GENERAL LINGUISTIC - Module

MODULE
General Linguistic Module
Distance Education
Universidade Pedagógica
Rua Comandante Augusto Cardoso n˚ 135
Copyright
This Module cannot be printed for commercial purposes. In case of photocopying, reference should be
made to Universidade Pedagógica and to the Authors of the module.
Universidade Pedagógica
Rua Comandante Augusto Cardoso, nº 135

Telefone: 21-320860/2
Telefone: 21 – 306720
Fax: +258 21-322113

Acknowledgements
To COMMONWEALTH of LEARNING (COL) for providing the Template used for the productions
designing the modules
To Instituto Nacional de Educação a Distância (INED) for the support and guidance provided
To Magnificent Rector, Dean of Faculty, Heads of Department for support provided during whole
process.
Technical Assistance
Author: Carlos Baptista Victorino
Instructional Designing: Lurdes Patrocínia Matavela
Illustration: Anilda Ibrahimo Khan
Language Review: Sarita Monjane
Graphic Designing: Anilda Ibrahimo Khan
Edition: Anilda Ibrahimo Khan

Contents
About this MODULE 1
How this MODULE is structured ..................................................................................... 1
Course overview 5
Welcome to Curso de Formação de Professores em Exercício General Linguistic
Module .............................................................................................................................. 5
Curso de Formação de Professores em Exercício General Linguistic Module—is this
course for you?.................................................................................................................. 5
Course outcomes............................................................................................................... 6
Timeframe......................................................................................................................... 7
Study skills........................................................................................................................ 7
Need help? ........................................................................................................................ 8
Assignments...................................................................................................................... 9
Assessments ...................................................................................................................... 9
Getting around this MODULE 10

Margin icons ................................................................................................................... 10
Unit 1 11
What is Linguistics?........................................................................................................ 11
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 11
Lesson 1: What is language? ................................................................................ 14
Lesson 2: Linguistics is Science............................................................................ 18
Lesson 3: Prescriptive and Descriptive Approaches to the study of language...... 23
Lesson 4: Importance of language......................................................................... 27
Unit summary ................................................................................................................. 29
Assignment ..................................................................................................................... 30
Assessment...................................................................................................................... 30
Unit 2 33
The History of writing (Development of writing) .......................................................... 33
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 33
Lesson 1: Pictograms and Ideograms.................................................................... 35
Lesson 2: Logograms or logographic writing system and Rebus writing............ 38
Lesson 3: Syllabic and Alphabetic writing systems ............................................. 43
ii Contents
Unit summary ................................................................................................................. 45

Assignment ..................................................................................................................... 46
Assessment...................................................................................................................... 46
Unit 3 49
General Understanding of the Nature of Human Language ........................................... 49
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 49
Lesson 1: Animals and Human Language - Communication systems or Design
Features ................................................................................................................. 51
Lesson 2: The Design Features ............................................................................. 55
Lesson 3: Teaching animals to learn human language.......................................... 61
Lesson 4: Theories on the origins of language...................................................... 64
Lesson 5: The Natural Sound Source and the scientific approach ........................ 68
Lesson 6: Creative aspects of human language and language universals ............. 74
Unit summary ................................................................................................................. 76
Assignment ..................................................................................................................... 77
Assessment...................................................................................................................... 77
Unit 4 80
History of Modern Linguistics - Early History- Philology............................................. 80
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 80
Lesson 1: The Greeks, the Romans and the Indians.............................................. 82
Lesson 2: The Middle ages and the Renaissence .................................................. 88
Lesson 3: Twentieth Century Linguistics Ferdinand de Saussure ........................ 92
Lesson 4: Later Development................................................................................ 99
Lesson 5: Chomsky -Syntactic Structures; Competence and Perfomance.......... 102
Unit summary ............................................................................................................... 105
Assignment ................................................................................................................... 105
Assessment.................................................................................................................... 106
Unit 5 108
Phonetics....................................................................................................................... 108
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 108
Lesson 1: Definition, the three branchs of phoenetics, Voiced and Voiceless ... 109
Lesson 2: The productions of speech sounds ...................................................... 112
Lesson 3: Place of articulation/production.......................................................... 117
Lesson 4: Manner of production ......................................................................... 121
Unit summary ............................................................................................................... 123
Assignment ................................................................................................................... 124
Assessment.................................................................................................................... 124
Unit 6 126
Phonology ..................................................................................................................... 126
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 126
Lesson 1: Definition, Phoneme, phones and allphones....................................... 127
Lesson 2: Minimal pairs and sets ........................................................................ 130
Lesson 3: Suprasegmental phonology (*) .......................................................... 132
Unit summary ............................................................................................................... 132
Assignment ................................................................................................................... 132
Assessment.................................................................................................................... 132
About this MODULE
General Linguistic Module has been produced by Universidade
Pedagógica. All MODULEs produced by Universidade Pedagógica are
structured in the same way, as outlined below.
How this MODULE is structured

The course overview
The course overview gives you a general introduction to the course.
Information contained in the course overview will help you determine:
If the course is suitable for you.
What you will already need to know.
What you can expect from the course.
How much time you will need to invest to complete the course.
The overview also provides guidance on:
Study skills.
Where to get help.
Course assignments and assessments.
Activity icons.
Units.
We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully before

starting your study.
The course content

The course is broken down into:
Semester I
UNIT 1: What is Linguistics?
1
About this MODULE
1. What is language? (Concepts about language)
2. Linguistics as a science.
2.1 How does Modern Linguistics differ from the Long-

established Scholarly Studies of Language?
2.2 The Prescriptive and the Descriptive approach to language

study.
2.3 Branches of linguistics.
3. Importance for language teachers.
UNIT 2: The History of Writing (The Development of Writing

Systems)
1. Pictograms and Ideograms;
2. Logograms and Syllabic writing systems;
3. Alphabetic writing system.
UNIT 3: General Understanding of the Nature of Human Language
1. Animals and Human Language - Communication systems or design

features;
2. Theories on the origins of human language and its diversity;
3. Teaching animals to use human language;
4. Creative aspect of human language and Language Universals.
UNIT 4: History of Modern Linguistics (early history - Philology)
1. The Greeks; the Romans and the Indians;
2. The Middle. Ages and the Renaissance;
3. Twentieth-century linguistics (Ferdinand de Saussure)
4. Later Developments
5. Chomsky - Syntactic structures; Competence and performance
2
Semester II
UNIT 5
Phonetics
1. Definition and the branches of phonetics; articulation: voiced and

voiceless;
2. The production of speech sounds (the articulators and place of

articulation;
3. Manner of articulation; the phonetic alphabet;
4. Vowels: vowel quadrilateral; (Presential sessions)
5. Diphthongs and triphthongs; (Presential sessions)
UNIT 6
Phonology
1. Definition, the concept of phoneme;
2. Phones and allophones;
3. Minimal pairs and sets;
4. Prosodic suprasegmental features (Presential sessions)
Intonation; intonation languages; (Presential sessions)
Accent and stress. (Presential sessions)
Bibliography
The course is broken down into 6 units. Each unit comprises:
An introduction to the unit content.
Unit outcomes.
Lessons
A unit summary.
Study questions.
3
About this MODULE
Resources
For those interested in learning more on this subject, we provide you with
a list of additional resources at the end of this MODULE; these may be
books, articles or web sites.
Your comments
After completing we would appreciate it if you would take a few
moments to give us your feedback on any aspect of this course. Your
feedback might include comments on:
Course content and structure.
Course reading materials and resources.
Course assignments.
Course assessments.
Course duration.
Course support (assigned tutors, technical help, etc.)
Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance this

course.
4
Course overview
Welcome to General Linguistic

Module
Welcome to the General Linguistic. We hope that you will enjoy this
module and develop your knowledge and skills on issues related to
General Linguistic via distance learning. Congratulations on your choice
and decision to commit yourself, over the next few months, to serious
study and putting into practice your newly learning experience, skills and
attitude towards English Language Teaching.
You may have, most likely, enrolled for this module because you are
already in some way involved in providing or facilitating education, and
probably, you want to know more and increase your repertoire or in
simple words you want to improve your performance and practice. We
hope that this module will help you to develop the professionalism that
your work requires you to have and also that General Linguistic will
increase your appetite for further study in the field of General Linguistic.
This course is about the study of language and its diversity
General Linguistic Module—is this

course for you?
This course is intended for people who are teaching English as a
foreign or second language.
It is a new subject for teachers in Mozambique and it is introduced

in the first year of English Language Teaching Course at the
Pedagogical University, Department of English. All you need is
your reading and writing skills to take notes.
5
Course overview
Course outcomes
Upon completion of General Linguistic Module you will be able to:
Overall objectives
Trainees should:
have an understanding of the nature of language and its basic

Outcomes terminology.
have an understanding of the phonological system, and the major

structures and most common functions of the language].
Semester I
1. have general understanding of the nature of human language;
2. be familiar with a range of key structures and functions of the

language with the emphasis on differentiating between form,
meaning and use;
3. be familiar with some of the key concepts of language and

linguistics;
4. be familiar with a broad outline of the history of modern

linguistics.
Semester II
1. have a knowledge of the English phonemic system including

vowels, consonants, and semi-vowels;
2. be able to identify the sounds of the English language and

transcribe them phonologically;
3. be aware of the suprasegmentals of the English language and

their role (stress, rhythm, intonation, tone, etc).
6
Apart from the two main outcomes mentioned above, this course
will also provide you with a straightforward and comprehensive
discussion of the basic issues and topics involved in the study of
language. Its 6 subject contents range over the concepts of
language, speculations on the origins of human language, the
communication systems, the principal concepts involved in
linguistic analysis, history of writing and of modern linguistics.
Timeframe
Each unit will depend on your own speed and how well you are
organised.
You should spend at least 2 hours a day to read each lesson

How long?
You should take at least two hours on self-study.
Study skills
As an adult learner your approach to learning will be different to that
from your school days: you will choose what you want to study, you will
have professional and/or personal motivation for doing so and you will
most likely be fitting your study activities around other professional or
domestic responsibilities.
Essentially you will be taking control of your learning environment. As a

consequence, you will need to consider performance issues related to
time management, goal setting, stress management, etc. Perhaps you will
also need to reacquaint yourself in areas such as essay planning, coping
with exams and using the web as a learning resource.
Your most significant considerations will be time and space i.e. the time
you dedicate to your learning and the environment in which you engage
in that learning.
We recommend that you take time now—before starting your self-

study—to familiarize yourself with these issues. There are a number of
7
Course overview
excellent resources on the web. A few suggested links are:
http://www.how-to-study.com/
The “How to study” web site is dedicated to study skills resources.
You will find links to study preparation (a list of nine essentials for a
good study place), taking notes, strategies for reading text books,
using reference sources, test anxiety.
http://www.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/stdyhlp.html
This is the web site of the Virginia Tech, Division of Student Affairs.
You will find links to time scheduling (including a “where does time
go?” link), a study skill checklist, basic concentration techniques,
control of the study environment, note taking, how to read essays for
analysis, memory skills (“remembering”).
http://www.howtostudy.org/resources.php
Another “How to study” web site with useful links to time
management, efficient reading, questioning/listening/observing skills,
getting the most out of doing (“hands-on” learning), memory building,
tips for staying motivated, developing a learning plan.
The above links are our suggestions to start you on your way. At the time
of writing these web links were active. If you want to look for more go to
www.google.com and type “self-study basics”, “self-study tips”, “self-
study skills” or similar.
Need help?
In case of difficulties, please contact the following:
In Maputo:
Help
Universidade Pedagógica - Centro de Educação Aberta e à Distância
(CEAD)
Faculty of Languages: English Department
Rua: Comandante Augusto Cardoso no. 135 Maputo
Telephone: 21 420860-2 or 21 306720
Monday to Friday: 8:00 to 12:00
8
Email: f:linguas@yahoo.com.br
In the provinces:
In each province there is a resource centre available and a local Provincial

English Advisor to help you.
For any assistance related to academic issues the Provincial English

Advisor will be able to help you and do not hesitate to contact her or him.
Assignments
Throughout each unit, you will have to carry out a number of activities
that will help you consolidate the matters reviewed.
We recommend that you go through all exercises indicated without

Assignments immediately resorting to the key answers/correction guide.
Assessments
In this subject, you will have to write two tests per semester. In order to
complete the module, you will have to write a final exam at the end of the
academic year. Nevertheless, all exercises you will undertake at the end
Assessments
of each lesson and unit will be checked by your tutor for purposes of
formative and continuous assessment.
9
Getting around this MODULE
Getting around this MODULE
Margin icons
While working through this MODULE you will notice the frequent use of
margin icons. These icons serve to “signpost” a particular piece of text, a
new task or change in activity; they have been included to help you to
find your way around this MODULE.
A complete icon set is shown below. We suggest that you familiarize

yourself with the icons and their meaning before starting your study.
Activity Assessment Assignment Case study
Discussion Group activity Help Note it!
Outcomes Reading Reflection Study skills
Summary Terminology Time Tip
10
Unit 1
What is Linguistics?
Introduction
This is surely a new subject for you. It is very theoretical but you can
understand its contents easily if you follow all the recommendations
contained in each lesson. You may ask why is the subject part of your
course curriculum - the answer is simple. Imagine a classroom situation
in which your student produces the following utterance: " Greet my
mothers when you arrive." What is wrong with the sentence? What are
you going to do? Are you going to punish the student? What knowledge
are you going to use to identify and correct the mistake? Pay attention!
The word mothers is incorrect.The second question is quite complicated
because you need linguistic knowledge to plan what to do next. The third
question will depend on your plan of action, but of course you will not
punish the student after finding out the reason(s) behind the student's
mistake. No teacher can carry out this degree of analysis if he/she is not
equiped with the linguistic knowledge- that's the answer for the last
question.
Have you ever heard about language and culture? Yes?, No? If your
answer is no, read the utterance "Greet my mothers when you arrive”,
again. Remember that in most African traditions an aunt is also regarded
as a mother. How about you? Do you regard your aunt(s) as your
mother(s)? Do you know someone who regards his/her aunt(s) as his/her
mother(s)? Well, you might have come across this situation once in your
life. So there are cultural aspects that influence what we say and the
classroom environment is open to a variety of situations, like the one
mentioned above. If the student said 'my mothers', that's the influence of
his/her tradition / culture. In these cases you don't punish the student but
11
Unit 1 What is Linguistics?
you tell him/her that the language he/she is learning is English and it's
from Europe and in European context they only have one mother, the
biological one. However, if the student keeps on making the same
mistake, you, as a teacher, can punish him/her because your students
know that it's not correct to say 'my mothers'.
There are other reasons why this subject is part of your curriculum. Do
you want to know? The answer is- keep on reading. What is Linguistics,
then?
According to Lyons (1981:1) and Yule (1985), Linguistics is the

scientific study of language.
Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:
Define and identify the strengths and weaknesses of each

definition of language.
Outcomes Explain the differences between Modern Linguistics and Old

forms of language study.
Explain the differences between the Descriptive and the

Prescriptive Approaches to language study.
Explain the reasons behind the primacy of written word in

Traditional approach and spoken form in modern linguistics.
Identify and explain the features of linguistics that make it a

science.
Identify the branches of linguistics.
Provide practical examples of language teaching areas where

linguistics is important.
12
Linguistics: The scientific study of language (Lyons, 1981:1)
Comparative The scholarly study, which introduced new

philology: methods of language study out of the 19th century
Terminology
and at the beginning of the 20th century. It used the
scientific method for the first time to study
languages. (See lesson 2)
Scientific Method: method of theorizing, examining, classifying, and

testing.
The unit is organized into 4 lessons.
13
Lesson 1: What is language?
By the end of the lesson you are expected to:
Discuss the variety of definitions about language and give your

personal opinion on their strengths and weaknesses.
Lesson Outcomes
You have 120 minitus to study this lesson.
How long?
Introduction:
In this topic you will be exposed to some definitions of language and

asked to identify their strengths and weaknesses. Do you know why? This
is to show you what linguists, the scholars who deal with the
investigation of languages, tend to think of as being essential to language
(Lyons, 1981:3).
Some definitions of language.
Why should you be exposed to some definitions of language? The

definition of Linguistics says - "Linguistics is the scientific study of
language" (Lyons 1981:1). Do you remember? So, you can't discuss
Linguistics issues without knowing the concept of language, which is its
object of study. Moreover, according to Lyons (1981:3) "definitions of
language are not difficult to find."
What is important is to be aware of the positive and negative points of

each definition. For example,
14
(i) According to Sapir (1921; 21): "Language is purely human and non-
instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by
means of voluntarily produced symbols." (Lyons, 1981:3).
What do you think about this definition? Read it again and think about
what you do with the language you speak. If you don't know don't worry,
read what comes next about this definition - the weaknesses and the
strengths.
Lyons (1981:3) criticizes Sapir's definition saying, “this definition suffers

from several defects. There is much that is communicated by language,
which is not covered by any of the terms 'idea', 'emotion', and 'desire'” -
we do much more with language than communicating ideas, emotions
and desires. Do you agree?
In fact Sapir's definition of language limits the scope of language because

with language we can communicate not only ideas, emotions and desires,
but also discuss issues that we have never heard before, for example. But
there are positive aspects about this definition - it gives emphasis on the
communicative function of language.
(ii) Bloch & Trager (1942: 5), quoted by Lyons (1981: 4) "A language is
a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group co-
operates."
What do you think about this definition now that you know how to
analyze each definition?
"This definition makes no appeal, except indirectly and by implication, to

the communicative function of language. Instead, it puts all the emphasis
upon its social function. This definition differs from Sapir's in that it
brings in the property of arbitrariness and explicitly restricts language to
spoken language." (Lyons, 1981:4).
Apart from what Lyons says, this definition doesn't mention the words
which tend to imitate the sounds of the nature - the Onomatopoeias,
which are not arbitrary symbols because there is a natural connection
between the spoken word and the entity it represents, its meaning. For
15
example, it is croc, croc, croc in English and in all other languages

referring to somebody walking.
Do you know what arbitrariness is?
It is said that the linguistic sign is arbitrary.
When we say that the linguistic sign is arbitrary it means that there is no
natural connection between the spoken word and the object it represents.
For example, you say house in English, casa in Portuguese, maisom in
French, nyumba in Nyungue and so on, referring to a building where
people live. You noticed that the same object has different names in
different languages. The association between the spoken word and the
object it represents is called the linguistic sign; now you know that the
linguistic sign is arbitrary because the same object has different names in
different languages.
Did you understand it? If no, read it again, concentrating your attention
on the linguistic sign, the underlined sentence and the arbitrariness of the
linguistic sign, in italic, as well as the example.
More definitions should be exposed here but you would be asked to

perform the same task - to look at the strengths and weaknesses of each
definition. However, you have an idea of the scope of language that no
definition can cover all its boundaries. As said before, each definition has
limitations but also strengths.
What aspects limit the concept of language in Sapir's and the Bloch
& Tragar definitions?
Activity a) What function of language does Spir's definition make

reference?
b) And what function does the Bloch and Tragar definition make
reference?
16
Feedback.
Sapir's definition suffers from reducing or limiting language to

communicating 'ideas', 'emotions; and 'desires'. We communicate much
more with language; the Bloch and Tragar definition doesn't mention the
communicative function of language and it restricts language to spoken.
a) Sapir's definition makes reference to the communicative function of

language.
b) The Bloch and Tragar definition makes reference to the social

function of language.
Summarizing, there are many definitions of language from different

authors that were not mentioned in this lesson. Do you remember what
Lyons says? He says that definitions of language are not difficult to find
(Lyons, 1981: 3). Of course they are not difficult to find because there are
many, and most of them suffer from several defects of not covering the
boundaries of language - they limit the scope of language. Remember that
we do much more with language than what the definitions say.
What is language then? You may ask that question. All definitions are
useful depending on the purpose of study or research you want to carry
out. The most important thing is that, you as a researcher should look for
the strengths and the weaknesses of each definition and choose the one,
which most respond to your research needs.
17
Lesson 2: Linguistics is Science
Identify the features, which give linguistics the scientific status.
Lesson Outcomes
How long?
Introduction:
In this topic you will be exposed to the reasons why linguistics is a

science; the differences between Modern Linguistics and Old forms of
language study; the features of linguistics that make it a science.
Is Linguistics a science? What do you think?
What did you think? Read the text below to compare your ideas and those
from the text. Don’t go faster! Read it slowly because you have 120
minutes to go. Have fun!
You know that there are disciplines whose scientific status is

unquestioned - Physics, Chemistry, Biology, etc.- there is no need to
justify their claim to be called sciences. Why should linguistics be so
concerned to defend the validity of its title? (Lyons, 1981:37).
According to McArthur (1983:6) "The science of linguistics has been in

existence since about the beginning of the twentieth century. It developed
18
in the main out of the nineteenth-century scholarly study best known as
'comparative philology', in which materials from different languages and
historical periods were studied and compared as texts and parts of texts."
On the other hand, McArthur (1983:4) "Modern civilization owes much
to the development, over the last five centuries, of 'the scientific method'.
This method of examining, classifying, theorizing and testing was first of
all applied to the study of natural forces and substances (in physics and
chemistry), then to the study of life forms (in biology, physiology, etc)
and more recently to human nature and social organization (in
anthropology, sociology, psychology, etc.). Scientific attempts to
understand the phenomenon of language are, however, more recent."
Do you know what does it mean?
If the 'comparative philology, the scholarly study which carried out

linguistic studies from out of the nineteenth century, collected materials
from different languages and historical periods and studied and compared
them as texts and parts of texts and its findings were subject to
confirmation or disconfirmation by means of properly conducted tests,
then it is valid to say that the method used is scientific.
Now read how languages were studied before 'the comparative

philology'?
2.1. How does modern Linguistics differ from the Long-establishes

Scholarly Studies?
According to Aitchison (1992: 4) "Modern linguistics differs from the old

school grammar in several ways. First and most important,
linguistics is descriptive, not prescriptive. Linguists are interested in what
is said, not what they think ought to be said. They describe language in
all its aspects, but do not prescribe rules of 'correctness; A second
important way in which linguistics differs from traditional school
grammar is that linguists regard the spoken language as primary, not the
written. In the past, grammarians have over-stressed the importance of
the written word, partly because of its permanence; A third way in which
19
linguistics differs from traditional grammar studies is that it does not

force languages into a Latin-based framework. In the past, many
traditional textbooks have assumed unquestioningly that Latin provides a
universal framework into which all languages fit."
Furthermore, McArthur (1983: 7) says, "The main differences between

modern linguistics and long-established scholarly studies of language
are":
"1. Linguistics does not depend upon a traditional 'mythology' of any

kind to support its conclusions or bias the direction, which any
investigation might take. The ancient Greek Stoics, for example, studied
language because they believed that the Greek of their time (5th century
BC) was corrupt, and they wanted to find the etyma or 'true forms' from
which the language had degenerated. That's to study language because of
a belief and it is not scientific and objective.
2. As a science, linguistics is supposed to be an objective, descriptive and

predictive activity, and its findings should be subject to confirmation or
disconfirmation by means of properly conducted tests. Previous
approaches to language have not been like this, and are generally
subjective and prescriptive (or normative). The belief that a god, for
example chose one particular language as his medium of revelation, or
that one's own language is the most satisfactory for logical thought are
both unlikely to allow objective analysis to take place.
3. As a modern academic activity, linguistics tends to be relativistic; that

is, it functions on the assumption that values, judgments, theories, etc., all
vary according to such things as time, place, environment, background,
inclination and - especially- culture.
4. Linguistics is an autonomous study, whereas earlier language

disciplines have tended to exist because of some pre-existing need. In
ancient India, for example, the Hindu brahmins became experts in the
phonetics of Sanskrit so that they could recite the sacred Vedas more
accurately and pass them on orally with less chance of corrupting their
purity.
20
5. Linguistics is concerned with all aspects of language equally, and not,
for example, only with sacred scriptures, printed texts or standard dialects
as traditional school grammar did."
Now you have studied the differences between Modern linguistics and
Old forms of language study. Is linguistics a science? Why? Why not?
The answer is yes. Because it uses the scientific method, in which it

carries out an objective and descriptive analysis and the findings are
subject to confirmation or disconfirmation by means of properly
conducted tests; it doesn't depend on traditional mythology to support its
findings.
1. The science of linguistics has been in existence since the beginning of

the nineteenth century. What was the scholarly study name, which
introduced new methods of studying language?
Activity
2. Why is the new form of investigating language scientific?
Was the activity difficult? If yes, read the text again!
21
Feedback.
1. The scholarly study, which introduced new methods of studying

language, was 'comparative philology'.
2. It is scientific because it uses the scientific method:
a) It carries out an objective and descriptive analysis; it doesn't depend on

any kind of belief to support its conclusions and its findings are subject to
confirmation or disconfirmation by means of properly conducted tests;
b) It is autonomous and concerned with all aspects of language equally.
Was the activity difficult? If yes, read the text again! You will find it
easy.
Summarizing, Linguistics is a science because it uses scientific

instruments to study language; it collects data, it examines the data, it
classifies it, it produces the theory and tests the theory in the field. Its
object of study is human language, in the narrow sense of system with
creative potential in thought and communication; language in general, in
the wide sense of language as a signaling system because we include
animals as having language.
22
Lesson 3: Prescriptive and Descriptive Approaches to the study of
language
Identify the differences between the prescriptive and the descriptive

approaches to study of language as well as.
Have an understanding of the related areas or disciplines of

Lesson Outcomes
linguistics.
How long?
Introduction:
In this lesson you will learn the contrast between the descriptive and the
prescriptive approaches to language study.
The second point of the differences between Modern linguistics and

Long-established scholarly study mentioned in lesson 2 says, "As a
science, linguistics is supposed to be an objective, descriptive and
predictive activity…" Lyons (1981:47) says, "The contrast that is relevant
here is the one that holds between describing how things are and
prescribing how things ought to be. An alternative to 'prescriptive', in the
sense in which it contrasts with 'descriptive', is 'normative’. To say that
linguistics is a descriptive (i.e. non-normative) science is to say that the
linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a
language - community actually conform and does not seek to impose
upon them other (i.e. extraneous) rules, or norms of correctness. In
23
prescriptive approach dos and don'ts are commands (Do/ Don't say x!; in
descriptive dos and don'ts are statements (People do/don't say x)".
Do you know the reason why present-day linguists are so insistent

about the distinction between descriptive and prescriptive rules? No?
Read the next paragraph.
"The reason is simply that traditional grammar was very strongly

normative in character. The grammarian saw it as his task to formulate
the standards of correctness and to impose these, if necessary, upon the
speakers of the language. Many of the normative precepts of traditional
grammar will be familiar to the reader: "You should never use a double
negative" (I didn't do nothing); "Don't end a sentence with a preposition"
(That's the man I was speaking to)" Lyons (1981:48).
2.2 Branches of linguistics
According to Aitchison (1992:7) "linguistics covers a wide range of

topics and its boundaries are difficult to define." A diagram in the
shape of a wheel gives a rough impression of the range covered.
The scope of linguistics
24
"In the center is phonetics, the study of human speech sounds. A good
knowledge of phonetics is useful for a linguist. Phonetics is surrounded
by phonology (sound patterning), and then it is surrounded by syntax
(the arrangement and the form of words). It is that part of language which
links together the sound patterns and the meaning. Semantics (the study
of meaning) is placed outside syntax. Phonology, syntax and semantics
are the 'bread' and 'butter' of linguistics, and are a central concern of this
course. Together they constitute the grammar of a language" (Aitchson,
1992:8).
"Around the central grammatical hub comes pragmatics, which deals

with how speakers use language in ways which cannot be predicted from
linguistic knowledge alone. This relatively new and fast expanding topic
has connections both with semantics, and with the various branches of
linguistics which link language with the external world:
psycholinguistics (the study of language and mind), sociolinguistics (the
study of language and society), applied linguistics (the application of
linguistic theories to language teaching), computational linguistics (the
use of computers to simulate language and its workings),
anthropological linguistics (the study of language in cross-cultural
settings), philosophical linguistics (the link between language and
logical though)" (Aitchison, 1992:9).
There is another aspect of linguistics, which has been omitted from the
diagram -the historical linguistics (the study of language change).
Summarizing, the lesson focused on the distinctions between the

prescriptive and the descriptive approaches to language study, and the
scope of linguistics as an academic subject of investigation.
25
In each sentence say which approach helped the grammarian to produce

the rule.
a) A sentence in language x has three main categories: the Noun phrase,

Activity
the Verb phrase, and a complement.
b) A sentence in language x must have three main categories: the Noun

phrase, the Verb phrase and a complement.
Feedback.
a) Descriptive approach.
b) Prescriptive approach.
If you didn't understand read the text again and try a discussion with a
partner doing the same course. However, if your problems continue, call
your tutor or send him an email. He will always be pleased to help you.
26
Lesson 4: Importance of language
Analyze classroom language, identify the problems and solve them

according to the area related to them.
Lesson Outcomes
How long?
Why is linguistics important for language teachers?
Introduction:
This lesson will discuss the application of the theories put forward in
General linguistics into practice in the language classroom. In other
words, it is about the contribution of linguistics in a language classroom.
What is the contribution of linguistics for language classroom? Do

you have an idea?
If you don’t, read the text below and compare your ideas with your notes
from the text.
One of the contribution of linguistics is the one about the student who
produced the utterance "Greet my mothers when you arrive" and you
were told that you needed the linguistics knowledge to help the student
correct the mistake and you were also told that the mistake was due to the
influence of African culture.
27
It is also important to notice that linguistics has its related areas, which
are important for the practical work of a language teacher in classroom.
Do you remember the diagram containing the different areas of
linguistics? Of course you do. Now study the diagram again!
Summarizing, there is a complex range of language produced by the

students in a classroom. Being so, the teacher must be prepared for the
variety of language and problems arising in the class. In order to deal
with different situations, the language teacher should be concerned with
Applied Linguistics, which is the application of the theories put forward
in General linguistics to solve problems in the classroom. The methods
and the techniques the teacher chooses will depend on the students’
needs, the context, and the available resources. He/she will also have the
knowledge of the structure of the language.
So you need this subject if you want to become a competent professional.

Is that right?
Was the lesson difficult? Read the exercises below, which will help you
understand it.
Identify and Explain:
The task below will provide you with practical input to solve some
problems in the classroom.
Activity
1. Identify the mistakes in the following sentences and say which areas of
linguistics enable the teacher to identify and explain why the sentences
are wrong.
a) John has two wifes.
b) John is wearing a shirt blue.
c) Send regards to my mothers.
Did you identify and explain? Good! If not, compare your answers below
and read the text again so that you can confirm the answers and the
information contained in the text. Good luck!
28
Feedback.
a) The mistake is on the word wifes. It should be wives. Irregular plural.

The area of linguistics, which would help the teacher to correct the
mistake, is Morphology.
b) The mistake is on the phrase shirt blue. It should be blue shirt. Word
order and the area of linguistics is Morph-syntax.
c) The mistake is on the word mothers, which is in plural (more than one
mother). It should be mother because English is a n European language,
from Britain and in British culture you have only one mother (the
biological one). The area of linguistics is Sociolinguistics and
Anthropological linguistics.
Was it easy to answer the questions? If not read the text again.
Unit summary
The learning points in this unit were as follow:
¾ Concepts of linguistics and language;
Summary ¾ Linguistics as a science;
¾ Differences between Modern linguistics and Traditional school

grammar;
¾ Difference between descriptive and prescriptive approaches to

language study;
¾ Linguistics and related areas or disciplines (the scope of

linguistics);
¾ The importance of linguistics for language learning and teaching.
29
Bibliography:
1. ATCHISON, J. (1992). Teach Yourself Linguistics, 4th edition,

London: Hodder & Stoughton Educational
Reading
2. LYON, J. (1981). Language and Linguistics, Cambridge: CUP
3. YULE, G. (1996). The Study of Language, Cambridge: CUP
Assignment
Select four definitions of language from any sources. Make a critical
account of them, basing your arguments on English language.
Assignment
Assessment
Study questions
You have 120 minutes to answer the questions.
Assessment Now that you have finished this unit, use the following test to check
whether you have fully achieved all the learning outcomes for the unit
topic. Good luck!
Question 1
"Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of

communicating ideas, emotions and desire by means of voluntarily
produced symbols (Sapir, 1921:8).
a) Point out two defects of the definition above.
Question 2
30
Decide whether the following statements are true or false.
a) The science of linguistics has been in existence since the beginning of

the 19th century. ___
b) Linguistics is concerned with all aspects of language equally. ___
c) The belief that a god chose one particular language as his medium of
revelation allow objective analysis in linguistics. ____
d. Linguistics depends on pre-existing needs to carry out any

investigation. ____
Question 3
In the following sentences write TG if it refers to characteristics of

Traditional Grammar and ML if it refers to characteristics of Modern
Linguistics.
a) It does not depend upon traditional mythology. ________
b) It is prescriptive and it allows subjective analysis. _______
c) It tends to exist because of some pre-existing need. ______
d) It carries out an autonomous study. _____
Question 4
Provide two practical classroom examples in which a teacher could make

use of linguistics.
Did you do it? Was it difficult? Now compare your answers with the
answer key below.
31
Answer key
Question 1
1. Language doesn't only communicate ideas, emotions and desires.

There is much more we can do with language.
2. It does not only produce voluntarily symbols but sometimes humans

produce non-voluntarily symbols - for example, the interjections.
Question 2
a) F
b) T
c) F
d) F
Question 3
a) ML
b) TG
c) TG
D) ML
Question 4
a) The teaching of grammar. The teacher must have the knowledge of

grammar to teach his students as well as the knowledge of other areas of
linguistics such as pragmatics (meaning into context) to be able to
interpret the sentences produced by his/her students (sociolinguistics and
anthropological linguistics).
b) The teaching of sounds. The teacher makes use of Phonology and

phonetics.
NB. There are many other possible examples for question 4.
32
Unit 2
The History of writing

(Development of writing)
Introduction
This topic is very interesting because it highlights the path from which
the writing systems have travelled. According to Fromkin and Rodman
(1993:364) "There are many legends and stories about the invention of
writing."
Yule (1996: 9) says, "when we concider the development of writing, we

should bear in mind that a very large number of the languages found in
the world today are used only in the spoken form.They do not have a
written form. For those languages which do have writing systems, the
development of writing is a relatively a recent phenomenon." Throughout
this unit you will learn different writing systems taken from Yule (1996)
and Fromkin & Rodman (1993).
Identify and exemplify each writing system
Give the advantages and disadvantages of some writing systems.
Trace the development of writing from Cave drawings.

Outcomes
Pictogram: ‘When some of the pictures came to represent

particular images in a consistent way’ (Yule,
1996:10).
Terminology
Ideogram: Concepts associated with the pictogram, ‘once a
33
Unit 2 The History of writing (Development of writing)
pictogram is the representation of an object, its

meaning is extended to attributes of that object.
Logogram: When the symbol represents words in a language.
Rebus writing: ‘It is a way of using existing symbols to represent

the sounds of language’ (Yule, 1996:12)
Syllabic writing: ‘When a writing system employs a set of symbols

which represent the pronunciations of syllables’
(Yule, 1996:12).
Alphabetic ‘A set of written symbols which each represent a

writing:
single type of sound’(Yule, 1996:12)
The unit is organized into 3 lessons.
34
Lesson 1: Pictograms and Ideograms
describe the features of the pictographic and Ideographic writing

systems and give examples.
Lesson Outcomes
How long?
Introduction:
Human attempts to record what they said and thought visually goes back
to cave drawings which were made at least 20.000 years ago, or to clay
tokens from about 10.000 years ago which appear to have been an early
attempt at bookkeeping (Yule, 1996: 9). Fromkin and Rodman
(1993:234) say, "cave drawings such as those found in the Altamira cave
in northern Spain, drawn by humans living over 20.000 years ago, can be
"read" today. They are literal portrayals of aspects of life at that time."
How did our ancestors try to keep what they thought and said
visually?
You can have an idea of how our ancestors tried to record information
visually by reading the text below. You have 2 hours to read and try to
understand the lesson, don’t go faster.
35
They drew pictures on the walls or tablets as a way of communicating

their ideas, thoughts, feelings, etc. What is important here is the fact that
they tried to keep the information on the walls and other soft materials.
"Those inscriptions on stone and tablets found in the rubble of ruined
cities seem to have been some of the evidences in the reconstruction of
ancient writing systems" as Yule (1996: 9) says.
Do you remember your History teacher saying that our ancestors lived in
caves and drew pictures on the walls of those caves? So those were called
cave drawings. Cave drawings are not usually thought as conveying
linguistic messages. They are normally "considered as part of a tradition
of pictorial art" (Yule, 1996:9).
1.1. What is a Pictogram then?
Fromkin and Rodman (1993: 235), "Unlike modern writing systems, each
pictogram is a direct image of the object it represents. There is a non-
arbitrary relationship between the form and the meaning of the symbol.
The pictograms did not have any direct relation to the language spoken,
because the pictures represented objects in the world, rather than the
linguistic names given to these objects. For example, modern pictograms
are used in international road signs and the advantage of pictograms is
that they can be understood by anyone, because they do not depend on
the words of any language."
Do you remember the previous unit? You learned that the linguistic
sign is arbitrary because there is no natural relationship between the form
and the meaning. Now you do remember.
In pictograms, however, the relationship between the form and the

meaning is not arbitrary because there is a direct relationship between the
form and the meaning. Lets take a road sign as an example. If the sign
tells the drivers to reduce speed, all drivers will reduce speed when they
approach that sign, even if they speak different languages like Chinese,
Japanese, Russian, English, Portuguese, etc. Do you know why? The
answer is straightforward. Pictograms do not convey linguistic messages
- they are non-linguistic.
36
Furthermore, and according to Yule (1996:10), "When some of the
'pictures' came to represent particular images in a consistent way, we can
begin to describe the product as a form of picture-writing, or pictogram.
There is a conventional relationship between the symbol and its
interpretation. For example, a form such as might come to be used for
sun. An essential part of this use of a representative symbol is that
everyone should use similar forms to convey roughly similar meaning."
Now you can compare the two authors about pictograms. They are not
contradicting each other, but they are saying the same thing in different
ways, using different explanations, and different words. So, don't be
confused.
1.2. What is an ideogram?
"Once a pictogram was accepted as the representation of an object, its

meaning was extended to attributes of that object, or concepts associated
with it. Thus, a picture of the sun could represent 'warmth', 'heat', 'light',
'daytime', and so on. Pictograms thus began to represent ideas rather than
objects. Such pictograms are called ideograms ('idea pictures' or 'idea
writing')" (Fromkin and Rodman, 1993: 235).
Yule, (1996:10) says, "In time, this picture might take on a more fixed
symbolic form, such as ~, and come to be used for 'heat' and 'daytime', as
well as for 'sun'. This type of symbol is considered to be part of a system
of idea-writing, or ideograms. The distinction between pictograms and
ideograms is essentially a difference in the relationship between the
symbol and the entity it represents. The more 'picture-like' forms are
pictograms, the more abstract, derived forms are ideograms. A key
property of both pictograms and ideograms is that they do not represent
words or sounds in a particular language.
As a summary, you have noticed that an ideogram is a derived form of a

pictogram; it is an attribute of the object or concepts associated with it.
We can say that ideograms develop from pictograms.
What is the main difference between pictograms and ideograms?
37
The more picture-like are pictograms; the more abstract, derived forms
are ideograms.
Now revise the lesson and answer the questions that follow.
After studying this lesson, and re-reading the text, answer the questions
that follow.
1. Pictograms are language independent. What is the relationship

Activity
between the form and its meaning?
2. Ideograms derive from pictograms. How does this process occur?
Feedback.
You were right saying
1. The relationship between the form and the meaning in pictograms is

non-arbitrary because there is a direct relationship between the form and
the meaning, the symbol and the entity it represents, or the object and the
entity it represents.
2. This process occurs when the meaning of a picture is extended to its

attributes. In other words, when a picture takes more fixed symbolic
forms and comes to be used for other attributes.
Did you do it? Don't worry if you used your own words. If you had
wrong answers read the text again.
Lesson 2: Logograms or logographic writing system and Rebus writing
38
Identify the characteristics and give examples of the logographic and
Rebus writing systems.
Identify the differences between the logograms, the pictograms, the

Lesson Outcomes
Ideograms and Rebus writing.
How long?
Introduction:
In this lesson you will learn the characteristics of a logographic and

Rebus writing systems. Lets start this lesson with a short revision.
Revising: In the previous lesson you learned that Pictograms and

Ideograms are language independent because they do not represent words
or sounds in a particular language. Are the logographic and the Rebus
writing systems language independent? What do you think? Read the
next text.
2.1. The Logographic writing system.
Yule, (1996: 10), "When the relationship between the symbol and the
entity or idea becomes sufficiently abstract, we can be more confident
that the symbol is being used to represent words in a language. In
Egyptian writing, the ideogram for water was . Much later, the
derived symbol came to be used for the actual word meaning 'water'.
When symbols come to be used to represent words in a language, they are
described as examples of word-writing or 'logograms'."
The logographic writing system consists of a written symbol or character,

which represents the meaning of words. The symbols do not represent
39
sounds of the spoken language. A modern language, which uses a

logographic writing system, is Chinese.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of the logographic writing

system?
The advantage is that "two speakers of very different dialects of Chinese,

who might have great difficulty understanding each other's spoken forms,
can both read the same written text. One major disadvantage is that an
extremely large number of different written symbols exists within this
writing system." (Yule, 1996: 11).
It is not so easy to remember a large number of symbols in logographic

writing.
According to Yule, (1996:11) "To accomplish this, some principled

method is required to go from symbols which represent words (i.e. a
logographic writing system) to a set of symbols which represent sounds
(i.e. a phonographic system)".
2.2. Rebus writing system.
Do you remember the main feature of a logographic writing system? No?

It is very simple - the symbol represents a word in a spoken language, it
is also known as system of word-writing. In Rebus writing, a symbol
comes to represent a spoken sound.
According to Fromkin and Rodman (1993:368) "When a graphic sign no

longer has any visual relationship to the word it represents, it becomes a
symbol for the sounds that represent the word. For example, the symbol
stood for sun in English, it could then be used in a sentence like My ~ is
a doctor. This sentence is an example of the Rebus principle.
Yule, (1996:12) “In this process, the symbol for one entity is taken over
as the symbol for the sound of the spoken word used to refer to that
entity. That symbol then comes to be used whenever that sound occurs in
any words. For example, working with the sound of the English word eye,
we can imagine how the pictogram could have developed into the
40
logogram . This logogram is pronounced as an eye, and with Rebus
principles at work, you should be able to refer to yourself as ('I')".
In this example you can notice that the sound of the English word eye is
taken over to refer to the personal pronoun "I". Using the Rebus
principles, you can write a sentence like can swim.
As a summary, you have noticed that in a logographic writing system a

symbol represents a word of the spoken language, and in Rebus writing
the symbol represents the sound of the spoken word. Re-read the
examples if you didn't understand. To reinforce your study, answer the
questions below.
To check how well you are progressing, answer the questions below. Do
not refer back to the text before you finish. Good luck!
1. What is the difference between the logographic and the Rebus writing
systems?
2. Which modern language is based on the logographic writing system?

Activity
Feedback.
Were the two questions difficult to answer? When you have problems
understanding what you read, check the words you don't know the
meaning on dictionary. Look at the answers now.
1. The difference is in the entity the symbols represent. When the symbol
comes to represent words in a language it is a logographic writing
system; when it is taken over as the symbol for the sound of the spoken
word, it is Rebus writing system.
41
Do you remember the examples? Read them again.
2. The modern language based on the logographic writing system is

Chinese.
This lesson was about the development of writing and there are some
technical terms you may find them difficult to memorize. However, it is
important to focus your attention on the characteristics of each writing
system. Congratulations if you got the correct answers. It means that you
are learning very well.
42
Lesson 3: Syllabic and Alphabetic writing systems
Identify and describe the characteristics of the syllabic and the

alphabetic writing systems.
Distinguish the syllabic and the alphabetic writing systems.

Lesson Outcomes
How long?
Introduction:
This lesson will provide you with the characteristics of the syllabic and
the alphabetic writing systems. It will also concentrate the attention on
the differences between the two writing systems.
3.1. The Syllabic writing system.
"In a syllabic writing system, each syllable in the language is represented

by its own symbol, and words are written syllable by syllable" (Fromkin
and Rodman, 1993:267).
Yule, (1993: 12) "When a writing system employs a set of symbols which
represent the pronunciations of syllables, it is described as syllabic
writing".
For example, "take non-English example in which the ideogram

becomes the logogram , for the word pronounced ba (meaning 'boat').
We can then produce a symbol for the word pronounced baba (meaning
'father') which would be .
43
You can see that the symbol represents the pronunciation of syllables.
Modern Japanese uses a partially syllabic writing. It means that there are
characters, which represent the pronunciation of syllables in Japanese,
just as the example above of ba (meaning 'boat') and baba (meaning
'father').
What do you think are the characteristics of the alphabetic writing

system?
Can you guess the characteristics of the alphabet? If you have difficulties
read what comes next.
3.2. The Alphabetic Writing.
According to Yule (1996:13) "If you have a set of symbols being used to
represent syllables beginning with, for example, a b sound or an m sound,
then you are actually very close to a situation in which the symbols can
be used to represent single sound types in a language. This is the basis of
alphabetic writing. An alphabet is essentially a set of written symbols
which each represent a single type of sound."
When you write Portuguese or English you employ a set of symbols (a, b,
c, d, etc.), which represent sounds in Portuguese or English. For example,
from these set of symbols p, t, o and s, you can produce the words spot,
stop; and each letter represents a single type of sound like p /p/; t /t/, etc.
As a summary, you should remember that the more-picture like is a

symbol, is a pictogram; the more abstract, derived form, is an ideogram;
when the symbol represents words of a language, it is a logogram; when
it represents the sounds of a language, it is Rebus writing; when the
symbol represents the pronunciations of syllables, it is described as
syllabic writing; when the symbols can be used to represent single sound
types in a language, it is alphabetic writing.
Read the activity below to help you focus on the main points of the
lesson.
44
1. What is the process known as syllabic writing system?
2. What is the difference between the syllabic and the alphabetic writing
systems?
Activity
Check your answers below
Feedback.
1.Syllabic writing is a process whereby a symbol comes to represent the

pronunciations of syllables.
2. The difference is that in syllabic writing the symbol represents the

pronunciation of syllables and in alphabetic writing the symbols are used
to represent single type sounds.
It is important to concentrate your attention on the features of each

writing system. Do not memorise them. If the exercise were difficult,
refer back to the text – read it carefully. Need help? Contact your tutor.
Bibliography
1. FROMKIN, V. & RODMAN, R. (1993). An Introduction to

Reading Language, USA: Harcourt
2. Yule, G.(1996). The Study of Language, 2nd Edition, Cambridge: CUP
Unit summary
In this unit you learned that:
¾ If we want to trace the development of writing we have to bear in

Summary mind that a large number of languages found in the world today
45
are used only in the spoken form. They do not have written
forms;
¾ We may trace human attempt to represent information visually

back to cave drawing, which were made at least 20,000 years
ago;
¾ There are six writing systems;
¾ Pictograms are more picture-like and ideograms are more

abstract, derived forms from pictograms and they are both
language independent;
¾ When a symbol represents words in a language that is a

logogram; when it represents sounds of the spoken word, that is
Rebus writing; when the symbol represents the pronunciations of
syllables, it is a syllabic writing; when symbols represent single
sound types in a language, it is the alphabetic writing.
Assignment
English language employs a set of alphabetic symbols for writing. As a
teacher of English, how can you explain the mismatch between the
spoken and the written forms in English.
Assignment For your own development as a teacher, we recommend you to go to a

library or download the information from internet.
Assessment
Study questions
After studying this unit, use the following test to check whether you have
Assessment
46
fully achieved all the learning outcomes for the unit topic. Good luck!
Question 1
'Write' the following sentence and word, using pictograms that you
invent:
a) No smoking!
b) Hospital.
Question 2
a) What are the advantages and disadvantages of a logographic writing

system?
b) Take the image of the sun as a symbol representing sun. How would
you develop (the image of the sun) into an ideographic writing system?
Question 3
Using the rebus principles, 'write' the following words:
a) Tearing
b) Sun
Answer key
1.a) b)
2. a) Advantages: two speakers of very different dialects, who might have

great difficulty understanding each other's spoken forms, can both read
the same text.
The disadvantage is that it is not easy to remember such a large number

of characters or symbols.
2.b) ~
47
3. a)
b)
Read the text again if this was difficult for you. If possible, find a partner
to discuss your answers with him
48
Unit 3
General Understanding of the

Nature of Human Language
Introduction
You have noticed that your course started with the concepts of language
and linguistics, followed by the History of writing or Development of
Writing, in which you are exposed to the writing systems from the
pictograms up to the alphabetic writing systems. Now you will be
exposed to the nature of human language. To discuss the nature of human
language, it is necessary to concider the differences between human
language and animal communication systems.
Identify human language and animal communication systems.
Compare the communication systems or design features.
Outcomes
Identify the similarities and differences between human language and
animal communication systems.
Identify language and communication systems.
Account for the origins of language.
Identify and discuss the theories on the origins of language.
Identify language universals.
Understand the reasons why animals are not capable of producing

human speech sounds.
49
Unit 3 General Understanding of the Nature of Human Language
Communication: The passing on or exchange of information

(Michael Dobrovolsky, quoted by O'Gray)
Physiological Physical aspects possed by humans, which are not

Terminology
Adaptation: shared by other primates.
Glossogenetics: The biological based study of the formation and

development of human language.
Onomatopoeic: echoing natural sounds.
This unit is divided into 6 lessons.
50
Lesson 1: Animals and Human Language - Communication systems or
Design Features
Identify human language and animal communication systems

features.
Lesson Outcomes
How long?
Introduction:
You have seen people communicating among themselves. They use

language – like English. You have also seen people communicating with
animals. Do they use language? In this lesson you will learn about
different communication systems that humans and animals use to
exchange their messages.
As a point of departure, it is common to see humans directing a lot of

spoken language to animals, apparently under the impression that the
animal follows what is being said (Yule, 1996: 30). However, it is
interesting how humans get the messages from animals because they do
not use language – they do not speak. And how do animals ‘understand’
human language provided that they do not speak? How about if we teach
a cow to speak a language? Will it learn? By the end of this lesson you
will be able to answer all these questions.
Are animals, like dogs, able to learn human language?
51
There is no doubt that language is a tool that humans use to

communicate. Here we focus on the communicative function of language.
What is communication?
According to Michael Dobrovolsky, quoted by O’Gray, et al (1997),

“Communication is the passing on or exchange of information. It
distinguishes what is living from what is non-living in nature”.
Do you know that plants communicate among themselves? Yes! They do!
Look, the definition of communication says that it distinguishes what is
living from what is non-living in nature. Plants have life. How do they
communicate, then?
First of all they do not use language like humans. But they pass on
information or communicate by means of chemical signals. Animals, as
we previously said, communicate with humans and among them so
effectively that they are frequently held to use “language”.
However, communication and language are not two words that mean the
same thing. Human language is a specific way of representing the world
and passing on the information. Humans use language when they
communicate but animals do not use language.
If they do not use language, how do they communicate?
The answer is straightforward. Animals communicate with animals of the

same species. For example, dogs communicate among themselves;
chimpanzees communicate among themselves, and so on. You come to
the conclusion that two animals of different species cannot communicate
among themselves. For example, a chimpanzee cannot communicate with
a dog – they wouldn’t understand each other. Do you know why?
Do you remember the question “If animals do not use language, how
do they communicate?”
Animals communicate in very different ways: Using sounds, with scent,

light, visual signs, gestures, colour (chameleon), and even electricity.
They use non-vocal communication; humans use vocal communication.
52
Summarizing, it is important to notice that the physiological properties of
the human species are the prerequisites for the production of language.
Animals, however, do not share these properties, the reason why they are
not able to produce human speech sounds.
1. What is a linguistic sign?
2. Why do we say that the linguistic sign is arbitrary? Give an example.
3. What is communication?
Activity
4. Does language mean the same as communication?
5. How do animals communicate?
Feedback.
1. A linguistic sign is the association between the signifier and the

signified, or between the acoustic sound and the visual image, the
word and its meaning.
2. The linguistic sign is arbitrary because there is no natural or inherit

connection between the symbol and the entity it represents, or
between the signifier and the signified. For example, we can say
house in English, casa in Portuguese, maisom in French referring to
the same meaning, the place where people live.
3. Communication is the passing on or exchange of information.
4. No. Language is a specific way of representing the world and passing

on information. It is a tool humans use to communicate;
communication is the exchange of messages. If you said
communication is the passing on or exchange of information, it is
also correct.
5. Animals communicate using visual signs, scent, sounds, gestures,

colour, light, electricity – they use non-vocal communication.
53
Did you find this lesson interesting? Were the questions difficult to
answer?
Don’t worry about your mistakes. Read the text and do the exercises. If
possible discuss with a partner.
54
Lesson 2: The Design Features
Identify the characteristics of human language and animal

communication system.
Compare human language and animal communication systems.

Lesson Outcomes
How long?
Introduction:
In this lesson you will continue to discuss the differences and similarities
between human language and animal communication systems.
Let’s now talk about the differences and similarities between human
language and animal communication systems.
How can we do that?
Comparing essential characteristics of the systems can highlight the

differences and similarities between human language and natural animal
communication systems. These characteristics are called design features,
and are set up with reference to human language.
According to Dobrovolsky, quoted by O’Gray (1997), these design

features or characteristics represent an adaptation of those of Charles
Hockett and W.H. Thorpe.
55
THE FEATURES
1. Interchangeability: all members of the species can send and receive

messages. With human language all speakers can send and receive
messages. For example, in a conversation between two or more
participants, the interlocutors (the speakers or people who take part in
the conversation) send and receive messages. However, bee dancing
is only performed by foragers and bird song is performed only by
males, not females.
2. Feedback: Users of the system are aware of what they are

transmitting. You know that humans monitor their linguistic output
and they correct it. For example, when a person makes a mistake or
says something he/she didn’t want to say, corrects her/himself – this
feature is found in human language. Can we find it in animal
communication systems? Do animals monitor their communication
systems? It is likely that they do.
3. Specialization: The communication system serves no other function

but to communicate. You know that human language represents
reality – both external (real world) and internal (states, beliefs) –
symbolically in the mind. We use language for the purpose of
communication. How about the backing of a dog? Does it only serve
to communicate or there is another purpose apart from
communication? In part it seems that when a dog backs it is
conveying a message and that message is the thing being
communicated.
4. Interchangeability: all members of the species can send and receive

messages. With human language all speakers can send and receive
messages. For example, in a conversation between two or more
participants, the interlocutors (the speakers or people who take part in
the conversation) send and receive messages. However, bee dancing
is only performed by foragers and bird song is performed only by
males, not females.
56
5. Feedback: Users of the system are aware of what they are
transmitting. You know that humans monitor their linguistic output
and they correct it. For example, when a person makes a mistake or
says something he/she didn’t want to say, corrects her/himself – this
feature is found in human language. Can we find it in animal
communication systems? Do animals monitor their communication
systems? It is likely that they do.
6. Arbitrariness: There is no natural connection between a token

(sign or symbol) and its referent. First of all it is said that the
Linguistic sign (the association between the acoustic sound and the
visual image, or word and its meaning or even signifier and signified)
is arbitrary. Why is it arbitrary? As you learned from semanticity, the
relationship between the signifier and the signified is arbitrary
because there is no natural connection between them. For example,
the same object is called by different names in different languages –
lets take the example of the English word door. It is door in English,
porta in Portuguese, ci-phalo in Shangana, nswo in Ci-sena and
Nyungwe, etc. So, the same object has different names in different
languages; that is an arbitrary symbol because there is no natural or
inherit connection between the words door, porta, ci-phalo and nswo
and its meaning, the object. We can say that arbitrariness is found in
human language, except for a few onomatopoeic (words which tend
to imitate the sounds of the nature) terms. Bee dancing may show
arbitrariness in that, there may be no connection between the form of
the dance and the distance from the hive.
7. Discreteness: The communication system consists of isolated,

repeatable units. Human language shows distinctive features,
phonemes, syllables, morphemes, words, and still larger
combinations. For example, the difference between a b sound and p
sound is not actually a great, but when these sounds are part of a
language like English, they are used in such a way that the
occurrence of one rather than the other is meaningful. The fact that
the pronunciation of the forms pack and back leads to a distinction in
57
meaning can only be due to the difference between the p and b

sounds in English.
8. Displacement: Users of the system are able to refer to events remote

in space and time. Human language users are capable of producing
messages to refer to past and future time, and to other locations. It
allows the users of language to talk about things and events not
present in the immediate environment. Animal communication
system is generally considered to lack this property. However, bee
dancing shows displacement because depending on the type of
dancing the other bees can work out where the newly hive can be
found.
9. Productivity: New messages and any topic can be produced at any

time. With human language we can discuss new topics at any time.
For example, you are studying this course and you are discussing new
topics that you have never heard before. Do animal communication
systems have this feature? In a very limited range.
10. Duality of patterning: Meaningless units (phonemes) are combined

to form arbitrary signs. These signs in turn can be recombined to
form new meaningful larger units. In human language, phonemes can
be combined in various ways to create different symbolic tokens. For
example, from the following phonemes (s, p, o, t) we can create the
following symbolic tokens: spot, tops, opts, and pots. These tokens
or words in turn can be combined in meaningful ways: Spot the tops
of the pots. There is no evidence of this type of patterning in any
known animal communication system.
11. Tradition: At least certain aspects of the system must be transmitted

from an experienced user to a learner. Yule (1996:24) “Cultural
transmission is the process whereby language is passed on from one
generation to the next” Cultural aspects of a society are passed on
from an old generation to a new. Animals have some degree of
tradition or cultural transmission because there are aspects which can
be passed from an old animal to a new born.
58
12. Learnability: A user of the system can learn other variants. Humans
can learn a number of different languages. Animals are limited to
their communication system, they cannot learn, for example human
language or a cat cannot learn to back.
13. Reflexiveness: The ability to use the communication system to

discuss the system itself. No evidence exists that any other species
write grammar or linguistics textbooks. In fact you learned from
lesson 1 that one of the difficult linguistics faces, as a modern subject
of investigation is that it uses language to study language. Animals do
not actually study their communication systems.
Summarising, you have learned the properties of language compared with

the animal natural communication systems. This brief overview of animal
communication systems and human language emphasizes that human
language is one of the communication system among the many that life
forms employ. All living creatures and plants can send and receive
messages – that is communication. Human language is more flexible and
productive in manipulating the symbols than any known animal
communication system (quoted from Ogray, 1997) .
All information contained in these two lessons has been taken from
Michael Dobrovolsky, quoted by O’Gray (1997), and partly from George
Yule (1996: 20 – 24).
Answer the following questions that will help you understand the lesson.
1. How can you highlight the differences and similarities between

human language and animal communication systems?
2. Say whether the following statements are true or false.

Activity
a) Bee dancing shows arbitrariness.
b) Bee dancing may show displacement
59
Feedback.
1. By comparing essential characteristics of the systems.
2.a) T 2. b) T
This activity focuses on the properties of human language compared with

the animal communication systems. It will help you understand the
features of each property. The activity aims at motivating you to read the
text focusing your attention on the features.
60
Lesson 3: Teaching animals to learn human language
Identify the components of the vocal tract.
Discuss the reasons why it is difficult to teach animals to use human

language.
Lesson Outcomes
How long?
Introduction:
In this lesson you will learn about the physical aspects of humans, which
enable them to produce the speech sounds. Lets start with a revision.
Revising: In the previous lessons we concentrated our attention on the

ways in which human language is distinct from animal communication
systems. You also learned from the introduction of the unit that there is a
lot of spoken language directed by humans to animals under the
impression that the animal follows what is being said. Do you remember?
In houses and circus animals act according to humans spoken commands.
Can we say that animals understand human language?
Do animals understand the human language?
Think about the question.
Read the following text.
In fact animals do not understand human language. Yule (1996:30) “ As

far as animal behaviour is concerned, the standard explanation is that the
61
animal produces a particular behaviour in response to a particular sound-

stimulus, but does not actually ‘understand’ the meaning of the words
uttered”. It means that the animal learns or follows the spoken commands
by habit.
Can they learn human language?
Before we concentrate on animals, it is important to know how humans

produce the speech sounds. First of all we will look at the physiological
adaptation or humans physical aspects which are not shared with other
creatures. For example, human teeth are upright, not slanting outwards
like those of apes, and they are roughly even in height. These teeth are
very useful in making sounds such as f, v and th. Human lips have much
more intricate muscle interlacing than is found in other animals and their
flexibility helps in making sounds such as p, b, m. The human mouth is
relatively small, can be opened and closed rapidly and contains a very
flexible tongue which can be used to shape a wide variety of sounds.
The human larynx, containing the vocal cords, differs in position from
that of monkeys. The human brain is literalised, that is, it has specialized
functions in the two hemispheres.
So, these physiological aspects mentioned above are helpful in the

production of the speech sounds. For example the sound p is produced
with the upper and lower lips joining together. Can you imagine a person
without one of the lip? Either upper or lower, he/she could not pronounce
the sound p. These organs are not only useful for eating but for the
production of the speech sounds as well. That is the reason why animals
cannot learn to produce human language – they do not share the physical
aspects that humans possess.
After this interesting explanation about the physiological adaptation of

humans, which is not shared with any other creature, answer the
questions below which will help you understand the main points of the
lesson.
As a summary, humans produce speech sounds because they are

programmed with an apparatus (physiological aspects, such as the vocal
tract) to produce such sounds. Animals communicate using a non-vocal
62
system and they are not able to produce human speech sounds due to their
physiological adaptation, which does not allow them to produce for
example, a bilabial sound m.
1. There is a lot of spoken language directed by humans to animals. Do

they understand human language?
2. Why is it difficult to teach animals to speak human language?

Activity
Feedback.
1. As far as animal behaviour is concerned, the animal produces a

particular behaviour in response to a particular sound-stimulus, but
doe not actually understand the words uttered.
2. Because they are not physically equipped to produce human speech

sounds; for example, their lips are not as flexible as humans, their
teeth are not upright like those of humans and their tongues are not as
flexible as humans’.
Was this activity good for you to check understanding? If you didn’t get
the correct answers, read the text again.
N.B. Part of the information contained in this lesson was taken from Yule
(1996).
63
Lesson 4: Theories on the origins of language
Discuss the divine source on the origin of human language.
Be familiar with the genesis of language.
Lesson Outcomes
How long?
Introduction:
We have been discussing about language from unit 1, and nothing has
been said about its origins. In this lesson you will be exposed to the
theories which account for the origins of language.
Do you know the first language spoken by the first men on earth? Have
all languages diverged from a single source? How did the first words
come to be? If you want to know the answers for these questions, study
this lesson very carefully.
“For centuries, people have speculated over the origins of human

language. The most intrigueting questions are for example, ‘What is the
world’s oldest spoken language?’ ‘Have all languages developed from a
single source?’ ‘What was the language spoken in the Garden of Eden?’
‘How did words come to be, in the very beginning?’ These questions are
fascinating, and have provoked experiments and discussion whose history
dates back 3,000 years. Each generation asks the same questions, and
reaches the same impasse” (Crystal, 1987:288).
Why do all generations, which try to answer the questions above, reach
the same impasse? Can you guess?
64
The reason is only one – “we have no direct Knowledge of the origins
and early development of language, nor is it easy to imagine how such
knowledge might ever be obtained. We can only speculate, arrive at our
own conclusions, and remain dissatisfied” (Crystal, 1987: 288). The
problem is that there are no physical evidences that could prove the
origins of language and therefore the first language spoken by Adam and
Eve in the Garden of Eden.
The Theories
Otto Jesperson (1921), quoted by Yule (1996:1), “human language

originated while humans were actually enjoying themselves. This view
remains a speculation because of the lack of physical evidences, which
could prove this origin.
The Divine Source
Yule (1996: 1), says that according to one view, “God created Adam and
whatsoever Adam called every living creature, that was the name thereof”
(Genesis 2:19).
Do you have a Bible? If you have it, open Genesis 2:19 to confirm what
is being said above.
“Following a Hindu tradition, language came from the goddess Sarasvati,

wife of Brahma, creator of the universe. In most religions, there appears
to be a divine source who provides humans with language” (Yule,
1996:2).
A few experiments have been carried out to rediscover the language

spoken by Adam and Eve, in the Garden of Eden, or the language from
which all languages spoken in the world today have developed.
What motivated people to carry out such experiments, which consisted of

isolating newborn babies?
65
The basic hypothesis is that, if newborn babies were allowed to grow up
without hearing any language, then they would spontaneously begin
using the original God give language.
For example, “one of the best-known reports concerns the Egyptian

King, Psamtik I, who reigned in the 7th century B.C. According to the
Greek historian, Herodotus, Psamtik wished to find out which of all the
peoples of the world was the most ancient. His way of determining this
was to discover the oldest language, which he thought, would be evidence
of the oldest race. This is how Herodotus tells the story.
Read the story that follows:
He gave two newborn babies of ordinary men to a shepherd, to nurture

among his flocks after this manner. He charged him that none should
utter any speech before them, but they should live by themselves in a
solitary habitation; and at the due hours the shepherd should bring goats
to them, and give them their fill of milk, and perform the other things
needful.( …)” (Crystal, 1987: 288).
What happened then?
Two years later the babies produced the word becos and stretched out
their hands. Becos is Phrygian language meaning bread. Phrygian is an
extinct language today and was spoken in the north-western part of
modern Turkey.
So can it be said that Phrygian was the world’s oldest language? Of

course it was not. Children living in isolation, without access to human
contact and speech in their early years of life grow up with no language at
all.
Summarising, we need social environment to learn any language. Have

you ever heard the story of a jungle boy? He was a boy who grew up with
monkeys. He couldn’t speak a human language, but walked and behaved
like a monkey.
Did you enjoy your reading? Now answer the questions in the following
activity, to check understanding.
66
1. What four questions would you consider if you wanted to carry out a
research about the origins of language?
2. Would a newborn infant learn human language if isolate from human

Activity
contact?
Feedback
1. ‘What is the world’s oldest language?’; ‘Have all languages

developed from a single source?’’ What was the language spoken in
the Garden of Eden?’ ‘How did words come to be in the very
beginning?’
2. No. No human being can learn any language without social contact.
Was the exercise difficult? Read the text again if you found it difficult. If
you succeeded, congratulations and good luck for the next lesson.
67
Lesson 5: The Natural Sound Source and the scientific approach
Discuss about the natural sound claims, which account for the origins
of human speech.
Compare all the theories with the scientific approach.

Lesson Outcomes
How long?
Introduction:
A quite different view of the beginning of human speech is based on the

concept of ‘natural sounds’. See Crystal (1987:289). It is important to
notice that humans produce certain sounds when they work together.
They sing, they try to say something as they work, and use gestures,
imitate sounds from the nature, etc. In this lesson, you will be exposed to
different natural sound source theories, which account for the origin of
There are five main natural sound sources theories about the origins of
The five natural sound theories
The Danish linguist, Otto Jesperson (1860-1943), grouped commonly

held theories about the origins of language into four types, and added a
fifth of his own. They are often referred to by nicknames.
68
The ‘bow-wow’ theory
This theory defends that speech arouse through people imitating the
sounds of the environment, especially animal calls. The main evidence
would be the use of onomatopoeic words.
What are onomatopoeias?
They are words which imitate the sounds of the nature.
The ‘pooh-pooh’ theory
Speech arouse through people making instinctive sounds, caused by pain,

anger, or other emotions. The evidence would be the universal use of
sounds like interjections.
Comment: the two theories lack evidence – in the first, if the evidence of
use of onomatopoeias is valid then all languages would consist of just
words which imitate the sounds of the nature. In fact languages have a
few onomatopoeias; in the second theory, the universal use of
interjections among languages cannot be a valid argument or evidence
because language is not only constituted by interjections, but also it has
nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, conjunctions, etc.
The ‘ding-dong’ theory
Speech arouse because people reacted to the stimuli in the world around
them, and spontaneously produced sounds (‘oral gestures). For example
the word ta-ta and bye – bye show the lips and the tongue respectively
‘waving good-bye’. When you say good-bye you wave your hand from
right to left or from left to right.
Comment: this evidence is not valid because there are a few words in
language, which are followed by gestures.
69
The ‘yo-he-yo’ theory
Speech arouse because, as people worked together, their physical efforts

produced communal, rhythmical grunts, which in due course developed
into chants, and thus language. The evidence is the universal use of
prosodic features especially rhythm.
Do you agree with this theory? Make your own comment.
If you said that this evidence is not valid you were right because the gap
between the rhythm and what we find in language is immense.
The ‘la-la’ theory
Jesperson said that, language initiated from the romantic side of life –
sounds associated with love, play, poor feeling, etc
This theory limits language to the romantic expressions only, but we

know that there is much more that can be done with language.
The Monogenesis view
All languages have diverged from a common source as the result of

cultural evolution or divine intervention. The existence of differences
between languages is then explained as a result of people moving apart,
in waves of migration around the world. In this view, language universals
(common aspects among languages) would be interpreted as evidence of
common origin.
70
The Polygenesis view
This is the opposite of the Monogenesis view, which holds the position
that language emerged more or less simultaneously in several places.
Language universals are explained as the influence of groups in contact,
their languages influence too.
71
The Scientific Approach
“A quite different level of speculation on the origins of human speech

comes from the study known as glossogenetics. This focuses mainly on
the biological basis of the formation and development of human
language” Yule (1996:4)
Do you remember when we said that there are some physiological aspects
of humans that are not shared with other creatures? The glossogenetic
study concentrates on some of the physical aspects of humans (past and
present) that are not shared with any other creatures. This is “the study of
the formation and development of human language, in both the child and
the race. The main sciences involved are biology, anthropology,
psychology, neurology (the study of brain evolution), primatology, and
linguistics” (Crystal, 1987:290).
Summing up, the divine sources holds the position that God provided
humans with language, but we don’t actually no which language; the
natural sound theories account for the origin of speech basing their
evidences on the nature; the Monogenesis view defends the position that
all languages developed from a common source, and finally the
Polygenesis view holds the opposite position.
Answer the exercises below, to help you understand the lesson
1. What natural sound source theories do you know?
2. What is the basic idea behind the “yo-heave-ho theory?
Activity 3. What is the difference between the natural sound source theories and
the scientific approach?
72
Feedback
1. The ‘bow-wow’, the ‘pooh-pooh’, the ‘ding-dong’, the ‘yo-he-yo’

and the ‘la-la’ theories.
2. The basic idea behind the “yo-heave-yo” theory is that, the sounds
produced by humans when exerting physical effort (grunts),
especially when co-operating with other humans, may be the origins
of speech sounds.
3. The difference is that, the natural sound source theories concentrate

on the natural aspects of language, based on the concept of natural
sounds, whereas the scientific approach focuses on the biological
basis of the formation and development of human language, there is a
concentration on the physical aspects of humans that are not shared
with any other creatures.
Was the activity difficult? Need help? Discuss with a partner. If you still
find it difficult contact your tutor, who will be pleased to help you.
73
Lesson 6: Creative aspects of human language and language universals
Identify common aspects to all languages.
know how creative is human language.
Lesson Outcomes
How long?
6.1. Creative aspect of human language
Introduction:
With language humans can express whatever they want at any time and
place. Is it true? Can you discuss anything at any time and place using
your own language? That’s right, you can.
What does it mean when we say that human language is creative?
Discuss with a partner.
Chomsky has emphasized ‘linguistic creativity’, meaning that speakers of

a language can produce and understand novel (new) utterances without
bound (limit). In fact from a very limited range of words you can form
unlimited number of novel sentences and Chomsky says that from a finite
number of rules we can produce an infinite number of new meaningful
sentences. For example, from the sentence “John spotted those pots.”,
we can extend it by creating new meaningful sentences (e.g. It was John
who spotted those pots; The pots were spotted by John; John managed
74
to spot those pots; etc). So human language allows its users to create new
situations.
6.2 Language universals
Language universals are common aspects or features that can be found in

all languages. For example, all languages have nouns, adjectives,
pronouns, verbs, adverbs, interjections, etc. even though some languages
do not make a clear distinction between these word classes.
Equal potential among languages
McArthur (1983:21), “All languages are equally capable of expressing

whatever their users need them to express, and have equal potential”. You
can hear or read that certain languages are ‘better’ for certain things like
science, while certain other languages are more musical, more masculine
or feminine, more aggressive, sweeter and so on than others. These are all
subjective suppositions because all languages have equal potential.
No language is static. It means that all languages are dynamic, capable of

description, changes and development.
All languages are created equal
This means that it is possible to translate anything from any language into
any other.
Summarising, Human language is potentially creative in the sense that its

users can produce and understand novel utterances at any time and place;
it also has common features such as equal potential.
Are you facing problems? Discuss with a partner and do the exercises
below to help you focus on the main points of the lesson
75
1. Why is it said that human language is creative? Provide a classroom

example.
2. Give at least 2 universal features of language

Activity
Feedback
1. Because its speakers can produce and understand novel

utterances that they have never heard before without limit. In the
classroom the teacher can ask the students to expand the sentence
“Mary is a good student”, to create new meaningful sentences. If
you used a different example that’s ok. You have to be creative.
“Mary is a good student” can be expanded to “Mary is a student
who is good”; “John said that Mary is a good student”, and you
could even say more, these are samples.
2. All languages use interjections; all languages use onomatopoeias.

Other possibilities are also correct.
You can expand sentences at the structure level and vocabulary.
Unit summary
In this unit you learned about
1. The physiological aspects possessed by humans, which are not

Summary shared with other creatures; the physiological adaptation of
humans allows them to produce speech sounds;
2. The problems that would be encountered if we taught animals to
76
speak;
3. The theories which account for the origins of language – the

divine source, the natural sound source, the Monogenesis and the
polygenesis views and the Scientific approach.;
4. Common features that all languages share;
5. The capability of any language to allow its speakers to discuss

any topic at any time;
The capability of speakers of a language to produce and understand novel

sentences or utterances without bound.
Assignment
Comment about the theories which account for the origins of language.
Use your own examples to substantiate your arguments.
Assignment
Assessment
Study questions
The questions that follow summarize the main points covered in this unit.
Assessment Read them carefully and try to answer without referring back to the text.
You can only re-read the text after you answer all the questions. Then you
can compare your answers with those suggested in feedback. Good luck!
1. Explain what the term ‘arbitrariness’ means as it is used to
77
describe a property of human language.
2. Which term is used to describe the ability of human language-

users to discuss topics, which are remote in time and space?
3. What kind of evidence supports the idea that language is

culturally transmitted?
4. What special features of human teeth and lips make them useful
in the production of speech sounds?
5. Do animals understand human language?
6. What is the basic idea behind the divine source?
7. What does it mean when we say that all languages have equal
potential?
Answer key
1. Linguistic forms are described as arbitrary because there is no

natural connection between the form and its meaning.
2. Displacement.
3. For example, a child with genetic features from its natural parents
or its biological parents (e.g. Mozambican) will learn the
language of the culture of its adopting parents (e.g. English).
4. Human teeth are upright and roughly even in height; human lips
are flexible because of their intricate muscle interlacing.
5. As far as animal behaviour is concerned, the standard explanation

is that animals produce a particular behaviour in response to a
particular sound stimulus, but does not actually understand the
meaning of the words uttered.
78
6. “God created Adam and whatsoever Adam called every living
creature, that was the name thereof” (Genesis, 2:19).
7. It means that all languages are equally capable of expressing

whatever their speakers need them to express.
Was the lesson interesting? How about the exercises? Found them easy or
difficult? If you found them difficult, find a partner to discuss with him.
This subject will always force you discuss with a partner. If you don’t
have a partner, read the text again and do the exercises.
N.B. The scientific texts and information contained in this unit have been
taken from Yule (1996), Crystal (1987), McArthur (1983) and O’Gray
(1997).
Bibliography
1. CRYSTAL, D. (1987). The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of Language,

Reading Cambridge: CUP
2. McArthur, T. (1983). A Foundation Course for Language Teachers,

Cambridge: CUP
3. YULE, G. (1996). The Study of Language, 2nd Edition, Cambridge:

CUP
4. O’Gray, W. et al. (1997). Contemporary Linguistics, 2nd Ed. Addison

Wesley, Longman
79
Unit 4 History of Modern Linguistics - Early History- Philology
Unit 4
History of Modern Linguistics -

Early History- Philology
Introduction
In unit 1 we said that "the science of linguistics has been in existence
since about the beginning of the twentieth century. It developed out of the
nineteenth-century schorlarly study best known as 'comparative
philology" (McArthur, 1983: 6). In this unit you will be exposed to other
schools and modern linguists from the Greek schools to Chomsky.
[Distinguish] [the naturalistic and the conventionalist philosophical

schools of though;]
[talk] [about the most influential linguistic work of the Roman

Outcomes period,].
[Account for] [Varro's view about language;].
[Discuss] [the contribution of the Indians in the development of

linguistics;].
[point out] [the main results of the Middle ages].
[Distinguish] [the two approaches to language study - the

dyachronic and synchronic approaches]
Diachronic: "Sees language as a continually changing

medium".
Synchronic: "sees language as existing as a state at particular

Terminology
moment in time."
80
Conventionalist: School of philosophical thought, which views

language as a product of convention.
Naturalistic: School of philosophical thought, which views

language as being natural
Ancillary Discipline which provides support to others.

discipline:
Aphoristic A short, cleaverly phrased saying which is

statement:
intended to express a general truth.
Feat: something difficult, needing a lot of skills
Competence and Competence - a person's knowledge of the rules of

Performance:
a language; performance - the actual use of that
language in real situations (Chomsky).
81
Lesson 1: The Greeks, the Romans and the Indians
Distinguish the conventionalist and the naturalistic schools of

thought..
Discuss the contribution of the Roman and the Indian schools to

Lesson Outcomes
development of linguistics.
How long?
Introduction:
Have you ever heard about 'the right person in the right position?' Yes?
No? Don't worry if you haven't. In the past, a religious or philosophical
awareness of language could be found in many early civilizations. Did
you know that several of the important issues of language analysis were
addressed by the grammarians and philosophers of Ancient Greece,
Rome and India? This lesson will focus on what happened in the past
before the comparative philology schorly.
There were not the linguists who addressed the linguistic analysis.
The Greeks
According to Crystal (1987:404), "The earliest surviving linguistic debate

is found in the pages of Plato (427 - 347 BC.) Cratylus is a dialogue
about the origins of language and the nature of meaning - first between
Socrates and Hermogenes, then between Socrates and Cratylus.
82
What is Hermogenes's position about language? "Hermogenes holds the

view that language originated as a product of convention, so that the
relationship between words and things is arbitrary: 'for nothing has its
name by nature, but only by usage and custom'(Crystal, 1987:404).
Here Hermogenes considers the linguistic sign as being arbitrary, that is,
there is no natural connection between the words and the things they refer
to, and language is learned by usage and by becoming conventional - The
community of a certain language agrees to call a name to a thing.
However, Cratylus holds the opposite position saying that "language

came into being naturally, and therefore an intrinsic relationship exists
between words and things. 'There is a correctness of name existing by
nature for everything: a name is not simply that which a number of
people jointly agree to call a thing'." (Crystal (1987:404).
"The latter position is more fully presented with the divine origin being
invoked in support: 'a power greater than that of man assigned the first
names to things, so that they must of necessity be in a correct state'"
(Crystal, 1987:404).
These first two positions on the origin of language developed into two
schools of philosophical thought which have since been labbeled
conventionalist and naturalistic.
What do Modern linguists say about these two views?.Modern linguists

have pointed out that , in their extreme forms, neither view is valid.
The Romans
Crystal (1987:404), "Roman writers largely followed Greek precedents

and introduced a speculative approach to language - On the whole, in
their descriptive work of Latin, they used Greek categories and
terminology with little change. However, the most influential work of the
Roman period is the codification of Latin grammar by Marcus Terentius
Varro (116 - 27 BC) under the headings of etymology, morphology, and
syntax. Varro's work takes into account several differences between Latin
and Greek (e.g. the absence of the definite article in the former). He also
83
held the view that language is first and foremost a social phenomenon
with a communicative purpose; only secondarily is a tool for logical and
philosophical enquiry. The main result of the Roman period was a model
of grammatical description that was handed down through many writers
in Europe, and that ultimately became the basis of language teaching in
the middle ages and the Renaissence. In due course, this model became
the 'traditional' approach to grammar, which continues to exercise its
influence on the teaching of English and other modern languages".
Varro's view focus on the social and communicative functions of
language.
The Indians
The codification of Latin grammar was the most influential work of the
Roman period and its main result was a model of grammatical description
that ultimately became the basis of language teaching in the middle ages
and the Renaissence.
However, "the motivation for the Indian work was quite different from
the speculative matters that attracted Greek and Roman thinkers (though
they did not ignore those topics). The Hindu priests were aware that their
language had diverged from that of their oldest sacred texts, the vedas, in
both pronunciation and grammar. The important part of their belief was
that certain religious ceremonies, to be successful, needed to reproduce
accurately the original form of these texts. Change was not corruption, as
in Greek, but profanation" (Crystal, 1987: 405).
Did you understand? The motivation for the Indians to study language
was different from the Greeks and the Romans. What was their belief?
An important part of their belief was that, as the Hindu priests believed
that their language had diverged form their sacred texts, called "the
vedas". Certain religious ceremonies to be successful needed to
reproduce the original text as accurate as possible, without any chance of
changes in terms of pronunciation and grammar. any change was
considered profanation and as you probably know, a profanation is
something dangerous in terms of religion.
84
To overcome the problem of changes and avoid profanation, and follow

the original text or sacred vedas accurately, several ancillary disciplines
including phonetics, etymology, grammar and metrics were developed.
Crystal, (1987: 405), "their solution was to establish the facts of the old
language clearly and systematically and thus to produce an authoritative
text. The earliest evidence of this feat is the work carried out by the
grammarian Panini, sometime between the 5th and the 7th centuries BC, in
the form of a set of 4,000 aphoristic statements known as sutras
('threads')".
This work consisted in the description of the linguistic facts such as the
rules of word formation. Because they concentrated their attention on
describing the sacred vedas so that they could be recited accurately in
religious ceremonies, the Indians became experts in phonetics.
The work is remarkable for its detailed phonetic descriptions. For

example, places of articulation (see phonetics in unit 5) are clearly
described, the concept of voicing (see phonetics in unit 5) is introduced,
and the influence of sounds on each other in connected speech is
recognised. Several concepts of modern linguistics derive from this
tradition - adapted form Crystal, (1987:405).
Summarising, Roman writers largely followed Greek precedents, they

used Greek categories and terminology in their descriptive work on Latin.
The Indians became experts in phonetics and phonology in their attempt
to produce an authoritative text that could be followed in religious
ceremonies.
After studying the lesson, answer the questions in the activity below to
check understanding.
85
1. Define Cratylus.
2. What's Hermogenes view about the origin of language?
Activity 3. What is the difference between the conventionalist and naturalistic

views about language?
4. What was the most influential work of the Roman period?
5. What motivated the Indians to study language?
Feedback
1. Crytilus is a dialogue about the origins of language and the nature of

meaning.
2. Hermogenes holds the view that language originated as a product of

convention, so that the relationship between words and things is
arbitrary.; the argument is that 'for nothing has its name by nature,
but only by usage and custom'.
3. The difference is that, the conventionalists hold the position that

language originated as a product of convention, while the
naturalistics hold the position that, language came into being
naturally, and therefore there is an intrinsic relationship between
words and things: 'there is a correctiness of name existing by nature
for everything.'
4. The most influential work of the Roman period was the codification
of Latin grammar by Marcus Terentius Varro.
5. The Hindu priests believed that their language had diverged from that
of their oldest sacred texts, the vedas, in both pronunciation and
grammar. An important part of their belief was that certain religious
cerimonies, to be successful, needed to reproduce, accurately, the
original form of these texts. In order to reproduce the original text
accurately, they studied the language in both pronunciation and
grammar so that they could produce an authoritative text that could
be followed.
86
If you faced problems doing this exercise it can be due to the fact that it
needs lots of discussions, and you should find a partner to discuss with
him. However, if you don’t have a partner, read the text again with the
purpose of finding the answers for the questions.
87
Lesson 2: The Middle ages and the Renaissence
discuss the contribution of the Medieval and Renaissence periods to

the development of linguistics.
Lesson Outcomes
How long?
Introduction:
After learning about the contribution of the Greeks, the Romans and the
Indians to the development of linguistic ideas, you will be exposed to the
contribution of the Renaissence period to the field of linguistics.
According to Crystal, (1987:406), "Very little is known about the

development of linguistic ideas in Europe during the 'Dark Ages', though
it is evident that Latin, as the language of education, provided a
continuity of tradition between classical and medieval periods. Medieval
learning was founded on seven 'arts', of which three - grammar, dialectic,
and rethoric -they formed one division, known as the trivium.Grammar
was seen as the foundation for the whole of learning. A tradition of
'speculative' grammars developed in the 13th and 14th centuries, in which
grammatical notions were reinterpreted within the framework of the
scholastic philosophy. The authors (the 'Modistae' looked to philosophy
as the ultimate explanation of the rules of grammar. A famous quotation
from the period states that it is not the grammarian but the 'philosopher
who discovers grammar' (philosophphus grammatican invenit). The
differences between languages were thought to be superficial, hiding the
existence of a universal grammar".
88
Apart from what is stated above, the middle ages also witnessed the
following:
1. The development of western lexicography and
2. Progress in the field of translation as Christian missionary activity

increased: in the East, Byzantine writers continued to expound the
ideas of the Greek authors;
3. There was a strong tradition of Arabic language work related to the

Qur'an (which was not to be translated);
4. From around the 8th century, several major grammars and dictionaries
were produced, as well as descriptive works on Arabic pronunciation.
For a long time, these remained unknown in western Europe.

Opportunities for contact with the Greek, Arabic, and Hebrew linguistic
traditions only came later, as a result of the crusades.
So, the middle ages were considered the dark ages because of the ideas
and knowledge from the Greeks, Arabic and Hebrew authors, which
remained unknown for long time. Remember that Christianity dominated
that period. God was the centre of everything.
As a matter of fact, with the revival of the classical period world from the
Greek, Arabic and Hebrew authors, a new period was born.
The Renaissence
We will continue quoting Crystal, (1987:406) saying that "The discovery

of the classical world that came with the 'revival of learning', as well as
the discoveries of the new world, transformed the field of language study.
Missionary work poduced a large quantity of linguistic material,
especially from the far East:
1. The Chinese linguistic traditions were discovered;
2. Arabic and Hebrew studies progressed, the latter especially in

relation to the Bible;
89
3. In the 16th century several grammars of exotic languages came to be

written (e.g. Quechua in 1560);
4. There was a more systematic study of European languages, especially

of the Romance family;
5. The first grammar of Italian and Spanish date from the 15th century;
6. Major dictionary projects were launched in many languages;
7. Academies came into being;
8. The availability of printing led to to the rapid dissemination of ideas

and materials and as modern times approached, fresh philosophical
issues emerged.
9. The 18th century is characterised by the arguments between

'rationalists' and 'empiricists' over the role of innate ideas in the
development of thought and language".
EXTRA HOURS FOR THE FOLLOWING TOPIC
In order to understand the two philosophical schools of thought over the

role of innate ideas in the development of thought and language, read the
text that follow from Atkinson (1982: 46) "Empiricism and rationalism
are two philosophical positions concerning the question of the acquisition
of knowledge, where the term "knowledge" is construed quite generally.
Traditional examples include speculation as to "how we come to know
that every effect has a cause or that the angles of a triangulo add up to
180o." The rationalists tend to give some innate ideas a more central and
vital position in the issue. It is important to realise that the empiricist does
not do away with innate ideas altogether. For example, in language
acquisition, but restricts the apparatus the child brings to the acquisition
of knowledge. He may, for example, assume that the child is capable of
comparing sensory inputs and noting similarities and dissimilarities
between them, perhaps with respect to particular sensory dimensions such
as orientation, hue, frequency (of sound), etc.
However, the rationalist does not strip the child of these abilities. Rather,
in addition to such general abilities as the empiricist countenances, the
90
rationalist wishes to credit the child with certain specific ideas, such as
those of 'triangularity' or that "every event has a cause", because ideas
cannot arise from the interaction of experience".
These two philosophical positions are important for the discussion in that:
1. lets assume that the empiricist is right and that the human infant is
only equiped with a minimal set of learning procedures and
2. assume that the rationalist is right and that the human infant is born
with some innate ideas.
This discussion contributed to the development of the theories of

language acquisition and learning.
As a summary, the Middle Ages didn't produce much in terms of

linguistic ideas because there was a breakdown between the Classical
period and the Middlde Ages, most of the Classical period knowledge
remained unknown in this period. Renaissence, however means the
revival of the Classical period and world, which brought 'light' to the
people.
Now read the exercises below to help you understand the lesson.
Complete the following statement: "The medieval learning was founded

on seven 'arts', of which three -…"
Activity
Feedback.
The Medieval learning was founded on seven 'arts', of which three -

grammar, dialectic, and rhethoric.
Was the activity difficult? If it was difficult to complete the statement go

back to the text. Read it carefully.
91
Lesson 3: Twentieth Century Linguistics Ferdinand de Saussure
distinguish the synchronic from the diachronic approaches to

language study.
Lesson Outcomes
How long?
Introduction:
The growth of modern linguistics, from the end of the 18th century to the
present day, has in large part already been summarised in earlier unit 1.
When we talk about the twentieth-century linguistics we must bear in
mind the two main approaches to language study, European and
American. These two approaches to language study formed the modern
subject of linguistics.The first arises out of the aims and methods of 19th-
century comparative philology, with its focus on written records, and its
interest in historical analysis and interpretation (Crystal, 1987:407).
However,
"The beginning of the 20th century saw a sharp change of emphasis, with
the study of the principles governing the structureof living languages
being introduced by the Genevan linguist, Ferdinand de Saussure (1857 -
1913). Saussure's early work was in philology, but he is mainly
remembered for his theoretical ideas as summarised in the Cours de
linguistique generale ('Course in General Linguistics'), which is widely
held to be the foundation of the modern subject.
Saussurean Principles
92
Some of saussure's most central ideas were expressed in the form of pairs
of concepts:
Diachrony vs Synchrony
Saussure distinguished the Diachronic approach as being historical and

Synchronic approach as being non-historical approach to language study.
The Diachronic or historucal approach sees language as a continually

changing medium" (Crystal, 1987:407) and the Synchronic or non-
historical approach sees language as existing as a state at particular
moment in time (Crystal, 1987:407).
In the diagram AB represents a synchronic "axis of simultaneities" - a

language state at some point in time. For example, if you want to know
the state of Portuguese spoken in Mozambique in the post independence
period, you will carry out the synchronic study and you will notice that
there were some new words and expressions which entered the language
because of the sociopolitic and socioeconomic situation of the country.
Do you remember words like 'Xiconhoca', 'boateiro', 'candonga' and
'candongueiro'? These and other words and expressions are good
examples of the words which entered the Portuguese spoken in
Mozambique in the 80s.
93
CD is a diachronic "axis of sucessions" - the historical path a language

has travelled.
According to this view, its always necessary to carry out some degree of
the synchronic work before making a diachronic study. It means that
before we can say how a language has changed from state x to state y, we
need to know something about x and y.
However, the synchronic analysis can be made without referring to

history. Saussure illustrates this point with a game of chess.
Why does Saussure illustrate the two approaches with a game of chess?
In a game of chess, the state of the game is constantly changing, as each

player makes his move. At any one time, however, the state of the game
can be fully described in terms of the positions occupied by the pieces.
So, by looking at the position of the pieces we are able to know the state
of the game, being that the synchonic analysis, and we may even think
about the route from which the players have arrived at a given state of the
game (Lyons, 1981: 54).
Language vs langue vs parole
Do you remember that in unit 1, lesson 1, we talked about different

definitions of language? We said that there are many definitions of
language and each suffered from several defects because they failed to
cover the scope of language.
Thus, the many senses of the word language prompted Saussure to

introduce a three-fold set of terms, the last two of which were central to
his thinking.
Language, for Saussure "is the faculty of speech present in all normal
human being due to heridity - our ability to talk to each other".
94
This faculty is composed of two aspects:
1. Langue - the language system; and
2. Parole - the act of speaking.
The former is the totality of a language, which we could in theory

discover by examining the memories of all the language users: 'the sum
of word-images stored in the minds of individuals'.
Parole is the actual, concrete act of speaking on the part of a person - a

dynamic, social activity in a particular time and place.
It means that langue is the speaker's knowledge of language or the

linguistic knowledge, and Parole is the use of that knowledge in a
concrete situation, the balance of the knowledge according to audience -
if it’s a group of doctors, engineers, pupils in a primary school, students
at university, etc.
Then Saussure recognised two sides of meaning to the study of language,

but emphasized that the relatioship between the two is arbitrary. His
labels for the two sides are signifiant (the thing that signifies; or 'sound
image') and signifie (the thing signified, or 'concept'). This relationship of
signified to signifier Saussure calls a linguistic sign (Crystal, 1987:407).
The linguistic sign is the association between signifier and signified;

between the sound image and the concept, and this association is arbitrary
because there is no natural or inherit relationship between signifier and
signified.
95
For Saussure, the sign is the basic unit of communication: langue is seen
as a 'system of signs'.
Syntagmatic and Associative (or paradigmatic)
For him, "A sentence is a sequence of signs, each sign contributing

something to the meaning of the whole.
When the signs are seen as a linear sequence , the relationship between
them is called syntagmatic, as in she + can + go. When a sign that is
present is seen as contrasting with other signs in the language, the
relatioship is called associative or paradigmatic, as in She vs He, can vs
will, go vs run in the above sentence.
96
Summarising, twentieth-century linguistics marks the growth of modern

linguistics, from the end of the 18th century to the present day and the
Saussurean principles introduced structural linguistics - "all language
items are essentially interlinked".
Was the lesson interesting? Need help? Before you ask for help try the
exercises below to check whether you have understood the lesson or not.
Good luck!
1. What is langue and parole for Saussure?
2. What two sides of meaning did Saussure recognise?
Activity 3. Complete the sentence: "Langue is seen as a system of …".
4. Explain what is meant by the priority of the synchronic over the

diachronic point of view in linguistics.
Feedback
1. Langue is the language system; and parole is actual, concrete act of

speaking on the part of a person.
97
2. Saussure recognised two sides of meaning, signifier and signified, or

the word ant the entity it refers to.
3. "Langue is seen as the language system or the totality of a language,

which we could in theory discover by examining the memories of all
the language users" (Saussure, quoted by Crystal, 1987:407).
4. It means that in order to carry out a diachronic study, we need some

degree of the syncronic work. That is, before we can say how a
language has changed from state x to state y, we need to know
something about x and y. However, the synchronic analysis can be
made without referring to history.
Was this activity difficult? Try again if it was difficult for you. You can
also find a partner to discuss with him because this subject is very
theoretical and need discussion.
The text of the lesson above has been taken from Crystal (1987: 407).
98
Lesson 4: Later Development
Identify the schools of thought, which emerged as a result of

Saussure's principles.
Lesson Outcomes
How long?
Introduction:
This lesson is about later development after the Saussurean principles.

Read the following text.
Crystal (1987:408), "Both European and American approaches developed

rapidly. In Europe, Saussure's ideas were taken up by several groups of
scholers (especially in Czechoslovakia, France, and Denmark), and
schools of thought emerged based on Saussurean principles notably, the
Linguistic Circle of Prague, which was founded in1926). The field of
phonology was the first to develop, with later progress coming in such
areas as grammar and style. Saussure's influence continues to be storng
today, with his notion of language 'system' becoming the foundation of
much work in semiotics and structuralism. In America, the development
of detailed procedures for the study of spoken language also led to
progress in phonetics and phonology, and special attention was paid to
the distinctive morphology and syntax of the American Indian
languages."
99
"The first major statement synthesizing the theory and practice of

linguistic analysis was language by Leonard Bloofield (1887 - 1949),
which appeared in 1933. This book dominated linguistic thinking for 20
years, and stimulated many descriptive studies of grammar and
phonology. In due course the Bloomfieldian approach came to be called
'structuralist', because
of the various kinds of technique it employed to identify and classify

features of sentence structure (in particular, the analysis of sentences into
their constituent parts. It also represented a behaviourist view of
linguistics, notably in its approach to the study of meaning. However, its
appeal diminished in the 1950s, when there was a sharp reaction against
the limitations of structural linguistic methods, especially in the area of
grammar.
Summarising, in Europe, Saussure's ideas were taken up by several

groups of scholars and schools of thought emerged based on Saussurean
principles. In America, the development of detailed procedures for the
study of spoken language also led to progress in phonetics and
phonology.
Decide whether the statements below are true or false.
1. Schools of thought emerged based on Saussurean principles in 1926.

________
Activity
2. Saussure's principles continue to influence the study of language today.

________
3. Bloomfield was a structuralist linguist. _________
4. Structuralism represented the behaviourist view of linguistics. _______
100
Feedback
1. True (for example, the linguistic Circle of Prague founded in 1926).
2. True (his notion of a language system is the foundation of much work

in semiotics and structuralism today).
3. True (the Bloomfiedian approach came to be called 'structuralist'

because of the various kinds of technique it employed to identify and
classify features of sentences into their constituent parts).
4. True (the Bloomfieldian approach also represented a behaviourist

view of linguistics, in its approach to the study of meaning).
Had some problems interpreting the text? Read it again. Did you
get the correct answers? Congratulations if yes. Read the text again if you
didn't get.
N.B. All information contained in this text has been taken from Crystal
(1987:408).
101
Lesson 5: Chomsky -Syntactic Structures; Competence and Perfomance
distinguish competence and performance;
identify and explain the syntactic structures;
Lesson Outcomes
explain the concept of generative grammar;
compare Saussure's langue and parole with Chomsky's competence

and performance.
How long?
Introduction:
"In 1957, Avram Noam Chomsky, Professor of Linguistics at the

Massachusetts Institute of Technology (1928 - ), published Syntactic
Structures, which proved to be a turning point in 20th -century linguistics.
In this and subsequent publications, he developed the conception of a
generative grammar, which departed radically from the structuralism and
behaviourism of the previous decades" (Crystal, 1987:409).
Earlier analysis of sentences were shown to be inadequate in various

respects, mainly because
they failed to take into account the difference between 'surface' and
'deep' levels of grammatical structure.
102
"At a surface level, such sentence as John is eager to please and John is
easy to please can be analysed in an identical way; but from the point of
view of their underlying meaning, the two sentences diverge: in the first,
John wants to please someone else; in the second, someone else is
involved in pleasing John. a major aim of generative grammar was to
provide a means of analysing sentences that took account of this
underlying level of structure. To achieve this aim, Chomsky drew a
fundamental distinction (similar to Saussure's langue and parole. between
a person's knowledge of the rules of a language and the actual use of that
language in real situations. The first he referred to as competence; the
second as performance. He argued that linguistics should be concerned
with the study of competence, and not restrict itself to performance -
something that was characteristic of previous linguistic studies in their
reliance on samples (or 'corpora') of speech (e.g. in the form of a
collection of tape recordings). Such samples were inadequate bacause
they could provide only a tiny fraction of the sentences it is possible to
say in a language; they also contained many non-fluencies, changes of
plan, and other errors of performance. Speakers use their competence to
go far beyond the limitations of any corpus, by being able to create and
recognize novel sentences, and to identify performance errors" (Crystal,
1987:409).
Competence is seen as an aspect of our general psychological capacity.

Linguistics was thus envisaged as a mentalistic discipline - a view that
contrasted with the behavioural bias of previous 20th -century work in the
subject, and connected with the aims of several earlier linguists(such as
the Port-Royal grammarians). It was also argued that linguistics should
not simply limit itself to the description of competence. In the long term,
there was a still more powerful target: to provide a grammar capable of
evaluating the adequacy of different accounts of competence, and of
going beyond the study of individual languages to the nature of human
language as whole (by discovering 'linguistic universals'), Crystal,
(1987:409).
As a summary, Noam Chomsky's notions of surface and deep levels of

grammatical structure, the distinction between competence and
performance can help a language teacher develop his / her students's
103
grammatical knowledge, vocabulary and fluency.
After reading the text above, from Crystal, (1987: 409), reflect on the
following questions:
1. what is competence according to Chomsky?
2. What is Performance?
Activity 3. Is the following sentence true or false: At the surface level sentences
can be analysed in an identical way. ____
4. What is the relatioship between competence and langue?
Feedback
1. Competence is a person's knowledge of the rules of a language.
2. Performance is the actual use of language in real situations.
3. True (for example, at the surface level, the sentences Monica is easy
to teach and Monica is eager to teach can be analysed in an identical
way; but from the point of view of their meaning ,deep level of
grammatical structure, the two sentences are different: in the first,
someone else is teaching Monica. In the second, Monica wants to
teach.
4. The relationship is that competence is the person's knowledge of the

rules of a language and langue is the language system, in other words
the totality or a person's knowledge of language which could, in
theory, be discovered by examining the memories of all the language
users.
Did you give the same answers? Congratulations if you got the correct
answers. If not, read the text again and bear in mind the questions as well.
104
Unit summary
In this unit you learned about:
the naturalistic and the conventionalist philosophical schools of

though;
Summary
the most influential linguistic work of the Roman period;
the Varro's view about language;
the contribution of the Indians in the development of

linguistics;
the main results of the Middle ages;
the two approaches to language study - the dyachronic and

synchronic approaches
Assignment
As a language teacher, explain how you would use Ferdinand de
Saussure's principles to improve or help your students develop
vocabulary and use new language structure.
Assignment
105
Assessment
After studying this unit, answer the study questions below, which will
help you understand the topics contained in this unit
Assessment Study questions:
1. What is Varro's view about language?
2. Distinguish between synchronic and diachronic linguistics.
3. Explain what is meant by the priority of the synchronic over the

diachronic point of view in linguistics.
4. Why is de Saussure an important figure in linguistics?
5. What do you understand by generative grammar?
6. What are the surface and deep structures is linguistics?
7. What is a syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationships in

sentences?
Feedback
1. Varro's view about language is that language is first and foremost a

social phenomenon with a communicative purpose, and only
secondarily it is a tool for logical and philosophical enquiry.
2. Synchronic linguistics is a language state at some point in time,

whereas diachronic linguistics is the historial path language has
travelled, it sees language as a changing medium.
3. It means that it is always necessary to carry out some degree of

synchronic study before making a diachronic work. However, a
synchronic analysis can be made without referring to history or
diachrony.
106
4. Saussure is an important figure in linguistics because he changed the

linguistic approach, from language change to language deascription.
5. Instead of looking at how a selection of items changed in a number of

different languages, linguists began to concentrate on describing
single languages at one particular point in time. When Saussure
introduced the principles governing the structure of living languages -
his main contribution was his explicit and reiterated statement that all
language items are essentially interlinked.
6. A grammar which aims to describe all and only the grammatical

sequences of a language.
7. Deep structure is the underlying syntactic structures of sentences,

capable of being represented by a tree diagram; Surface structure is
the linear arrangement of the words in a grammatical string.
8. Syntagmatic is the linear relatioship between words in a grammatical

construction; Paradigmatic is the relationship between words which
allow substitution to occur ( for example, Give me your / his / the
bike.
In this exercise, you need your reading and writing skills so that you can
take notes of the important points of the lesson. If you didn't do the
exercises successfully, it means that the lesson was not easy for you. So,
you would need some time to repeat this lesson. If you did the exercises
successfully, congratulations! You are being brave.
Bibliography
1. CRYSTAL, D.(1987). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language,

Reading Cambridge: CUP
2. FINCH, G. (1997). How to Study Linguistics: A Guide to

Understanding Language, 2nd Ed., PalgraveMacmillan
3. LYONS, J. (1981). Language and Linguistics, Cambridge: CUP
107
Unit 5 Phonetics
Unit 5
Phonetics
Introduction
As a language teacher you have noticed that there are problems of
pronunciation when students try to speak English. You may have come
across a situation in which an incorrect pronunciation of a word led to a
misunderstanding of the message. Moreover, as Mozambique is a
multilingual country, there is also the influence of the student's mother
tongue and of the Portuguese language when they learn English
pronunciation. So, these and other pronunciation mistakes can be solved
by the application of the phonetic rules. This course content is of
paramount importance in the study of English pronunciation.
have a knowledge of the English phonemic system including vowels,

consonants and semi-vowels;
Identify the sounds of the English language and transcribe them

Outcomes
phonetically]
Vowels: Sounds produced with relatively free flow of air.
Consonants: Sounds produced with an obstruction to the flow of

air.
Terminology
Diphthongs: Sounds which are pronounced with a glide or

movement from one vowel to another - e.g. /eI/.
Triphthongs: Sounds pronounced with a glide or movement from

one vowel to another, and to the third. e.g. /eIə
108
Lesson 1: Definition, the three branchs of phoenetics, Voiced and

Voiceless
define phonetics;
distinguish the areas of study within phonetics;
Lesson Outcomes
distinguish voiced and voiceless sounds
How long?
Introduction:
As we said before, phonetics is very important for the teaching of English

pronunciation. In this lesson you will be introduced to the concept of
phonetics and the three branches within it.
Definition:
According to Yule (1996:41), "Phonetics is the general study of the

characteristics of speech sounds".
Poole (1999:41), defines phonetics as the study of the speech sounds.
What is the purpose of phonetics?
Its purpose is to explain how English is pronounced in the accent

normally chosen as the standard.
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Unit 5 Phonetics
Branches of Phonetics
There are three branches of phonetics: Articulatory, Acoustic and

Auditory.
1. Articulatory: "the study of how speech sounds are made, or

'articulated" (Yule, 1996:41);
2. Acoustic: "deals with the physical properties of speech as sound

waves 'in the air'" (yule, 1996:41);
3. Auditory (Perceptual): "deals with the perception, via the air, of

speech sounds.
As language teachers we are much more concerned with the articulatory

phonetics, because it investigates how speech sounds are produced.
ARTICULATION: Voiced and Voiceless sounds.
According to Yule (1996:41), "In articulatory phonetics, we investigate

how speech sounds are produced using the fairly complex oral equipment
we have".
The air is pushed out by the lungs up through the trachea (the 'windpipe')
to the larynx. Inside the larynx there are vocal cords which take two basic
positions as the air passes through them:
1. when the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes
between them unimpeded. The sounds produced with the vocal cords
spread apart are called voiceless.
2. When the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs
repeatedly pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration
effect. They are voiced sounds.
A good example of the two types of sound is that, take two English sound
such as Z and V; because these are voiced sounds - you should be able to
feel some vibration as they are pronounced; Keeping your fingertip in
your 'Adam's apple', make the sounds s or f. Because they are voiceless
sounds, there should be no vibration.
110
Summarising, the study of phonetics is very important for a language

teacher, especially articulatory phonetics which deals with the production
of the speech sounds; it explains how and where the speech sounds are
produced in the apparatus responsible for the production of speech
sounds.
After reading the text above, read the questions that follow to check
understanding. If you find them difficult, learn the lesson again, bearing
the questions in your mind.
1. What is the purpose of a teacher to be trained in phonetics?
2. Which branch of phonetics is more concerned with the production of

speech sounds?
Activity
3. Is /s/ a voiced or a voiceless sound?
Feedback:
1. To know how English is pronounced in the accent normally chosen

as the standard.
2. Articulatory phonetics.
3. /s/ is a voiceless sound.
Was the exercise difficult? If yes, study the lesson again. Read it very
carefully and focus your attention on the points you didn’t understand.
Congratulations if you did the exercises correctly.
111
Unit 5 Phonetics
Lesson 2: The productions of speech sounds
Articulators above the larynx
Identify different organs which take part in the production of speech

sounds.
Lesson Outcomes
How long?
Introduction:
Roach (1992:8) says that "All sounds we make when we speak are the
result of muscles contracting". In order to produce speech sounds,
humans are equiped with an apparatus which allows them to produce
such sounds. In this lesson you will learn, with details, about the organs
which are responsible for the production of speech sounds.
Revising: Do you remember when we talked about physiological

adaptation, the humans physical aspects which allow them to produced
human speech sounds? And we also said that animals are not equiped
with such features, and therefore that's the reason why they cannot
produce human speech sounds? Do you remember? Your attention is very
important here.
112
Read the following description by Peter Roach ( 1992: 8).
" All sounds we make when we speak are the result of muscles
contracting. The muscles in the chest that we use for breathing produce
the flow of air that is needed for almost all speech sounds; muscles in the
larynx produce many different modifications in the flow of air from the
chest to the mouth. After passing through the larynx, the air goes through
what we call the vocal tract, which ends at the mouth and nostrils. Here,
the air from the lungs escapes into the atmosphere. We have a large and
complex set of muscles that can produce changes in the shape of the
vocal tract, and in order to learn how the sounds of speech are produced it
is necessary to become familiar with the different parts of the vocal tract.
These different parts are called articulators, and the study of them is
called articulatory phonetics."
The diagram below will help you understand the organs of speech. It
represents the human head, seen from the side, displayed as it had been
cut in half.
Fig. 1- The articulators
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Unit 5 Phonetics
The articulators
1. The pharynx is a tube which begins just above the larynx. It is about
7 cm long in women and about 8 cm in men, and at its top end it is
divided into two, one part being the back of the mouth and the other
being the beginning of the way through the nasal cavity. If you look
in your mirror with your mouth open, you can see the back of the
pharynx.
2. The velum or soft palate is seen in the disgram in a position that

allows air to pass through the nose and through the mouth. Yours is
pronably in that position now, but often in speech it is raised so that
air cannot escape through the nose. It can be touched by the tongue.
When we make the sounds K and g the tongue is in contact with the
lower side of the velum, and we call these velar consonants.
3. The hard palate is often called the 'roof of the mouth'. You can feel
its smooth curved surface with your tongue.
4. The alveolar ridge is between the top front teeth and the hard palate.
You can feel its shape with your tongue. Its surface is really much
rougher than it feels, and is covered with little ridges. Sounds made
with the tongue touching here are called alveolar.
5. The tongue is, of course, a very important articulator and it can be

moved into many different places and different shapes. It is usual to
divide the tongue into different parts, though there are no clear
dividing lines within the tongue.
Fig.2 – Sub-division of the tongue
114
6. The teeth (upper and lower) are usually shown in front of the
mouth. The tongue is in contact with the upper side teeth for many
speech sounds.
7. The lips are important in speech. They can be pressed together (when
we produce the sounds p, b), brought into contant with the teeht (as
in f, v), or rounded to produce the lip-shape for vowels like u:.
Sounds in which the lips are in contact with each other are called
bilabial, while those with lip-to-teth contact are called labiodental.
Summarising, the 7 articulators deascribed above are the main ones in the
production of speech sounds; it means that a person will produce a certain
sound if he/she is normally equiped with the organ responsible for the
production of that sound.
Answer the following questions to help you understand this lesson.
On the diagram provided, various articulators are indicated by numbered

arrows (a - e). Give the names for the articulators.
Activity
diagram, page 17, Roach
115
Unit 5 Phonetics
Feedback
a) soft palate or velum;
b) Alveolar ridge;
c) Front of tongue or tongue;
d) Hard palate;
e) Lower lip.
The organs which are responsible for the production of the speech sounds
are part of your body. If you faced difficulties with the exercise, try the
pronunciation of some sounds like p, t, n, m, k, f, etc and feel where
these sounds are made, in your mouth.
N.B. The information we used here has been taken from Roach (1992: 8-
9;17).
116
Lesson 3: Place of articulation/production
Identify the place where English consonant sounds are produced.
Lesson Outcomes
How long?
Introduction:
In this lesson you will learn the place where different English consonant
sounds are produced. To understand the lesson easily, refer back to the
articulators (different organs responsible for the production of speech
sounds).
As you now know, the air is released from the lungs, and once it passes
through the larynx, it comes up and out through the mouth and / or the
nose. Most consonant sounds are produced by using the tongue and other
parts of the mouth to constrict, in some way, the shape of the oral cavity
through which the air is passing.
The terms used to describe many sounds are those which denote the place
of articulation of the sound: that is, the location, inside the mouth, at
which the constriction takes place (Yule, 1996: 42).
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Unit 5 Phonetics
The consonant chart (Roach)
Chart of English consonant phonemes
Place of articulation
Bilabial Labiodental Dental Alveolar Palato- Palatal Velar Glottal

alveolar
(Post-
alveolar)
Plosive p b t d k g
Fricative f v θ ŏ s z ∫ 3 h
Affricate t∫ d3
Nasal m n ŋ
Lateral ‫׀‬
Approximant w r j
Look at the description of the sounds, starting at the front of the mouth
and work back.
1. Bilabials. These are sounds formed using both (=bi) upper and lower
lips (=labia). For example, the initial sound in the words pat and bat
are both bilabials. They are represented by the symbols [p], which is
voiceless and [b], which is voiced. The [w] sound found at the
beginning of way, walk and world is also a bilabial.
2. Labiodentals. These are sounds formed with the upper teeth and the
lower lip. The initial sounds of the words fat and vat and the final
sounds in the words safe and save are labiodentals. They are
represented by the symbols [f], which is voiceless, and [v], which is
voiced. In phonetic analysis, notice that the final sounds of laugh and
cough, and the initial sound of photo, despite the spelling differences,
are all pronounced as [f].
118
3. Dentals. These sounds are formed with the tongue tip behind the
upper front teeth. The term interdental is sometimes used to describe
a manner of pronunciation with the tongue tip between (=inter) the
upper and lower teeth. The initial sound of thin and the final sound of
bath are both voiceless dentals. The symbol used for this sound is [θ].
Is the symbol you can use for the first and last sounds in the phrase
three teeth.
The voiced dental is represented by the symbol [δ]. You can find these
sound in the words the, there, then, thus, father and bathe.
4. Alveolars. These are sounds formed with the front part of the tongue
on the alveolar ridge, which is the rough, bony ridge immediately
behind the upper teeth. The initial sounds in top, dip, sit, zoo and nut
are all alveolars. The symbols for these sounds are quite easily
remembered - [t], [d], [s], [z], [n]. Of these, [t] and [s] are voiceless,
whereas [d], [z] and [n] are voiced.
See the consonant chat for more alveolar consonants.
5. Alveo-palatal or palato-alveolars. These sounds are produced with

the tongue at the very front of the palate, near the alveolar ridge.
These sounds are called palato-alveolar or alveo-palatal. Examples
are the initial sounds in the words shout and child, which are
voiceless. See the consonant chat for the symbols.
6. [j] or [y] sounds are produced with the tongue in the middle of the
palate and are found at the beginning of words like you and yet.
These sounds are called palatal.
7. [k], [g] and [Ŋ] are sounds produced with the back of the tongue
against the velum or the soft palate. They are called velars consonant
sounds.
8. Glottals. [h] is a glottal sound and can be found at the beginning of

have and house, who and whose. It is produced without the active use
of tongue and other parts of the mouth.
Summarising, the production of speech sounds depends on the physical
119
Unit 5 Phonetics
aspect of humans. If someone doesn't possess an upper lip, for example,

he/she will not be able to produce bilabial consonants like p, m, b.
The questions below will help you understand the lesson.
Try pronouncing the initial sounds of the following words and then
determine the place of articulation (e.g. bilabial, alveolar, etc) of each.
Activity
a) hand b) foot c) toe d) belly e) chin
2. Which of the following words end with voiceless (-V) sounds and
which end with voiced (+V) sounds?
a) crash b) bang c) smack d) thud
Feedback
a) glottal b) labiodental c) alveolar d) bilabial e) alveo-palatal
2. crash and smack are voiceless; bang and thud are voiced.
Don't get frustrated if you faced problems doing this exercise. Read the
text again and you will see that the exercise is not that difficult.
120
Lesson 4: Manner of production
account for the ways English consonant sounds are produced.
Lesson Outcomes
How long?
Introduction:
In the previous lesson we concentrated on describing consonant sounds in

terms of where they are produced. In this lesson, you are going to learn
how the same sounds are produced.
Pay attention to the following sounds: [p] and [m]. How do they differ?
Both sounds are bilabial in terms of the place of articulation - but they
differ in one respect. [p] is plosive or stop and [m] is nasal in terms of
how they are produced - manner of articulation.
1. Stops or plosive. The sounds [p], [b], [t], [d,], [k], [g] are all
produced by some form of complete stopping of the airstream (very
briefly) and then letting it go abruptly.This type of consonant sound
resulting from a blocking or stopping effect on the airstream is called
a stop or plosive.
2. Fricatives. The manner of articulation used in producing the set of

sounds [f], [v], [s], for example, involves almost blocking the
airstream, and having the air push through the narrow opening. As
121
Unit 5 Phonetics
the air is pushed through, a type of friction is produced and the

resulting sounds are called fricatives. If you put your open hand in
front of your mouth when making these sounds, [f] and [s] in
particular, you should be able to feel the stream of air being pushed
out.
3. Affricates. If you combine a brief stopping of the airstream with an

obstructed release which causes some friction, you will be able to
produce the sounds [Č] and [j]. These are called afficates and occur at
beginning of the words cheap and jeep.
4. Nasals. Most sounds are produced with the airflow coming out
through the mouth - they are oral sounds. However, there are sounds
in which the airflow is allowed to come out through the nose to
produce [m], [n] and [ŋ]. The sounds are called nasals.
5. Lateral. [l] is a lateral sound because as the airstream is released, it

passes through the two sides of the tongue, coming out laterally.
6. Approximants. The articulation of these sounds is strongly

influenced by the following vowel sound. They are sometimes called
'semi-vowels' or 'glides', because they are produced with the tongue
moving or 'gliding', to or from the position of a nearby vowel. Both
[w] and [j] are approximants and voiced, occurring at the beginning
of we, wet, you and yes.
As a summary, for a clear understanding of the production of the

consonant sounds, see the consonant chart above, which shows the place
and manner of articulation.
VOWELS (*)
122
Answer the following questions to check your understanding of the

content.
1. Write the symbols for the consonants in the following words.

Activity
a) pig b) bee c)tea d) din e) cap f) kin
2. Identify the manner of articulation (e.g. stop/plosive, fricative, etc.) of

the initial sounds in the following words:
a) silly b) crazy c) jolly d) merry
Feedback
1. a) /p/; /g/ b) /b/ c) /t/ d) /d/ e) /k/ f) /k/
2. a) fricative b) stop/plosive c) affricate d) nasal
Was this an easy task? If it was difficult for you try again and don't forget
to read the text carefully, bearing in mind the exercises you failed to
succeed.
Unit summary
The articulators above the larynx.

Summary
The branches of phonetics.
Voiced (+v) and voiceless (-v) consonants.
The place where consonant and vowel sounds are made.
The manner of articulation.
Short and long vowels; diphthongs and triphthongs
123
Unit 5 Phonetics
Assignment
Think about how you would teach the initial consonant sounds in the
following pair of words: pig – big
Think of methods and techniques you would use to teach them. Write at
Assignment least two pages.
Assessment
Study questions:
Assessment help you understand the topics contained in this unit. Good luck!
1. What is the difference between a vowel and a consonant sounds?
2. What articulatory feature do the following sets of speech sounds have

in common? a) p; b; m
3. Write the symbols for the initial consonant sounds in the following
words:
a) tin - din b) cap - gap
4. Which consonants are voiced and voiceless in 3a and 3b?
5. Write the symbol for the vowels in the following words:
a) bread b) rough c) pull d) mat
6. Transcribe the following English words phonetically.
a)chair b) brad c) girl d) tower e) pier
124
Answer key
1. The difference is that vowels are sounds in which there is no

obstruction to the flow of air as it passes through the larynx to the
lips. Consonants , however, are sounds in which there is an
obstruction to the flow of air as it passes through the larynx to the lips
or nostrils.
2. They all share the (same) place of articulation - bilabial.
3. a) [t] ; [d] b) [k] ; [g]
4. Voiced: [d] ; [g] Voiceless: [t] ; [k]
5. a) ε b) ^ c) u d) æ
6. tseə b) bræd c) g3:l d) taUə e) pIə
If you faced problems with these exercises, read the text again and try a
discussion with a partner. However, if you succeeded, that is a very good
indication that you are learing very well.
Bibliography
1. POOLE, S.(1999). An Introduction to Linguistics, N.Y.: Palgrave

Reading
2. ROACH, P. (1992). English Phonetics and Phonology - Practical
Course, Cambridge: CUP
3. YULE, G.(1996). The Study of Language, cambridge: CUP
125
Unit 6 Phonology
Unit 6
Phonology
Introduction
Now that you know the characteristics of the speech sounds you can
easily help your students pronounce the English words, not as the native
speakers do, but you can follow the accent regarded as the standard. You
already know such things as place of articulation and the articulators
involved in the production of the speech sounds; you also know that there
are two types of sounds, the vowels and the consonants. We were looking
at the physical characteristics of the speech sounds.
In this unit, however, you will learn the mental aspects of the speech
sounds - the patterns of the speech sounds in English.
[Establish] [the differences between phonetics and phonology;]
[Distinguish] [phoneme, phone and allophone].
[Identify] [minimal pairs and sets]..

Outcomes
[Place] [a stress in simple words and know the characteristics of
stressed syllables].
[Identify] [the levels of stress and intonation]
Phoneme: meaning-distinguishing sounds in a language.
Phones: different versions of a sound; phonetic units.
Allophone: versions of a phoneme.

Terminology
This unit is divided into 2 lessons. Other lessons require the presence
of the lecturer.
126
Lesson 1: Definition, Phoneme, phones and allphones
Identify phoneme, phones and allophones.
Lesson Outcomes
How long?
Introduction:
.Phonology will allow you analyse the sounds at their abstract level, not
physical. For example, the /i/ sound can have different pronunciation
depending on the environment it can appear. It means that the same sound
can have different pattterns - in the words seed and seen, the vowel sound
represented phonetically [i], can be pronounced as /i/, for seed and as /î/
for seen, carrying a diacritics over the sound because of the influence of
the nasal consonant [n].
What is phonology?
According to Yule (1996:54), "Phonology is essentially the description of

the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language".
we actually distinguish meaning in the actual physical sounds we say and

hear.
Phonemes
A phoneme is each one of the meaning distinguishing sounds in a

language. It is the single sound type which is represented by a single
127
Unit 6 Phonology
symbol. It is in this sense that the phoneme [t] is described as sound type,
of which all the different spoken versions of [t] are tokens. Note that
slash marks are conventionally used to indicate a phoneme,[t], an
abstract segment, as opposed to the square brackets, as in [t], used for
each phonetic, or physically produced, segment (Yule, 1996:54).
An essential property of a phoneme is that it functions contrastively. For

example, there are two phonemes /f/ and /v/ in English because they are
the only basis of the contrast in meaning between the forms fat and vat,
or fine and vine. This contrastive property is the basic operational test for
determining the phonemes which exist in a language. If we substitute one
sound for another in a word and there is a change of meaning, then the
two sounds represent different phonemes.
To clarify the phonemic analysis, we can take the following sounds as an

example. The phoneme /v/ has the features [+ voice, +labiodental, +
fricative] and the phoneme /p/ has the features [-voice, +bilabial,
+stop/plosive], and /k/ can be characterized as [-voice, +velar,
+stop/plosive]. When the feature is present, it is marked with a (+) sign;
if oit is not present we use a minus (-) sign. So, the -voice, +bilabial,
+stop/plosive, etc, are the distinctive features between the the phonemes
/p/, /v/and /k/.
Take other three English phonemes, and analyse their distinctive features,
by marking with a (+) when the feature exists, and with (-) when the
feature does not exist.
Phones and allophones
Phones are different versions of a sound-type. They are phonetic units

and will appear in square brackets.
"When we have a set of phones, all of which are versions of one

phoneme, we refer to them as the allophones of that phoneme. For
example, the [t] in the word tar is normally pronounced with a stronger
puff of air than is present in the [t] sound of the word star. If you put the
back of your hand in front of your mouth as you say tar, then star, you
should have some physical evidence of the aspiration (the puff of air)
accompanying the [t] sound in the initial position of tar (but not in star).
128
This aspirated version is represented more precisely as [th]. That's one

phone and the one which is [t] without aspiration. So there are two
phones of the same phoneme" (Yule, 1996:55).
In the example above of [th] and [t], we say that there are at least two
pnones used to realize the phoneme [t]. They are allophones of [t].
Summarising, the crucial distinction between phonemes and allophones is

that substituting one phoneme for another will result in a word with
different meaning and different pronunciation, but substituting allophones
only results in a different (and perhaps odd) pronunciation of the same
word.
To check whether you understood the topic or not, answer the question
bellow.
1. What is the test used for determining phonemes in a language?

Activity
2. How does an allophone differ from a phoneme?
Feedback
1. If we substitute one sound for another in a word and we get a change

of meaning, then the two sounds must be phonemes.
2. Substituting phonemes changes meaning and sound (pronunciation);

substituting allophones only changes sound.
How did you go? Did you face problems? Congratulations if you did it
easily. It means that your reading skill is good. If you faced problems
don’t worry, go back to the text and read it carefully this time.
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Unit 6 Phonology
Lesson 2: Minimal pairs and sets
Identify dentify a minimal pair and set.
Lesson Outcomes
How long?
Introduction:
In the previous class you learned about phoneme, phone and allophones.
In this lesson you will be exposed to the phonemic distinctions in a
language.
As we said in the introduction, there phonemic distinctions in a language

and these phonemic distinctions can be tested via pairs and sets of words
(Yule, 1996:56).
Pay attention to the following pairs of words, pat and bat. They are
identical in form except for a contrast in one phoneme, occuring in the
same position, the two words are described as minimal pair in the
phonology of English.
Give other examples of minimal pairs in English language.
Other examples of minimal pairs in English would be, for example, fan -
van; bet - bat; site - side, etc
130
However, when a group of words can be diffrentiated, each one from the
others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position), then we
have a minimal set as Yule (1996:57) says.
If a minimal set is a group of words that can be differentiated, each one

from the other, by changing one phoneme, give an example of a minimal
set, before you are given the example.
Were you able to give the examples? If not, don't worry. Pay attention
now, if you found this difficult.
Minimal sets based on the vowel phonemes of English would include

feat, fit, fat, fate, fought, foot, and based on consonants could be big, pig,
rig, fig, dig ,wig.
As a summary, minimal pairs and sets can be based either on consonant

or on vowel sounds.
Was the lesson interesting? Found it easy or difficult? Check whether it

was easy or difficult, doing the exercises below.
Which of the following words would be treated as minimal pairs?
pat, pen, more, heat, tape, bun, fat, ban, chain, tale, bell, far, meal, vote,
bet, pit, heel.
Activity
Feedback
The words which would be treated as minimal pairs are: pat - fat; pat -
pit; heat - heel; tape - tale; bun - ban; fat - far; bell - bet; meal - heel.
Did you do it? Was it difficult? If you found it difficult, read the text
again and discuss with a partner if you still face problems.
131
Unit 6 Phonology
Lesson 3: Suprasegmental phonology (*)
This lesson will be face to face (presential session)
Unit summary
Phoneme and its essential property;
Summary Phones and allophones.
Minimal pairs and sets.
Assignment
Provide your own minimal set and explain how you would present the
contrasting sounds in a classroom context.
Assignment
Assessment
Study questions
Assessment help you understand the this unit. Good luck!
Question 1
1. How does phonology differ from phonetics?
132
2. Present a minimal set and a minimal pair.
Answer key
1. Phonetics deals with the description of the sounds that we use in

speaking, whereas phonology tells us how phonemes function in
language, and the relationships among the different phonemes.
2. A minimal set would be like this: pit - pat - pet - pot; and a minimal
pair would be like this: fat - pat
How did you find it? It was easy, wasn't it? If not, try again and read the
explanation from the text above.
If you did it easely, congratulations and go back to the lesson(s) that you
found it/them very difficult.
133
Unit 6 Phonology
Bibliography
1. ROACH, P.(1983). English Phonetics and Phonology, A Practical

Reading Course, Cambridge: CUP
2. YULE, G.(1996). The Study of Language, 2nd Ed. Cambridge: CUP
(*) Presential sessions.
REFERENCES
1. ATCHISON, J. (1992). Teach Yourself Linguistics, 4th edition,

London: Hodder & Stoughton Educational
2. CRYSTAL, D. (1987). The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of Language,

Cambridge: CUP
3. FINCH, G. (1997). How to Study Linguistics: A Guide to

Understanding Language, 2nd Ed., PalgraveMacmillan
4. FROMKIN, V. & RODMAN, R. (1993). An Introduction to

Language, USA: Harcourt
5. LYONS, J. (1981). Language and Linguistics, Cambridge: CUP
6. MCARTHUR, T. (1983). A Foundation Course for Language

Teachers, Cambridge: CUP
7. O’GRAY, W. et al. (1997). Contemporary Linguistics, 2nd Ed.

Addison Wesley, Longman
8. POOLE, S.(1999). An Introduction to Linguistics, N.Y.: Palgrave
9. ROACH, P.(1983). English Phonetics and Phonology, A Practical

Course, Cambridge: CUP
10. YULE, G. (1996). The Study of Language, 2nd Edition, Cambridge:

CUP
134

GENERAL LINGUISTIC - Module

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MODULE

General Linguistic Module

Rua Comandante Augusto Cardoso, nº 135

Fax: +258 21-322113

Author: Carlos Baptista Victorino

Instructional Designing: Lurdes Patrocínia Matavela

Illustration: Anilda Ibrahimo Khan

Language Review: Sarita Monjane

Graphic Designing: Anilda Ibrahimo Khan

Edition: Anilda Ibrahimo Khan

Getting around this MODULE 10

Unit summary ................................................................................................................. 45

How this MODULE is structured

If the course is suitable for you.

What you will already need to know.

What you can expect from the course.

The overview also provides guidance on:

Where to get help.

Course assignments and assessments.

We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully before

The course content

1. What is language? (Concepts about language)

2.1 How does Modern Linguistics differ from the Long-

2.2 The Prescriptive and the Descriptive approach to language

2.3 Branches of linguistics.

3. Importance for language teachers.

UNIT 2: The History of Writing (The Development of Writing

1. Pictograms and Ideograms;

2. Logograms and Syllabic writing systems;

3. Alphabetic writing system.

UNIT 3: General Understanding of the Nature of Human Language

1. Animals and Human Language - Communication systems or design

2. Theories on the origins of human language and its diversity;

3. Teaching animals to use human language;

4. Creative aspect of human language and Language Universals.

UNIT 4: History of Modern Linguistics (early history - Philology)

1. The Greeks; the Romans and the Indians;

2. The Middle. Ages and the Renaissance;

3. Twentieth-century linguistics (Ferdinand de Saussure)

5. Chomsky - Syntactic structures; Competence and performance

1. Definition and the branches of phonetics; articulation: voiced and

2. The production of speech sounds (the articulators and place of

3. Manner of articulation; the phonetic alphabet;

4. Vowels: vowel quadrilateral; (Presential sessions)

5. Diphthongs and triphthongs; (Presential sessions)

1. Definition, the concept of phoneme;

2. Phones and allophones;

3. Minimal pairs and sets;

4. Prosodic suprasegmental features (Presential sessions)

Intonation; intonation languages; (Presential sessions)

Accent and stress. (Presential sessions)

The course is broken down into 6 units. Each unit comprises:

An introduction to the unit content.

Course content and structure.

Course reading materials and resources.

Course support (assigned tutors, technical help, etc.)

Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance this

Welcome to General Linguistic

This course is about the study of language and its diversity

General Linguistic Module—is this

It is a new subject for teachers in Mozambique and it is introduced

 have an understanding of the nature of language and its basic

 have an understanding of the phonological system, and the major

1. have general understanding of the nature of human language;

have an understanding of the nature of language and its basic

have an understanding of the phonological system, and the major

Define and identify the strengths and weaknesses of each

Outcomes Explain the differences between Modern Linguistics and Old

Explain the differences between the Descriptive and the

Explain the reasons behind the primacy of written word in

Identify and explain the features of linguistics that make it a

Identify the branches of linguistics.

Provide practical examples of language teaching areas where

Discuss the variety of definitions about language and give your

Identify the features, which give linguistics the scientific status.