Assignment-2.

INTERNET AND MULTIMEDIA TECHNOLOGY

Guided By :- Asst Prof. Vishnu Prasad Verma Submitted by: Swarnim Shukla
Q.1 What is IPv6 ?

Ans. IPv6 is the second network layer standard protocol that follows IPv4 for computer communications across
the Internet and other computer networks. IPv6 offers several compelling functions and is really the next step
in the evolution of the Internet Protocol. The IPv6 protocol was then fully standardized at the end of 1998 in
RFC 2460, which defines the header structure. IPv6 is now ready to overcome many of the deficiencies in the
current IPv4 protocol and to create new ways of communicating that IPv4 cannot support.

IPv6 provides several improvements over its predecessor. The advantages of IPv6 are detailed in many other
books on IPv6. However, the following list summarizes the characteristics of IPv6 and the improvements it can
deliver:

Larger address space: Increased address size from 32 bits to 128 bits

Streamlined protocol header: Improves packet-forwarding efficiency
Stateless autoconfiguration: The ability for nodes to determine their own address
Multicast: Increased use of efficient one-to-many communications
Jumbograms: The ability to have very large packet payloads for greater efficiency
Network layer security: Encryption and authentication of communications
Quality of service (QoS) capabilities: QoS markings of packets and flow labels that help identify priority traffic
Anycast: Redundant services using nonunique addresses
Mobility: Simpler handling of mobile or roaming node.
Q.2 What is Mobile IP ? Explain its working ?
Ans. This is an IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force) standard communications protocol designed to allow
mobile devices' (such as laptop, PDA, mobile phone, etc.) users to move from one network to another while
maintaining their permanent IP (Internet Protocol) address.
Defined in RFC (Request for Comments) 2002, mobile IP is an enhancement of the internet protocol (IP) that
adds mechanisms for forwarding internet traffic to mobile devices (known as mobile nodes) when they are
connecting through other than their home network.
Mobile IP
The following case shows how a datagram moves from one point to another within the Mobile IP framework.
First of all, the internet host sends a datagram to the mobile node using the mobile node's home address
(normal IP routing process).
If the mobile node (MN) is on its home network, the datagram is delivered through the normal IP (Internet
Protocol) process to the mobile node. Otherwise the home agent picks up the datagram.
If the mobile node (MN) is on foreign network, the home agent (HA) forwards the datagram to the foreign
agent.
The foreign agent (FA) delivers the datagram to the mobile node.
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Datagrams from the MN to the Internet host are sent using normal IP routing procedures. If the mobile node is
on a foreign network, the packets are delivered to the foreign agent. The FA forwards the datagram to the
Internet host.
In the case of wireless communications, the above illustrations depict the use of wireless transceivers to
transmit the datagrams to the mobile node. Also, all datagrams between the Internet host and the MN use the
mobile node's home address regardless of whether the mobile node is on a home or foreign network. The
care-of address (COA) is used only for communication with mobility agents and is never seen by the Internet
host.

Components of Mobile IP
The mobile IP has following three components as follows:
Mobile Node (MN)
The mobile node is an end system or device such as a cell phone, PDA (Personal Digital assistant), or laptop
whose software enables network roaming capabilities.
Home Agent (HA)
The home agent provides several services for the mobile node and is located in the home network. The tunnel
for packets towards the mobile node starts at home agent. The home agent maintains a location registry, i.e. it
is informed of the mobile node's location by the current COA (care of address). Following alternatives for the
implementation of an HA exist.
Home agent can be implemented on a router that is responsible for the home network. This is obviously the
best position, because without optimization to mobile IP, all packets for the MN have to go through the router
anyway.
If changing the router's software is not possible, the home agent could also be implemented on an arbitrary
node in the subset. One biggest disadvantage of this solution is the double crossing of the router by the packet
if the MN is in a foreign network. A packet for the mobile node comes in via the router; the HA sends it through
the tunnel which again crosses the router.
Foreign Agent (FA)

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The foreign agent can provide several services to the mobile node during its visit to the foreign network. The
FA can have the COA (care or address) acting as a tunnel endpoint and forwarding packets to the MN. The
foreign agent can be the default router for the MN.
Foreign agent can also provide security services because they belong to the foreign network as opposed to the
MN which is only visiting.
In short, FA is a router that may function as the point of attachment for the mobile node when it roams to a
foreign network delivers packets from the home agent to the mobile node.
Care of Address (COA)
The Care- of- address defines the current location of the mobile node from an IP point of view. All IP packets
sent to the MN are delivered to the COA, not directly to the IP address of the MN. Packet delivery toward the
mobile node is done using a tunnel. To be more precise, the COA marks the endpoint of the tunnel, i.e. the
address where packets exit the tunnel.
There are two different possibilities for the location of the care of address:
Foreign Agent COA: The COA could be located at the foreign agent, i.e. the COA is an IP address of the
foreign agent. The foreign agent is the tunnel endpoint and forwards packets to the MN. Many MN using the
FA can share this COA as common COA.
Co-located COA: The COA is co-located if the MN temporarily acquired an additional IP address which acts
as a COA. This address is now topologically correct, and the tunnel endpoint is at the mobile node. Co-located
address can be acquired using services such as DHCP. One problem associated with this approach is need for
additional addresses if MNs request a COA. This is not always a good idea considering the scarcity of IPv4
addresses.
Correspondent Node (CN)
At least one partner is needed for communication. The correspondent node represents this partner for the
MN. The correspondent node can be a fixed or mobile node.
Home Network
The home network is the subset the MN belongs to with respect to its IP address. No mobile IP support is
needed within this network.
Foreign network The foreign network is the current subset the MN visits and which is not the home network.
Process of Mobile IP
The mobile IP process has following three main phases, which are:
1. Agent Discovery
During the agent discovery phase the HA and FA advertise their services on the network by using the ICMP
router discovery protocol (IROP).
Mobile IP defines two methods: agent advertisement and agent solicitation which are in fact router discovery
methods plus extensions.
Agent advertisement: For the first method, FA and HA advertise their presence periodically using special agent
advertisement messages. These messages advertisement can be seen as a beacon broadcast into the subnet.
For this advertisement internet control message protocol (ICMP) messages according to RFC 1256, are used
with some mobility extensions.

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Agent solicitation: If no agent advertisements are present or the inter arrival time is too high, and an MN has
not received a COA, the mobile node must send agent solicitations. These solicitations are again bases on
RFC 1256 for router solicitations.
2. Registration : The main purpose of the registration is to inform the home agent of the current location for
correct forwarding of packets.
Mobile IP Registration can be done in two ways depending on the location of the COA.
If the COA is at the FA, the MN sends its registration request containing the COA to the FA which is forwarding
the request to the HA. The HA now set up a mobility binding containing the mobile node's home IP address
and the current COA.
Additionally, the mobility biding contains the lifetime of the registration which is negotiated during the
registration process. Registration expires automatically after the lifetime and is deleted; so a mobile node
should register before expiration. After setting up the mobility binding, the HA send a reply message back to
the FA which forwards it to the MN.
If the COA is co-located, registration can be very simpler. The mobile node may send the request directly to
the HA and vice versa. This by the way is also the registration procedure for MNs returning to their home
network.
3. Tunneling : A tunnel is used to establish a virtual pipe for data packets between a tunnel entry and a tunnel
endpoint. Packets which are entering in a tunnel are forwarded inside the tunnel and leave the tunnel
unchanged. Tunneling, i.e., sending a packet through a tunnel is achieved with the help of encapsulation.
Tunneling is also known as "port forwarding" is the transmission and data intended for use only within a
private, usually corporate network through a public network.
Q.3 What is Bluetooth, Infrared and Wireless LAN 802.11 ?
Ans. Bluetooth : Bluetooth is a wireless LAN technology used to connect devices of different functions such
as telephones, computers (laptop or desktop), notebooks, cameras, printers and so on. Bluetooth is an
example of personal area network.
• Bluetooth project was started by SIG (Special Interest Group) formed by four companies IBM, Intel, Nokia
and Toshiba for interconnecting computing and communicating devices using short-range, lower-power,
inexpensive wireless radios.
1. It is used for providing communication between peripheral devices like wireless mouse or keyboard with the
computer.
2. It is used by modern healthcare devices to send signals to monitors.
3. It is used by modern communicating devices like mobile phone, PDAs, palmtops etc to transfer data rapidly.
4. It is used for dial up networking. Thus allowing a notebook computer to call via a mobile phone.
5. It is used for cordless telephoning to connect a handset and its local base station.
6. It also allows hands-free voice communication with headset.
7. It also enables a mobile computer to connect to a fixed LAN.
8. It can also be used for file transfer operations from one mobile phone to another.
9. Bluetooth uses omnidirectional radio waves that can through wallsor othernon-metalbarriers.

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Bluetooth devices have a built-in short range radio transmitter. The rate provided is 1Mbps and uses 2.4 GHz
bandwidth.
Bluetooth is that when the device is with in the scope of a other devices automatically start the transfer
information without the user noticing. a small network between the devices is created and the user can
accessed as if there were cables.
Its Architecture has 2 types: Piconet and Scatternet.
INFRARED :
Infrared (IR) is a wireless mobile technology used for device communication over short ranges. IR
communication has major limitations because it requires line-of-sight, has a short transmission range and is
unable to penetrate walls. IR transceivers are quite cheap and serve as short-range communication solutions.
Because of IR's limitations, communication interception is difficult. In fact, Infrared Data Association (IrDA)
device communication is usually exchanged on a one-to-one basis. Thus, data transmitted between IrDA
devices is normally unencrypted
802.11 WLAN : Wireless LANs are those Local Area Networks that use high frequency radio waves instead of
cables for connecting the devices in LAN. Users connected by WLANs can move around within the area of
network coverage. Most WLANs are based upon the standard IEEE 802.11 or WiFi.
IEEE 802.11 Architecture
The components of an IEEE 802.11 architecture are as follows
1) Stations (STA) − Stations comprise all devices and equipments that are connected to the wireless LAN. A
station can be of two types:
Wireless Access Points (WAP) − WAPs or simply access points (AP) are generally wireless routers that form
the base stations or access.
Client. − Clients are workstations, computers, laptops, printers, smartphones, etc.
Each station has a wireless network interface controller.
2) Basic Service Set (BSS) −A basic service set is a group of stations communicating at physical layer level.
BSS can be of two categories depending upon mode of operation:
Infrastructure BSS − Here, the devices communicate with other devices through access points.
Independent BSS − Here, the devices communicate in peer-to-peer basis in an ad hoc manner.
3) Extended Service Set (ESS) − It is a set of all connected BSS.
4) Distribution System (DS) − It connects access points in ESS.
Advantages of WLANs
They provide clutter free homes, offices and other networked places.
The LANs are scalable in nature, i.e. devices may be added or removed from the network at a greater ease
than wired LANs.
The system is portable within the network coverage and access to the network is not bounded by the length of
the cables.
Installation and setup is much easier than wired counterparts.
The equipment and setup costs are reduced.

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Disadvantages of WLANs
Since radio waves are used for communications, the signals are noisier with more interference from nearby
systems.
Greater care is needed for encrypting information. Also, they are more prone to errors. So, they require greater
bandwidth than the wired LANs.
WLANs are slower than wired LANs.
Q.4 Explain MACAW Protocol for Wireless LAN ?
Ans. Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (MACA) is a medium access control (MAC) layer protocol used
in wireless networks, with a view to solve the hidden terminal problem. It also provides solution to the exposed
terminal problem. The MAC layer protocol IEEE 802.11 RTS/CTS has been adopted from MACA.

Working Principle : The MACA protocol works with the condition that the stations are synchronized and
frame sizes and data speed are the same. It involves transmission of two frames called RTS and CTS prior to
data transmission. RTS stands for Request to Send and CTS stands for Clear to Send.

Let us consider that a transmitting station STA has data frame to send to a receiving station STB. The
operation works as follows:

 Station STA sends a RTS frame to the receiving station.

 On receiving the RTS, station STB replies by sending a CTS frame.

 On receipt of CTS frame, station STA begins transmitting its data frame.

 After successful receipt of the data frame, station STB sends an ACK frame (acknowledgement frame).

The sequence is illustrated as follows:

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Any station than can hear RTS is close to the transmitting station and remains silent long enough for the CTS,
or waits for a certain time period. If the RTS is not followed by a CTS, the maximum waiting time is the RTS
propagation time.

Any station that can hear the CTS is close to the receiving station and remains silent during the data
transmission. It attempts for transmission after hearing the ACK.

MACA is a non-persistent slotted protocol. This implies that if the medium is detected as busy, a station waits
for a random time period after the beginning of a time slot and then it sends an RTS. This assures fair access
to the medium.

Q. 5 Briefly describe LMDS Architecture .

Ans. Both LMDS and MMDS are Broadband WLL (Wireless Local Loop) technologies developed as

alternative to DSL wireless technologies such as ADSL, VDSL etc. These technologies are used for video,

voice, ATM and internet applications.

LMDS is the short form of Local Multipoint Distribution Service. It is a P2MP (Point to Multi-Point) technology

operating above 20 GHz. P2P (Point to Point) and TV systems can also be interfaced with LMDS.

The figure-1 depicts LMDS architecture. It consists of NOC (Network Operation Center), BS (Base Station),

CPE (Customer Premises Equipment), fiber based infrastructure. Multiple NOCs are interconnected together.

Fiber backbone infrastructure consists of SONET, OC-12, OC-3, DS3 optical links, CO equipments etc.

Moreover NOC is interfaced with ATM, IP systems, PSTN and Internet.

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LMDS Architecture

Fig-1: LMDS Architecture

BS is interfaced with optical equipments on one side and wireless on the other. It houses optical to electrical

and electrical to optical interfaces as well as RF up/down converters. RF up converter is used to convert data

to be transmitted on modulated RF waveforms. The RF down converter does the reverse operations the

reverse operation.

CPEs are installed at customer premises and are linked with BS using wireless microwave links. They are

available from multiple vendors. It consists of functionalities viz. modulation, demodulation, RF upconversion

and RF down conversion etc. CPEs utilize multiple access schemes viz. TDMA, FDMA and CDMA for

communication with BSs in the LMDS network.

Following are the key features of LMDS system:

• It operates at 28 GHz or 38 GHz frequency.
• It is installed similar to cellular system cell based layout.
• Cell size or range of BS is 5 miles.
• It uses P2MP and P2P topologies for end communication with CPEs.
Q.7 What is WLL. Explain its architecture and technology.

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Ans. Wireless Local Loop

Local loop is a circuit line from a subscriber’s phone to the local central office (LCO). But the implementation of
local loop of wires is risky for the operators, especially in rural and remote areas due to less number of users
and increased cost of installation. Hence, the solution for it is the usage of wireless local loop (WLL) which
uses wireless links rather than copper wires to connect subscribers to the local central office.

WLL Architecture:

WLL components:

1. PSTN:
It is Public Switched Telephone Network which is a circuit switched network. It is a collection of world’s
interconnected circuit switched telephone networks.
2. Switch Function:
Switch Function switches the PSTN among various WANUs.
3. WANU:
It is short for Wireless Access Network Unit. It is present at the local exchange office. All local WASUs are
connected to it. Its functions includes: Authentication, Operation & maintenance, Routing, Transceiving voice
and data. It consists of following sub-components:
o Transceiver: It transmits/receives data.
o WLL Controller: It controls the wireless local loop component with WASU.
o AM: It is short for Access Manager. It is responsible for authentication.
o HLR: It is short for Home Location Register. It stores the details of all local WASUs.
4. WASU:
It is short for Wireless Access Subscriber Units. It is present at the house of the subscriber. It connects the
subscriber to WANU and the power supply for it is provided locally.

lAdvantages of WLL:

 It eliminates the first mile or last mile construction of the network connection.
 Low cost due to no use of conventional copper wires.
 Much more secure due to digital encryption techniques used in wireless communication.
 Highly scalable as it doesn’t require the installation of more wires for scaling it.

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Features of WLL:

 Internet connection via modem

 Data service
 Voice service
 Fax service

Q.7 Explain packet switched data services ?

Ans. Packet-switched describes the type of network in which relatively small units of data called packets are
routed through a network based on the destination address contained within each packet. Breaking
communication down into packets allows the same data path to be shared among many users in the network.
This type of communication between sender and receiver is known as connectionless (rather than dedicated).
Most traffic over the Internet uses packet switching and the Internet is basically a connectionless network.

Packet Switching uses Store and Forward technique while switching the packets; while forwarding the packet
each hop first store that packet then forward. This technique is very beneficial because packets may get
discarded at any hop due to some reason. More than one path is possible between a pair of source and
destination. Each packet contains Source and destination address using which they independently travel
through the network.The process is diagrammatically represented in the following figure. Here the message
comprises of four packets, A, B, C and D, which may follow different routes from the sender to the receiver.

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