tio n s a
h
bk
a n d a f bf .

This lin e is parallel to the horizo ntal plan e an d makes an a n gle

of 4 5 with the fro n t plan e B y the method tha t h as bee n j ust
°
.

explained its perspective proj ectio n is fou n d at a' bp The other

,
.
 gen eral method for co ns tructi n g perspective drawi ngs may be
illustrated with this figure The lin e a b i s produced i n defi n itely
.
,

as shown i n b oth proj ectio n s A proj ectin g li n e from S to the

.
h

en d of the li n e through a b must b e represe n ted parallel to it an d

makin g an a ngle of 4 5 with th e X axis This proj ecti n g li n e

0
.

meets the X axis at u ; an d th e perspective of a poi n t o n a b at an

i n fi n ite distan ce is at M The perspective of an y poi n t o n the li n e
.

produced through a an d b is therefore b etwee n af an d M I n , ,

i
this co ns tructio O b se e that S
n ,
r v
h =
t tu = S M
f H orizo n tal l i n es .

maki ng the same angle with the fro n t plan e b u t slopi n g i n the ,

opposite directio n would co n verge toward a similar poi n t located

,

at an equal distan ce to the left of S It follows the n that all .

, ,

h ori z o n tal li n e s at 4 5 to the pictur e p l an e ( fro n t plan e ) c o n verge

°

i n p e r sp ective to w a r d poin ts o n e it h er si de o f Sf an d at a distan ce

.

from th i s p roj ectio n e qu al to th at o f th e poi n t o f si ght from th e

p i c ture p la n e
. S i n ce t h e locatio
.
n of the poi n t M depe n ds o n ly
o n the di recti o n of a b an d n o t o n its po s i ti o n an y hori z o n tal 4 5
°
, ,

li n e i n the drawi n g will co n verge toward M Th i s po rn t is called .

the m easuri n g poi n t

-
.

S ome dimen sio n lin es are shown i n Fig 76 to Show how this .

poin t can b e used for layi n g o ff distan ces Fo r example the .

perspective proj ectio n of the poi n t b could be fou n d by layi ng

o ff the d ista n ce from b
h
to the X axis o n the left—han d side o f bf ,

an d b? would b e fou n d at the i n tersectio n of this li n e with the

proj ecti n g li n e j oi n i n g bf an d S7 I n the same way the perspective

.

of a poi n t e is fou n d by layi ng o ff the distan ce from c to the X h

axis o n the left—han d side o f cf an d locati n g c at the i n tersectio n ?

of this li n e with cf Sf If the measuri n g poi n t ll had b ee n located

.
-
"
o n the left ha n d side of Sf the n i n these same cases the dista n ces
-
,

me n tio n ed would b e laid o ff o n the right ha n d side of the fro n t -

proj ectio ns .

This method o f co ns tructi ng perspective drawi n gs with the

help of measuri n g poi n ts is shown also i n Fig 7 7 A perspective
-
. .

drawi ng o f a cub e with circles i n scrib ed i n its sides is illustrated .

The measuri n g poi n t M is located b y maki n g Sf M equal to the

-

distan ce from the poi n t of sight to the picture plan e (S to the h

X axis ) O bserve that there are a n umb er of parallel lin es i n a
.

cub e The co nstructio n can b e simplified if we n otice that all

.

“
parallel li n es must co n verge or van ish at the same poi n t E very ”
.

se t of parallel li n es has the n a v an i sh i n g oi n t The li es which

p n -
.

are perpe n dicular to the picture plan e have of course their van ish , ,

i ng poi n t at S 7 ; an d hori z o n tal 4 5 li n es van ish at M

-
0
Fo r an y .

drawi n g the van ishin g poi n ts the measuri n g poi n ts an d th e fro n t

-
,
-
,

proj ectio n o f S must b e i n a li n e parallel to the X axis .

The j udicious u se of measuri n g an d van ishi ng—poi n ts saves

much lab or i n maki n g perspective drawi ngs I n Fi g 77 the . .

va n ishin g poi n ts of the horizo n tal edges o f the cu b e are at V 1

-

an d V 2 E ach i s located by drawi n g an edge fo r which the dirc o

.

tio n has b ee n determi n ed to i n tersect the li n e through Sf parallel

,

to the X axis .

1 1 The perspective drawi ng o f the cub e illus trates also a

3 .

very satisfactory I ii eth o d for drawi ng the perspective proj ectio n s

of circles P oi n ts i n the perspective drawi n g of the circles are
.

fou n d by locati n g diago n als o f the circumscri bi n g squares formed

by the edges o f the cu b e O ther li n es are also draw n parallel to
.

the sides o f the same square through the i n tersectio n s of the diago
h als with the circle The i n tersectio ns of these straight li n es
.

locate usually en ough poi n ts to determin e the perspective of

the circle The ( o nstru cti o n for tw o poi n ts a and b o f the circle
.

are illustrated i n the figure .

1 14 . P e rspe ctiv e D i sto rtio n —

The pri n ciples o f perspective are
.

n o t di fficult to apply i n a mecha n ical way b y those who have n o

artistic trai n i n g ; bu t distorted results are o b tai n ed from ab solutely

correct applicatio n s whe n ab surd co n ditio n s are assumed If for .
,

example a large house is represe n ted with the poi n t of sight ab out
,

twe n t y feet from the fro n t of the house o b viously a poor result is ,

o b tai n ed N evertheless fo r such a case the pri n ciples can b e applied

.

as well as to an y other
‘

A perspective draw i n g should show the ob j ect as it appears to

the eye If is importan t therefore that the b est viewpoi n t is
.
, ,
ob tai n ed ; and care i n selecti ng the viewpoin t is as esse n tial as a
kn owledge o f the rul es If a house ab out forty feet high is to be
.

sketched the poin t o f sight should b e taken ab out eighty feet from
,

the picture plan e A good rule to follow is to make this distan ce

.

a b out twice the greatest di m ens ro n When large o bj ects are to .

b e represe n ted the most satisfactory results are o b tai n ed usually

,

when the poi n t o f sight is take n n early i n fro n t o f the o bj ect It is .

preferable the n tha t the plan drawi ng should b e shown i n cli n ed

, , )

to the picture plan e .

1 1 5. P erspecti ve Sk et ch es f r om “Wo rk in g ” D raw in s — A

g
very pro fi tabl eappli catio n of the methods o f perspective draw i n g
'

— “ “
i s fou n d i n maki n g free ha n d sketches from worki n g or s h O p
” ”

drawi ngs show n i n orthographic proj ectio n The worki n g .

drawi ng represe n ts certai n i n formatio n ab ou t an o bj ect by a

co ll ecti o n of views S everal views are n ecessary to represe n t the
.

obj ect completely I n perspective drawi ng the same i n formatio n

.

i s sho w n i n a si n gle sketch When b egi n ni ng a perspective draw

.

i ng which is to b e made from an y proj ectio n drawi n gs it is n eces ,

sary to acquire a thorough k n owledge of the form an d details

o f the o b j ect T h e work ot herwise ca n n ot b e do n e i n tellige n tly
.
, ,

an d rapidly The perspective sketches for most o bj ects should

.

b e comm e n ced by drawi n g i n perspective the edges of either

circumscri bed o r i n scrib ed solids usually square prisms Mos t
—
,
.

machi n es an d architectural forms are easily treated i n this

way The pri n cipal edges of the o b j ect should b e the n grouped
.

i nto three syste ms correspo n di n g to three n o n parallel ed ges o f

,
-

the prism O n e of these will b e represe n ted b y vertical li n es an d

.
,

two o thers must b e show n with their proper co n vergen ce A fter .

the pri n cipal edges of the o bj ect have b ee n drawn the other ,

li n es are very e as ily represe n ted Whe n deali n g with complicated .

forms it is ab solutely n ecessary to follow some defi n ite system to

o b tai n results showi n g reaso n able accuracy .

E ve n with simple drawi ngs some care shoul d b e exercised i n

selecti n g the poi n t of sigh t It should b e take n so that th e .

details which are co nsidered most import an t will appear i n the

perspective sketch as plai nly as possible A drawi n g is o f little
.

value i n which the importan t parts are crowded so that they are
n o t clearly show n .

P RA C T ICAL E X E RCI SES

“
1 93 . Make a perspective drawi n g o f a scree n with four blades ,

usi n g for the co ns tructio n measuri ng an d vanishi ng

poi n ts .

1 94 . Make a perspective drawi n g of the end co nn ectio n o f a

truss as shown i n the figure .

Make a perspective draw i ng of a s i mple wooden b ridge .

Draw a cottage i n perspective .

S how i n perspective the flight o f steps an d the ramp i n th e

figure i n E x 1 83 . .

Make a perspective drawi ng of a locomotive b oiler .

Make a perspective drawi n g of the mil l b uildi n g shown i n

the figure S how also a tall chim n ey b ehi n d the b ui ld
.

I ng.
 I ND E X .

No te — I n
r
th e
O

In de x al l fi gu re s re fe r to p age s ; no ne to th e n um be rs of
art rc l e s , e xe rc rse s , o r figu re s .

An gl e be tw een a L i n e an d a Pl an e 68 ,

A ngle be tw een a Pl ane an d a Pl an e o f P o j ecti o n r 8 0—84

A ngl e betw ee n I n te e cti ng L i n e 64 66 rs s, ,

A ngl e o f R efl ecti o n 7 2 ,

A ngl e fo R afte s o f R o o fs
s r r , 74 , 76
A h c h u te H ead 1 62 1 65
s -
, ,

A uxil i a y Pl an es 4 0 4 6 5 2
r , , , ,
126

B th t b P b l m 1 30 1 34
a -
u ro e s, ,

B l ti g P b l m 1 36
e n ro e s,

B t Pl t C
en ti 1 5 6 1 57
a e o nn e c on , ,

B v l f R ft 7 4 7 6
e e s or a ers , ,

B t P bl m 66 7 0
oa ro e s, ,

B il h
o er- Fl 1 34
o u se ue,

B i l P bl m 1 4 2 1 4 4 1 58 1 5 9
o er ro e s, , , ,

B tf
oo S t v p i p 1 32
or a o e- e,

B i dg Pi P b l m 90
r e er ro e ,

B i dg P b l m 32 7 8 80 84 90
r e ro e s, , , , ,

B tt
u P b l m 1 62 1 63
re ss ro e , ,

Cam -w h eel , 56
Ce il i ngP o b l em 1 58
r ,

Ch i m n ey P o b l em 1 34 r ,

Chi mn ey Sh ad o w o n a Roo f
, , 1 70
Ci rc l e of th e G o rge , 1 80
Ci rcl es in an O bl i qu e Pl an e Pro j ecti o n s o f
, ,

Co n e , 1 00
Co n e of R y a s, 1 30, 1 32 , 1 34 , 1 36
Co n i c al A rc h , 14 6
Co n i c a l E a v T e ro u
gh O u t l et , 1 58
Co ni cal N o le zz , 148
 l
Co ni c a Roo f Co nn ecti o n , 1 30 1 34 .

Co ni ca lR
o o f P r o b em , 1 4 6 l
Co ni c a l To we r on a Ro o f ,
1 32
Co nn ecti ng- ro d , 1 38
Co n to u r L in e s 9 8 ,

Co n to u re d P l an Ou t b y P l an es , 98
Co nvo lu te S u rface 1 1 8 ,

Co n v o l u te s , 1 02 , 1 1 4
Co ordi n ate s , System E xp l i ned a , 12
Cran e , Le ngth o f G u y o es R p f o r, 92
Cu be P ro b l em 56 1 9 4 1 9 7 , , ,

Cu ve o f I n terse cti o n 1 2 6
r ,

Cyli n der 1 00 ,

D e rri c k P bl ro em s , 68 , 9 4
D es k P bl ro em s , 4 4 , 54 , 1 30
De v l pm
e o e nt o f a Co n e , 1 4 2
De v l pm
e o ent o f a Cy li n de r , 1 28
‘

De v l pm
e o ent o f a S l o pe Sh ee t 1 59 ,

De v l pm
e o en t o f a Steam D o m e 1 59 ,

D i re cti o n of R ay s , 1 67 , 1 68
D i re ctri ce s of a W p
S u rface 1 7 2
ar ed ,

D i stan ce betw ee n P arall el Pl an e 56 s, ,

D i stan ce betw een T w o L i ne s 9 2 ,

D i sta n ce f ro m a Po i nt t o a L in e 90 ,

D i s tan ce f ro m a P o i n t to a Pl an e 54 ,

) Measu re d
”
D i stan ce s tru e ,
4 8 , 50
D o m e w i th E igh t Si des , 1 56
L
D o tte d i n e s , 1 4
D o rm e r Wi n do w P o b l em s
r , 1 70
b
D o u l e Cu r ved S u rf ace s 1 00 ,

D o u b l y R u l e d S u rf ace s 1 7 6 1 80 , ,

D ry D o c k P ro b l em 86 ,

Ea v T e r o u gh l
O u t et , 1 58
E l e m e n ts of a S u rf ace ,
1 00, 1 26
E le v ti n D w i ng
a o ra , 38
E l li p i d S h d w
so ,
a o o f, 1 68—1 7 0
E l li p t i l C m w h
ca a -
ee l , P o j ect i o n s
r , 56
“
E n d Co n n e cti o n
”
of a T ru s s , 1 98
E ngi n e C li n de r , y P o b lem i n Sh ado w s
r

x
E h au st H e ad P o b l em 1 4 8 1 50
r s, ,

Fan P o b l m 1 38
r e ,

i i I n te rse cti o n
”
,
12
Fi rst Gen e rati o n , 1 7 6
Mi l l bu i ldi ng
-
,
1 98
Mi n e Pro bl em 1 5 6 ,

Mirro r Pro b l ems 4 4 , 72

Negative D irecti o n , 12
N o tati o n 1 0 1 2 , ,

Nut P o b l em 1 38
r ,

O b li qu e Co n e , 1 02
O b l i qu e Cy lin d e r , 1 02
l
O b i qu e H
el i c o i d ,

O b li qu e ( Li n e s ) to P l ane s of Pro j ecti o n , 16

O ff se t B o o t f o r a Fu r n ace , 1 62
O i l -c an P r o b l em , 1 58 , 1 60
j
O n e Pro e cti o n o f a L i n e i n a Plane gi ven , t o Fi n d th e O th er , 16
O ri gi n , 2
p
O rth o gra h i c P r o j e cti o n , 1 , 4
“
v — v pp
O al S to e i e , Co nn ecti ng B oot
”
fo r , 1 32

Pa al l l Lin e a Pl an e th o ugh 28
r e s, r ,

P a a l l e l L i n P o j e ti o n f 2 6 2 8
r es, r c s o , ,

Pa all el (L i n ) to P lan o f P o j ecti o n 1 6

r es es r ,

Pa al l el Pl an D i tan e betw een 56

r es , s c ,

Pa al l l P l an e D aw n at a G iven D istance A p art 62 94

r e s r , ,

Patte n fo an A ch S to n e 1 46
r s r r ,

Perp n di cu l a (L in e ) to a Plan e 54
e r s ,

Pe pe ctive D aw i ng 1 1 88
rs r , ,

Pe pe ctive f a Cu be 1 9 4 1 9 7
rs o , ,

Per pective o f a Ci le 1 9 4 1 9 7
s rc , ,

Pe p ective D i t rti o n 1 9 4
rs s o ,

Pe p ective Sketch e fro m Wo k i ng D rawi ngs 196

rs s r ,

Pi ctu re Pl an 1 88 e,

Pi p e fi tti ng P o blem s 1 4 2 1 44 1 52
-
r , , ,

Pi pe P bl em s 2 4 4 6 5 4 1 30 1 32 1 34 146 1 48 1 56
ro , , , , , , , , , ,

Pi tch o f a H elix 1 1 6 1 2 0 , ,

Pi t h o f S cre w Su rface 1 80
c s,

Pl an D aw i ng 38 r ,

Plan e D i e to o f a Warp ed Su rf ace 172

r c r ,

Pl ane o f P o j ecti o n 2
s r ,

Pl an e 1 0 s,

Pl an e S u f a e 1 00 r c ,

Pl an T angent to a Co n e o r a Cyli nder 1 08 1 1 2

e , ,

Pl an e T angen t to a Co nvo lu te Su rf a 1 22 ce ,

Pl an T angen t to a H yp e b o lo i d o f R vo lu ti n 1 80 1 8 3
e r e o , ,

Pl an T ang n t to a Sph ere 1 1 2—1 1 4

e e ,

Plan e th ro ugh a Po int Perp endi cu l a to a Li ne 60 r , :

 P late Co nnecti o n fo r Steel Rafters 1 56 1 57 , ,

P o i nt o f S i gh t 1 88 ,

Po rtal o f a B idge 32 r ,

Po i ti ve D i ecti o n 1 2
s r ,

P o j ect a L i n e u p o n a Plane 56
r ,

Pro j e ti ng L i ne 4 1 4 2 2
c s, , ,

Pro j ecti o n s o f I nte se cti ng L i nes 28 r ,

P o j e cti o n o f a L i n e 1 2 1 6
r s , ,

P o j ecti o n o f P a al l el L i n es 2 6 2 8
r s r , ,

P o j ecti o n o f a P o i n t 2 1 0
r s , ,

P o j ecti o n o f P o i nt n a Co n e 1 04
r s s o ,

P o j ecti o n s o f P o in t o n a Co nvo l u te S u f a e 1 2 0
r s r c ,

Pro j e ti n o f P o i n t o a Cyl i n de 1 04
c o s s rr r,

P ro j ecti n o f P o ints o n a D u b l e cu ved S u rface

o s o -
r ,
1 04
Pro j e ti n o f P i n t o n H l i co i d o r S c ew S u rf ac
c o s o s e s r es , 1 82
Pu l l y P o b l em 9 6 9 8 1 36 1 62
e r s, , , ,

Pu l ley P o j ecti on o f 9 6—9 8

s, r s

R ft o f R f A ngle f 7 4
a e rs oo s, s or, , 76
R i l d t P o blem 9 8
a ro a -
cu r ,

R igh t C n 1 02 o e,

R igh t Cy li n d 1 02 er ,

R igh t H l i i d 1 82 1 85 1 87
e co , , ,

R o o f P bl m 2 2 38 39 56
ro e s, , , , , 7 4 , 1 30, 1 32 , 1 34 , 1 4 6, 1 5 6 , 1 62 , 1 70

San d b o x -
of a L o co m o tive ,
1 56 , 1 58
Sco o p P bl ro em , 1 58 , 1 60
Sc re e n w i th Fo u r -
B l ade s . Perspe cti ve , 1 90, 1 9 3 , 1 9 8
Sc rew , S qu a re —
th re ad e d , 1 2 0, 1 82 , 1 8 5
Scre w , V th re ad e d , 1 8 2 , 1 8 5
-

Sec o n d G e n e r ati o n , 1 7 6
Se w e r P o bl r e m , 1 54
Sh a de f o r an E l e ctri c L amp , 1 60
S h ade L i n e ,
1 66
Sh ad es an d S h ado w s , 1 66
Sh ad o w of a Cap on a Co l u mn , 1 68—1 70
Sh ad o w of a Co ne on a P l an e ,
1 68 , 1 69
S h ado w of an E lli p so i d , 1 68 —1 70
Shado w of a S ph ere ,
1 70
Sh ado w P o bl m s 7 0 r e ,

Sh aft P o b l em 56r 9 6 —
98 s, ,

Sh eet—m etal P attern s 1 30 ,

-
1 36, 1 44 , 1 45 1 56, 1 5 8- 1 65

Sh o rte st Se am , 1 30
si
”
I nterse cti o n , 1 2
Si de Verti cal P ro j ecti o n ,
2, 4
i
S gn e l
-cu rv e d Su rf ace
, 1 00
Sk ew B P o b l m 3 2 7 8 80 84
ri dge r e s, , , ,

S l o pe S h eet o f a L o c m tiv 1 5 6 1 5 9 o o e, ,

S p h ere Sh ad o w o f 1 70
, ,

S p h e ri cal Hu b fo a Fan 1 38 r ,

S p i al S p i ng P o b l em 1 2 2
r r r s,

Squ a e th ad e d S ew 1 2 0 1 8 2 1 85
r -
re cr , , ,

Stai r R am p ,
1 70, 1 9 8
Ste am D rum P o b l em 1 4 2 r ,

Ste am I i p P b l em 4 6 54 e ro s, ,

St p P o b l m i n S h ado w
e s, r 1 70 e s s,

Sto v —p i pe E l bo w 1 62
e ,

S t ve p i p e P o b l m 1 32
o -
r e ,

Stu b E n d f a Co n n cti ng o d 1 38
o e -
r ,

S u fa f R vo l uti o n 1 02
r ce o e ,

T l p h P b l m ( S h t t Li ) 9 2
e e one ro e o r es ne ,

Th P i t D t mi
re e o n sPl 28 e er ne a an e ,

T 1 38
o ru s ,

T w P bl m 1 4 6
o er ro e ,

T f Pl
r ac e s o 10 1 2 ane s , ,

T f Pl
ra ce s o C i t t f m T Angl
an e s . o rs r u c ro r ue es ,

T i ti C
r an s ti 1 64
on o n n ec on,

T i gl P b l m 56 68
r an e ro e s, ,

T A gl b tw I t
ru e n ti g L i
e 64 66
e ee n n e r se c n n es , ,

T Di t
ru e b tw T w P i t 50
s a nce e een o o n s,

T L gth f L i 50
ru e en o a ne ,

T S i f Pl S f
ru e ze o 62 a ane u r ace ,

T l P b l m 1 56
u n ne ro e ,

Tw i t d S fs e 1 00 u r ace s ,

V an i h i n P o i n t 1 9 4
s g
,

Va l t P o b l em 1 58
u r ,

Ve n ti l ati ng Fan P o b l em r ,
1 38
V e rte x of a Co n e , 1 00
V th re ad ed
-
Sc re w ,
1 8 2 , 1 85

W pdS f ar 1 00 1 7 2
e u r ace s , ,

W t p ip P bl m 2 4
a e r- e ro e ,

W i L p P bl m 1 60
re oo ro e ,

W d B i dg P bl m 1 9 8
oo en r e ro e ,

Y ”
fo r a Blo w pip -
e, 144 , 145
SH O RT - T I T LE C A T A LO G U E
O F TH E

PU B L I C A T I O N S

J O HN WI LEY SO N S
N E W Y O RK
L ON D ON : C H A P MA N HA LL , LI MI TE D

A RRAN G E D U N D E R SUBJ E C T S

D escri pti v i l
e c r c u ar s s en t o n a ppli ti ca on . B k
oo s k d w i th
m ar e a n a s te ri s k are

sol d a t ne t p i r c es o n ly . A ll b k boo s are o un d in c o l th l th

u n ess o i
e rw se s ta te d .

AG RI CULTU R H O R TI CULTU R O RE STRY E — E — F .

A m by
r s P i ipl f A i m l N t i ti
’
s r nc es o8 n a u r on yo
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u an A m i H ti l t l M l a n se n s
’
e r c an or cu u ra an u a

P t I P p g ti C l t
ar d I mp v m t ro a 12m a on , u u r e , an ro e en o,
P t I I S y t m ti P m l gy
.

ar s e 12 m a c o o o o

E lli t t E gi i gf L d
.
,

12 m
’
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P ti l F m D i g ( S d Edi tion Rew i tte

,

r ac ca ar 12m ra n a e ec o n r n o

F tM
.
, .
,

G v ti
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e n s u ra on” v0 ,
P i ipl f A m i
.

G 12m
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r een s r nc es o e r c an ” 0

G t f l t P i ipl D i y P ati
,

f M d 12m
'
ro en e 5 r nc es o o e rn a r r c ce o 0

H i k D t d I d t i l Al h l
. .
,
'
er r c s en a u r e 8 or n us r a co o v0
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.
,
’
e an au I s an sc a e ar en n e on, e r en n
P p ti )
. .

re ar a on

d L P i ipl d P f B tt
.

MK y ti m ki g
’
c a an 8
a rs e n s r nc e s an r ac ce o u er - a n v0 ,
M y d L d p G d i g A ppli d t H m D
a n ar
'
s an ti
sc a l 2m e ar en n as e o o e ec o r a on o,
S d t I j i t S t pl C p
.

12m
'
an I
er so n s n se c s n ur ous o a e ro s o,
S d d H I j i G d C p (I P p ’
an erso n an dl I t t ea ee s n s ec s n ur o us o ar en ro s . n re a
ti ) ra on

S h w z L gl f P i i Vi gi F t
.

12m
’
c ar s on ea ne n r n o res s 0
St k b i d g d S il
,

R k
’
oc r e s oc 8 s an o s vo ,
Wi t Mi
n on s py f V g t b l F d
’
c r o sc o 8 o e e a e oo s v0 ,
W ll H d b k f F m
o
'
s an d D i ym oo 1 6m
or ar ers a n a r en 0,

AR CHI TE CTURE .

B l dwi S t m H ti g f B il di g
a n s
'
ea ea n or u n s 1 2 mo , 2 50
B g B i l di g d S t t
er
’
s f Am i
u R il d n s an ru c u r es o e r c an a ro a s 4 to , 5 00
Bi kmi A h i t t l I
.

’
r re 5 d rc ec u ra ro n an 8 vo 3 50
C m p d Ri v t d G i d A ppli d B il di g
.
,

o o un e e r ers as e In u n s 8 vo 2 00
P l i g d C t ti f A m i Th t
.
,

an n n an o n s ru c on o e r can ea re s ” 8 v0 3 00
P l i g d C t ti f H igh O ffi B ildi g
.
,

an n n an o n s ru c on o ce u n s 8 vo 3 50
Sk l t C t ti i
. .
,

e e on o n s ru c on n . 8 v0 . 3 00
B i ggr s s
'
M d A meri can c h o o
o ern S l B i l di gu n s
M Worman shi p E mplo y e d i n
.

By rn e s
’
I n spec ti o n o f ateri a s an d l C o nstru c ti o n .

1 6m 0 ,
C par en t er sg d V ti l ti g f B i l di g
’
H eati n an en a n o u n s 8 vo ,
w bl P D p F d ti A ll
.

1 2 mo
’
C th l lor e s o a e r e ss u r e o n ee o un a ons

F i t g A hi t t l ’
re a s rc ec u r a

F i p fi g f S t l B ildi g
re ro o n o 8 ee u n s vo ,

G h d G id t S i t y I p ti (F th E d i ti E ti ly R
’
er ar s u e o an ar ns ec o ns o ur on , n re e
vi d d E l g d )
.

se an 12m n ar e o,
M d B th d B th H
.

o e rn a s an 8 a o u ses v0 ,
S i t ti f P b li B ildi g
.

an a on o 12m u c u n s 0

Th t F i d P
.

i
,

ea re r e s an 1 2m an c s o,
S pply S w g d P l m b i g f M d C i ty B ildi g
.

Th W t e a er u , e e ra e an u n o o ern u n s

8 yo

Jh S t ti b y A lg b i d G ph i M th d
,
’
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. .
,

d
’
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Ki dd A h i t t s d B i ld P k t b k
,

1 6m m
’ ’ ’
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M ill S t f B ildi g d D
.
, .
,

ti
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S t i b ildi g
. .

M kt
o nc on s
’
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P t t P t i l T ti F d ti
,
’
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P b dy N v l A h i t t
.
,
’
ea o s a a 8
rc ec u re vc
C t bl
.
,

Ri ce s
’
k o n c re e oc 8 v0
Ri h y H d b k f S p i t d n tsOf C t ti i6m m
.

’
c e s an oo or u er n en e o n s ru c on o or

B ildi g F m P k t B k d R dy
, .

’
u n o re an 5 oc e oo an ea

B ildi g M h i R dy R f u S i n ec an c s
’
ea e e r en c e e r es :

C p t d W d w k E di ti ar 1 6m
en m e rs
’
an oo or e rs
’
on o, or
C m tW k d Pl t E di ti
.

1 6m m
’ ’
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P l m b S t m F i tt
.

E di tiOi
. .
, .

d Ti 1 6m m
’ ’ ’
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St d B i k m E d i ti
. . .
, , , .

1 6m m
’
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S bi H
. , .

12m
’
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Si b t
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an n 5
’

8 o e cu n r aso n v0 ,
S w P i ip l S p e i f W d
no
’
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L k d B ild H dw
.

Two ne s
’
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’
ar ar e o or

W i t E gi i g d A hi t t l J i p d
.
,
’
a s n neer n 8
an rc ec u ra ur s ru en c e v0 ,

Sh p
. .

ee

L w f C
,

ta t o on r ac s

f Op P li m i y t C t ti i E gi i g d
.

L w a ti o era ons re n ar o o n s ru c on n n n eer n an

A hi t t rc ec u re 8 v0 ,
Sh p ee
Wi l Ai C
,

so n s di ti i g
’
r on 12m
on n o

W d A tki S m ll H pi t l E t b li h m t d M i t
,
’
t
o rc es e r a n n so n s a os a s, s a s en an a n e n an c e .
S gg ti f H pi t l A hi t t w i th P l u es fons S m ll or os a rc ec ur e , an s or a a

H pi t l os a

AR MY A ND NAV Y .

B ern a d o uS m k l P w d N i t ll l ’
d th Th
s y f th o e e ss o er , ro -ce u o se , an e eo r o e Ce ll u
l M l l o se o ec u e 1 2 m0 ,
Ch f P t M ki g
’
ase s A rt o a t ern a n 1 2 mo
S w P p ll d M i P p li
,

c re ro e er s a n ar n e ro u s on 8 v0 ,
C l k E li d S p i l i t E x m i
.

’ ’
o e s n s te ec a s s a n er 8v 0
Ex m i
. .
,

G
’
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C ig A zi m th
.
,
’
ra s u

C h d Sq i P l izi g Ph t h g ph ’
re o re a n u er s o ar n o o -c ro n o ra . . 8 v0 ,

L w 8 v0
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a ” .

T ti
,

th re a se o n e ar r t a es 8 v0
C v l y O t p t D ti ( C
,

Out mti l L g
D B k 24 m mo r
’
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D dl y Mili y L w d th P d fC
. . .
, .

’
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d P p l i
.

D d R it
,
’
u ra n 5 f es s an c e a n ro u s on o 8 v0
Dy H d b k f Ligh t
.

1 2 m0
‘

er s an oo o Z
M d H igh E xpl iv
. .

Ei l
'
ss er s o e rn os es

Fi b g e T t b k F i l d F ti fi ti
e er s
’
L g ex -
oo on e or ca on ar e 1 2 m0
H mi l t d B C t hi m
. .

d Th G
,
“

1 8 mo ,
’ ’
a o n an on s e u n n er s a ec s .
A ss o c i a t o n o f i St a te an d N ti a on a lF d oo an d D iyDp
a r e ar tm e n ts , H f d ar t o r

M ti g 1 9 06 ee n 8 yo $ 3 00
J m t w M ti g
, ,

a es o n 8 ee n v0 , 3 00
A t N t f Ch mi l St d t
, .

’
u s en s o es 12 m
or e ca u en s o 1 50
B k vill C h m i l E l m t— ( I P p ti )
.
,
’
as er e s e ca e en s n re ara on

S m k l P w d N i t ll l y f th C ll l
. .

B d Th
’
d
e rn a ou s o e e ss o er . ro - c e u o se , a n eo r o e e u o se

12m 0, 2 50
B il tz I t d tio t In g i C h m i t y ( Hal l d P h l
’
s n ro uc 12m n o or an c e s r an e an o 1 25
L b t y M th d f I g i C h m i t y ( H ll d B l h d )
. . .
,

a o ra o r e o s o nor an c e s r . a an an c ar .

8 v0 3 00
B l h d S y th ti I g i C h m i t y
,
’
an c ar s 12m
n e c no r an c e s r o 1 00
B w i g I t d ti t th R E l m t
.
,
’
ro n n s n ro 8 uc on o e ar er e en s vo 1 50
B t g M f t ( H ll d R olf )
.
,

Cl
’
aa ss e n s ee 8 -
su ar an u ac u r e a an e vo 3 00
Q ti t tiv C h m i l A ly i b y E l t ly i ( B l tw d 8
. . .
,

Cl
’
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C h I di t
.

d T t p p
.
,
’
o n s n c a o rs an es -
a ers 2 00
T t dR g t e s s an 8 ea en s vo 3 00
El t h m i t y (M i m
,

D
’
l
an n ee s ec 12m ro c e s r err a 0 1 25
M th d f T x til C h m i t y
. . .
,

D 12 m
’
th
an n e r 5 e o s o e e e s r o 2 00
Th m d y m d Ch m i t y (B g
,

D h m
'
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E zym d th i A ppli (P
. . .

ti
’
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ro n s n tt 8
es a n e r ca ons r e sc o vo 3 00
M d H igh E xpl iv
. .
,

Ei l
’
ss e r s o e rn 8 os es v0 4 00
E dm t Ch m i l P p ti
.

I t d ti ( D l p)
,

12m
’
r an n 8 n ro uc on o e ca re ar a o ns un a o 1 25
F i h P h y i l gy f A li m t ti L g 1 2m
. . .
,
’
sc er 5 s o o o en a on” ar e 0 2 00
Fl t h P ti l I t ti Q ti t tive A yi g w l th th B l w pip
,
'
e c er 5 ra c ca n s ru c on s In u an a ss a n e o e .

12m m o er 1 50
F wl S w g W k
, .

’
o er s e a e 12m or s o, 2 00
F i
r ese n u s 5 M l f Q li t tiv C h m i al A n aly i ( W ll
’
an u a 8 o ua a e e c s s e s v0 5 00
l f Q li t tiv C h m i l A ly i P t I D ip tiv ( W ll ) 8
. .

M
,

an u a o ua a e e ca na s s ar e sc r e e s v0 3 00
Q ti t tiv C h m i l A ly i ( C h ) 2 v l
. . . .
,

u an a e 8 e ca na s s o n o s vc 12 50
Wh S ld S p t ly V l I $6 V l I I 88
. .
,

en o e ara e o o

d P b li H
. . . .
, , ,

F t Wt
u er es s
’
l th a er a n l 2m u c ea o 1 50
F m d P d M l f P ti l A yi g ( S ix th E di ti
,
’
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d E l g d )
.
,

R vi d e se 8 an n ar e y o 3 00
E x i i P hy i l C h m i t y
.
,

G t 12m
’
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d F l A ly i f E gi
.

G ill G
,

12 m
’
s as an ue na s s or n n e er s o 1 25
d B w i g O tli f Q li t tiv C h m i l A ly i
,
’
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o oc an ro n n s u n es o ua a e e ca na s s

L g 12m
.

ar e o 1 25
G t f lt P i i pl f M d D i y P ti
,

12m
’
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I t d t Ch m i l C y t ll g phy ( M h ll )
. .
,

G th ti
’
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T x t b k f P h y i l gi l C h m i t y ( M d l )
.
,

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’
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oo o s o o ca e s r an e vo , 4 00
py f T h i l P d t
. .

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s c r o sc o8 o ec n ca ro uc s v0 , 5 00
H ki l d O g i Ch m i t y
. . .

d M 12m
’
as n s an ac eo s r an c e s r 0 2 00
H i g R dy R f T bl (C v i F t )
.
,

1 6m m
’
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H i k D t d I d t i l Al h l
, .

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Hi d I g i Ch mi t y
. .
,
’
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Lb t yM l f St d t
.

a o ra o r l 2m an u a or u en s o 1 00
H ll m Lb t y M l f O g i C h m i t y f B gi
.
,
'
o e an 5 a o ra o r an u a o r an c e s r or e n n ers .

12m o 1 00
T xt b k f I g i C h m i t y
,

e -
oo o 8 nor an c e s r v0 , 2 50
T t b k f O g i Ch m i t y ( W lk
.

ex -
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H ll y L d d Z i P igm t L g 12m
. .
,
’
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H ll y d L dd A ly i f Mix d P i t C l P igm t d V i h
.
,
’
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L g 12m
.

2 50
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ar e o

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,
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ac D i ti f L b t y W k i P hy i l gi l C h m i t y 8
so n s
’
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Jh R p i d M th d f th C h m i l A ly i f S p i l S t l S t l
. .

’
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m ki g A ll y d G phi t a n L g 12m o s an ra e ar e 0, 3 00
L d S p t m A ly i ( Ti gl )
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8
’
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L gw thy d A t O f A l mi m i V g t bl P d
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,
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t A im l P d t d N t l W t
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,

as sar -
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O g i C h m i t y ( Ti gl ) r an c 12m e s r n e o 1 00
L h I p ti d A ly i f F d wi th Spe i al Ref en e t S t t
. .
. ,

’
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8 v0 , 7 50
L b
o E l t h mi t y f O g i C m p d ( L z
’
s ec r o c e 8 s r o r an c o o un s o re n vo , 3 00
L dg N t A yi g d M t ll gi l L b t y E xp i m t 8
. . .

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’
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L w T h i l M th d f O
,

8 00
’
o s ec n ca e o o re . vo , 3
4
L o we P i f S l St
’
5 a nt or 12m $ 1 00
te e ru c tu r e s o

L g T h h m i l A ly i ( C h
,

12m 1 00
’
un e 3 ec no c e ca na s s o n 0

d L P i ipl d P
W .
,

i Of B tt m ki g
. .

M K c a y an 8 1 50
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d h i V hi l
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M M d P m
aI re 3
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M d l H db k f B i h m i l L b
,

an e
’
s an y 1 2m
oo 1 50 or o c e ca a o r a to r 0,
M i L b t y G id Q li t tiv A lysi wi th h Bl pip
. .

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ar t n s a o ra o r u e to ua a e na s t e ow e

12m 0 60 0

E x m i ti f W t ( C h m i l d B
,

M as o n s
’
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on o a er e ca an a c te r o o ca o

pply ( C id d P i ip lly f m S i y S dp i t )
.
,

W a te r - su . ons e re r nc a ro a an tar tan o n .

8 4 00 v0

F i P i ipl O f C h m i l
,

M th a e w so n 5
’

8
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Lb
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,

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’
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T x til F i b 2 d E di i
,

e R it e res 8 4 00 t on ew r t en v0 ,
C b C m p d ( Ti gl
.
,

My e D mi i er s f R di l
’

i e te r n at o n o a c es n ar on o o un s . n e .

Th i d r 12m H 25 o

Mill C y id P
,

1 2m H 00
’
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l f A yi g
.
,

M an u a o 1 2m
ss a -00 n o
I

Mi t P d i f A l m i m d i I d i l U
,

12m
’
50
l i f S g W k ( B b ki ) 1 2 m e50
ne s ro uc t o n o u nu an ts n u str a se 0

l C l
. .
,

Mi l d T
tt e s ta e h i t
'
s ec n ca a cu a t on s or u ar or s o ur a s 0

El m y T x b k f Ch mi y
. .
,

Mix ter
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El m f P hy i l Ch mi y
,

M g
or an s
’
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en ts o w 00 s ca e s tr o

O li O f h Th y f S l i
“

di sRe sul
’
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ut ne 12m
t H 00 e eo r o o u t o n s an t ts o

Phy i l C h m i y f E l t i l E gi
.
,

s ca 12m e H 50 s tr or ec r ca n n ee r s o

Cl l i di C g F
,

M o rse s
’
i
a c u a t o n s u se 1 6m m H O n an e s u -
ar a c to r e s o or
1
0

M i H i y f C h m i l Th i d L w
.
,
’
u r s s to r o 8 h 00 e ca eo r e s an a s v0 ,
l M h d f h I d ifi i f P O g i C p d
.

M llik G
u en s
’
en era et o or t e en t cat o n o u re r an c on
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o un s

C m p d O f C b i th H yd g d O xyg L g 8
.

V l I
1
o o o un s ar on w ro e n an en ar e v0 0

Ni g C mp d (I P p i )
. .
.
,

V l II o tr o en o u s o oun s n re a ra t o n
Th C m m L g 8
. . .

i l Dy t ff
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T M i l
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a te r a s o f n i n ee r n In
’
h u rs to n 5 re e a r ts

P lli M i l E gi i g
.

ar t I No n m e ta c a te r a s o f n n eer n an d e ta u r 8 vo M ll gy
P
. ” .
,

ar t I I I ro n a n d 8 vo
P Br AT i B as onze ad O h A ll y
. .

hi
,

ar t I I I r e a t se o n r se s s n t er o s an d t e r

C
.
,

o n s t tu e n t s i 8vo
Tl S Pv P vi g M i l
,

i l so n s tr e e t a e m en ts an d a n
’
a te r a s 8 vo
C Pl i
. .

i f d
,

T r a u tw i n e s o n c r e te a n a n d R e n o rc e 1 6m o
’

P i ipl i f d C C
,

M i
,

e s o f R e n o rc e
’
T u rn e aur e an d au r e r s r nc o n c re t e o n s tr u c t o n

S d E di i vi d E l gd
.

ec o n t o n Re se an d n ar e 8 vo
Wt b y C m tL b t yM l
.
, .
,

12m
’
a er ur s e en a o ra o r an u a o

W d (D V ) T ti th R i t f M t i l d A pp dix
,
’ ’

oo s e r ea se o n e e s s an c e o a e r a s , an an en on

P v ti f Ti m b
.

th e r e s er a on o 8 er vo 2 00
W d (M P ) R tl C t i g C d E l t ly i
.

i
,
’
oo s us ess f I d oa n s: o rr o s o n an ec r o s s o ro n an

St
. .

ee l 8 vo , 4 00

R I A L W A Y EN G I NEE RI N G .

A n d re w s H d b k f S t t R il w y E gi
’
s 3 X5 i h
an m oo or r ee a a n n e er s nc es , or
B g B i ldi g d S t t
er
’
s f Am i
u R il d n 4t s an ru c u r e s o e r c an a ro a s o

B k H d b k f S t R il d
,

1 6m m
’
ro o s 3 an oo o tre e a ro a o or
B C ivil E gi Fi l d b k
, .

1 6m m
’ ’
u t ts 5 n n eer s e oo o, or
d ll R il w y d O th E th wo k
. .

C
’
r an a 5 a 8 a an er ar r vo ,
T ii r an s t on 1 6m m o or

C k M th d f E thw o k C m p t i n
, .

’
ro c e tt 3 8 e o s or ar r o u at o s vo ,
D dg H i t y f th P ylv i R i l d ( 1 8 7 9 ) P p
. .

’
re e 5 s or o e en n s an a a ro a a ei
Fi h T b l f C b i C db d
.

'
s er 3 a e o u c ar o ar

G dw i R il d E gi F i l d b k d E xp l G i d 1 6m m
,
’ ’ ’
o n 5 a ro a n n ee r s e oo an o re rs u e o or

H d T b l f C l l ti g th C b i C f E x v ti
. .
,

d Em
’
u so n s a es or a cu a n e u c o n te n ts o ca a o n s an

P b l m Suv yi gRil dS v yi g d G d y
b km t an 8 en s y o 1 00
d H il t
. .

Iv
,
’
es an s 5 ro e s In r e n , a ro a ur e n an eo es

1 6m m o or

M li t d B d M l f R id t E gi
, .

1 6m
’
o o r an e ar s an u a or es en n n ee rs o

N gl F i ld M l f R il d E gi
,

1 6m m
’
a e s e an u a or a ro a n n ee r s o or

d St t d E ti m t
.

R il
.
,
’
O k
rr o c s a 8 ro a ru c u r es a n s a es vo
Fi l d M l f
. .
,

1 6m m
’
P h i lb i k r c s e an u a or o or

R ym d R il d E gi i g 3 v l um s
, .

’
a on 3 a ro a n n ee r n o e

d F i ld G m t y ( I P p ti )
. .

V l I R ilo a ro a e eo e r n re ar a on
I I El m d E gi i g
. . . .

V l o t f R il e en s o a ro a n n e er n

d E gi Fi l d B k ( I P p ti )
. . .

V l I I I R il
’
o . . a ro a n n eer s e oo . n re ar a on .

9
 S l F i ld E gi i g
ear e s 3
’
1 6m m e n n e er n o , or

R il d
.

T yl P i m id l F ml dE hwo k
a 1 6m
ro a m o , or .

’
a or s 8r s o a or e an
u a ar t r vo

F i ld P ti f L yi g O C i l C v f R il d
.
,
’
T w r au t ne 5 e r ac ce o a n ut rc u ar ur es or a ro a s .

1 2m m o or 2
M th d f C l l ti g th C bi C t f Ex v i
.
,

e d Em o o a cu a n e u c on en ts o ca at o n s an

b km t b y th A id f Di g m 8an en s e o a ra s vo

W bb E dC L g 1 2m
.
,

mi f R il ti
’
e 5 co n o cs o a ro a o n s tr u c on . . ar e o ,

R il d a 1 6m
ro a m o or

E m i Th y of h Lo i f R il y L g 12 m
.
,

W lli gte n on s
’
co n o c eo r t e ca t o n o a wa s ar e o

Wi l E l m t f R il d T k d
,

12 m
’
so n 8 e en s o a ro a ra c an . o ,

D RAWI NG .

B arr s
’
Ki n e m ati cs o f 8 vc
B tl
,

ar l D wi g
e tt s
’
M ec h a n i c a ra n . 8 vo ,

8 vo
C lidg l f D wi g M p p
,
’
oo e s 8
an u a o ra n vo a er ,
C lidg d F m El m t f G l D fti g f M h i l E gi
.
,
’
oo e an ree an s e en s o en e r a ra n or ec an c a n
Ob l g 4 t on o

Ki m ti f M h i
. ,

D l y
’
ur e s ne 8 a cs o ac n es vo
E m h I t d ti t P j tiv G m t y d i t A pp li ti
,
’
c 5 n ro 8
uc on o ro e c e eo e r an s ca on vo ,
F h d I v St t my
r en c an 8
es
’
e re o o ” vo
H ill T x t b k S h d dSh d w d P
,
’
s e p tiv oo 8 on a es a n a o s , an er s ec e vo ,
J mi A dv d M h i l D w i g
.

’
a so n 5 8an c e ec an c a ra n vo ,
El m t f M h i l D wi g
.

e en s o 8 ec an ca ra n vo
J
.
,

o n es s M hi D ig ’
ac ne es n
P t I K i m ti f M h i y
ar 8 ne a cs o ac n er vo
P t I I F m S t gth d P p ti f P t
.
,

ar 8or re n an ro or ons o ar s vo
K i m b ll d B
. . .
,

M hi D ig
, ,
’
a an 8ar r s ac ne es n vo
M C d El m t f D
,

G m t y
’
ac or i t pi s e 8 en s o e sc r ve eo e r vo
K i m ti ; P ti l M h i m
.
,

ne a cs 8 o r, rac ca ec an s vo ,

M h i l ec an c a 4t o

V l i ty Di g m
.
,

e oc 8 a ra s vo
L g 12m
,

ML d D
c eo ip t iv G m t y ’
s e sc r e eo e r ar e o

D i p tiv G m t y d S t
,

M h a an s
’
t ti g e sc r 8 e eo e r an o n e- cu n vo ,

I d t i l D n wi g ( Th m p
us r a ) 8 ra n . o so n . . vo ,

M y D ip tiv G m t y
o er 5
’
e sc r 8 e eo e r ” vo
k t hin g
.

d S
,

R d T p g phi l D w i g
’
ee s o o ra 4t ca ra n an e c o

R id C
. .
,

e
’
s M h i l D wi g o u r se I n 8 ec an c a ra n vo ,
T xt b k f M h i l D w i g d E l m t y M h i D i g 8
e oo o ec an c a ra n an e en ar ac ne es n vo

R bi P i ipl f M h i m
. .

’
o n so n 3 r nc 8 es o ec an s ” vo

ill E l m t f
.
,

S h w mb d M 8
’
c a an e rr 5 e en s o vo
S m i th ( A W ) d M x M hi
.
,
’
8an ar s ac ne vo

Sm i th ( R S ) M l f T p g phi l D win g ( M Mi l l )
.
. . ,

8
'
s an u a o o o ra ca ra c an vo

T t w th E l m t f M h i l D w i g Ob l g 8
. .
. .
,

I s or 5 e en s o ec an c a ra n on vo
W D fti g I t m t d O p ti
,

12m
’
ar r e n s ra n n s ru en s an e ra ons o

E l m t f D i p tiv G m t y S h d w d P
.
,

e en p tiv
s o 8 e sc r e eo e r a o s , an er s ec e vo

E l m t f M hi C t ti
, ,

e d en s o 8 ac ne o n s ru c o n an vo

El m t f Pl d S lid F
.
,

e h dG m t i l
en s o 12m a n e an o re e an eo e r ca o

l P bl m f Sh d d Sh d w
,

G e n e ra ro 8 e s o a e s an a o s vo

l f E l m t y P b l m i th Li P p tiv f F m d
,

M an u a o e en ar ro e s n e n ea r er s ec e o or s an

Sh d w a l 2
o rn o

l f E l m t y P j ti D w i g
,

M an u a o l 2m e en ar ro ec on ra n o

Pl P bl m E l m t y
,

an e ro l 2m e s In e en ar o

P b l m Th m d E x m pl D i ptiv Ge m t y
.
,

ro e s, 8 eo r e s , an a es I n e sc r e o e r vo
W i b h K i m ti d P w (H m
,

f T mi i d
’
e s ac s ne a cs an o er o r an s ss o n . er an n an

Kl i e n
Wi l ( H M ) T pg phi S v yi g
.

’
so n s o o ra c ur e n

(V T ) D
. .

Wil so n 5 ip ti v G m t y’
e sc r e eo e r

F h d L tt i g
. . .

r ee an e er n

F h d P p tiv r ee - an e rs ec e
W lf E l m t y C L g 8
.

oo
’
s D i p tiv G m t y e en ar o u r se I n esc r e eo e r ar e y o ,

10
 MATHE MATI CS .

B k E llip ti F ti
a er s
’
c 8
un c ons vo , $ 1 50
B igg E l m t f P l A ly ti G m t y ( B o h )
. .

12 m
'
r s s e en s o an e na c eo e r c er o 1 00
B h Pl d S ph i
. .
,

uc an a n s l T ig m t y ’
an e a n 8 er c a r ono e r vo , 1 00
H m i F ti
. .

By l y
’
er e s ar on c 8 unc o ns vo , 1 00
C h d l E l m t f th I fi i t i m l C l l
an er s
’
e en 12m s o e n n es a a cu us o, 2 00
V t A ly i
.

C ffi 12m
’
o n s ec o r na s s o 2 50
C m p t M l f L g i thm i C m p t ti
.
,

12m
'
o on s an u a o o ar c o u a ons o 1 50
C ll g A lg b L g 12m
,

Di k c so n s
’
o e e e ra ar e o 1 50
Th y f A lg b i E q ti L g 12m
.
,

I t d ti t thn ro uc on o e eo r o e ra c ua o ns ar e o 1 25
P j tiv G m t y d i t A ppli ti
,

Em h I t d ti
’
c s t n ro uc 8 on o ro ec e eo e r an s ca on vo 2 50
F i k F ti C m pl x V i b l
,

f
’
s e s unc ons o 8 a o e ar a e vo 1 00
H l t d E l m t y S y th ti G m t y
,
’
a s e s e en 8 ar n e c eo e r vo 1 50
El m t f G m t y
,

e en s o 8 eo e r vo , 1 75
R ti lG m t y
a ona eo 12m e r o l 50
S y th ti P j tiv G m t y
.
,

n e c ro 8 ec e eo e r vo 1 00
H yd G m S p A ly i
,
’ ’
e s ra ss an n s 8 ac e na s s vo 1 00
Jh ( J B ) Th p l L g i th m i T b l V t p k t iz p p
,
’
o n so n s . . r ee - ac e o ar c a es : es -
oc e s e, a er , 15
1 00 pi , co es, 5 00
M t d h vy d b d 8 X 1 0 i h oun e on ea c ar o ar , nc es , 25
10 pi co es, 2 00
Jh
o ( W W ) Ab idg d E di ti
n so n s
'
f Diff ti l d I t g l C l l r e o ns o e r en a an n e ra a cu us

L g 12m 1 l
. . .

ar e o vo 2 50
C v T i g i C t i C di t
, .

ur e r ac n 12m n a r e s an o -o r n a es o 1 00
Diff t l E q ti
.
,

er en ia 8 ua o ns vo 1 00
E l m t y T ti Diff ti l C l l L g 12m
,

e en ar re a se o n e r en a a cu us ar e o l 50
E l m t y T ti I t g l C l L g 12m
.
,

e th en l ar re a se o n e n e ra a cu us . . ar e o , 1
'

50
Th ti l M h i eo r e ca 12m ec an c s o 3 00
t Sq
o

Th y f E d t h M th d f L
.
,

eo r o 12m
rro rs a n e e o o e as u ar es o 1 50
Diff ti l C l l L g 1 2m
,

T ti r ea se o n e ren a a cu u s ar e o 3 00
I t g l C l L g 12m
. .
,

T ti th
re a l se o n e n e ra a cu u s ar e o 3 00
O di y d P ti l Diff ti l E q ti L g 12m
.

T ti
,

rea se o n r n ar an ar a eren a ua o ns ar e o 3 50
E gi i g A ppli ti f H igh
” .

M th m ti
,

K
’
ara p t ff e o 5 n n e er n ca ons o er a e a cs

(I P p
.

ti ) n re a ra on

L pl P hil phi l E y P b b ili ti ( T d Em

.

a ac e s
’
tt
o so y ) 12m ca ss a on ro a es r u sc o an or o 2 00
L dl w d B E l m t f T ig m t y d L g i th m i d O th
. .
,
’
u o an a ss s e en s o r ono e r an o ar c an er

T bl a es 8 vo 3 00
T ig m t y d T b l p b li h d p t ly E h
,

r o no e r an a es u s e se a ra e ac 2 00
L dl w L g i thm i d T ig m t i T b l
. .
,
’
u o s o ar 8 c an r o no e r c a es vo , 1 00
V t A ly i d Q t i
.

M f l
ac a r a n e s
’
ec o r 8 na s s an u a e rn o n s vo 1 00
H yp b li F ti
,

MM h
c a on s
'
er 8 o c u nc ons vo 1 00
M i g I ti l N m b d th i R p t ti by S q
,
’
an n n s rr a ona d u e rs an e r e r e s en a on e u en c es a n

S i er es 12m o 1 25
M th m ti l M g ph E di t d b y M fi ld M i m d R b t
,

a e a ca ono ra s e an s e e rr an an o er

S W dw d Otv
.

oo h ar c a o e ac 1 00
1 Hi t y f M d M th m ti b y D vid E g S m i th
.
,

N o s or o o e rn a e a cs, a u en e

2 S y th ti P j tiv G m t y b y G g B H ltd
. . .

N o n e c ro ec e eo e r eo r e ru c e a s e

by L 4 H yp
.
, .

3 D t mi G iff d W ld
.

N o t Ne er n an s, aen as or e o er
F ti by J m M M h H m i F
. . . . .

b li o c N 5
un c o n s, a es c a on o ar on c un c
b y Willi m E B y ly N 6 G m S p A ly i
. . .

ti
’
on s, a er o r ass an n s ac e na s s,

b y E dw d W H yd N 7 P b b i li t y d Th y f E
. . . .

ar e o ro a an eo r o rro rs ,
b y R b t S W dw d N 8 V t A ly i d Q t i
. . . .

o er oo ar o ec o r na s s an u a ern o n s ,
by Al x d M f l D iff ti l E q ti by
. . . .

N 9 e an er a c a r an e o e r en a ua o n s,

Willi m W l y J h S l ti f Eq ti
. . .

N 1 0 Th
a o o se o n so n o e o u on o ua o ns ,
b y M fi ld M i m N 1 1 F ti C m pl x V i b l
. . .

an s f e err an o un c o ns o a o e ar a e,
b y Th m S F i k
. . .

o as . s e .

M T" h i l M h i
a u rer s
’
ec n ca 8 ec an c s vo . 4 00
M i m M th d f L t S q
.

er r an s e o 8 o ea s u ar es vo , 2 00
S l ti f E q t i
o u on o 8 ua ons vo , 1 00
Ri d J h D iff ti l d I t g l C l l 2 v l
’
c e an o n so n s i ere n a an n e ra a c u u s. o s n o ne
L g 12m
. .

ar e o 1 50
E l m t y T ti ti l C l L g 12m
,

e th D ifi en l ar r ea se o n e e re n a a c u us ar e o 3 00
S m i th H i t y f M d M th m ti
.
,
’
s s or o & o e rn a e a cs v0 , 1 00
V bl e d L I t d
en an ti t th R l I fi i t i m l A ly i f O
enn es s
’
n ro uc on o e ea n n es a na s s o ne
2 00
12
 b y V t P k t H d —b k f M h
W a te r ur
’
s es oc e an oo o at e m at i cs fo r E gin n ee r s .

2% X5 % i h
nc es , mor $ 1 00
E l g d E di i I l di g T b l
.

n ar e t on , nc u n a es mo r . 1 50
W ld D e mi
’
s e te r n a n ts 8 vo 1 00
W d El m di y
,

f C G m
’
oo s e e n ts o o -o r n a te eo e tr 8 vo , 2 00
W d d P b b ili ty d Th y f E
oo w ar
’
s ro a an eo r o rro r s . . 8 vo , 1 00

ME CHANI CAL E NG NE E I RI NG .

M A TE RI ALS OF EN G I NEE R I N G S TEA M EN G I NES AN D BO I LE RS -

.

B ac o n F g P ti ’
s or e 12 m ra c ce o 1 50
B ld i S m H i g f B i ldi g
.
,

12m
’
a w n s tea ea t n or u n s o 2 50
B Ki m ti f M hi y
,
’
arr s ne a8 cs o ac n er vo 2 50
B l
,

M h i lD i g
ar t e tt s
'

8
ec an c a raw n vo , 3 00
8 vo 1 50
B A i t d M d E gi i g d th I h m i C l
,
’
u rr s n c en 8 an o er n n n e er n an e st an an a vo , 3 50
C p E xp i m l E gi i g
. .

ar e n te r s 8 er en ta n ne e r n vo , 6 00
H i g d V til i g B ildi g
.

ea t n an 8 en at n u n s vo 4 00
Cl k G d O il E gi
.
,

( N w di i i p
’
er s as a n n ne e e t on n r e ss

C mp Fi t L
.

o to n i M t l W ki g ’
s rs 12m e sso n s n e a or n o 1 50
C mp S p d L th
.
,

12m
’
d D G dt 1 50
‘
o to n an e ro o s ee a e o

C lidg M
,

oo l fD i g e s
’
8
an u a p p o ra w n vo a er, 1 00
C lidg d F m El m t f G
,

l D f i g f M h i lE ’
oo e an r ee an s e en s o e en ra ra t n or ec an c a n
i g n e er s Ob l g 4 on to , 2 50
Bl d P ll y
.

C m w ll T t 12m
’
ro e s re a i se o n e ts a n u e s . o , 1 50
T i T h dG i g
re a t se o n 12m oo t e ea r n o 1 50
Di g y M hi y P t M ki g
.
,

12 m
’
n e s ac n er a t e rn a n o 2 00
l y Ki m i f M hi
.
,

D
’
ur e s ne 8 at cs o ac n es ” vo 00
L g 12m
.
,

Fl d G t i g M hi y ’
an ers s ea r - c u t n ac n er ar e o 3 00
d th M m t f P w
.
,

Fl h at Dy m m t er s
’
na 12m o e er s a n e ea su r e en o o er o , 3 00
R p D ivi g o e r 12m n o 2 00
d F l A ly i f E gi
.
,

G ill G 12m
’

s a s an ue na s s or n n eers o 1 25
L m iv S p k
.
,

G
’
-
o ss s o co o 8 t e ar s y o 2 00
P m pi g M hi y ( I P p i )
.
,
’
G r ee n e s u n ac ner n re ara t o n

H i g R dy R f T bl ( C v i F t )
. .

1 6m m
’
er n s ea e e r en c e a es on ers o n ac o rs o or 2 50
Hb d E lli H igh S p d Dy m E l i M hi y
, .

’
o ar t a n 8 s s ee na o ec tr c ac n er vo , 6 00
E gi
.

H G
’
u t to n s as 8 n ne y o 5 00
J mi A dv d M h i l D i g
,
’
a so n s 8 an c e ec an c a ra w n vo , 2 00
El m
.

f M h i lD i g
e en ts 8 o ec an c a r aw n vo , 2 50
J E gi
.

G
’
o n es s as n8 ne . vo 4 00
M hi D ig
,

ac ne es n
P I K i m ti f M h i y ar t 8 ne a cs o ac n er vo 1 50
P t I I F m S g th d P p t i f P
. .
,

ar 8 or tr e n an ro or ons o ar ts vo 3 00
K t M h i l E gi P k tB k
.
, , ,

1 6m m
’ ’
en s ec an c a n n ee r s oc e -
oo o or 5 00
P d P w
. .
,

K e rr s
’
T mi i o w er a n 8 o er r an s ss o n vo 2 00
Ki m b ll d B
.
,

a M h i D ig an 8 a rr s
’
ac ne es n vo , 3 00
L vi G E gi
e n s
’
as n ne 4 00
L d M hi S h p T l d M th d
eo n a r
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,

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P h ll d H b t E l t i M hi D ig S m ll 4 t h lf l h
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a rs a an o ar s ec r c ac ne es n a o a ea t er , 12 50
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13
 C mp d Ai
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12m
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Ro i n s o n s
’
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,

mb
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.
,

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’
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’
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ts w o r t s e en ts o ec an c a raw n on vo 1 25
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a rr e n s e 8 e n ts o ac ne o n s tru c o n an ra w n vo 7 50
W b y V t P k t H d b k f M th m ti f E gi
,
’
a te r ur s es oc e an -
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2 % X5 1? i h m nc es , or 1 00
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n ar e m on nc u n a es or l 50
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,
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MATE R IALS O F E NG NE E I R I NG .

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s r en o a te r a s an eo r o f St ru c t u r e s 8 vo
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f
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Jh ( C M ) R pi d M h d f C h m i l A ly i f S p i l
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th
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L z A ppli d M h i
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12m
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a se s
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,
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P i ipl f E l m t y M h i
.

r nc es o e e n ar ec an c s 12 mo , 1 8

ME D I CAL .

Ab d h l d Ph y i l gi l C h m i t y i Thi ty L t
er a en s( H ll
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E h li h C ll t d S di i y ( B ld
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,

1 2m
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.
.
,

an e
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P li P hy i l C h m i t y i h S vi f M di i ( Fi h ) 1 2 m
,
’
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P zzi E t T xi d V d h i A i b di
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m 12m
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,

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S lk w ki P hy i l gi l d P h l gi l C h m i y ( O d ff ) 8
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a o s s s o o ca an at o o ca e s tr rn or vo

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. .
. .
,

12m
’
a tte r e e s ut n es o u an r o o o

Sm i h L N Ch mi t y f D l S d t
,
’
t s ec tu r e 8 o tes on e s r or e n ta tu en s vo

Whippl T h id F v L g 12m
,
’
e s y po e er ar e o

W dh ll Mili y H ygi f f O ffi f h Li L g 12m

,
’
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P l H ygi
,

e r so n a 12m en e o

d A ki S m ll H pi l E b li h m t d M i
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,

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’
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d S gg i f H pi l A hi an w i h Pl f S m ll u es t o n s or os ta rc te c t u r e , t an s or a a

H pi t l os 12m a . o , 1 25

ME TALLU R G Y .

B e tts L d R fi i g b y E l t ly i
’
s ea e n n ec ro s s

B ll d E y l p di f F di g d Di ti y f F d y T m
.

o an
’
s nc d c o e a o o un n an c o n ar o o un r er s u se

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F d
,

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S ppl m
.
,

12m u e en t o

D gl U h i l A dd T h i l S bj t
.
,

12m
’
ou as s n tec n ca res se s o n ec n ca u ec s o

Mi l d M t l A R f B k
,
’
G o e sel s n e r a s an e a s: e er en c e oo

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Jh C h m i l A ly i f Sp l S l
,

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,
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12m o

M t lf S l A M l f St l
,

12m
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P d i f A l mi m d i t I d i l U
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,

Mi net s
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12m
’
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,

12 m
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ar ro n an ee
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.

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MI NE RA LO GY .

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as er e s
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’
s n ro u ct o n o e ar e r e e n ts vo 1 50
B h M l f D t m i iv Mi l gy ( P fi l d
,
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1 6m m
’

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Mi l d H w S dy Th m
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n e ra s an 12m o to tu e o 1 50
S y m f Mi l gy L g 8 h lf l h
,

s te o n e ra o ar e vo a eat er, 1 2 50
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,

e t 8 oo o n era o vo 4 00
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12m
’
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.
,
’
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c e s to n e an a ro uc s se n n n eer n n re a ra t o n

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’
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’
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.
,
’
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’

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P ti l d Th ti l Mi V til ti
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T ti r ea se o n r ac ca an eo r e ca ne en a on . 1 2 mo
. .

17
 S A NI TA RY S CI E NCE .

A i i
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.
,

ra on o 8 u c a er - s u es vo

d P tt P i fi ti f S w g ( I P p ti )
.
,

Ki i t Wi l w
’

nn c u ns o an ra s ur ca on o e a e n re a ra on

d A ly i f F d w i th S p i l R f St t
. .
,

Leac h I p ti ’
s ns ec ton an na s s o oo ec a e eren c e o a e

C t l o n ro 8 vo ,
M E x m i ti f W t ( C h m i l d B t i l gi l )
. .

12m
’
aso n s a na on o a er e ca an ac er o o ca o

pply ( C id d p i ip lly f m S i t y S t dp i t)
.
,

W t
.

a er - s u . ons er e r nc a ro a an ar an o n .

8 vo

M i m E l m t f S i t y E gi i g
,
’
e rr an s e 8 en s o an ar n n ee r n vo
S w C t ti
,

O gd
’
en s e er 8
o n s ru c on vo

S w D ig
,

e er es n12m o ,

P Di p l f M i ip l R f
a rs o n s s
’
s o sa 8 o un c a e u se vo
P d Wi l w E l m t f W t B t i l gy w i h S p i l R f
,
’
tt
r esc o an ns o s e en s o a er ac er o o t ec a e er

S i t y W t A ly i
,

t en c e o 12 m an ar a er na s s o

P i H d b k S i t ti
.
,

12m
'
r ce s an oo on an a on o

C t f Cl
,

Ri h d 12m
’
c ar s s os o e a n n e ss o

C t f F d A S t dy i Di t i
,

os o oo 12m u n e a r es o

C t f Livi g M di fi d b y S i t y S i
. .
,

os o n 1 2m as o e an ar c en c e o

C t f Sh l t
,

os o e 12 m
er o

Di t y C m p t
.

Ri h d
,

d W i l li m
’
c ar s an 8 a s s e ar o u er vo

d F d f m S it y St d
,

Ri h d d W dm W t ’
c ar Ai
s an oo an s r, a er , an oo ro 8 . an ar an

pi t o n 8 vo 2 00
Ri h y Pl mb S t m fi tt d Ti E di ti ( B ildi g
,
’ ’ ’ ’
c e s u ers ea -
ers an n n er s on u n

S i )
, ,

M h i R dy R f ec an c s l 6m m ea e e r en c e er es o or

d th P v ti f F d
.

Ri d l Di i f t i
, ,

’
ea s s n ec 8 on an e r e ser a on o oo vo ,
S w g d B t i l P fi ti f S w g
e a e an 8 ac er a u rI ca on o e a e yo

S p Ai d V til ti f S bw y
,

12m
’
o er s r an en a on o u a s o

ll P b li W t ppli
,

T d R
’
u rn ea u r e a n 8u sse s u c a e r - su es vo
V bl G b g C m t i i Am i
,
’
en a e s ar a 8e re a o r es n er c a vo
M th d d D vi f B t i l T tm t f S w g
,

e o an 8 e c es or ac er a r ea en o e a e vo
W d d Whippl F h w t B i l gy ( I P )
,
’
ar an e s res a er o o . n r ess .

Wh ippl Mi py f D k g w t
e s
’
c r o sc o o rI n In -
a er

Typh id F v o e er

V l fP Wt
.

a ue o u re a er

Wi l w S y t m ti R l ti hip f th C
ns o
’
s s e a c e a o ns o e o c c a c ea
e

MIS CE LLANE O US .

E mmon s l gi l G i d b k f th R ky M
’
s G eo o ca u e- oo o e oc o u n ta n i Ex i
c u rs o n o f th e
I t ti l C g s f G l gi t n e rn a o na on res o eo o s s L g ar e 8 vo 4
-8
F l P l T ti th Wi d n8
.

’ “

err e s o p u ar r ea se o n e n s 8 vo a

Fi tzg ld B t M hi i t
. .
,
’
er a s os on ac n s 18mo H8
S t ti ti l Ab t t of th W ld
,

G
’
tt
an n e s a s ca s ra c e or 24 mo , 8
Hi A m i n R ilw y M g m t
. .

’
1 2 mo , K 8
)
a n es s er ca a a an a e en

py f T h i l P d t
.

H k T h e Mi Wi
’

( to n ) 8 vo
1
an au se s c ro sc o o ec n ca ro uc s . n , 0 8

18