Previous year question (mark 7 each)

Question 1: Write short notes on WAP Security.

Question2: What is smart client security and how it is used in mobile environment?

Answer: A smart client is a type of application environment connected to the Internet

that allows server-based operations through the HTTP connection model. Smart
client is a way to describe enhanced features and client applications as these types
of IT systems evolve. Some developers describe the smart client as a next-
generation set of systems that evolved from a rich client environment, where two-
tiered setups allowed multiple users to get network information.
With smart client applications, corporate data is stored locally on mobile devices. This data requires
protection from unauthorized access, just as other parts of a mobile solution do. In many cases,
requiring users to be authenticated before accessing the data is one step to securing this data

In general, the word 'client’ is used in IT to refer to hardware or software

that accesses server services. The server coordinates these services and the
external systems are their clients.

One aspect of this involves detailing the rise of the Internet and the use of browsers to offer
client services directly through websites.

However, smart client applications evolved beyond this in order to provide

security for these services, and to streamline the offering of services to
individual users or clients. In addition, the types of client devices used also
proliferated.

Where most clients of the 1990s were desktop or laptop computers, new
client devices include different kinds of mobile devices or smartphones. In
addition, smart client services share various characteristics, including the
use of local resources, a more always-on connection model and better
features for updates or upgrades.

And how it is used in mobile environment?

Transport-Level Security
At the transport level, data encryption is required to secure the enterprise data being synchronized.
Whether you are using a packaged synchronization solution or building one in-house, the
synchronization may be the most important part of the application to secure. Fortunately, there are
many encryption products available to provide this security. Companies including Certicom and RSA
provide products that can be used to encrypt nearly any type of data being transferred to and from
mobile devices. Many of the smart client application vendors include 128-bit data encryption with
their solutions. In this way, you can be ensured that the data being transferred over public networks
is private from the time it leaves the device to the time it reaches the enterprise server.
Along with encryption, using a strong form of authentication, such as digital certificates, is
recommended. In addition, try to keep the firewall around your corporate data as secure as possible;
don't open any ports that are not absolutely required by your synchronization server.
Question 3: Explain the functions of Link manager in Bluetooth.

Answer” The Bluetooth link layer outlines the way Bluetooth devices can use the raw
transmission facility given by the radio layer to exchange information. The functions of
the link layer is very close to MAC (medium access control) sublayer of the OSI model.
The following diagram shows the position of link layers in the Bluetooth protocol
architecture −
Functions of the Bluetooth Link Layer
 Defining procedures for discovering Bluetooth devices.
 Establishing logical links between the Bluetooth devices that are communicating.
One of the devices is assigned as master and the other is the slave.
 Broadcasting data to be sent. Managing the links between the devices throughout
data communications.
 Sending data by converting the raw bit streams of the radio layer into frames and
defining key formats.
 Taking into consideration, the challenges of wireless transmission like
interference, noise and deep fades.
Protocols in the Bluetooth Link Layer
There are two main protocols in the link layer, namely, Link Manager Protocol (LMP)
and Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol (L2CAP).
 Link Manager Protocol (LMP): LMP establishes logical links between Bluetooth
devices and maintains the links for enabling communications. The other main
functions of LMP are device authentication, message encryption and negotiation
of packet sizes.
 Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol (L2CAP) L2CAP provides adaption
between upper layer frame and baseband layer frame format. L2CAP provides
support for both connection oriented as well as connectionless services.
Working Principal
Bluetooth devices are categorised into a master device and slave devices. In the
simplest method, time division multiplexing is used for master – slave communications.
Time slots of 625 µsec are defined the master starts transmitting in odd slots while the
slaves start transmitting in even slots. Length of frames can be 1, 3 or 5 slots. Each
frame is associated with 126-bits overhead for access code and header, as well as a
250 µsec/hop setting time.
The LMP sets up links by pairing method. Secure simple paining method is used where
the master generates a passkey and both devices display the same passkey. The
users confirm the passkeys to pair the devices.
Once paired, the LMP sets up links. The two types of links used are −
  Synchronous Connection Oriented (SCO): Here, a fixed slot is allotted in each
direction. It is used for real-time data.
 Asynchronous Connectionless (ACL): Here, communication is done on best-effort
basis. It is used for packet switched data, which is available at irregular intervals.

Questsion 5: Goals of mobile IP in mobile network and explain its working.

Answer: what is mobile IP: obile IP is an internet protocol

designed to support host
mobility. Its goal is to provide the ability of a host to stay connected to the internet
regardless of their location. Mobile IP is able to track a mobile host without needing
to change the mobile host's long-term IP address.
Mobile IP is a comunication protocol (created by extending Internet Protocol, IP)
that allows the users to move from one network to another with the same IP
address. It ensures that the communication will continue without the user’s
sessions or connections being dropped. 
Terminologies: 
1. Mobile Node (MN) i N) is the hand-held communication device that the user
carries e.g. Cell phone.
2. Home Network is a network to which the mobile node originally belongs as
per its assigned IP address (home address).
3. Home Agent (HA) is a router in-home network to which the mobile node was
originally connected
4. Home Address is the permanent IP address assigned to the mobile node
(within its home network).
5. Foreign Network is the current network to which the mobile node is visiting
(away from its home network).
6. Foreign Agent (FA) is a router in a foreign network to which the mobile
node is currently connected. The packets from the home agent are sent to
the foreign agent which delivers them to the mobile node.
7. Correspondent Node (CN) is a device on the internet communicating to the
mobile node.
8. Care-of Address (COA) is the temporary address used by a mobile node
while it is moving away from its home network.
9. Foreign agent COA, the COA could be located at the FA, i.e., the COA is
an IP address of the FA. The FA is the tunnel end-point and forwards
packets to the MN. Many MN using the FA can share this COA as a common
COA.
10.  Co-located COA, the COA is co-located if the MN temporarily acquired
an additional IP address which acts as COA. This address is now
topologically correct, and the tunnel endpoint is at the MN. Co-located
addresses can be acquired using services such as DHCP.
 
 Mobile IP

Working: 
The correspondent node sends the data to the mobile node. Data packets
contain the correspondent node’s address (Source) and home address
(Destination). Packets reach the home agent. But now mobile node is not in the
home network, it has moved into the foreign network. The foreign agent sends
the care-of-address to the home agent to which all the packets should be sent.
Now, a tunnel will be established between the home agent and the foreign
agent by the process of tunneling. 
Tunneling establishes a virtual pipe for the packets available between a tunnel
entry and an endpoint. It is the process of sending a packet via a tunnel and it is
achieved by a mechanism called encapsulation. 
Now, the home agent encapsulates the data packets into new packets in which
the source address is the home address and destination is the care-of-address
and sends it through the tunnel to the foreign agent. Foreign agent, on another
side of the tunnel, receives the data packets, decapsulates them, and sends
them to the mobile node. The mobile node in response to the data packets
received sends a reply in response to the foreign agent. The foreign agent
directly sends the reply to the correspondent node. 
Key Mechanisms in Mobile IP: 
1. Agent Discovery: Agents advertise their presence by periodically
broadcasting their agent advertisement messages. The mobile node
receiving the agent advertisement messages observes whether the message
is from its own home agent and determines whether it is in the home network
or foreign network.
2. Agent Registration: Mobile node after discovering the foreign agent sends
a registration request (RREQ) to the foreign agent. The foreign agent, in
turn, sends the registration request to the home agent with the care-of-
address. The home agent sends a registration reply (RREP) to the foreign
agent. Then it forwards the registration reply to the mobile node and
completes the process of registration.
3. Tunneling: It establishes a virtual pipe for the packets available between a
tunnel entry and an endpoint. It is the process of sending a packet via a
tunnel and it is achieved by a mechanism called encapsulation. It takes
place to forward an IP datagram from the home agent to the care-of-
address. Whenever the home agent receives a packet from the
correspondent node, it encapsulates the packet with source address as
home address and destination as care-of-address.
Route Optimization in Mobile IP: 
The route optimization adds a conceptual data structure, the binding cache, to
the correspondent node. The binding cache contains bindings for the mobile
node’s home address and its current care-of-address. Every time the home
agent receives an IP datagram that is destined to a mobile node currently away
from the home network, it sends a binding update to the correspondent node to
update the information in the correspondent node’s binding cache. After this,
the correspondent node can directly tunnel packets to the mobile node. Mobile
IP is provided by the network providers.

Question 6: Explain in detail about selective tuning techniques.

Answer: The Selective Tuning model (ST) was first described in my Behavioral and Brain Sciences paper
of 1990.
Question 7: Explain routing principle of Ad-hoc Networks.

Answer: An ad hoc network is one that is spontaneously formed when devices connect
and communicate with each other. The term ad hoc is a Latin word that literally means
"for this," implying improvised or impromptu.
Ad hoc networks are mostly wireless local area networks (LANs). The devices
communicate with each other directly instead of relying on a base station or access
points as in wireless LANs for data transfer co-ordination. Each device participates in
routing activity, by determining the route using the routing algorithm and forwarding
data to other devices via this route.

Classifications of Ad Hoc Networks

Ad hoc networks can be classified into several types depending upon the nature of their
applications. The most prominent ad hoc networks that are commonly incorporated are
illustrated in the diagram below −

Question 8: Consider a wired point-to-point network. List some performance measures.

Answer: Performanceof a network pertains to the measure of service quality of a

network as perceived by the user. There are different ways to measure the
performance of a network, depending upon the nature and design of the
network. The characteristics that measure the performance of a network are : 
 Bandwidth
 Throughput
 Latency (Delay)
 Bandwidth – Delay Product
 Jitter

BANDWIDTH 
One of the most essential conditions of a website’s performance is the amount
of bandwidth allocated to the network. Bandwidth determines how rapidly the
webserver is able to upload the requested information. While there are different
factors to consider with respect to a site’s performance, bandwidth is every now
and again the restricting element. 
“Bandwidth” means “Capacity” and “Speed” means “Transfer rate”
THROUGHPUT 
Throughput is the number of messages successfully transmitted per unit time. It
is controlled by available bandwidth, the available signal-to-noise ratio and
hardware limitations. The maximum throughput of a network may be
consequently higher than the actual throughput achieved in everyday
consumption. The terms ‘throughput’ and ‘bandwidth’ are often thought of as
the same, yet they are different. Bandwidth is the potential measurement of a
link, whereas throughput is an actual measurement of how fast we can send
data
LATENCY 
In a network, during the process of data communication, latency(also known as
delay) is defined as the total time taken for a complete message to arrive at the
destination, starting with the time when the first bit of the message is sent out
from the source and ending with the time when the last bit of the message is
delivered at the destination. The network connections where small delays occur
are called “Low-Latency-Networks” and the network connections which suffer
from long delays are known as “High-Latency-Networks”. 
BANDWIDTH – DELAY PRODUCT 
Bandwidth and delay are two performance measurements of a link. However,
what is significant in data communications is the product of the two, the
bandwidth-delay product. 
JITTER 
Jitter is another performance issue related to delay. In technical terms, jitter is a
“packet delay variance”. It can simply mean that jitter is considered as a
problem when different packets of data face different delays in a network and
the data at the receiver application is time-sensitive, i.e. audio or video data.
Jitter is measured in milliseconds(ms). It is defined as an interference in the
normal order of sending data packets. For example: if the delay for the first
packet is 10 ms, for the second is 35 ms, and for the third is 50 ms, then the
real-time destination application that uses the packets experiences jitter. 
Question 9: List the 7 layers in OSI hierarchy and their functions. Why such a hierarchical approach to
networking is utilized?
Answer: The 7 layers of the OSI model
The layers are: Layer 1—Physical; Layer 2—Data Link; Layer 3—Network; Layer 4—
Transport; Layer 5—Session; Layer 6—Presentation; Layer 7—Application.

It wasn’t always this way. Conceived in the 1970s when computer networking was
taking off, two separate models were merged in 1983 and published in 1984 to create
the OSI model that most people are familiar with today. Most descriptions of the OSI
model go from top to bottom, with the numbers going from Layer 7 down to Layer 1. The
layers, and what they represent, are as follows:

Layer 7 - Application

The Application Layer in the OSI model is the layer that is the “closest to the end user”.
It receives information directly from users and displays incoming data to the user. Oddly
enough, applications themselves do not reside at the application layer. Instead the layer
facilitates communication through lower layers in order to establish connections with
applications at the other end. Web browsers (Google Chrome, Firefox, Safari, etc.)
TelNet, and FTP, are examples of communications  that rely  on Layer 7.

Layer 6 - Presentation

The Presentation Layer represents the area that is independent of data representation
at the application layer. In general, it represents the preparation or translation of
application format to network format, or from network formatting to application format. In
other words, the layer “presents” data for the application or the network. A good
example of this is encryption and decryption of data for secure transmission; this
happens at Layer 6.

Layer 5 - Session

When two computers or other networked devices need to speak with one another, a
session needs to be created, and this is done at the Session Layer. Functions at this
layer involve setup, coordination (how long should a system wait for a response, for
example) and termination between the applications at each end of the session.

Layer 4 – Transport

The Transport Layer deals with the coordination of the data transfer between end
systems and hosts. How much data to send, at what rate, where it goes, etc. The best
known example of the Transport Layer is the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP),
which is built on top of the Internet Protocol (IP), commonly known as TCP/IP. TCP and
UDP port numbers work at Layer 4, while IP addresses work at Layer 3, the Network
Layer.
Layer 3 - Network

Here at the Network Layer is where you’ll find most of the router functionality that most
networking professionals care about and love. In its most basic sense, this layer is
responsible for packet forwarding, including routing through different routers. You might
know that your Boston computer wants to connect to a server in California, but there are
millions of different paths to take. Routers at this layer help do this efficiently.

Layer 2 – Data Link

The Data Link Layer provides node-to-node data transfer (between two directly
connected nodes), and also handles error correction from the physical layer. Two
sublayers exist here as well--the Media Access Control (MAC) layer and the Logical
Link Control (LLC) layer. In the networking world, most switches operate at Layer 2. But
it’s not that simple. Some switches also operate at Layer 3 in order to support virtual
LANs that may span more than one switch subnet, which requires routing capabilities.

Layer 1 - Physical

At the bottom of our OSI model we have the Physical Layer, which represents the
electrical and physical representation of the system. This can include everything from
the cable type, radio frequency link (as in a Wi-Fi network), as well as the layout of pins,
voltages, and other physical requirements. When a networking problem occurs, many
networking pros go right to the physical layer to check that all of the cables are properly
connected and that the power plug hasn’t been pulled from the router, switch or
computer, for example.

Why you need to know the 7 OSI layers

Most people in IT will likely need to know about the different layers when they’re going
for their certifications, much like a civics student needs to learn about the three
branches of the US government. After that, you hear about the OSI model when
vendors are making pitches about which layers their products work with.

In a Quora post asking about the purpose of the OSI model, Vikram Kumar answered
this way:

“The purpose of the OSI reference model is to guide vendors and developers so the
digital communication products and software programs they create will interoperate, and
to facilitate clear comparisons among communications tools.”

While some people may argue that the OSI model is obsolete (due to its conceptual
nature) and less important than the four layers of the TCP/IP model, Kumar says that “it
is difficult to read about networking technology today without seeing references to the
OSI model and its layers, because the model’s structure helps to frame discussions of
protocols and contrast various technologies.”
If you can understand the OSI model and its layers, you can also then understand which
protocols and devices can interoperate with each other when new technologies are
developed and explained.

What is hierarchical network design

First proposed by Cisco in 2002, hierarchical network design has become an
industry-wide best practice for developing reliable, scalable, and cost-effective
networks.

Initially, networks had a flat design and could only be expanded in one direction
through hubs and switches, making it challenging to filter out undesirable traffic
and control broadcasts. As a network grew in size, response times would degrade.
A new network design was necessary, resulting in the hierarchical approach.

Flat network design is still in use today, but is primarily reserved for very small
networks, or designs looking to minimize cost by using a limited number of routers
or switches.

An example of a “flat” network design.

A hierarchical design separates a network into distinct layers, where each layer has
a series of functions that define its role in the network. Because of this, a network
designer can choose the optimal hardware, software, and features to take on a
particular role for that network layer.
Data management is also far more efficient. In a hierarchical design, local traffic
stays local and only moves to a higher layer when it is headed for another network.

What are the typical layers in hierarchical

network design?
The layers in a hierarchical network design are usually mapped according to the
network’s physical layout. They can differ, however, so it’s best to consider them as
logical layers.

A three-layer design is most common, but not mandatory. A three-layer hierarchical

networks typically consist of:

1. A core layer. This is the backbone of your network. It offers fast transport between
distribution switches in the network.
2. A distribution layer. This middle layer offers policy-based connectivity and regulates
the boundary between the other two layers. It’s where routing and data filtering
take place, and is sometimes referred to as the “Workgroup” layer.
3. A access layer. Where endpoints and local servers access the network, and is often
referred to as the “Workstation” layer.
Question9: Explain Rayleigh and Ricean fading

Answer” When a signal is sent from one station to another, it may do so spreading itself
over multiple possible paths. These waves combine at the receiving station, but may not
have the same amplitude, phase or angle. This is known as multipath fading.

This fading must be accounted for at the receiving station to make sense of the signal that
is has just received. Thus, models are constructed. Rayleigh fading is one such model.

In Rayleigh fading, the fluctuations in the parameters of the received wave are treated
statistically. It treats the delays in the fading as unpredictable. When a large number of
paths are possible, the central limit theorem is used to pick each delay as a sampled value
from a zero mean complex-valued Gaussian distribution.

Some more detail : The distribution that you will sample from is called a Rayleigh
distribution. It is the radial component of the sum of two uncorrelated Gaussian random
variables.

Rayleigh fading is best applied when there is no dominant propagation along the/a line-of-
sight between transmitter and receiver.

Both Rayleigh and Rician fading refer to fast fading in wireless communication channels.

When all of the multipath signals have random uniformly distributed phase, then the
amplitude of the resulting signal has a Rayleigh distribution and the fading is called
Rayleigh fading. This occurs when there is no single dominant signal path(like an LOS path
for example).

When a signal in one path has a higher amplitude than the others then the amplitude of the
signal has a Rician distribution and the fading is called Rician fading. This occurs when there
is a dominant signal path(usually an LOS path).

Rayleigh fading is a special case of Rician fading, where the direct signal path(LOS path)
amplitude is zero.

Question10: Explain the generation, detection and bit error probability of QPSK techniques.

Answer: The Quadrature Phase Shift Keying QPSKQPSK is a variation of BPSK, and

it is also a Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier DSBSCDSBSC modulation scheme,
which sends two bits of digital information at a time, called as bigits.
Instead of the conversion of digital bits into a series of digital stream, it converts them
into bit pairs. This decreases the data bit rate to half, which allows space for the other
users.

QPSK Modulator
The QPSK Modulator uses a bit-splitter, two multipliers with local oscillator, a 2-bit serial
to parallel converter, and a summer circuit. Following is the block diagram for the same.

At the modulator’s input, the message signal’s even bits (i.e., 2 nd bit, 4th bit, 6th bit, etc.)
and odd bits (i.e., 1st bit, 3 rd bit, 5th bit, etc.) are separated by the bits splitter and are
multiplied with the same carrier to generate odd BPSK (called as PSKI) and even BPSK
(called as PSKQ). The PSKQ signal is anyhow phase shifted by 90° before being
modulated.
The QPSK waveform for two-bits input is as follows, which shows the modulated result
for different instances of binary inputs.
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QPSK Demodulator
The QPSK Demodulator uses two product demodulator circuits with local oscillator, two
band pass filters, two integrator circuits, and a 2-bit parallel to serial converter.
Following is the diagram for the same.

The two product detectors at the input of demodulator simultaneously demodulate the
two BPSK signals. The pair of bits are recovered here from the original data. These
signals after processing, are passed to the parallel to serial converter.

Question11: Discuss the 3G overview and UMTS Basics.

Answer:3G UMTS using WCDMA technology is a third
generation mobile telecommunications system run under
the auspices of 3GPP providing mobile data connectivity
& circuit switched voice.
UMTS - Universal Mobile Telecommunications System, is the 3G successor to the GSM family of
standards including GPRS and EDGE.

3G UMTS uses a totally different radio interface based around the use of Direct Sequence
Spread Spectrum as CDMA or Code Division Multiple Access.

Although 3G UMTS uses a totally different radio access standard, the core network is the same
as that used for GPRS and EDGE to carry separate circuit switched voice and packet data.

UMTS uses a wideband version of CDMA occupying a 5 MHz wide channel. Being wider than its
competition CDMA2000 which only used a 1.25MHz channel, the modulation scheme was
known as wideband CDMA, or WCDMA / W-CDMA. This name was often used to refer to the
whole system.

 UMTS network architecture:   The architecture for a UMTS network was designed to enable
packet data to be carried over the network, whilst still enabling it to support circuit switched
voice. All the usual functions enabling access toth e network, roaming and the like are also
supported.
 UMTS modulation schemes:   Within the CDMA signal format, a variety of forms of
modulation are used. These are typically forms of phase shift keying.
 UMTS channels:   As with any cellular system, different data channels are required for
passing payload data as well as control information and for enabling the required resources
to be allocated. A variety of different data channels are used to enable these facilities to be
accomplished.
 UMTS TDD:   There are two methods of providing duplex for 3G UMTS. One is what is termed
frequency division duplex, FDD. This uses two channels spaced sufficiently apart so that the
receiver can receive whilst the transmitter is also operating. Another method is to use time
vision duplex, TDD where short time blocks are allocated to transmissions in both directions.
Using this method, only a single channel is required
 Handover:   One key area of any cellular telecommunications system is the handover
(handoff) from one cell to the next. Using CDMA there are several forms of handover that
are implemented within the system.

Question 12: Explain BSS and ESS configuration of IEEE 802.11 WLAN.
Question13: Explain the DSSS system model and synchronization loop for DSSS.

Answer: Direct sequence spread spectrum basics

Direct sequence spread spectrum is a form of transmission that looks very similar to white
noise over the bandwidth of the transmission. However once received and processed with the
correct descrambling codes, it is possible to extract the required data.

When transmitting a DSSS spread spectrum signal, the required data signal is multiplied with
what is known as a spreading or chip code data stream. The resulting data stream has a higher
data rate than the data itself. Often the data is multiplied using the XOR (exclusive OR) function.

Each bit in the spreading sequence is called a chip, and this is much shorter than each
information bit. The spreading sequence or chip sequence has the same data rate as the final
output from the spreading multiplier. The rate is called the chip rate, and this is often measured
in terms of a number of M chips / sec.

DSSS direct sequence spread spectrum

encode / decode process
1 0 0 1 Data to be transmitted
0010 0010 0010 0010 Chip or spreading code
1101 0010 0010 1101 Resultant spread data output
With the signal obtained and transmitted, it needs to be decoded within the remote receiver:

1101 0010 0010 1101 Incoming CDMA signal

0010 0010 0010 0010 Chip or spreading code
1111 0000 0000 1111 Result of de-spreading
1 0 0 1 Integrated output

NB: 1 x 1 = 0     1 x 0 = 1

DSSS spreading gain

Spreading gain =W/R
Direct sequence spread spectrum applications
Covert communications

CDMA cellphone technology

GNSS:   Satellite based navigation systems use DSSS as this gives a signal gain by spreading the
signal out over a wide bandwidth. It also enables different satellites to use the same channel
without mutual interference

Question13: Explain in detail about CDMA with neat diagrams

Answer: Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is a sort of multiplexing that facilitates
various signals to occupy a single transmission channel. It optimizes the use of
available bandwidth. The technology is commonly used in ultra-high-frequency (UHF)
cellular telephone systems, bands ranging between the 800-MHz and 1.9-GHz.

CDMA Overview
Code Division Multiple Access system is very different from time and frequency
multiplexing. In this system, a user has access to the whole bandwidth for the entire
duration. The basic principle is that different CDMA codes are used to distinguish
among the different users.
Techniques generally used are direct sequence spread spectrum modulation (DS-
CDMA), frequency hopping or mixed CDMA detection (JDCDMA). Here, a signal is
generated which extends over a wide bandwidth. A code called spreading code is
used to perform this action. Using a group of codes, which are orthogonal to each other,
it is possible to select a signal with a given code in the presence of many other signals
with different orthogonal codes.
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How Does CDMA Work?

CDMA allows up to 61 concurrent users in a 1.2288 MHz channel by processing each
voice packet with two PN codes. There are 64 Walsh codes available to differentiate
between calls and theoretical limits. Operational limits and quality issues will reduce the
maximum number of calls somewhat lower than this value.
In fact, many different "signals" baseband with different spreading codes can be
modulated on the same carrier to allow many different users to be supported. Using
different orthogonal codes, interference between the signals is minimal. Conversely,
when signals are received from several mobile stations, the base station is capable of
isolating each as they have different orthogonal spreading codes.
The following figure shows the technicality of the CDMA system. During the
propagation, we mixed the signals of all users, but by that you use the same code as
the code that was used at the time of sending the receiving side. You can take out only
the signal of each user.

CDMA Capacity
The factors deciding the CDMA capacity are −

 Processing Gain
 Signal to Noise Ratio
 Voice Activity Factor
 Frequency Reuse Efficiency
Capacity in CDMA is soft, CDMA has all users on each frequency and users are
separated by code. This means, CDMA operates in the presence of noise and
interference.
In addition, neighboring cells use the same frequencies, which means no re-use. So,
CDMA capacity calculations should be very simple. No code channel in a cell, multiplied
by no cell. But it is not that simple. Although not available code channels are 64, it may
not be possible to use a single time, since the CDMA frequency is the same.

Centralized Methods
 The band used in CDMA is 824 MHz to 894 MHz (50 MHz + 20 MHz separation).
 Frequency channel is divided into code channels.
 1.25 MHz of FDMA channel is divided into 64 code channels.
Processing Gain
CDMA is a spread spectrum technique. Each data bit is spread by a code sequence.
This means, energy per bit is also increased. This means that we get a gain of this.
P (gain) = 10log (W/R)
W is Spread Rate
R is Data Rate
For CDMA P (gain) = 10 log (1228800/9600) = 21dB
This is a gain factor and the actual data propagation rate. On an average, a typical
transmission condition requires a signal to the noise ratio of 7 dB for the adequate
quality of voice.
Translated into a ratio, signal must be five times stronger than noise.
Actual processing gain = P (gain) - SNR
= 21 – 7 = 14dB
CDMA uses variable rate coder
The Voice Activity Factor of 0.4 is considered = -4dB.
Hence, CDMA has 100% frequency reuse. Use of same frequency in surrounding cells
causes some additional interference.
In CDMA frequency, reuse efficiency is 0.67 (70% eff.) = -1.73dB

Advantages of CDMA
CDMA has a soft capacity. The greater the number of codes, the more the number of
users. It has the following advantages −
 CDMA requires a tight power control, as it suffers from near-far effect. In other
words, a user near the base station transmitting with the same power will drown
the signal latter. All signals must have more or less equal power at the receiver
 Rake receivers can be used to improve signal reception. Delayed versions of time
(a chip or later) of the signal (multipath signals) can be collected and used to
make decisions at the bit level.
 Flexible transfer may be used. Mobile base stations can switch without changing
operator. Two base stations receive mobile signal and the mobile receives
signals from the two base stations.
 Transmission Burst − reduces interference.
Disadvantages of CDMA
The disadvantages of using CDMA are as follows −
 The code length must be carefully selected. A large code length can induce delay
or may cause interference.
  Time synchronization is required.
 Gradual transfer increases the use of radio resources and may reduce capacity.
 As the sum of the power received and transmitted from a base station needs
constant tight power control. This can result in several handovers.

Question 14: Compare SDMA and FDMA with suitable applications. ii. Explain scheduling and
power control.

Compare SDMA and FDMA with suitable applications.

Answser: mentioned already.
ii. Explain scheduling and power control.
Answer:
Multicasting in wireless systems is a natural way to exploit the
redundancy in user requests in a content centric network. Power control
and optimal scheduling can significantly improve the wireless multicast
network’s performance under fading. However, the model-based
approaches for power control and scheduling studied earlier are not
scalable to large state spaces or changing system dynamics. In this paper,
we use deep reinforcement learning, where we use function
approximation of the Q-function via a deep neural network to obtain a
power control policy that matches the optimal policy for a small
network. We show that power control policy can be learned for
reasonably large systems via this approach. Further, we use multi-
timescale stochastic optimization to maintain the average power
constraint. We demonstrate that a slight modification of the learning
algorithm allows tracking of time varying system statistics. Finally, we
extend the multi-time scale approach to simultaneously learn the
optimal queuing strategy along with power control. We demonstrate the
scalability, tracking and cross-layer optimization capabilities of our
algorithms via simulations. The proposed multi-time scale approach can
be used in general large state-space dynamical systems with multiple
objectives and constraints, and may be of independent interest.
Question15: Explain the principle and operation of π/4 Differential QPSK transmission and
reception.
Answer” /4 DQPSK (Differential Quadrature Phase-Shift Keying) is a differential format
where the bits for a given symbol are determined by the phase change from the previous
symbol. "/4" adds an /4 offset to the phase changes compared with the phase changes in
plain DQPSK. This means there are a total of 8 ideal state positions (compared to the 4 for
DQPSK). The ideal state positions for symbols alternate between the four 45-degree states
normally used by QPSK and four on-axis states. Due to this alternation, the ideal trajectory
between symbols never crosses through zero.

The following table shows the mapping of phase change to bit pattern:

Phase Change Bit Pattern

/4 00

3/4 01

-/4 10

-3/4 11

Question : Explain the generation, detection and bit error probability of QPSK techniques
Answer”bit error in QPSK techiniuqes : Transmitting a symbol takes twice as long as a bit
(Ts = 2·Tb) which means that the bandwidth efficiency of QPSK is twice that of BPSK.
Bit error rate (BER) of a communication system is defined as the ratio of number of
error bits and total number of bits transmitted during a specific period
Generation in QPSK: One method of generating the QPSK waveform is
by converting the input binary data stream into two streams: the odd- and the
even bit streams consisting of the odd- and even numbered bits. Each of these
binary streams can then be modulated using the BPSK, and then on adding we get the
QPSK waveform
Detection in QPSK : The QPSK signal can be detected or received using analog or digital
receivers. The detection capability of digital receivers relies mainly on the number of samples per
signal element and signal-to-noise ratio. The number of samples required by a digital receiver is the
bottleneck for detection speed.

Question: Drive an expression for M-ary Phase shift Keying and QAM and also drive their
BER.
The performance of free space optical (FSO) communication systems is severely affected due to
a number of reasons, such as atmospheric impairments, fading due to turbulence, and
misalignment between transmitter and receiver sections. In this paper, we have analyzed the
atmospheric turbulence and pointing error effect on M-ary phase-shift keying modulation (M-
PSK)-based FSO system link performance over a gamma–gamma fading channel. In our
analysis, the effect of a weak-to-strong atmospheric turbulence channel condition and pointing
errors are taken into consideration. To deal with the performance degradation, a single-input-
multiple-output (SIMO) link along with maximal ratio combining (MRC) diversity scheme is
employed. The closed-form expressions for the estimation of average bit error rate (BER),
outage probability, and spectral efficiency are derived in terms of the Meijer G-function. The
analytical results are presented to indicate the effect of turbulence and pointing errors on BER.
The outage probability and spectral efficiency of the proposed SIMO-FSO system with MRC
technique improved significantly. The accuracy of all the analytical results is verified by Monte
Carlo simulation.

Question : Explain the technique in which the information signals of different users are
modulated by orthogonal or non-orthogonal codes.

Answer: Orthogonal Schemes Orthogonal schemes have the following common advantages. ·
They can employ high-order modulation techniques to increase single-user rate.

· They can avoid intra-cell interference by assigning orthogonal signal sub-spaces to different users. ·
They are not sensitive to the near-far effect. On the other hand, orthogonal schemes have some
common disadvantages (besides the spectral-power efficiency disadvantage discussed earlier). ·

They are sensitive to cross-cell interference. This has been discussed in the previous section. · Frame
synchronization is usually necessary to maintain orthogonality. Comments on individual orthogonal
techniques include the following. ·

In a multipath channel, the cost of inter-symbol interference (ISI) equalization in TDMA increases rapidly
with the number of paths [4]. · The ISI problem can be avoided in OFDMA by a cyclic prefix technique
[4]. · FDMA is prone to fading effects due to its narrow band nature.
CDMA is the most well known non-orthogonal technique. The main advantages of CDMA are its
robustness against fading and cross-cell interference, and its flexibility in asynchronous transmission
environments. A main concern for CDMA is intra-cell interference. This can be treated by MUD [6].
However, the application of MUD has been limited by its high computational cost (complexity may
increase in an exponential or polynomial order with K, the number of users involved). It is also difficult
to support high singleuser rate with CDMA. With recent progress in iterative detection techniques, MUD
complexity can be reduced to a level comparable to single-user detection for orthogonal schemes. A
potential solution is IDMA that relies on the user-specific interleavers for user separation. The spreading
operations in CDMA can be replaced by low rate forward error correction (FEC) codes in IDMA to
provide increased coding gain. As a special case of CDMA, IDMA inherits most of the advantages of
CDMA mentioned above. Furthermore, the iterative CBC detection algorithm for IDMA [3] has per-user
complexity independent of K and can be incorporated in the overall iterative decoding process for turbo
or low-density parity-check (LDPC) codes. Consequently, the cost of an IDMA receiver for K users is only
modestly higher than the total cost of K single-user receivers.

Question: