SOLAR DC HOME

Project Report
Submitted to Government Engineering College Thrissur

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

B.Tech.

in

Electrical and Electronics Engineering

by

BILINE K C Reg. No. NSS18EE048

K S ADARRSH Reg. No. TCR18EE061

YADHU KRISHNA O R Reg. No. TCR18EE098

MUHAMMED HARSHAL A Reg. No. LTCR18EE107

DEPARTEMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

GOVERNMENT ENGINEERING COLLEGE, THRISSUR

KERALA

January 2022
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

My work stands incomplete without extending my sincere gratitude to everyone

who has supported me and contributed towards the successful completion of my

project work. First of all, I offer my thanks to my parents for their blessings and

constant support.

I specially acknowledge my project guide Prof. Sreenath B for his valuable

support and guidance throughout the project.

I express my sincere gratitude to Prof. Jose Sebastian T K Head of the

Department of Electrical Engineering, for providing me consistent guidance and

encouragement throughout the work.

I would also like to thank all the staff members of Department of Electrical

Engineering for their guidance and technical support given to us and steering us

to the successful completion of project. I finally thank all my friends and well-

wishers who had supported me directly and indirectly during the course of my

project work.
 Abstract

The fast-growing energy demand and, at the same time, tackle environmental

concerns resulting from conventional energy sources, renewable energy sources

are getting integrated in power networks to ensure reliable and affordable energy

for the public and industrial sectors.However, the integration of renewable energy

in the ageing electrical grids can result in new risks/challenges, such as security of

supply, base load energy capacity, seasonal effects, and so on. It can offer higher

reliability and more efficient energy systems in a cost-effective manner. Further

improvement in the reliability and efficiency of electrical grids can be achieved

by utilising dc distribution in microgrid systems. DC microgrid is an attractive

technology in the modern electrical grid system because of its natural interface

with renewable energy sources, electric loads, and energy storage systems. In

the recent past, an increase in research work has been observed in the area of dc

microgrid, which brings this technology closer to practical implementation.The

project discusses benefits and challenges of using dc grid systems in several appli-

cations. Also highlights the standardizations for dc home automation and going to

present recent updates in this area.The dc loads:dc solar fan,LED,USB port.The

design includes the source (Solar panel charge control) to the load end.The initial

stage the matlab simulation of designed dc off grid and find out theoretical results.

ii
Contents

List of Figures iv

1 Introduction 1

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.2 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.3 Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2 Literature Survey 3

2.1 Literature Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2.2 Outline of the Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

3 Methodology And Design 7

3.1 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

3.2 Demand calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

3.3 Load side Buck converter (12V-5V) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

3.4 Source - Solar panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

3.4.1 MPPT Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

3.4.2 Source side Buck converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

3.5 Storage: Battery Management System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

4 Simulation Results 13

4.1 Simulation results of 12V to 5V buck converter . . . . . . . . . . 14

4.2 Simulation results of panel voltage to 12V buck converter . . . . . 15

iii
 4.3 MPPT and panel working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

4.4 Simulation results of Battery Management System . . . . . . . . . 18

5 Conclusions 20

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

5.2 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

A P& O Algorithm 22

iv
List of Figures

3.1 Block diagram representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

3.2 Flowchart of P&O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

3.3 Buck converter at the source side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

3.4 constant current charging circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

4.1 Simulation diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

4.2 Simulink model of 12V to 5V buck converter . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

4.3 Load voltage and current(USB input) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

4.4 Simulink model of panel voltage to 12V buck converter . . . . . . 16

4.5 Load voltage and current(12V bus) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

4.6 Simulink diagram of MPPT and panel interconnection . . . . . . 17

4.7 PI- gate pulse controlling unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

4.8 Simulink block diagram of BMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

4.9 SOH, Battery current and Battery voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

v
List of Tables

3.1 Load specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

vi
Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Introduction

DC power has spread back, especially in residential microgrid PV systems, as

a variety of modern electronic loads became available commercially. The com-

patibility of household appliances with a DC distribution system with the best

voltage-level is the areas that not yet made a practically extensive appearance,

and it is still in the research phase. This work mainly explores these issues by 1)

providing a review on the concerning research efforts, 2) identifying the gaps in

the existing knowledge, and 3) exploiting the recent advances in the commercial

household appliances.

The work extrapolates a new architecture to reduce the losses of the overall sys-

tem and grow its efficiency up. These improvements are achieved by proposing

a DC-environment with two levels of voltage to cover all the recently produced

appliances. The energy transfer efficiency is the key factor that calculated to

evaluate the appliance performance. The study outcomes can serve as a guide

for establishing standardizations for DC microgrid and designing a more efficient

DC power distribution networks with minimal energy converters.

1
1.2 Overview

The work discusses the state-of-the-art dc micro-grid technology in home automa-

tion which cover ac interfaces, architectures, power quality issues, and so on . The

advantages of dc grids can be harvested in many applications to improve their

reliability and efficiency. The project also discusses benefits and challenges of

using dc grid systems in several applications. Also highlights the standardization

for dc home automation and going to present recent updates in this area.The

dc loads planned to place the dc loads:dc solar fan,LED,USB port.The design

includes the source (Solar panel charge control) to the load end.

The initial stage includes the fixing of objectives.The second stage is theoretical

design of system in accordance with the objectives .The third is stage the matlab

simulation of designed system and found out simulation results. The fourth stage

is comparison between theoretical and simulation results . The fifth stage is im-

plementation of the designed system.The sixth stage is monitoring the working

of the grid, checking the practical results with theoretical and simulation results.

1.3 Objective

The first objective of this project is to develop algorithm and program a micro

controller for MPPT(Maximum Power Point Tracking) of Solar panel.The second

objective is to study the load scheduling in dc off grid system. The third one to

compute the implementation cost and running cost compared with AC grid.The

next objective is to analyze the challenges to convert ac grid to dc off grid. The

next objective is to realize and implement the designed system. Also, for designing

the MPPT algorithm for micro controller ,a current sensor and voltage sensor is

required.

2
Chapter 2

Literature Survey

2.1 Literature Survey

AC micro-grid is the most commonly used variant of micro-grid. [6] AC micro-

grids connect the various energy generation sources and loads in their network

using an AC bus system. Typically, AC micro-grids consist of distributed gener-

ation sources such as renewable, and conventional power generation sources such

as engine-based generators. These distributed generators are connected through

an AC bus system with an energy storage medium like battery energy storage

system(BESS). Renewable generators such as solar photo-voltaic, wind turbines,

etc. produce DC output. This output can be converted into AC through power

electronic-based converters. But they have some demerits:Lower conversion effi-

ciency [9], expensive converters (such as DC-AC converters) ,difficult contractility

due to the factors of frequency, voltage regulation, and unbalance compensation

,lower power supply reliability can hinder the performance of equipment that

requires an adequate power supply for high-performance needs and lower trans-

mission efficiency than their DC counterparts

The advantages of the DC systems over AC are -Efficiency [7]: Due to the need

for multiple levels of DC voltage, a DC system was deemed Superior to an AC

system in terms of efficiency (i.e., higher efficiency gains mean less energy wasted

3
which means less money is wasted). Even though the exact value of efficiency

gain varies from application to application, the most common and very straight-

forward gain is in household electronics equipment. Most electronic equipment is

DC and normally equipped with two conversion stages for AC power. Cost [1]:

Since setting up of a grid connected sub-system is pretty costly for a remote lo-

cation - it involves heavy equipment cost for setting up a sub-station including

transformers - setting up a smaller Solar DC micro grid makes more financial

sense. Furthermore, for a small micro grid, the transmission losses are higher for

an AC system as compared to a DC system.

Reliability: A small DC micro grid is far more reliable than a dependency on a

centralized grid. This is primarily due to distributed nature of generation. With

distributed sources of power, operation of one generation system is independent

of the failure of another. Scalability : DC micro-grids are very easily scalable as

compared to AC micro grids. This is primarily due to the absence of limiting

equipment like transformers and relays, that are size specific and need to be re-

placed once, the consumer base increases. [7] Simpler power electronic interfaces

and fewer points of failure.The total losses in DC distribution are less compare

to AC. Using solar power to generating electricity, the losses incurred with con-

verting to AC are avoided, with the fact that many household devices run on

DC.Electromagnetic interference (EMI) is lower in DC grids when compared to

AC grids. Fewer conductors are required, and there is the absence of skin effect

(HVDC transmission in this case). In today’s technology, DC is employed in high

voltage long-distance transmission, which is better in cost when compared to the

AC system.

The maximum power supplied by the photovoltaic panels is not always stable

and fixed in the same operating point; it varies with the weather conditions, such

as solar irradiation, shadow, and temperature. To extract the maximum power,

it is necessary to implement an MPPT [5] algorithm that dynamically adjusts the

extraction of the power. Convergence speed is one of the most important features

4
among all different MPPT algorithms [8].

Different types of MPPT Algorithm:

Incremental Conductance [2]:The incremental conductance method is based on

the principle that the slope of the PV array power curve is zero at the MPP. Once

the maximum power is reached, the operation of the PV array is maintained at

this point. 3. It is an effective algorithm and requires high sampling rates and

fast calculations of the power slope . It offers different advantages which are good

tracking efficiency and automatic adjustment of the module operating voltage

with no oscillations. The response is improved and the control for the extracted

power is optimized [2]. The implementation of this algorithm in the control unit

is difficult and expensive.

Correlation Algorithm [4]: The ripple correlation control uses the average function

to find out the average term of the instantaneous PV power The knowledge of

the instantaneous operating point region makes it possible to change the output

reference current in order to approach the maximum power operating point. This

method presents very fast dynamics converging asymptotically to the MPP, and it

achieves convergent speeds at a rate similar to the switching converter frequency

but the disadvantage is that we must know about value of current and voltage

earlier.

Perturbation Observation method(proposed algorithm): Perturb and observe

algorithm is simple and does not require previous knowledge of the PV generator

characteristics or the measurement of solar intensity and cell temperature and is

easy to implement with analogue and digital circuits. It perturbs the operating

point of the system causing the PV array terminal voltage to fluctuate around the

MPP voltage even if the solar irradiance and the cell temperature are constants

[2]. This method is applied by perturbing the duty cycle at regular interval. And

oscillate around the point dP/dV=0 i.e. MPP [3] The Major advantage is that

it is easy to implement,iterative approach and solar chara need not be known

earlier.

5
2.2 Outline of the Report

The organisation of this report is as follows. As already seen, Chapter 1 presents

the introduction of the work on different aspects of DC-microgrid and P& O

Algorithm, a literature survey of the research concerning both.

Chapter 2 presents Literature Survey . A literature survey of the research

concerning effectiveness of the proposed work .Demonstrated through comparing

the different MPPT algorithm obtained with those available in the literature.Also

depicted the advantages of DC over AC by using available journal references.

Chapter 3 presents methodology and theoretical design of the proposed work.

Chapter 4 presents simulation analyses the proposed MPPT algorithm and

designed circuits .The results obtained using the proposed method are demon-

strated through comparing the results obtained with those theoretical values.

Chapter 5 brings out the significant conclusions of the entire work .

6
Chapter 3

Methodology And Design

3.1 Methodology

For the standard off grid system the components are solar panel , control unit,

battery, load. Solar charge controller is used to regulate power input from PV

arrays to deliver optimal power output to run electrical loads and charge batteries

. A battery is used to store the energy from the solar panel and this power is

delivered to the load. Which shows in the Fig.3.1 A battery is used to store

Figure 3.1: Block diagram representation

the energy from the solar panel and this power is delivered to the load when

the panel can’t meet the required demand.(To ensure the protection of battery a

7
constant current charging is used) The voltage from the PV panel regulated to

constant 12 V by using a buck converter and the converter switching controlled

by a MPPT ( P&O algorithm) . The connected loads are Ceiling solar fan ,light

load and 2 USB jack of 5V. A DC-DC buck converter is used at the load side to

step down the constant 12V bus voltage to 5V. MATLAB simulation to be used

before implementation.

3.2 Demand calculation

The required connected loads are Ceiling Solar Fan, LED and USB port for charg-

ing purpose.

Table 3.1: Load specification

SI Description Voltage Rat- Current Rat- Power Quantity

NO ing(V) ing(A) (W)

1 Ceiling Solar 12 4.17 50 1

Fan

2 LED 12 1.33 9 11

3 USB port 5 .5 2.5 2

Thus, the total power requirement =50×1 + 9 × 11 + 2.5 × 2 = 154W

So have to use a solar panel with power 50% greater than the required power

demand. That is the panel should have the capacity of 231W. So here in this

takes one solar panel with maximum power 234.98 W, Open circuit voltage 37.7V

and short circuit current of 8. 24A.Also provides a battery support of 200W.

8
3.3 Load side Buck converter (12V-5V)

Purpose: -USB port

VO = 5V VS = 12V f=5kHz T = 2 × 10−4 sec
5
D = VO /VS = 12
= .4167 P = 2.5W

(v 2 ) VO 5
By taking a resistance value of 10ohm (R = P
)O = R
= 10
= .5A From the

circuit given below Fig.?? , IL = IO And VC = VO The value of ripple current is

limited to 10% of IL, △IL = .1 × .5 = .05A The value of ripple voltage limited

to 1% of VC (= VO ), △V = .05V Then the inductance can be calculated by using

the equation,

Vs D − (1 − D)
L= (3.1)
f △IL
12 × .416(1 − .416)
= (3.2)
5 × 103 × .05
=12mH(Std.Lvalue) (3.3)

The designed capacitance value can calculate by using the equation,

Vs D − (1 − D)
C= (3.4)
8f 2 L△VO
12 × .416(1 − .416)
= (3.5)
8 × (5 × 103 )2 .05
=22µF (Std.capacitorvalue) (3.6)

3.4 Source - Solar panel

3.4.1 MPPT Algorithm

The current-voltage characteristics of the solar cells depend on solar insolation

level and temperature, which lead to the variation of the maximum power point

(MPPT). Herein, to improve photo-voltaic (PV) system efficiency, and increase

the lifetime of the battery, a micro-controller-based battery charge controller with

maximum power point tracker (MPPT) is designed for harvesting the maximum

9
power available from the PV system under given insolation and temperature con-

ditions. Among different MPPT techniques, perturb and observe (P&O) tech-

nique gives excellent results and thus is used. This work involves the design of

MPPT charge controller using DC/DC buck converter.

P and O algorithm: -

Figure 3.2: Flowchart of P&O

3.4.2 Source side Buck converter

Need to design a buck converter at the output of solar panel and that buck should

have the capability to maintain the bus voltage to constant value of 12V.The

required circuit shown belowFig.3.3

The selected solar panel with maximum power 234.98 W, Open circuit voltage

10
37.7V and short circuit current of 8. 24A.

(The desired bus voltage VO = 12V , Switching frequency, FSW = 5kHz Output

current = 234.98/31 = 7.58A ,Current ripple ,10% of load current, △IL = .1 ×

7.58 = .758A Voltage ripple,1% of load voltage, △VL = .01 × 12 = .12V )

The inductance can be calculated by using the equation,

Vop (Vip − Vop )

L= (3.7)
fsw △IL Vip
12 × (31 − 12)
= (3.8)
5000 × .758 × 31
=2mH(Std.Lvalue) (3.9)

The designed capacitance value can calculate by using the equation,

△IL
C= (3.10)
8f △VO
.758
= (3.11)
8 × (5 × 103 ) × .12
=150µF (Std.capacitorvalue) (3.12)

Figure 3.3: Buck converter at the source side

11
3.5 Storage: Battery Management System

Charging mode: automatically activated when DC bus is connected and the con-

trol objective i.e.: set point (of the 1st PI closed loop) becomes the full voltage

of battery.

Discharging mode: automatically activated when DC bus is NOT connected and

the control objective (of the 1st PI closed loop) becomes load voltage in order

the maintain a constant load voltage during discharging.

Constant current is a simple form of charging batteries, with the current level

set at approximately 10% of the maximum battery rating. Charge times are rel-

atively long This method is suitable for Li Ion type of batteries. The battery

must be disconnected, or a timer function used once charged.The constant cur-

rent charging circuit shown below Fig.3.4 Where the capacitance and resistance

values are very small. The out put is connected to Li-Ion Battery.

Figure 3.4: constant current charging circuit

12
Chapter 4

Simulation Results

The over all Matlab simulation diagram shown in the Fig.4.1.The system consist

of connect load of USB,LED and fan.The battery management system also shown

here .The panel voltage regulation done by using MPPT.

Figure 4.1: Simulation diagram

A battery is used to store the energy from the solar panel and this power is deliv-

ered to the load when the panel can’t meet the required demand.(To ensure the

protection of battery a constant current charging is used) The voltage from the

PV panel regulated to constant 12 V by using a buck converter and the converter

13
switching controlled by a MPPT ( PO algorithm) .The connected loads are Ceil-

ing solar fan ,light load and 2 USB jack of 5V.A DC-DC buck converter is used

at the load side to step down the constant 12V bus voltage to 5V.

4.1 Simulation results of 12V to 5V buck con-

verter

Simulink model Fig.4.2 used .Where the used simulation blocks are R, L, C –

series RLC branch ; R=10 ohm (used to get desired output power (2.5W) with

desired voltage output(5V)) ; L=.233mH (used to limit the ripple of inductor

current (.5A)) ; C=12nF (used to limit the ripple of output voltage(.05V)) ; PG

–Pulse Generator (Amplitude 1, period 2x10-4 sec, pulse width 41.7%, used for

triggering) MOSFET (as a switch in the circuit) Diode (from Simpower systems

– Power Electronics) ; 12V - DC voltage source ; Voltage measurement, current

measurement (which is not shown in the above circuit diagram mentioned first

but, in this experiment need to observe input current, output current and output

voltage for ensuring the design is working properly)

Figure 4.2: Simulink model of 12V to 5V buck converter

14
The voltage and current output taken from 12V to 5V shown in Fig.4.3

Figure 4.3: Load voltage and current(USB input)

A DC-DC buck converter is used at the load side to step down the constant 12V

bus voltage to 5V.The load voltage and load current obtained as per the require-

ment (.5A,5V:Thus the power=2.5W).

4.2 Simulation results of panel voltage to 12V

buck converter

Simulink model Fig.4.4 used .Where the used simulation blocks are R, L, C –

series RLC branch ; R=10 ohm (used to get desired output power (234.98W) with

desired voltage output(.12V)) ; L=1H (used to limit the ripple of inductor cur-

rent (.758A)) ; C=12nF (used to limit the ripple of output voltage(.05V)) ; Gate

Pulse Generator (Pulse generating from MPPT used for triggering) MOSFET

(as a switch in the circuit) Diode (from Simpower systems – Power Electronics)

; Solar panel - DC voltage source ; Voltage measurement, current measurement

(which is not shown in the above circuit diagram mentioned first but, in this

15
experiment need to observe input current, output current and output voltage for

ensuring the design is working properly)

Figure 4.4: Simulink model of panel voltage to 12V buck converter

The voltage and current output taken from panel voltage to 12V shown in Fig.4.5

Figure 4.5: Load voltage and current(12V bus)

The voltage from the PV panel regulated to constant 12 V by using a buck

converter and the converter switching controlled by a MPPT ( PO algorithm).The

16
MPPT algorithm used here is P&O .The maximum power point tracking ,help

to maintain the gate pulse of the buck converter placed at the source side .The

DC/DC buck converter will help to maintain the output voltage(bus voltage) to

the fixed value 12V.The load voltage and load current obtained as per the require-

ment.The bus voltage kept constant by fixing the 12V.This voltage is common

for load and battery management system.The output voltage and current from

the panel is as per the demand.(12.8A,12V) The implemented PO algorithm for

MPPT is working successfully.

4.3 MPPT and panel working

A solar panel block used, where its temperature and irradience can be fixed as

per requirements .From the panel voltage and current are taken into the func-

tion block(MPPT),where the designed MPPT algorithm (P& O) were imple-

mented.After the function block a pwm generator is used to generate triggering

pulse for preceding buck converter switching. The voltage and current output

taken from panel voltage to 12V shown in Fig.4.6.The point between 1 and two

,the loads and battery circuit where connected

Figure 4.6: Simulink diagram of MPPT and panel interconnection

17
4.4 Simulation results of Battery Management

System

Charging mode: automatically activated when DC bus is connected and the con-

trol objective i.e.: set point (of the 1st PI closed loop) becomes the full voltage

of battery.Discharging mode: automatically activated when DC bus is NOT con-

nected and the control objective (of the 1st PI closed loop shown Fig.4.7

) becomes load voltage in order the maintain a constant load voltage during dis-

charging. Required elements are Battery,Bidirectional dc/dc converter ,Load,

Figure 4.7: PI- gate pulse controlling unit

Figure 4.8: Simulink block diagram of BMS

DC source (Instead of DC bus) ,The simulink block diagram of BMS shown

18
inFig.4.8 When the voltage source is disabled, the battery will supply the load.

When the voltage source is enabled, the battery will charge and the load will be

supplied from the voltage source. There exist two cases Charging and Discharg-

ing

The SOH, Battery current and Battery voltage are shown in Fig.4.9

Figure 4.9: SOH, Battery current and Battery voltage

From the wave form:Initially Solar panel is connected to the load and battery,

which is the source .At instant 1 the panel disconnected ,then the battery is sup-

plying the demand ,that’s why the SOH decreasing and current is positive(power

is positive).The next instant the panel is active so, the battery is charging,SOH

increasing and current is negative(power is negative).The simulation results are

same as theoretically designed.

19
Chapter 5

Conclusions

5.1 Introduction

This work discussed the advantages and challenges of DC micro-grid for resi-

dential building.The capacity of the solar system on the rooftop normally will be

enough to power the LED light loads,USB and Fan load in residential buildings.To

ensure the stable bus voltage and continuous operation of the DC micro-grid, a

suitable energy storage unit and two way DC/DC converters are needed.Thus

designed those requirements.

5.2 Conclusions

To harvest maximum power from a PV module, MPPT based on modified PO

algorithm is implemented in this work. The software simulation consists of a high

efficiency DC/DC buck converter and a micro controller basedMPPT controller,

and is tested for battery charging. A charge controller (constant current) designed

fora 12 V battery from a 234 W solar PV module. The output voltage and current

from the panel is as per the demand.(12.8A,12V) .Implemented PO algorithm for

MPPT is working successfully. Simulation of the BUCK (12V-5V) is success

.It shows that the PO algorithm provides an efficient and reliable maximum

20
power tracking performance under rapid change in irradiance and temperature

conditions. The experimental results show that the proposed system is working

effectively. The simulation results where cross-checked with theoretically required

values and it is working successfully.

21
Appendix A

P& O Algorithm

function D = dutyCycle(V,I)

Dinit=.4;%Initial value for D output

Dmax=.8;%Maximum valuefor D

Dmin=0.08;%Minimum value for D

deltaD=.000005;%Incriment value used to increase /dicrease the duty cycle D

persistent Vold Pold Dold;

dataType=’double’;

if isempty(Vold)

Vold=0;

Pold=0;

Dold=Dinit;

end

P=V*I;

dV =V-Vold;

dP =P-Pold;

if dP ¡ 0

if dV¡0

D=Dold-deltaD;

else

22
D=Dold+deltaD;

end

else

if dV¡0

D=Dold-deltaD;

else

D=Dold+deltaD;

end

end

if D¿=Dmax — D¡=Dmin

D=Dold;

end

Dold=D;

Vold=V;

Pold=P;

23
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