Logic and errors

Module M 017A1 Franklin Iriarte A. Master Of Theology

Logical thinking has accumulated a vast amount of knowledge. Logic is that branch of
learning that tells how human experiences and speculations are to be evaluated. Logic gives strict
guidelines to evaluate processes by which knowledge is obtained. The Bible tells us that one of the
greatest purposes of logic is to help us to distinguish the good from evil. Though there are many
people that think they use a proper way of thinking, they only use superstition and speculation,
which are neither systematic nor acceptable. On the other hand, science is knowledge obtained by
an objective combination of logic and repetitive experiments. The logical thinking is systematic
and sequential. Logic is based upon firm premises. In order to have a successful apologetics the
study and appreciation of logic is needed. The apologist needs to present his position objectively
and accurately, and also because most of the attacks toward the bible are made by using logic
reasoning. That is why and apologist should do a good job, because he will be able to analyze the
objections, place the fallacies in the right categories, and in a smart way dismantle the opponent´s
arguments systematically and intelligently, convincing to every honest inquirer.
Learning can be divided in two branches: analytical and normative. Analytical only
describes and analyzes information. Normative provide the basic tools and norms that are
necessary for reliable analysis and conclusions. Logic deals with inductions and deductions in
every investigation. In deduction, one arrives at particular statements from general statements.
Induction starts from particulars and advances to general conclusions. In apologetics, deductive
logic is needed more than inductive. The most important terms for deduction are Premises and
Deduction. Premises are the informative statements on the basis of which conclusions are made. In
other words, the conclusions follow necessarily from the premises are given. To make a deduction
right and true to facts a number of conditions have to be satisfied: the premises must be true, the
exact relations between the premises must be known and correct principles of deduction should be
used. Making correct deductions from premises depends on many factors. Erroneous conclusions
are called “fallacies of deduction”. These errors can be divided in:
I. Errors of Interpretation.
A. Errors of deduction. When one converts statements ignoring certain rules, it will result in an
error of deduction.
B. Errors due to ambiguity. It is when a sentence is formed with ambiguous words and this can
be misquoted by people.
C. Fallacy of accent. It is when at the time a sentence is expressed, the real meaning of the
words or the translation is not taken in count. So when it occurs the real meaning is
distorted by shifting the emphasis to a wrong word.
II. Formal Fallacies.
A. The Fallacy of four terms. A syllogism is compound by 2 premises related arriving to a
single conclusion. This fallacy occurs when four terms occur instead of the three permitted.
It means, the syllogism contains only three terms but has four terms due to a catch.
B. Error of undistributed Middle. The Middle-term is very important at deductions because it
is this term that establishes the connection between the two given premises. The given
middle term must be common to both of the given premises in a meaningful way.
C. Error due to illicit major. It is when the major term of the major premise is not properly
distributed.
D. Error due to illicit minor. It occurs when the minor term is not properly distributed in the
minor premise.
E. Fallacy arising out of two negative premises. It is when one deducts form two negatives
premises as something always positive.
F. Fallacy arising out of two particular premises. It is when the deduction is made from
particular statements.
G. Fallacy arising out of denying the antecedent. Hypothetical statements have two parts: the
antecedent and the consequent. The fulfillment of the consequents depends upon the
fulfillment of the precedent.
H. Fallacy arising out of affirming the consequent. It is when the deduction is made when the
consequence is denied and bound to be false.
I. Fallacies arising out of the improper disjunction. This error arises when the premises are
improperly stated.
J. Material fallacies. This error occurs when the premises contain error about the subject
matter being discussed. Within this material fallacies there are two more: the fallacy of
presumption, that is made when a person deduct something for a presumption that is not
necessarily true.

III. Fallacies of multiple meaning.

A. Errors due to ambiguous terms. A wrong deduction in this sense can be made when the
middle term, the major term, or minor term is not free of error. Thus, many multiple-
meaning words are used in the premises that makes the deduction more complex and with a
possibility of errors.
B. Fallacy arising out of figure of speech. When the premise are formed by different words
with a common root, like homonyms, this cause a lot of confusion.
C. Fallacy of composition. It is when a particular action or principle is found that might affect
 individuals are extrapolated to the whole group without justification, the result would be
false.
D. Fallacy of division. It is when something that is applicable only to a group as a whole is
applied wrongly to individual members of that group.
E. Fallacy of accident. It is when a general statement is applied to particular statements; or if
the particular statement is applied in a general way.
F. Fallacy of dilemma. It is when the terms in the major premises are not connected with each
other, and when the minor premise is not properly connected with the major premise, no
meaningful deduction is possible.

IV. Fallacies of concept.

A. The error of circular reasoning (Petition Principii). This error is obtained when a deduction
is done from the syllogism.
B. Fallacy of multiple questions. It is when a person is interrogated with a question that
implies wrong implications and it is forced to say yes or no. When this happens the person
interviewed is involved in a situation that makes him look guilty without even responding
the question.
C. Fallacy of sidetracking. It is when a discussion is made on terms of character or personality
of the debaters instead of the argument. Within this category there is the Fallacy of
Argument, the Fallacy of Argument by Mob Emotions, the fallacy of Argument by
exploiting the ignorance of listeners, the Fallacy of Argument by Threatening. These are its
variants.

V. Fallacies of Induction.
A. Fallacies due to faulty Language. Within argumentative field, one of the most accurate
things used is the language. The language should be used in such a way that cannot produce
any confusion in order to get to the truth. When it is not done, some fallacies rises such:
Fallacy due to multiple meaning, Fallacy due to undefined terms, fallacies due to figurative
language,
B. Fallacies due to faulty observations. To make a correct inference, it is needed a correct
observation. When it is not done in an accurate way fallacies rise and create confusion in
the deduction process.
C. Fallacies due to faulty reasoning. The difficulty of some cases plus the possibility of error in
reasoning can produce fallacies such: Fallacies of hypothesis and Fallacies due to hasty
generalization.
D. Fallacies due to human nature. Not always man is objective and rational in his thinking.
But influence upon the person can lead to many bad deduction processes. Some of the most
common influences are: The influence of tribe, the influence of nature, the influence of the
market-place and the influence of popular ideas.