Costara - Exercises Functional Analysis

Exercises in Functional Analysis
Kluwer Texts in the Mathematical Sciences

VOLUME26
A Graduate-Level Book Series
The titles published in this series are listed at the end of this volume.
Exercises in
Functional Analysis
by
Constantin Costara
Department of Mathematics,
Ovidius University of Constanta, Romania
and
Dumitru Popa
Department of Mathematics,
Ovidius University of Constanta, Romania
SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.

A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.
ISBN 978-90-481-6399-1 ISBN 978-94-017-0223-2 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-0223-2
Printed on acid-free paper
All Rights Reserved

© 2003 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
Originally published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 2003
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2003
No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted
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Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
Some Standard Notations and Conventions ix
Part 1: Normed spaces ........ . 1
Chapter 1. Open, closed, and bounded sets in normed spaces 3

1.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Chapter 2. Linear and continuous operators on normed spaces 36
2.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.2 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Chapter 3. Linear and continuous functionals. Reflexive spaces . 68
3.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.2 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Chapter 4. The distance between sets in Banach spaces 86
4.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.2 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Chapter 5. Compactness in Banach spaces. Compact operators . 107
5.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
5.2 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Chapter 6. The Uniform Roundedness Principle . 147
6.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
6.2 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Chapter 7. The Hahn-Banach theorem . 175
7.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
7.2 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Chapter 8. Applications for the Hahn-Banach theorem . 195
8.1 Exercises 196
8.2 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
vi CONTENTS
Chapter 9. Baire's category. The open mapping and closed graph theorems . 213
9.1 Exercises . 214
9.2 Solutions . . . . . . . 220
Part II: Hilbert spaces . 241
Chapter 10. Hilbert spaces, general theory . 243

10.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
10.2 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Chapter 11. The projection in Hilbert spaces . 271
11.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
11.2 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Chapter 12. Linear and continuous operators on Hilbert spaces . . 305
12.1 Exercises . 306
12.2 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Part III: General topological spaces . 366
Chapter 13. Linear topological and locally convex spaces . 368

13 .1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . 369
13.2 Solutions . . . . . . . . . 377
Chapter 14. The weak topologies . 403
14.1 Exercises . 405
14.2 Solutions . 412
Bibliography . . . 444
List of Symbols . . 447
Index . . . . . . . 449
Preface
The understanding of results and notions for a student in mathematics requires solving ex-
ercises. The exercises are also meant to test the reader's understanding of the text material,
and to enhance the skill in doing calculations. This book is written with these three things
in mind. It is a collection of more than 450 exercises in Functional Analysis, meant to
help a student understand much better the basic facts which are usually presented in an
introductory course in Functional Analysis.
Another goal of this book is to help the reader to understand the richness of ideas and
techniques which Functional Analysis offers, by providing various exercises, from different
topics, from simple ones to, perhaps, more difficult ones. We also hope that some of the
exercises herein can be of some help to the teacher of Functional Analysis as seminar tools,
and to anyone who is interested in seeing some applications of Functional Analysis. To
what extent we have managed to achieve these goals is for the reader to decide.
We have also tried to show the reader, on the one hand, the various and sometimes un-
expected connections between the usual parts of a course in Functional Analysis and other
topics in mathematics, and, on the other hand, the fine interplay between the topics in the
field of Functional Analysis. As a consequence we have decided to include in our chapters
some exercises which are connected with the respective chapter, even if the solution we
give requires the use of notions and results which are usually studied later in a course in
Functional Analysis. We hope that this option will be to the benefit of the reader. When
we refer to an exercise from the same chapter we only indicate the number for that exer-
cise, and when we refer to an exercise from another chapter we also indicate the chapter's
number.
Naturally, many of the exercises presented here are borrowed from different books on
Functional Analysis, where they usually appear as unsolved exercises, and sometimes with
short indications. Some of them are, in fact, lemmas, propositions, and theorems: we have
included some theoretical results as exercises, and in this case their proper citations are
given. Others can be found in various papers, some of them are just folklore results, and
some of them are, perhaps, invented by us, meeting the need of giving concrete examples
for the abstract notions and results presented in a course in Functional Analysis. When
possible we indicate at the beginning of a solution one of the possible sources for the
exercise, not necessarily the original one, so that the reader can see other ideas which
do not appear in the solution given here. If the source of some exercises are not given, we
sincerely regret it. Any such omission is not made intentionally. It must also be emphasized
that the lack of a citation does not imply a claim of originality on our part for the statement
of an exercise.
Vlll
The book is divided into three parts. The first one deals with the theory of normed
spaces. It contains exercises on the general properties of sets in normed spaces, linear
bounded operators on normed spaces, the dual of a normed space, compactness in normed
spaces, and on the basic principles of Functional Analysis: the Hahn-Banach theorem
(regarded as an extension theorem and as a separation theorem), the uniform boundedness
principle, the open mapping and the closed graph theorems on Banach spaces. The second
part deals with Hilbert spaces and contains exercises on the general theory of Hilbert spaces
(inner products, orthogonality, orthonormal basis in Hilbert spaces), the projection theorem
(on closed convex sets and on closed linear subspaces), and linear and continuous operators
on Hilbert spaces. The third part deals with linear topological spaces. A large number of
exercises on the weak topologies are presented in the final chapter. For the convenience of
the reader a brief glossary of notations is given at the beginning of the book, whilst a list of
symbols and an index are supplied in the final pages.
At the beginning of each chapter we include a summary of the main notions, notations,
and theoretical results needed in order to solve many of the exercises in that chapter. All
the notations and notions used and not defined are standard. The reader is assumed to
be familiar with some basic results in topology, measure theory and complex functions
theory. For some background results on these topics, we refer the reader to J. Kelley [34],
P. Halmos [27] and W. Rudin [45].
The sets of definitions and theorems recalled at the beginning of each chapter are not
complete and they are meant to increase the readability of the book. For a serious back-
ground in Functional Analysis we refer to some books which we have used, in which the
reader can find not only the proofs for the results merely stated in this book, but also all
the basic results in Functional Analysis: S. Banach [5], N. Bourbaki [9], N. Dunford and
J. Schwartz [20], E. Hille and R.S. Phillips [30], L.V. Kantorovich and G.P. Akilov [33], J.
Kelley and I. Namioka [35], W. Rudin [44], H. Schaefer [46], K. Yoshida [51].
Dumitru Popa thanks his wife Maria for her support during the writing of this book,
and for suggesting the submission of the manuscript to the Kluwer Academic Publishers
for possible publication.
Finally, we thank the three anonymous referees whose comments and remarks improved
the initial version of the manuscript.
C. Costara and D. Popa

University Ovidius,
Faculty of Mathematics and Informatics
Constanta, Romania, 2003
Some Standard Notations and Conventions
Convention. All the linear spaces used in the book are considered over the scalar field lK = IR
(or q. It will be specified or it will be clear from the context when the scalar field is R
Spaces of sequences
For 1 :<::; p < oo we denote
Then Zp is a linear space with respect to the natural operations for addition and scalar multiplication,
and a Banach space under the norm
We denote
Zoo = { (xn)nEN ~ lK I (xn)nEN is bounded}.
Then Zoo is a linear space with respect to the natural operations for addition and scalar multiplication
and a Banach space under the norm
llxlloo =sup lxnl Vx = (xn)nEN E Zoo.

nEN
We denote
and
c= { (xn)nEN ~ lK I (xn)nEN converges}.
Then c0 and c are linear spaces with respect to the natural operations for addition and scalar mul-
tiplication and Banach spaces with respect to the norm llxlloo = sup lxnl Vx = (xn)nEN E co, or
nEN
c.
For 1 :<::; p :<::; oo and n EN we denote en= (0, ... , 0, 1, 0, ... ) E Zp (1 in the nth position). The
same notation is used for the space co. Also, for X = Zp with 1 :<::; p :<::; oo, or c0 , we define the
canonical projections (Pn)nEN, Pn: X-+ OC, Pn (x1, ... , Xn, ... ) = Xn V (x1, ... , Xn, ... )EX.
For n E Nand 1 :<::; p :<::; oo we denote z; = (ocn, II·IIP)' where ll(xl, ... ,xn)IIP =
n ) 1/p
( ~ lxkiP for 1 :<::; p < oo and ll(xl, ... ,xn)lloo = max lxkl·
k=l l~k~n
X
Spaces of functions
If T is a compact Hausdorff space we denote
C(T) = {!: T ~][{If continuous}.

Then C (T) is a linear space with respect to the usual pointwise operations for addition and scalar
multiplication, and a Banach space under the norm ll·lloo : C(T) ~ lR,
llflloo =sup If (x)l Vj E C (T).

xET
Let (8, ~. J.L) be a measure space. For 1 ::; p < oo we denote
.Cp (J.L) = { f : 8 ~][{I f is J.L-measurable and is IJIP df..l < oo}.
Then .Cp (J.L) is a linear space with respect to the usual pointwise operations for addition and scalar
multiplication. The map II·IIP: .Cp (J.L) ~ lR defined by
is a seminorm. Factorizing this linear space by the equivalence relation given by the equality J.L-
almost everywhere, we obtain the linear space Lp (J.L), which is a Banach space with respect to the
norm 11J11P = (J8 IJIP dJ.L)l/p vJ
E Lp (J.L), f E 1
We identify a function f E .Cp (J.L) with its
J
equivalence class in Lp (J.L) , and we write f E Lp (J.L), as usual.
We denote
.Coo (J.L) = {!: 8 ~][{If is J.L-measurable, :JM > 0 such that lfl ::; M, J.L-a.e.}.
Then .Coo (J.L) is a linear space with respect to the usual pointwise operations for addition and scalar
multiplication. The map ll·lloo: .Coo (J.L) ~ lR defined by
llflloo = inf {M > 0 llfl ::; M, J.L-a.e.} Vf E .Coo (J.L)

is a seminorm. Factorizing this linear space by the equivalence relation given by the equality J.L-a.e.,
we obtain the linear space £ 00 (J.L) , which is a Banach space with respect to the norm llflloo =
1
llflloo Vj E Loo (J.L), j E We identify a function j E .Coo (J.L) with its equivalence class j in
Lao (J.L), and we write f E L 00 (J.L), as usual.
If n E Nand the measure space is (8, ~. J.L), where 8 ~ JRn is a Lebesgue measurable set,~
is the cr-algebra of all the Lebesgue measurable subsets of 8, and J.l : ~ ~ [0, oo] is the Lebesgue
measure, we write simply Lp (8).
Convention. On all the Banach spaces defined above, if not otherwise specified, we always
consider these canonical norms, and when there is no risk of confusion we will write simply 11·11 for
the norm.
Part I
Normed spaces
Chapter 1
Open, closed, and bounded sets in normed spaces
Definition. Let X be a linear space. A map p : X ____, lR is called:

i) subadditive ifp (x + y) ~ p (x) + p (y) \fx, y EX.
ii)positivehomogeneous ifp(Ax) = Ap(x) \fx EX, \f).. 2 0.
iii) absolutely homogeneous ifp (Ax) = IAI p (x) \fx EX, \fA E K
iii) sublinear if it is subadditive and positive homogeneous.
iv) supra-linear if-pis sublinear.
v) seminorm if it is subadditive and absolutely homogeneous.
Definition. Let X be a linear space. A map 11·11 : X ----> JR+ is called a norm if:
i) llxll = 0 {::} x = 0.
ii) IIAxll = IAIIIxll VA E IK, \fx EX.
iii) llx + Yll ~ llxll + IIYII \fx, Y E X.
The couple (X, 11·11), or simply X when the norm is understood, is called a normed
space.
Foranormed space (X, 11·11), Bx = {x EX lllxll ~ 1} is called the closed unit ball of
X, Sx = {x E X lllxll = 1} is called the unit sphere of X and for c: > 0 and x E X, the
sets B(x,c:) = {y EX IllY- xll < c:}, respectively B(x,c:) = {y EX lilY- xll ~ c:}
are called the open, respectively the closed ball with center at x and radius c:.
Definition. Let X be a normed space. A sequence (xn)nEN <;;;;X is called:
i) a Cauchy sequence if\fc: > 0 3n€ E N such that \:In 2 n€ and Vm 2 n€ it follows
that llxn- xmll < c:, or, equivalently, \fc: > 0 3n€ E N such that \fn 2 n€ and \fp E Nit
follows that llxn+p- xnll <c.
ii) a convergent sequence if there is x E X such that: Vc > 0 3no E N such that
\:In 2 n€ it follows that llxn- xll < c. In this case we write Xn ____, x.
If the norm on X is complete (that is, any Cauchy sequence in X is convergent), then
X is called a Banach space.
4 Open, closed, and bounded sets in normed spaces
Definition. For a normed space (X, 11·11) the map d: X x X---> lR defined by d(x, y) =
llx- Yll is a metric (or a distance). This metric is called the metric associated with the
norm. Hence normed spaces are metric spaces.
The topology generated by a norm is by definition the topology generated by the metric
associated with the norm, that is,
r = {D ~X I Vx ED :Jc: > 0 such that B(x,c:) ~ D}.

Convention. All the topological notions in a normed space (if not otherwise specified)
are understood to be defined with respect to the metric associated to the norm.
Definition. Two norms 11·111' 11·11 2 on a linear space X are called equivalent if and only
if they generate the same topology, or, equivalently, there are c1 > 0, c2 > 0 such that
llxll1 :::; c2llxll2 Vx EX and llxll2:::; c1 llxll1 Vx EX.
Theorem. On a finite-dimensional linear space any two norms are equivalent.
0 -
Notation. If X is a topological space, and A ~ X is a subset, by A, respectively A, we
denote the interior, respectively the closure of A.
Definition. Let X be a topological space.
i) A subset A ~ X is called dense if and only if A = X.
ii) X is called separable if and only if there is a dense countable subset of X.
Definition. Let X be a normed space. A subset A ~ X is called bounded if and only if
there is M > 0 such that llxll :::; M 't/x E A.
00
Definition. Let X be a normed space. A series 2::: Xn in X is called:

n=l
i) convergent if and only if the sequence ( 't xk) nEN is convergent.

k=l
00
ii) absolutely convergent if and only ifthe series 2::: llxnll is convergent.
n=l
Theorem. Let X be a normed space. Then X is a Banach space if and only if any
absolutely convergent series in X is convergent.
Theorem. Let X be a normed space. Then any finite-dimensional linear subspace of
X is closed.
Definition. Let X be a normed space. A sequence (xn)nEN ~ X is called a Schauder
basis if and only if for every x EX there is a unique sequence of scalars (o:n)nEN such that
x = E
n=l
O:nXn (that is, lim llx-
n--+oo
't o:ixill = 0).
i=l
Definition. Let X be a normed space andY ~ X a closed linear subspace. Let X/Y
be the quotient linear space. Then X/Y is a normed space with respect to the quotient
norm llxll = inf{IIYIII x- y E Y}, where x = x + Y.
1.1 Exercises
Any linear space can be normed
1. Let X =1- {0} be a real or complex linear space. Prove that there is at least one norm
on X.
1.1 Exercises 5
The triangle axiom and the convexity of the closed unit ball are equivalent
2. Prove that the triangle axiom from the definition for a norm is equivalent with the
convexity of the closed unit ball. More precisely, if X is a linear space on which is given a
function p : X -+ [0, oo) with the properties:
i)p(x) = 0 {::} x = 0;
ii)p(.Xx) = I.XIp(x) Vx E X,V.X E JK,
then p is a norm if and only if B x = { x E X I p( x) :::; 1} is convex.
The closed unit sphere in a normed space of dimension 2 2 is path connected

3. Let X be a normed space of dimension 2 2. Prove that Sx is path connected, hence
connected.
Finite additivity and countable additivity for norms
4. Let 'P : [0, oo) -+ ~be a C 1 convex function with 'P(O) = 0 and 'P, (0) = 0, and let
X be a normed space of dimension 2: 2.
i) Prove that for any x E X\{0} and for any a> 0, there is y EX such that IIYII =a
and 'P (llx + yll) = 'P (llxll) + 'P (IIYII).
ii) Deduce that if, in addition, X is a Banach space, and 'P( t) = 0 if and only if t = 0,
00
then for any sequence of strictly positive real numbers (an)nEN for which the series 2.::: an
n=l
converges and for any x E X\{0} there is a sequence (Yn)nEN ~X such that llYn II =an
Vn EN and 'P (llx + f 1 Ynll) = 'P (llxll) + f 1 'P (llYn II).
The minimum of two norms
5. Let a > 0. On C [0, 1] we consider the following norms: llflloo = sup If (t)l,
tE[O,l]
11!11 1 =a j 01 lf (t)l dtVf E C [0, 1]. Prove that 11!11 = min{llflloo, 11!11 1 } is a norm on
C [0, 1] if and only if a :S 1.
Open sets in l2
6. Prove that the parallelepiped P = {(xn)nEN E l2 I lxnl < 1 Vn E N} is an open set

in l2.
7. Let (an)nEN ~ (0, oo). Find a necessary and sufficient condition on the sequence
(an)nEN such that the parallelepiped P = {(xn)nEN E l2 llxnl <an Vn EN} be an open
set in l 2 •
The set of all polynomials in C[-1, 1]
8. Is the set of all polynomials open in C [-1, 1]?

Closed linear subspaces in lp and Lp
9. Let I <: p < oo and Gp ~ { (xn)nEN E l, n~< Xn ~ 0}

i) Prove that GP s;;; lp is a linear subspace.
ii) Is GP s;;; lp a closed set?
10. For 1:::; p < oo, consider EP = {! E Lp[O, oo) I J000 f(x) dx = 0}.
i) Prove that EP s;;; Lp[O, oo) is a linear subspace.
ii) Prove that Ep s;;; Lp[O, oo) is a closed set if and only if p = 1.
Algebraic sets which are closed
11. Let X be a normed space, and A E L(X). Prove that the following linear subspaces
are closed in L(X):
i) { B E L(X) I AB = 0}, i.e., the set of all the right divisors for A.
ii) {BE L(X) I AB = BA}, i.e., the centralizer of A.
12. Let G s;;; X be a subset in a normed space X, andY a normed space. Prove that
the set M = {U E L(X, Y) I G s;;; ker U} is a closed linear subspace in L(X, Y).
Bounded sets in lP
13. Let 1 :::; p < oo and consider a sequence (an) nEN s;;; (0, oo). Find a necessary and
sufficient condition on the sequence (an)nEN such that:
i) The parallelepiped { (xn)nEN E lp I lxnl < an Vn E N} be a bounded set in lp.
ii) The ellipsoid
be a bounded set in lP.

Topological properties for linear subspaces
14. Let X be a normed space. Find all the linear subspaces L s;;; X which are contained
in a ball.
15. Let X be a normed space. Find all the linear subspaces L s;;; X which contain a
ball.
16. Let X andY be two normed spaces, T : X ---7 Y is a linear operator and Tn : X ---?
Y, n E N, is a sequence of linear operators. Prove that the sets
A = {x E X I Tnx does not converge towards Tx}

and
B = {x E X I (Tnx )nEN is not a Cauchy sequence}
are either empty, or dense in X.
17. Let X be a normed space and A s;;; X a set with the property that X\ A is a linear
subspace. Prove that A is either dense, or empty.
18. Let X be a normed space and G s;;; X a linear subspace. Prove that either G =X,
0
orG = 0.
1.1 Exercises 7
Closed convex sets
19. Let A= {! E L2[0, 1] I 3 If interval<;;; [0, 1], 1/2 E If, f = 0 a.e. on If}. Is A
closed in L 2 [0, 1]?
20. Let M = {f E L2[0, 1]1 f([O, 1]) <;;; [0, 1] a.e.}. Prove that M is a closed convex
set in L 2[0, 1].
A dense linear subspace in Zoo
21. For a subset M <;;; N we denote XM E Zoo as being the characteristic function for
M: XM (k) = { ~: ~: Z: Vk EN. Prove that Sp {XM I ME P (N)} <;;; Z00 is dense.
The closure of ZP and c0 in Zoo
22. Prove that ZP <;;; c0 and Zp =1- c0 , where 1 :::; p < oo is fixed.
23. Find the closure of ZP and c0 in Z00 , where 1 :::; p < oo is fixed.
A characterization for the closed convex sets in JRn
24. Let n E Nand A <;;; JRn a convex set such that the intersection between A and any
line from JRn is a closed set in JRn. Prove that A is closed.
Closed and open sets in the space Mn
25. For n E N let Mn be the space of all the n x n real matrices. On Mn we define
n
the following metric: d (A, B) = I: laij- bijl, where A= (aij)i.,
i,j=l ,]
B = (bij); .. Prove
,]
that the set of all nilpotent matrices is closed in Mn with respect to this metric.
26. Let m, n E N with m < n. Let M (m, n) be the space of all the linear transforma-
tions from JRm into JRn and let L be the set of all the linear transformations from M (m, n)
of rank m.
i) Prove that Lis an open set in M (m, n).
ii) Prove that there is a continuous function T : L __, M (n, m) such that T (A) A =
Im, for any A E L, where Im is the identity on JRm.
The Banach space of all the scalar convergent series
27. Denote
and for any x = (xn)nEN ESc, define llxll =sup I

nEN k=l
f. xkl·
i) Prove that (Sc, 11·11) is a Banach space.
ii) Prove that h <;;; Sc is dense.
iii)ProvethatU: Sc-+ c0 , U((xn)nEN) = (f xk)

k=n nEN
isanisomorphismofBanach
spaces.
iv) Prove that T : Sc -+ co, T((xn)nEN) = ( f xk) nEN is a surjective linear and
k=n+l
continuous operator, that V : c0 -+ Sc, V( (xn)nEN) = (-x 1, x 1 - x 2, x 2 - x 3 , ... )is a linear
isometry, and that TV= leo but VT #- Isc·
A Cantor type of characterization for a Banach space
28. Let X be a normed space. Prove that if B (x, a) ~ B (y, (3), then (3 2 a and
llx- Yll ::; (3- a. In particular, if B (x, a) = B (y, (3) then a= (3 and x = y.
29. Let X be a normed space. Prove that X is a Banach space if and only if any
decreasing sequence of closed balls from X with the sequence of radii converging to 0 has
non-empty intersection.
30. Let X be a normed space.
i) If B (x 1, rl) :2 B (x2, r 2) :2 · · · :2 B (xn, r n) :2 B (xn+l, rn+l) :2 ···is a decreasing
sequence of closed balls in X and rn 2 r > 0 \:In E N, prove that for any r > E > 0, there
isanxEXsuchthatB(x,r-r:.) ~ n nEN
B(xn,rn)·
ii) Under the same hypothesis as in (i), if X is Banach prove that there is an x E X
such that B (x, r) ~ n B (xn, rn).
nEN
iii) Give an example of a normed space X and a sequence ( B (xn, r n)) nEN as in (i)
such that we cannot find an X EX with B (x, r) ~ n B (xn, rn)
0
nEN
iv) Let X be a normed space for which there is an r 2 0 such that from B (x 1, r 1) :2
B (x2, r2) :2 · · · :2 B (xn, rn) :2 B (xn+l, rn+l) :2 ···,with (xn)nEN ~X, and Tn 2 r for
all n EN, it follows that there is an x EX such that B (x, r) ~ nnEN
B (xn, rn)· Prove that
X is a Banach space.
Differences between norms and metrics
31. i) If X is a linear space on which we have two norms which generate the same
topology on X, prove that either both of them are complete, or none of them is complete.
ii) We define: d 1 : lR x lR ----+ JR+, d 1(x, y) = lx- yl, d 2 : lR x lR --+ JR+,
d2(x, y) = l¢(x)- ¢(y)l, where¢: lR-+ JR, ¢(x) = x/(1 + lxl) \:lx E R Prove that d 1
and d 2 are distances on JR, which generate the same topology, but (JR, d 1) is complete and
(JR, d 2) is not complete.
32. Let (X1, d1) and (X2, d2) be two metric spaces and f : X 1 -+ X 2 a continuous
surjective function such that d 1 (p, q)::; d 2 (f (p), f (q)) \:lp, q E X1.
i) If X 1 is complete then X 2 is complete! Give a proof or a counterexample.
ii) If X 2 is complete then X 1 is complete! Give a proof or a counterexample.
iii) Analyse (i) and (ii) if, in addition, X 1 and X 2 are two normed spaces, d1 and d 2 are
the distances associated to the norms, and f is linear.
1.1 Exercises 9
Equivalent norms
33. Let c00 be the space of all the scalar sequences with finite support: for x =
(xn)nEN \:: IK, x E c00 if and only if there is an m E N, depending on x, such that
Xn = 0 \In 2': m.
i) Let a = (an)nEN be a scalar sequence. On c00 we consider the following map:
00
llxlla = L lanllxnl Vx E Coo· Prove that ll·lla is a norm if and only if an# 0 \In EN.
n=l
ii) Let a = (an)nEN and b = (bn)nEN be two scalar sequences such that an # 0
and bn # 0 \In E N. Prove that ll·lla and ll·llb are equivalent norms if and only if 0 <
inf (I ani I Ibn I) :S sup (I ani I Ibn I) < 00.
nEN nEN
A tree type of property for the completeness
34. Let X be a normed space, Y \:: X be a closed linear subspace such that Y (with
the norm from X) is complete and XIY (with the quotient norm) is also complete. Prove
that X is complete.
A stability property for finite linearly independent systems
35. Let n E N, X is a normed space and x 1 , x 2 , ... , Xn are n linearly independent

elements in X. Prove that there is f > 0 such that: if y 1 , y 2 , ... , Yn E X are such that
IIY;II < f, i = l,n, then x 1 + y 1 ,x 2 + y 2 , ..• ,xn + Yn are also n linearly independent
elements in X.
The projection onto finite-dimensional linear subspaces in a normed space
36. Let X be a normed space and x, y E X. Prove that the function cp : lR ____, JR,
cp(t) = llx- tyll attains its infimum on R
37. i) If (X, 11·11) is a normed space, andY \:: X is a finite-dimensional linear subspace,
prove that any element of X has a projection on Y, i.e., Vx E X 3y0 E Y such that
llx- Yoll = d(x, Y) = inf{llx- Ylll y E Y}
ii) Is this projection unique? Give a proof or a counterexample.
A property for the set of all polynomials of degree at most k
38. Prove that for any k E N there is a real constant ck > 0 such that IP (0) I <
ck f 0
1 IP (t) I dt for any real polynomial of degree at most k.
Finite-dimensional linear subspaces in function spaces
39. i) Let n E N, X be a set, and V be a linear subspace of dimension n in the real

linear space of all functions from X toR Prove that there are n elements x 1 , x 2 , ... , Xn E X
such that the operator f ____, (f(x 1 ), f(x 2 ), ... , f(xn))t, defined on V with values in lRn, is a
linear isomorphism.
ii) Let X be a topological Hausdorff space and V a linear subspace of C (X; lR) , with
dimlR V = n E N.
a) Prove that there are n open pairwise disjoint sets U; ~ X such that: iff E Vis such
that for any 1 ::; i ::; n there is an X; E U; with f (x;) = 0, then f = 0.
b) Suppose that X is a compact space. Consider the sets U; with the property from
(a). Let X; E U;, i = 1, n. Deduce that there is a constant c > 0 such that: Vf E V,
n
sup If (x)l ::; c L If (x;)l.
xEX i=1
c) Let X be a compact Hausdorff space and V ~ C (X; lR) a finite-dimensional linear
subspace. Using (b) prove that if Un)nEN ~ V, fn-* 0 pointwise, then fn-* 0 uniformly.
Continuous and discontinuous mappings on a normed space
40. Let f: C[O, 1] ____. JR, f(x) = x(1) Vx E C [0, 1].
i) Prove that f is continuous, if on C[O, 1] we consider the usual norm.
ii) Prove that is not continuous, if on C[O, 1] we consider the p-norm, that is, llfll =
(f 0
1 lf(x)IPdx riP, where 1 ::; p < oo.
41. Let U: C[O, 1] ____. C[O, 1], U(f) = j2. Prove that:
i) U is continuous but not uniformly continuous, if on C[O, 1] we consider the usual
norm.
ii) U is not continuous if on both spaces we consider the p-norm.
iii) U is continuous but is not uniformly continuous if on the domain of definition we
consider the usual norm of C[O, 1] and on the range we consider the p-norm.
The spaces L 1 and Lp, 1 < p < oo, are homeomorphic
42. i) Let 1 < p < oo, (X, 11·11) is a normed space, and a, bE X with II all = llbll =
1. Prove that lla- tbiiP ::; 2P lla- tPbll and lla- tPbll ::; p lla- tbll \It E [0, 1], and
then deduce that for any x, y E X, we have llx- YIIP ::; 2P llllxllp- 1 x- IIYIIp- 1 Yll and
llllxllp- 1 x -IIYIIp- 1 Yll ::; P llx- Yll (llxll + IIYIIY- 1 ·
ii) Prove that, given a measurable space (S, I:, J.L), and 1 < p < oo, then the function
T: L 1 (p,) ____. Lp(J.L), T(f) = lfl 1/p- 1 f is bijective and uniformly continuous.
iii) Prove that, given a measurable space (S, I:, J.L), and 1 < p < oo, then the func-
tion U : Lp(J.L) ____. L 1 (J.L), U(f) = lflp- 1 f is bijective and uniformly continuous on any
bounded set.
iv) Deduce that, given a measurable space (S, I:, J.L), and 1 < p < oo, then the topo-
logical spaces L 1 (J.L) and LP (J.L) are homeomorphic.
Properties for convex sets in finite or infinite-dimensional normed spaces
43. i) Let n E N. Prove that if A ~ IRn is a convex set which contains n linearly
independent elements, then A cannot have an empty interior. Deduce from here that if
A ~ IRn is convex and dense, then A = IRn.
ii) Let P = { (xn)nEN E l1 I Xn ;;::: 0 \In EN}. Prove that P ~ l1 is convex, Sp (P) =
0
l 1 , but P= 0.
iii) Let X be a Hausdorff real linear topological space on which there is a linear dis-
continuous functional f :X____. R Let A= [f;;::: 0], B = [f < 0]. Prove that:
a) A, Bare convex, non-empty, and AU B =X.
b) Sp (A)= X and Sp (B)= X.
c) A= X,B =X.
1.2 Solutions 11
A norm on an infinite-dimensional linear spaces is never unique
44. Let (X, 11·11) be an infinite-dimensional normed space and Tits topology. Prove that
there are two norms 11·11 1 and 11·11 2 on X such that if T1 and T2 are the associated topologies
for 11·11 1 and 11·11 2 , then T2 ~ T ~ T1. T2 -=1- T, T1 -=1- T, i.e., T1 is (strictly) stronger than T,
and T 2 is (strictly) weaker than T.
1.2 Solutions
1. As is well known from linear algebra, every linear space has a basis. Let B = { e; I
i E I} be an algebraic basis of X over lK (= lR or C). Then any x E X\ { 0} can be written,
uniquely, in the form x = X; 1 e; 1 + · · · + X;nein with n EN, x;i E lK\{0} and ij E I,
n
j = 1, ... , n, pairwise distinct. Define llxll = I: lx;j
j=1
I· Also let llxll = 0 if x = 0. We will
prove that 11·11 is indeed a norm on X.
i) Let x EX, x-=/:- 0. Then X= x;,e;, + · · · + X;ne;n, with n EN, X;i E JK, ij E I
pairwise distinct, j = 1, ... , n. Since x -=1- 0 at least one of the x;j is not zero, which implies
n
that llxll = I: lx;j > 0.
j=1
I
ii) Let x E X and.>. E lK. If x = 0 or.>. = 0 then >.x = 0 and so II .Axil = I.AIIIxll·
Suppose now that >. E lK\ { 0}, x E X\ {0}. If x has a decomposition as above, then >.x has
n
the decomposition >.x = >.x;, e;, + · · · + >.x;nein· Then II .Axil = I: I>.x;j I = I.AIIIxll·
j=1
iii) Let now x, y E X. If x or y is zero then llx + Yll = llxll + IIYII- Let us suppose now
m
that x and y are not zero. Consider for x a decomposition as above and let y = I: Yt. e1.,
s=1
with mEN, Yt. E lK\{0}, ts E I, pairwise distinct, s = 1, ... ,m. Let Ax= {i 1 , ... ,in},
n m
Ay = {t1, ... , tm}, Ax, Ay ~I. If Ax nAy= 0 thenx+y =I: X;ie;i +I: y1.e1., and this
j=1 s=1
is the only decomposition of x + y with respect to the basis B, with coefficients in lK\ {0}.
n m
Then llx + Yll = I: lx;j I + I: IYt. I = llxll + IIYII-
j=1 s=1
Let us suppose now that Axy := Ax nAy is non-empty. Suppose, for example, that in =
tm, in-1 = tm-1, ... , in-k = tm-k, SO Axy = {in, ... , in-k} = {tm, ... , tm-k}· Then X+ Y
n-k-1 [ k ]*
m-k-1
has the decomposition: x + y = ~ X;i e;i + .{;_ Yt. et. + t;_ (
X;n-L + Ytrn-z) e;n-z ,
where by I:* we understand that in this summation appear only those elements for which
X;n_ 1 + Ytrn_ 1 -=/:- 0. If x + y = 0 then clearly llx + Yll :S llxll + IIYII· If x + y -=/:- 0 then
llx + Yll = n~~ 1 lx;i I + mE- 1

1Yts I+ [E lx;n-1 + Ytrn-11] * :S n~~ 1 lx;i I + mE- 1 1Yts I+
k
I: (lx;n-11 + IYtrn-11) = llxll + IIYII·
1=1
Hence (X, 11·11) is a normed space.
Remark. The reader can prove that if X is infinite-dimensional, then the above norm
is not a complete one. Also, using the same kind of reasoning, one can prove that on any
linear space we can construct an inner product.
2. See [40, exercise 1.56].

If (X, 11·11) is a normed space, for x, y E Bx and t E [0, 1] we have lltx + (1- t)yll ~
t llxll + (1 - t) IIYII ~ 1, i.e., Bx is convex.
Conversely, let us assume that Bx is a convex set. We must show that pis a norm, i.e.,
we must prove the triangle inequality: p(x + y) ~ p(x) + p(y) Vx, y E X. Let x, y EX.
If, for example, p( x) = 0, it follows from (i) that x = 0, and then p( x + y) = p(y) =
p(x) + p(y). If p(x) -=1- 0 and p(y) -=1- 0, the elements a = xjp(x) and b = yjp(y) have the
properties that p( a) = 1, p( b) = 1.
Then, since B x is a convex set,
( p(x)
p p(x)+p(y)
a+ p(y)
p(x)+p(y)
b)<1
- '
i.e.,
p( x+y
p (x)
)<1.
+ p (y) -
Applying now (ii) we obtain that
p(x+y) < 1
p(x) + p(y)- '
i.e., p (x + y) ~ p (x) + p (y).
3. Let x, y E S x. We have the following cases:

i) y -=1- -x. In this case (1- t) x + ty -=1- 0 Vt E [0, 1]. Indeed, if there is at E [0, 1]
such that (1- t) x + ty = 0, then t -=1- 0 and t -=1- 1 (x, y E Sx). Hence t E (0, 1) and
(1- t) x + ty = 0, (1- t) x = -ty, and then 11- tlllxll = 1t111YII, 1- t = t, t = 1/2,
from whence (1- 1/2) x = -y/2, y = -x, contradiction. Therefore we can define
(1- t) X+ ty
'Y: [O, 1]---+ X, 'Y (t) = 11(1- t) X+ tyll.
Obviously 'Y is continuous, 'Y ([0, 1]) <;;; Sx, 'Y (0) = x and 'Y (1) = y, i.e., 'Y is a path in Sx
connecting x with y.
ii) y = -x. We must prove that x and -x can be connected by a continuous path
contained in Sx. Since dimoc X ;::: 2, there is a z E X such that the system { x, z} is linearly
independent. Then x -=1- z/ liz II and -x -=1- z/ llzll· From (i), x and z/ liz II can be connected
by a continuous path 'Y1 : [0, 1] ---+ X : 'Y1 ([0, 1]) <;;; Sx, 'Y1 (0) = x, 'Y1 (1) = z/ liz II· Also,
-x and z/ llzll can be connected by a continuous path 'Y2 : [0, 1] ----+ X : 'Y2 ([0, 1]) <;;; Sx,
'Y2(0) = -x, 'Y2(1) = z/ liz II· As is well known, the union 'Y1 V'Y2 of'Y1 and 'Y2 connects x
with -x and its range is contained in Sx: we consider 'Y1 V'Y2 : [0, 2] ---+X,
('Yl
V'Y2)(t) = { 'Y2(2-
'Yl(t)
t)
ifO~t~1,
if1 ~ t ~ 2.
4. We first prove that for every convex function cp : [0, oo) ----+ lR of class C 1, with
cp' (0) = 0, we have:
1.2 Solutions 13
(1) ~(t +a)- ~(t)- ~(a)~ -~(0),

(2) ~(It- al)- ~(t)- ~(a):::; -~(0), Vt ~ 0, Va > 0.
Indeed, for a> 0 fixed, let h: [0, oo) ____, JR, h(t) = ~(t +a)- ~(t)- ~(a)+ ~(0).
We have h (t) = ~~ (t +a)-~~ (t). Since~ is convex and of class C 1, ~~is increasing, i.e.,
1
~~ (t +a) ~ ~~ (t), h (t) ~ 0, i.e., his increasing, and therefore h(t) ~ h(O) = 0 Vt ~ 0,
1
i.e., the first inequality. For the second one let g : [0, oo) ____, JR, g(t) = ~(It- al)- ~(t)
~(a)+ ~(0). Then using the condition~~ (0) = 0 it is easy to see that g is differentiable at
a and gl (a) = -~~ (a). It follows that g is differentiable on [0, oo) and that
I t = { ~I t( - a) - ~I t ~
( if t ~ a l
-(~(a-t)+~ (t))
1
g() ifO:::; t <a.
Since~~ is increasing we obtain that g1 (t) :::; 0 Vt ~ 0, i.e., g is decreasing, from whence
g(t) :::; g(O) = 0 Vt ~ 0, i.e., the second inequality.
i) Let x EX\ {0} and a> 0. Consider the function f :X ____, JR, f(y) = ~ (llx + Yll)-
~(llxll)- ~(a). Obviously, f is continuous. Moreover,
f c~~~) = ~ (llx + 1~111)- ~(llxll)- ~(a)

= ~(llxll +a)- ~(llxll)- ~(a).
From the inequality (1), fort = llxll it follows that f ((ax) /llxll) ~ -~(0) = 0. Also,
f ( -~~~) = -
~ (llx- ~~~~II) ~ (llxll)- ~(a)
= ~ (lllxll- al)- ~(llxll)- ~(a),
andfromtheinequal ity(2)fort = llxll itfollowsthatf(-(ax )/llxll):::; -~(0) = 0. But

ax/llxll, -ax/llxll E Sa, where Sa= {x EX lllxll =a}. Since dimocX ~ 2, from ex-
ercise 3 it follows that Sa <:;;; X is connected, from whence, since f is continuous, f(Sa) <:;;;
lR is connected, hence f(Sa) <:;;; lR is an interval. Now f (ax/llxll), f (-ax/llxll) E f(Sa),
and since f(Sa) <:;;; lR is an interval, we obtain that [f ( -ax/llxll), f (ax/llxll)] <:;;; f(Sa)·
But as we have already showed, 0 E [f ( -ax/llxll), f (ax/llxll)], i.e., 0 E f(Sa), from
whence it follows that there is y E Sa such that f(y) = 0, i.e., the statement.
ii) From the additional hypothesis on ~, that is ~( t) = 0 if and only if t = 0, it follows
that ~(t) > 0 Vt > 0.
From (i) it follows that for an x E X\ { 0} and an a 1 > 0, there is y1 E X such
that IIY1II = a1 and~ (llx + Y1ll) = ~ (llxll) + ~ (IIYlll). Since llxll > 0 it follows that
~ (llxll) > 0, from whence~ (llxll) + ~ (IIY1II) > 0, that is,~ (llx + Y1ll) > 0, llx + Y1ll >
0, i.e., x+y 1 EX is not zero. Applying again(i) for the couple (x+y 1 , a 2), we deduce that
there is Y2 EX such that IIY2II = a2 and~ (llx + Y1 + Y2ll) = ~ (llx + Yd) + ~ (IIY211). In
this way we construct, by induction, a sequence (Yn)nEN <:;;; X such that llYn II =an Vn E
Nand~ (llx + yd) = ~ (llxll) + ~ (IIYlll), ~ (llx + ; Yill) = ~ (llx + ~ Yill) +

~(llYn II), for all n ~ 2. Then~ (llx + ; y;ll) = ~ (llxll) + ; ~ (IIYill) Vn ~ 1. Since
00
2::: an
00
IIYnll = an \In E N, and the series is convergent, it follows that the series 2::: Yn
n=1 n=1
is absolutely convergent in X, and therefore convergent, since X is a Banach space. Then
llx + ~ Yill----+ llx + f Ynll,

1 from whence, using the continuity of the function cp, we
obtain that cp (llx + f Ynll) =

1 cp (llxll) + J~~i~ cp (IIY;il), i.e., the series f 1 cp (llYn II)
converges and cp (llx + f Ynll) 1 = cp (llxll) + f 1 cp (llYn II), i.e., the statement.
Remarks. 1. If we have an arbitrary convex C 1 function '1/J : [0, oo) ----+ JR?., if we
consider cp: [0, oo)----+ JR?., cp(t) = 7/J(t) -7/J(O)- t7jJ' (0), and if is true that cp (t) = 0 if and
only if t = 0, then cp satisfies the conditions from the statement.
2. For cp(t) = t 2 the part (i) of the above exercise is the part (a) from [9, exercise 7,
chapter V, section 1].
5. Let fn (t) = tn \It E [0, 1], \In ~ 0. Then llfolloo = 1, llfoll 1 = a, hence lifo II =
min(1, a). We also have: llfnlloo = 1, llfnll 1 = aj(n + 1), i.e., llfnll = min(1, aj(n + 1))
\In EN. For any n EN, lifo+ fnlloo = 2, lifo+ fnll 1 =a (1 + 1/(n + 1)) so lifo+ fnll =
min (2, a (1 + 1/(n + 1))) \In E N. If 11·11 is a norm on C [0, 1], then lifo+ fnll :=:; lifo II+
llfnll \In E N, i.e., min (2, a (1 + 1/(n + 1))) :=:; min(1, a)+ min(1, aj(n + 1)) \In E
N, from whence passing to the limit for n ----+ oo, min(2, a) :=:; min(1, a) + min(1, 0),
min(2, a) :=:; min(1, a), i.e., a:=:; 1.
Conversely, if a :=:; 1 then 11!11 1 = a f 01 lf(x)l dx :=:; llflloo' and therefore 11!11 =
min(llflloo, 11!11 1) = 11!111' which is clearly a norm.
Remark. The above exercise shows that the minimum of two norms is not a norm, in
general. The reader can prove that the maximum of two norms is indeed a norm.

00
Let x = (xn)nEN E P. Then 2::: lxnl 2 < oo, from whence it follows that there is a
n=1
00
kEN such that 2::: lxnl 2 < 1/4. Let 6 = min(1/2, 1-lx11, .. ,, 1-lxkl), 6 > 0 since
n=k+1
x E P. We will prove that B (x, 6) <:;;; P, which by the definition of the topology associated
with a norm assures that P is open.
Let y = (Yn)nEN E B (x, 6), that is IIY - xll < 6. If 1 :=:; n :=:; k, then IYnl :=:;
IYn- Xnl + lxnl :=:; IIY- xll + lxnl < 6 + lxnl :=:; 1- lxnl + lxnl = 1. Therefore
IYnl < 1\/1:::; n:::; k. We also have li(Yn)n;:>k+lll:::; li(Yn- Xn)n;:>k+111 + ll(xn)n;:>k+111:::;
IIY- xll + C!=+ 1 lxnl 2 )
112
< 6 + 1/2 :=:; 1. Hence IYnl < 1 \In~ k + 1, so IYnl < 1
\In E N, i.e., y E P.
Remark. One can prove that if 1 :=:; p < oo, then the parallelepiped P =
{(xn)nEN E lp I lxnl < 1 \In E N} is an open set in lP.

We will prove that P is an open set in l2 if and only if inf an > 0.
nEN
1.2 Solutions 15
Let us suppose that P ~ l 2 is an open set. Since a1 > 0, there is c > 0 such that a 1 >
c > 0. The element x = (a 1 - c, 0, 0, ... ) belongs to P, and since P is open there is a 8 > 0
such that B (x, 8) ~ P. Let 71 = min(c, 8/2) > 0. Then we have B(x, ry) ~ B (x, 8) ~ P.
Let n E N, n ~ 2. The element y = (a 1 - c, 0, ... , 0, 7], 0, ... ) (77 on the n 1h position) is
in B(x, ry), and therefore y E P, i.e., from the definition of P, 71 < an- Obviously, a 1 >
c ~ 7]. Hence 37] > 0 such that an > TJ 'in EN, from whence inf an~ 77 > 0.
nEN
Conversely, if inf an > 0, there is an c > 0 such that an > c 'in E N. Let X =
nEN
00
(xn)nEN E P. Then 2: lxnl 2 < oo, and then it follows that there is a k E N such that
n=1
00
2: lxnl 2 < c 2/4. Let 8 = min(c/2 , a1 - lx1l, ... , ak - lxkl), 8 > 0 since x E P.
n=k+1
We shall prove that B (x, 8) ~ P. Let y E B (x, 8), y = (Yn)nEN· Then IIY- xll < 8.
Also, IYnl :S IYn- Xnl + lxnl :S IIY- xll + lxnl < 8 + lxnl :S anlxnl + lxnl = an,
IYnl <an, 1 :S n :S k. We also have II(Yn)n~k+111 :S II(Yn- Xn)n~k+111 + ll(xn)n~k+111 :S
IIY- xll + (
n=k+1
f=
lxnl 2)
112
< 8 + c/2 :S c. Then IYnl :S II(Yn)n~k+lll < c < an, i.e.,
IYnl <an 'in~ k + 1. Hence IYnl <an 'in EN, i.e., Y = (Yn)nEN E P.

The answer is no. The function f : [-1, 1] --+ ~. f (x) = x is a polynomial. If the set P
of all polynomials were open in C[-1, 1], then there is anc > 0 such that B (f, c) ~ P. Let
g: [-1, 1]--+ ~. g(x) = x+cx/(2(1+ lxl)). We have lg(x)- f(x)l = clxl/(2(1+ lxl)):::;
c/2 Vx E [-1, 1], i.e., llg- !II:::; c/2 < c, i.e., g E B (f,c), and therefore g E P, i.e., g
is a polynomial. But the polynomials are coo
functions, and an elementary calculus shows
that g is not twice differentiable at zero. Hence the set of all polynomials is not an open set
in C[-1, 1].

i) Let X = (xn)nEN• y = (Yn)nEN• x, y E Gp, and a, (3 E R Then ax + (Jy =
00 00 00
(axn + f3Yn)nEN E lp and 2: (axn + f3Yn) = a 2: Xn + (3 2: Yn = 0, i.e., ax+ (Jy E Gp.

n=1 n=1 n=1
ii) Let us suppose that 1 < p < oo. We will prove that in this case Gp is not closed.
Indeed, for n ~ 1, the element (-1, 1/n, 1/n, ... , 1/n,O, ... ) (n times 1/n) belongs to
Gp and Xn --+ x = (-1, 0, 0, ... ), since llxn- xll = (1/nP + 1/nP + · · · + 1jnP) 1 /P =
(njnP) 1!P = n 11P- 1 --+ 0 (1 < p < oo!). Since xis not in Gp we obtain that Gp is not
closed.
For p = 1, G1 = { (xn)nEN E hIf 1 Xn = 0 }·Let f : h--+ ~. f(x) = f 1 Xn Vx =
(xn)nEN E h. We have lf(x)l = lf

1 Xnl :::; 1
f
1xnl = llxll Vx E h. Since f is also
linear, it follows that f is continuous. Since G 1 =kerf = f- 1 ( {0}), {0} ~~is a closed
set and f is continuous, we obtain that G 1 ~ l1 is a closed set.
10. i) It is obvious.
ii) Let 1 1, it is easy to
see that fn -----t -X[o,1] in LP. Since -x[o,1] rt Ep we obtain that EP is not closed.
J
If p = 1, let U : L 1[0, oo) -----t ~. U(J) = 000 f(x) dx. Obviously U is linear, and
IU(J)I = lfooo J(x) dxl :S f000 IJ(x)l dx = llfll1 Vf E L1, i.e., U is continuous. Since
E 1 = ker U = u- 1 ({0} ), {0} s;; ~is closed, and U continuous, then u- 1 ({0}) = E 1 is
closed in L 1. Hence Ep s;; Lp is a closed set if and only if p = 1.
11. i) Let h : L(X) -----t L(X), h(B) = AB. Obviously his linear and llh(B)II =
IIABII :S IIAIIIIBII VB E L(X), i.e., his continuous. The set from the statement is
ker h = h- 1( {0}) and since {0} s;; L(X) is closed, it follows that ker his a closed set.
ii) Let g : L(X) -----t L(X), g(B) = AB- BA VB E L(X). Then g is linear and
llg(B)II :S 2IIAIIIIBII VB E L(X), i.e., g is continuous. Again, the set from the statement
is ker g, and therefore is closed.
12. Let U, V E M and a, f3 E K Then G s;; ker U, G s;; ker V, from whence
G s;; ker(aU+f3V), i.e., aU+f3V EM and M is a linear subspace. Let now (Un)nEN s;; M
and U E L(X, Y) such that Un -----t U. Since Un EM we have G s;; ker Un Vn EN. Since
Un -----t u it follows that
nEN
n
ker Un s;; ker u (indeed, if X E
nEN
n
ker Un, then Un(x) =
0 Vn E N, and from Un(x) -----t U(x) it follows that U(x) = 0, i.e., x E kerU), from
whence G s;;
nEN
n
ker Un s;; ker U, i.e., G s;; ker U, U EM. Therefore M is a closed set.
13. See [40, exercise 1.46].

i) Let P be the parallelepiped from the statement. Let us suppose that P s;; lp is a
bounded set. Then there is an M > 0 such that llxll ::; M Vx E P. Let n E N be fixed.
Then VO < E < max(a 1, ... ,an), the element (a1 - E, ... ,an- c,O, ... ) belongs toP and
n ) 1/p
then ( '{;1 ( ak - E)P ::; M. Passing to the limit for E -----t 0, E > 0 we obtain that
n oo
I: a~ ::; MP, and then I: at: < oo, a= (an)nEN E lp.
k=1 n=1
Conversely, if a = (an)nEN E lp, since for every x = (xn)nEN E P we have lxnl <
00 00
an Vn EN, then I: lxniP < I: at:, so llxll :S llall Vx E P.

n=1 n=1
Hence the parallelepiped Pis a bounded set in lp if and only if (an)nEN E lp.
ii) Let E be the ellipsoid from the statement. Let us suppose that E s;; lp is a bounded
set, i.e. there is an M > 0 such that llxll ::; M Vx E E. Let n be fixed. Since 0 <an, let
0 < E <an. The element X= (0, ... , 0, an- E, 0, ... ) (n- 1 times 0) belongs toE and then
llxll :S M, i.e., an - E :S M VO < E < an. ForE -----t 0 we obtain that an :S M Vn E N, i.e.,
the sequence (an)nEN is in 100 •
Conversely, let us suppose that the sequence (an)nEN is bounded: 3M > 0 such that
an :S M Vn EN. Ifx E E, then
i.e., llxll :S MVx E E.

Hence the ellipsoid E s;; lp is bounded if and only if (an)nEN E 100 •
1.2 Solutions 17
14. See [40, exercise 1.63].

Let L be a linear subspace and B(a, c:) ~ X an open ball such that L ~ B(a, c:). Let
x E L. Then, since Lis a linear subspace, nx E L 'Vn E N, and since L ~ B(a, c:), nx E
B(a,c:) 'Vn EN, i.e., llnx- ail< c:'Vn EN, from whence llnxll :S llnx- ail+ llall <
E + llall· Therefore llxll :::.; (c: + llaii)/n 'Vn EN and passing to the limit for n----> oo we
deduce that llxll:::.; 0, i.e., x = 0. Hence L = {0}.
15. Let B(a,c:) ~ L. Then a E B(a,c:) ~ L, a E L. Let x E B (O,c:), i.e., iixii <E.
Then a+ x E B(a, c:) ~ L, a+ x E L, a E Land Lis a linear subspace. Then x E L,
i.e., B (0, E) ~ L. But 'Vx E X with x :f= 0 we have Ex/ (2llxll) E B (0, E) ~ L, i.e.,
c:x/(2llxll) E L. Since Lis a linear subspace we obtain that x E L. Hence X ~ L, and
therefore L = X.
16. See [24, exercise 3, section 1].

We have CA = X\A = {x EX I Tnx----> Tx}, from whence using the linearity we
obtain that C A is a linear subspace. Suppose that x 0 E A. If x E C A, then x+ AXo E A 'VA E
IK, A :f= 0. Indeed, if x + AXo E C A, as C A is a linear subspace and x E C A, it follows
that AXo E CA, from whence x 0 E CA, which is false! Then: x + (1/n) x 0 E A 'Vx E CA,
'Vn 2: 1, and x + (1/n) x 0 ----> x, from whence it follows that x E A, i.e., CA ~A. Hence
X= AU CA ~A, i.e., A= X, that is A is dense in X. Analogously for B.
17. The solution is the same as the one for exercise 16 and we will omit it.
0
18. If G :f= 0, then using exercise 15 we obtain that X= G.
Remark. If A ~ X has the property that C A ~ X is a linear subspace, then it follows
0
that CA =X or~= 0, i.e., A= 0 or Gx = 0, that is A= 0 or A= X. Therefore A

is either empty, or dense. We obtain a new solution for exercise 17.
19. Let En= [1/2- 1/n, 1/2 + 1/n] and fn = 1-XEn· Then fn = 0 on En, 1/2 E En.
We have fn----> f = 1 in L2[0, 1], since llfn- !11 2 = llxEnll 2 = VJ-L(En) = .j2/n----> 0.
We obtain that the set A is not closed in L 2[0, 1].
20. Let fn E M, fn ----> f E L2[0, 1]. We will prove that f E M, which will assure
that M is closed. Since fn E M, fn ([0, 1]) ~ [0, 1] a.e., i.e., there is a set An <:;::; [0, 1]
with J-L(CAJ = 0 and fn(An) <:;::; [0, 1]. But from fn ----> fin L 2[0, 1], as is well known
from measure theory, there is a subsequence (fkn)nEN such that fkn ----> f a.e .. Let A <:;::;
[0, 1] with J-L(CA) = 0 such that fkn(t) ----> j(t) 'Vt E A. Let B = An n
Akn· Then
nEN
fkJB) ~ fkn(Akn) ~ [0, 1] 'Vn E Nand since fkJt) ----> f(t) 'Vt E B(<:;::; A), it follows
that f(t) E [0, 1] Vt E B. But Cs = CA U U CAkn and since J-L is countably additive we
nEN
00
obtain that J-L(Cs) :::.; J-L(CA) + I: J-L(CAkJ = 0, J-L(Cs) = 0, i.e., f([O, 1]) <:;::; [0, 1] a.e.,
n=l
i.e., f E M. The fact that the set M is convex is obvious.
Remark. The same calculations as above assure that if A ~ JR. is a closed set, then the
set M = {! E L2[0, 1]1 f([O, 1]) <:;::;A a.e.} is closed in L 2[0, 1].
21. Let A = (AkhEN E Zoo and c > 0. Let us consider the interval [-IIAII, IIAIIJ. We
can find N intervals h, ... , IN, closed to the left and opened to the right, each of length
less than c, pairwise disjoint, such that their union contains [-IIAII, IIAIIJ. For each 1 s;
i S N, we denote by M; = {n E N I An E I;}. Then M; are pairwise disjoint sets and
N N
U M; = N. Let a; E!;, i = 1, N, and define x E Zoe, x = 2:::: a;XMi· Then x = (xk)kEN E
i=l i=l
Sp {XM I M E p (N)}.
For each k E N, there is ani E {1, ... , N} such that Ak E I;. Since a; E I;, and I;
has its length less than c, it follows that IAk- a; I < c, i.e., IAk- xkl s; c. Since kEN is
arbitrary, from the definition for the norm in Zoo it follows that II.\- xlloo S c.
Remark. Above, we have considered Zoo as a linear space over R Using what is proved
above, the reader can easily solve the same exercise, working with K ( = <C or JR) instead
ofR
22. See [40, exercise l.32].

00
Let 1 S p < oo and x = (xn)nEN E Zp, i.e., 2:::: lxniP converges. Then lxniP ----+ 0,
n=l
lxnl ----+ 0, and therefore x = (xn)nEN E Co. Let now x = (1, 1lln2, ... , 1llnn, ... ).
Obviously, x E c0 , (11 ln n ----+ 0). Suppose that there is 1 s; p < oo such that x E ZP. We
00
obtain that 1 + 2:::: 1I (ln n )P < oo. From the well known Cauchy test we obtain that the
n=2
00 00
series 2:::: 2nl(ln2n)p converges, i.e., the series 2:::: 2nl(nln2)P converges, which is false,
n=2 n=2
since lim 2n I nP = oo ifl S p < oo.
n->oo
23. We have Zp ~ c0 ~ Z00 . We prove first that c0 is a closed set in Z00 • Let~ E c0 .
Then we can find a sequence ((n)nEN ~ co such that ll(n- ~II ----+ 0. Let~ = (~k)kEN E
Zoo and (n = ((~)kEN E co. Then Vc > 0 ::In" EN such that sup I(~<- ~kl < cl2. Since
kEN
I
(n, = ((~JkEN E co, i.e.,}~ 1(~, = 0, there is a kf EN such that 1(~, < cl2 Vk 2 kE. I
Then Vk 2 kE, we have l~k I S I(~, I+ ~~k I -
(~E < c 12 +sup l~n (;:E < c, i.e., ~k ----+ 0,
-
nEN
I
i.e.,~ = (~khEN E c0 . Hence co ~ c 0 , and since always c0 ~ co. we obtain that c0 = c0 .
Since ZP ~ c0 we obtain that 1;, ~ c0 = c0 . Let now :r = (xn)nEN E c0 . We denote by
~n =(xi, X2, ... , Xn, 0, ... ) E Zp· Then ll~n- xlloo = sup lxkl· Since X= (xn)nEN E Co,
k::C:n+l
then Vc > 0 ::Inc E N such that lxkl < c Vk 2 no:, and therefore ll~n- xlloo S c Vn 2 no:.
Then c0 ~ T;, and hence T;, = c0 .
We give now a second solution for the fact that Zp is dense in c0 . Obviously ZP ~ c0 is a
linear subspace. Let f E c~ such that f (x) = 0 for all x E Zp. Using the fact that c~ = Z1 ,
00
there is a sequence~= (~n)nEN E Z1 such that f (x) = 2:::: Xn~n Vx = (xn)nEN E Co. Then
n=l
f (ek) = 0 Vk E N, since ek E Zp for each k E N, and therefore ~k = 0 Vk E N. Hence
f (x) = 0 Vx E c0 and using now a separation result (see chapter 8) it follows that Zp is
dense in (c0 , 11·11 oo) .
24. See [9, exercise 15, chapter II, section 1].

We will solve the exercise by induction on n E N.
1.2 Solutions 19
If n = 1, since A ~ lR is convex we obtain that A ~ lR is an interval. Since by our

hypothesis A n lR (we consider the line JR.) is closed it follows that A ~ lR is a closed
interval.
Let us suppose now that for a fixed n 2 2, for each 1 :S m :S n - 1, if B ~ JRm is
a convex set such that the intersection of B with each line from JRm is a closed set in JRm,
then B ~ JRm is closed. Consider A ~ ]Rn convex such that A n d ~ ]Rn is closed for
each line d ~ JRn. If A does not contain n linearly independent elements, then there are
m :S n - 1 linearly independent elements XI, ... , Xm E JRn such that A ~ Sp{ xi, ... , Xm},
(see the solution for exercise 43(i)). Let Y = Sp{ XI, ... , Xm}, dim Y = m :S n - 1. Let
T: Y-+ lRm, T (~ aixi) = (ai, ... , am)t for (ai, ... , am)t E JRm. Then Tis linear and
bijective. Then T: Y-+ JRm, r-I : JRm-+ Yare continuous. Let B = T(A) ~ JRm. Since
Tis linear, B ~ JRm is convex. Let d be a line in JRm. Since r-I is linear, r-I(d) ~ Y
is a line, so r-I(d) ~ JRn is a line. Then r-I(d) n A ~ JRn is closed and since Tis
homeomorphism, T (T-I(d) n A) = dnT(A) = dnB ~ JRm is closed. By our hypothesis
of induction, B ~ JRm is closed, and since Tis continuous, A= r-I(B) is closed in JRn.
Let us suppose now that A contains n linearly independent elements. Then by exercise
0 0
43(i), A# 0. Without loss of generality we can and do assume that 0 EA (otherwise
consider a translation), and then there is an R > 0 such that B(O, R) ~ A, where B(O, R) =
{x E lRnJJJxJJ :S R} (JJ·ll is a norm on lRn). Suppose that there is an x E JRn such that
x E A, but x tJ_ A. Then x # 0. We consider now the line which contains the points 0 and
x, i.e., d = {txJt E JR.}. Since dnA~ JRn is closed and convex, there is a closed interval
[a,b] ~ JRsuchthatdnA = {txJt E [a,b]}. SinceO E dnAitfollowsthatO E [a,b]. Since
x tJ_ d n A it follows that b < 1. Put t 0 = b, and then: tx E A '<It E [0, t 0 ], tx tJ_ A '<It > t 0 ,
and t 0 E (0, 1). Let r = (1- t 0 )Rjt0 , r > 0. We will show that B(x, r) n A= 0 and then
x tJ_ A, which is contradictory.
Suppose that there is y E B(x, r) such that y E A. Consider now the line which
contains the elements y and tax. We observe that y # tax. If y = tax, then Jltox- xJJ <
r, i.e., JJx(1- to) II < ((1- to)/to) R, JJxJJ < R/to, JJtoxJJ < R, so there is at > to,
JJtxJJ < R, and then tx E A, false! So there is a (unique) line which contains the elements
y and t 0 x, d = {t 0 x + t(y- t 0 x)Jt E JR.}. Fort= -t0 /(1- t 0 ), we obtain the element
(tax- toy)/(1- to) Ed. But
II
tax- toy II=~ JJx- yJJ < ~r = R,
1 - to 1 - to 1 - t0
so there is s > 0 such that
B (tax - toy
1-t0 '
s) C
-
B(O R)
' '
and soB ((t 0 x- t 0 y)/(1- t 0 ), s) ~A. Then
toy+ (1 - t 0 )B (tax- toy,

1- to
s)
is included in A, since A is convex, and is open. But
t 0 x- t 0 y
tax= toy+ (1- t o ) - - -
1- to
and so
tax E toy+ (1 - ta)B (tax- toy,
1- t 0
s) .
Hence there is a q > 0 such that B(t0 x, q) ~ A, and so there is at > t 0 such that tx E A,
which is false! Hence A= A.
25. See [ 1, exercise 16, Fall 1991].

Let X, Y,X', y' E Mn, with X= (x;j), Y = (y;j) ,X'= (x;j), y' = (Y;j). Then:
n n n
d ( x'y', XY) = L L x;kY~j - L x;kYkj
i,j=l k=l k=l
n n
< LL lx;kY~j - x;kYkj I

i,j=l k=l
n n
LL Ix;k ( Y~j - Ykj) + ( x;k - X;k) Ykj I

i,j=l k=l
< t t ( (X',
i,j=l k=l
d On) d ( Y, y') + d (Y, On) d (X, x'))
For X= Y and X'= y' we obtain that:
d(X ,(x'f)
2 < n 3 (d(x',on) +d(X,On))d (x,x')
< n 3 ( d (X, x') + d (X, On)+ d (X, On)) d (X, x')

n 3 ( d (X, x') + 2d (X, On)) d (X, x') .
Now if Xk .!:c. X 0 it follows that X~ .!:c. X;5, from whence Xt .!:c. xg, etc .. We obtain
that Xf .!:c. Xg', for any s E N. Let now Ak .!:c. A, such that for any k the matrix Ak is
nilpotent. Then Ak = On, for any k. Choosing now s E N such that N := 28 ~ n, we
deduce that A£' .!:c. AN, and A£' = On, for any k. It follows then that AN =On i.e., A is
nilpotent (here On is the n x n null matrix).
26. See [1, exercise 20, Fall1983].

For p, q E N on the set M (p, q) = Mqxp (JR'.) we consider the distance d (A, B)
q p
L L la;j -
i=l j=l
b;j I , where A = ( a;j ) ; = ! = l ,
,q, J ,p
B = (b;j );=!
,q, J
= ! · It is clear the fact that
,p
a sequence of matrices (An)nEN ~ Mqxp converges with respect to this metric to a matrix
A E Mqxp if and only if [A,];,j ----> Ai,j Yi, j (with obvious notations). From this it follows
1.2 Solutions 21
that if An...:!:... A and Bn...:!:... B, with A, An E Mqxp and B, Bn E Mpxr, then AnBn...:!:... AB
in Mqxr· (1)
In the case p = q we consider the determinant function det : Mp ----+ JR, given by
detA = 2::
aESp
c-(a)ata(l) · · · apa(p), where A = (aij)· ._1
t,J- ,p
. From the above remarks
it follows that the determinant function is continuous if we consider it as a function be-

tween two metric spaces. Consider a sequence of invertible matrices (An)nEN ~ Mp,
with An = (a~j)) .. _ such that An . .:!:.. A E Mp, with A invertible. Consider A~ =
t,]=l,p
(n) A(n)
A 11 21 ...
A(n)
pl
)
( .. . . .. .. . .. . , the adjoint for the matrix An, (A~j) is the algebraic comple-
A(n) A(n) A(n)
2
tp P ... PP ( Au . . . Apt )
ment of the element a~j) in the matrix An), and consider also A* = ... ... ... .
Atp ... APP
Since the determinant function is continuous it follows that A~j) ----+ Aj, for i, j = 1, p
andthatdetAn----+ detA.ThenA~ 1 = (1/detAn)A~...:!:... (1/detA)A* = A- 1 ,for
n----+ oo. (2)
i) Let (Ak)kEN be a sequence of matrices from M (m, n) with Ak . .:!:.. A E M (m, n)
and such that rank (Ak) < m Vk EN. It follows that (AU Ak E Mm has its rank at most
the rank of Ak, i.e., strictly less than m, for any kEN. So det (A~Ak) = 0 fork EN. But
Ak . .:!:.. A and A~ . .:!:.. At. From ( 1) it follows that (AU Ak . .:!:.. At A, hence by the continuity
of the determinant it follows that det (AU Ak ----+ det (At A), i.e., det (At A) = 0, which
means that rank (At A) < m. From here it follows that rank (A) < m. Hence M (m, n) \L
is closed in (M (m, n), d), which means that the set Lis open in (M (m, n), d).
ii) We define T : L ----+ M (n,m) given by T(A) = (AtA)- 1 At. Then Tis well
defined and T (A) A = Im, for any A E M (m, n). We must prove that T : (L, d) ----+
(M (m, n), d) is continuous. Let (Ak)kEN ~ L, with Ak . .:!:.. A E L. Then (A~Ak)kEN ~
Mm, with A~Ak . .:!:.. At A. But A~Ak is invertible for any k E N, and At A is also invertible.
From (2) it follows that (A~Ak)- 1 . .:!:. . (At A)- 1 and since A~...:!:... At from (1) we obtain that
(A~Ak)- 1 A~...:!:... (AtA)- 1 At, i.e.,Tiscontinuous.
27. For (i) and (ii), see [9, exercise 10, chapter III, section 4].
i) If X = (xn)nEl\1 E Sc, y = (Yn)nEl\1 E Sc, then X + y = (xn + Yn)nEl\1 and the
sequence (f (xk + Yk))
k=l nEl\1
=
k=l
xk)
nEN
+ (f
k=l
Yn)
nEl\1
(f
converges, sox+ y E Sc.
Obviously if x E Sc and a E IK, then ax E Sc, so Sc is a linear space. Let us observe now
that if x = (xn)nEN E Sc, then the sequence ( f
k=l
xk)
nEl\1
is bounded, since is convergent,
n
so llxll < oo. If llxll = 0, then 2:: xk = 0 Vn E N, from whence Xt = 0 and Xn =
k=l
n n-1
2.::: xk - 2.::: xk = 0 for n 2 2, i.e., x = 0. Also
k=1 k=1
n n
llaxll =sup 2:axk =sup Ia I 2:xk = lalllxll·
nEN k=1 nEN k=1
If Y = (Yn)nEN, Z = (zn)nEN, then

n n n
IIY + zll =sup L(Yk + zk) :::; sup LYk +sup Lzk =
nEN k=1 nEN k=1 nEN k=1
IIYII + llzll·
We obtain that 11·11 is a norm on Sc.

We prove now that this norm is a complete one. For this, let (wn)nEN ~ Sc be a Cauchy
sequence with respect to this norm, i.e., Vc > 0 3n" E N such that llwn- wmll < c for
n > m 2 ne:. If we denote by w~ the k1h component for Wn, Wn = (w~)kEN, then: Vc > 0
3ne: E N such that
k k-1
lw~- w;;,l :S: 2:(w~- w~) + L(w~- w~) :S: 2llwn- Wmll < 2c,
i=1 i=1
\In > m 2 ne:, Vk E N. This shows that for any k E N, the sequence (w~)nEN ~ K is
It (w~ I It (w~ I
Cauchy. Since K is complete there is w = ( wk)kEN such that w~ ----> wk Vk E N. For n >
m 2 ne:, we have sup - w;;,) < E, and then for any i E N, - w;;,) < E
k=1 zEN k=1
for n > m 2 ne:. Now passing to the limit for n ----> oo we obtain that Vc > 0 3ne: E N such
that Vm 2 n 0 1
I~ ( wk - w;;,) I :::; E for all i E N. Therefore: Vc > 0 3nc: E N, such that
Vm 2 nc:, llw- wmll :S: c, i.e., wE Sc and Wm----> w.
ii) Let x = (xn)nEN E Sc. Then Vc > 0 3n: E N such that I. 2.::: X; < c/2 \In 2 n:,
n+p I
z=n+1
Vp 2 1 (1). Let n: EN such that 1/2n < c/2 \In 2 n: (2). Let k = max(n:, n:). The
element~ = (x 1, ... , xk, 1/2k+l, 1/2k+ 2 , ... ) belongs to lr, and~ - x = (0, ... , 0, 1/2k+ 1 -
xk+l, ... ),II~- xll = sup

p:2:k+1
f (1/2;- x;)l· But for p 2 k + 1, using (1) and (2) we
Ii=k+1
have
Lp (1 )
2i - X; :::;
p
2: 2i +
1 L p
X;
1 E
<-+-<c
- 2k 2 '
i=k+ 1 i=k+ 1 i=k+ 1
i.e., II~- xll :::; E, and therefore l 1 is dense in Sc.

00 00
iii) Since for (xn)nEN E Sc the series 2.::: Xn converges, it follows that lim 2.::: Xk = 0,
n= 1 n-t(X) k=n
and therefore U is well defined. Obviously, U is linear. For any x = (xn)nEN E Sc, we
have
00 n n n
lim 2: Xk :S: lim L Xk :S: sup L Xk = llxll·

n-+oo k=1 n-+CXJ k=1 nEN k=1
1.2 Solutions 23
Then for any n E N with n ;::: 2,

oo oo n-1
LXk < LXk + LXk :S 2llxll,

k=n k=1 k=1
so ~~~ ~k~n Xkl :S 2llxll, i.e., IIUxll :S 2llxll Vx E Be, hence U E L(Be, c0 ) and
IlUll ::; 2. Also, we have U(1, -2, 0, 0, ... ) = ( -1, -2, 0, ... ) and 2 = II ( -1, -2, 0, ... )II ::;
I!UIIII(1, -2, 0, 0, ... )II = IIUII, i.e., I!UII = 2. Let X = (xn)nEl\1 E Be with Ux = 0, i.e.,
00 00 00
~ Xk = 0 Vn E N. Then for any n E N we have Xn = ~ Xk -

Xk = 0 - 0 = 0, so
~
k=n k=n k=n+1
x = 0, from whence it follows that U is injective. Let now (Yn)nEl\1 E eo. We define x =
(Y1 -y2, Y2-Y3, Y3-Y4, ... ).Then (y1-Y2)+(y2-Y3)+···+(Yn -Yn+1) = Y1-Yn+l---* Yt.
that is, x E Be. We also have U x = y, soU E L(Be, eo) is linear, continuous and bijective.
Since u- 1 : Co ---* Be is defined by u- 1 (y) = X if and only if Ux = y it follows that
u- 1(y) = (Y1- Y2, Y2- Y3, Y3- Y4, ... )and IIU- 1(Y)II =sup IY1- Yn+ll ::; 2IIYII Vy E Co
nEl\1
i.e.,U- 1 iscontinuouswithiiU- 1II::; 2. Also,U- 1(1,-1,0,0, ... ) = (2,-1,0, ... ),thus
2 = 11(2, -1, o, ... )II ::; IIU- 11111(1, -1, o, o, ... )II = uu-
111, i.e., uu-
111 = 2.
iv) As in (iii), Tis well defined, linear, and continuous, with IITII ::; 2. We also have
T(1, -2, 0, 0, ... ) = ( -2, 0, 0, ... )and 2 = II( -2, 0, ... )II :S IITIIII(1, -2, 0, 0, ... )II = IITII,
i.e., II Til = 2. Now let (Yn)nEl\1 E Co· We define x = ( -y1, Y1 - Y2, Y2- y3, Y3- Y4, ... ).
Then -y1 + (Y1 - Y2) + (Y2 - Y3) + · · · + (Yn- Yn+l) = -Yn+l ---* 0, sox E Be. We
also have Tx = y, soT is smjective. Clearly Vis well defined, linear, and I!V(x)ll =
sup lxnl = llxll Vx E co, i.e., V is an isometry, and hence IIVII = 1. We also have
nEl\1
T(V(x)) = T( -x1, x1 - x2, x2 - x3, ... ) = (x1, x2, x3, ... ) = x for all x eo, and
(f f f
E
V(T(x)) = V 2 Xn, 3 Xn, .. .) = (- 2 Xn, X2, X3, .. .) for all x E Be.

Remark. For (iii), using the open mapping theorem, from U E L (Be, c0 ) being bijec-
tive it follows directly that U is an isomorphism, since the norms on Be and c0 are complete.
28. The case x = y is obvious. If x -=/=- y, let us consider the element z = x + o:(x-
y)j llx- Yll- Then llx- zll = o:, so z E B (x, o:), hence, by our hypothesis, z E B (y, (3),
i.e., liz- Yll ::; (3. Then
so
llx - Yll ( 1 + llx ~ Yll) ::; (3,

f3- o: and f3 ;::: o:.
that is, llx - Yll ::;
Remark. If we eliminate the second axiom from the definition for a norm, the statement
from this exercise is no longer true. For example, if we consider q : JR. ---* JR.+, q( x) =
lxl/(1 + lxl), then q(x) = 0 ¢? x = 0, q( -x) = q(x), q(x + y) ::; q(x) + q(y) Vx, y E JR.,
and ifwe denote B (0, o:) = {x E lR I q(x)::; o:}, then B (0, 2) = B (0, 1).
29. Suppose that X is a Banach space. For any n EN, let Bn = B (xn, rn), Xn EX,
r n 2': 0, such that Bn+l ~ Bn \In E N, and lim r n = 0. Then for any m 2:: n 2': 1,
n~oo
Xm E Bm ~ Bn B (xn, rn), so llxn- Xmll ::; Tn· Since lim Tn = 0 it follows that the
=
n~oo
sequence (xn)nEN is Cauchy. Since X is complete, there is an x E X such that Xn ----+ x.

For any k E N, the sequence (xn)n>k is contained in Bk and converges to x. Since Bk is
closed we obtain that X E Bk. and therefore X E
kEN
n
Bk.
Let us suppose now that for any decreasing sequence of closed balls in X with the
sequence of radii convergent to zero, their intersection is not the empty set. Let (xn)nEN ~
X be a Cauchy sequence. To prove that the sequence (xn)nEN converges, it is sufficient to
find a convergent subsequence. Since (xn)nEN ~ X is a Cauchy sequence, then there is a
subsequence (nk)kEN ofN such that llxnk+ 1 - Xnk II ::; 1/2k for all k E N. Let now Bk =
B (xnk+ 1 , 1/2k) Vk E N. Fork E N, let x E Bk+l· Then llx- Xnk+ 1 11 ::; llx- Xnk+ 2 11 +
llxnk+ 2 - Xnk+ 1 11 ::; 1/2k, sox E Bk. Therefore Bk+l ~ Bk for all k E Nand then, by
hypothesis, there is an X E n
kEN
Bk. Then llx- Xnk+lll ::; 1/2k for all k E N, and therefore
lim Xnk = x, which is exactly what we wanted to prove.
k~oo
30. i) See [6, exercise 2, chapter 2].

Let us denote Bn = B (xn, rn)· From exercise 28 it follows that the sequence (rn)nEN
is decreasing, and also llxn- Xmll::; lrn- rml Vm,n EN. Since rn 2': r > 0 \In EN, it
follows that inf r n = lim r n = R 2:: r. Let r > f > 0. The sequence (r n)nEN converges, so
nEN n-+oo
it is a Cauchy sequence, hence there is an N E N, depending on c:, such that Ir n - r m I ::; c:
for all m, n 2:: N. We will prove that B (xN, R- c:) ~ n
kEN
Bk· If k ::; N, since R- c: <
R::; rN, itfollowsthatB(xN,R-c:) ~ B(xN,rN) = BN ~ Bk. Letnowk >Nand

y E X with IIY- xNII ::; R- c:. Since k > N we have h- rNI ::; c: and therefore
llxk- xNII ::; f. Then IIY- xkll ::; IIY- xNII + llxN- xkll ::; R- f + f = R::; rb i.e.,
y E Bk. We obtain that B (xN, R- c:) ~ nnEN
Bn, thus B (xN, r- c:) ~ n nEN
Bn.
ii) Let us denote again Bn = B (xn, r n)· Suppose now that the norm on X is complete.
The sequence (xn)nEN is a Cauchy sequence, hence there is an x E X such that Xn ----+ x.
We will prove first that B (x, r) ~ n
nEN
Bn. Indeed, let y E B (x, r)' that is, IIY- xll <
r. Using (i) for any r > c: > 0 there is an XN£ E X which can be chosen such that
llx- XNE II < c:/2 and B (xNE, r- c/2) ~ n
nEN
Bn. Let f = r- IIY- xll 'r > f > 0. Then
IIY- xNJ ::; IIY- xll + llx- xNJ < r- f + c:/2 = r- c:/2, soy E B (xNc,r- c:/2),
i.e., y E n Bn. We have proved that B (x, r) ~ n
nEN
Bn. But Bn is closed Vn EN, hence
nEN
n
nEN
Bn is closed. It follows that B (x, r) = B (x, r) ~ n
nEN
En-
iii) Let X = c00 , the space of all sequences with finite support, with the supremum
norm. For any n EN, let Xn = (1, 1/2, 1/2 2 , ... , 1/2n, 0, 0, ... ) E c00 , rn = 1 + 1/2n and
Bn = B (xn, rn). As it is easy to see, we have B 1 ;2 B 2 ;2 · · · ;2 Bn ;2 · · ·, and let
us suppose that there is an X E Coo such that B (x, 1) ~ n
nEN
Bn. Then B (x, 1) ~ Bn for
all n E N, hence by exercise 28 it follows that llx- xnll ::; 1/2n \In E N, from whence
Xn ----+ x. From here it follows that x = (1, 1/2,1/2 2 , ... , 1/2n, 1/2n+l, ... ),and therefore
1.2 Solutions 25
x t/: cool
iv) Let (xn)nEN be a Cauchy sequence. It follows that there is a subsequence (xnk)kEN
such that llxnk+l- Xnk II :S: 1/2k+l for all kEN. Let Bk = B (xnk' r + 1/2k) fork EN.
For y E Bk+h we have IIY- Xnk II :S: IIY- Xnk+ 1 11 + llxnk+ 1 - Xnk II :S: r + 1/2k+I +
1/2k+l = r + 1/2k, so y E Bk, i.e., Bk+I ~ Bk for all k E N. By our hypothesis, there
is an x EX such that B (x, r) ~ n
B (xnk' r + 1/2k). Using exercise 28, it follows that
kEN
llx- Xnk II :S: 1/2k for all k E N, hence Xnk -+ x. Since (xn)nEN is a Cauchy sequence, and
it has a subsequence convergent towards x, it follows that lim Xn = x E X. Therefore X
n--->oo
is complete.
31. i) If II·III and 11·11 2 are two norms which generate the same topology, they are
equivalent, that is, we can find m, M > 0 such that m llxiii :S: llxll 2 :S: M llxiii for all
xEX.
If II·III is complete, then from m llxiii :S: llxll 2 \fx E X it follows that if (xn)nEN ~ X
is a Cauchy sequence with respect to the norm 11·11 2 , then the sequence is also Cauchy with
respect to the norm II·III and then there is an x EX such that llxn- xiii -+ 0. Using now
that llxn- xll 2 :S: M llxn- xiii it follows that llxn- xll 2 -+ 0. Analogously, if 11·11 2 is
complete then the norm II·III is also complete.
ii) See [44, exercise 12, chapter 1].
Obviously (JR., di) is a metric space, and, since ¢ is injective, (JR., d2) is also a metric
space. The function ¢ : JR. -+ ( -1, 1) ~ JR. is bijective and continuous on (JR., 1·1), and
cp-I : ( -1, 1) ~ JR. ------+ JR., cp-I (y) = y/ (1 - IYI) is also continuous on (JR., 1·1). It is easy to
see now that the two metric generate the same topology on R
To prove that (JR., d2) is not a complete metric space, we consider the sequence Xn = n
\:In E N. Then Xn/(1 + lxnl) = n/(1 + n) -+ 1, from whence d2(xn, Xm) -+ 0 for
m, n -+ oo, i.e., (xn)nEN ~ (JR., d2) is a Cauchy sequence. Let us suppose that there is an
Xo E JR. with Xn ~ Xo. Then l¢(xn)- ¢(xo)l -+ 0, and since ¢(xn) -+ 1 we will obtain
that ¢(x0 ) = 1, i.e., xo/(1 + lx0 1) = 1, x 0 > 0, x 0 = 1 + x 0, a contradiction.
32. For (i) and (ii), see [1, exercise 6, Fall1992].

i) Suppose that XI is complete. We will prove that x2 is complete. Let (Yn)nEN ~ x2
be a Cauchy sequence. Since f is surjective, there is a sequence (xn)nEN ~ XI such that
f(xi) = Yi ViE N. Then di (xi, xi) :S: d2 (!(xi) ,f(xi)) = d2 (yi,Yi) for all i,j EN
and we deduce that (xn)nEN ~XI is a Cauchy sequence in XI, and so there is an X E XI
such that Xn-+ x. Let y = f (x). Since f is continuous, f (xn) -+ f (x), i.e., Yn-+ y and
therefore x2 is complete.
ii) We will construct a counterexample. Let XI = {1, 1/2,1/3, ... }, di : XI x XI -+
JR.+, di (x, y) = lx- Yl and X2 = {1, 2, 3, .. }, d2 : X2 X X2 -+ JR.+, d2 (x, y) =
lx- Yl /(1 + lx- yl). Obviously (XI, di) and (X2, d2) are metric spaces. The sequence
(xn)nEN ~ XI, Xn = 1/n \:In E N is Cauchy in XI and does not converge in XI, since
0 t/: XI. Let now (Yn)nEN ~ X2 be a Cauchy sequence in (X2, d2). Then d2 (yn, Ym) -+ 0
for n, m-+ oo, i.e., IYn- Yml /(1 + IYn- Yml) -+ 0 for n, m-+ oo. Since for any k E N
we have k/(1 + k) ~ 1/2 it follows then that the sequence (Yn)nEN is stationary, therefore
convergent. Hence (XI, di) is a metric space which is not complete and (X2, d2) is a com-
plete metric space. Define now f : XI -+ X 2, f (1/n) = n for n ~ 1. Obviously f is
smjective, and
d 1 (1/n, 1/m) < d2 (! (1/n), f (1/m))

{::} 11;;: - m1I ~ 1 +In In- -mlml
{::} 1 + In - ml ~ mn,
which is clearly true for all m, n EN. Hence d 1 (p, q) ~ d2 (! (p), f (q)) Vp, q E X 1 . We
must also prove that f is continuous. Let (xn)nEN <:;:; xb Xn ----+ X E xl. If the sequence
(xn)nEN is not stationary, then we must have x = 0, and 0 ~ X 1 . It follows then that
there is a k E N such that Xn = Xk = x for n 2:: k, hence f(xn) = f(xk) for n 2:: k so
f(xn)----+ f(xk) = f (x), i.e., f is continuous.
iii) We will prove that in this case (ii) is also true. Since f is in addition linear, and by
the initial hypothesis f is continuous, it follows that llf(p) 112 ~ II!IIIIPIIl for p E xl. Also,
by hypothesis, llf(p) - !( q) 112 2:: liP- qlll for p, q E xl. In particular, llf(p) 112 2:: IIPIIl
for all p E X1.
Let (xn)nEN <:;:; X1 be a Cauchy sequence and denote Yn = f(xn)· Since f is linear and
continuous, from llf(xn)- f(xm)ll 2~ llfllllxn- Xmll 1it follows that (yn)nEN <:;:; X2 is a
Cauchy sequence. Since X2is complete there is y E X2 such that llYn- Yll 2----+ 0. Because
f is smjective there is X E X1 such that f(x) = y. Then llxn- xll 1~ llf(xn)- f(x)ll2 =
llYn- Yll2, hence llxn- xll 1----+ 0.
33. i) Suppose that ll·lla is a norm. Let A= {n EN I an= 0}. If A =1- 0, then there is
kEN such that ak = 0. We have lleklla = lakl = 0, hence since ll·lla is a norm it follows
that ek = 0, which is false. Hence A= 0, i.e., an =1- 0 Vn EN. The converse is clear.
ii) By our hypothesis and (i), ll·lla and ll·llb are norms. If ll·lla and ll·llb are equivalent
norms, then there are c1, c2 > 0 such that llxlla ~ c1 llxllb and llxllb ~ c2llxlla for all
x E Coo- In particular for all n EN we have llenlla ~ c1 llenllb and llenllb ~ c2llenlla' i.e.,
Ian I ~ c1 Ibn I and Ibn I ~ c2 Ian 1. The converse is clear.
Let (xn)nEN <:;:; X be a Cauchy sequence. For any x E X we have that llxll =
inf {llzlll z- x E Y}, thus llxll ~ llxll for all x E X. Since (xn)nEN <:;:; X is a Cauchy
sequence from this inequality it follows that the sequence (xn)nEN <:;:; X/Y is a Cauchy
sequence, hence there is a z E X such that lim llxn - zll = 0, i.e., lim llxn- zll = 0.
n--+oo n--+oo
But if llanll ----+ 0, then there is a subsequence (nk)kEN of N such that llakJ < 1/2n
Vn E N. Using this fact we obtain that there is a subsequence (kn)nEN of N such that
llxkn - zll < 1/2n Vn E N. From the definition of the quotient norm we deduce that
there is Yn E Y such that ll(xkn- z) + Ynll < 1/2n Vn E N. For any m, n E N we
have llYn- Ymll ~ llYn+ (xkn- z)ll + llxkn- Xkmll + ll(xkm- z) + Ymll, and therefore
lim llYn- Ymll = 0. Since Y is complete it follows that there is y E Y such that
m,n--+oo
lim Yn y. Since lim ll(xkn- z) + Ynll = 0 we deduce that lim Xkn = -y + z. Hence
=
n--+oo n--+oo n----+oo
the Cauchy sequence (xn)nEN contains a convergent subsequence, and therefore (xn)nEN
converges to-y+ z.
1.2 Solutions 27
35. See [25, exercise 288, chapter I, section II].

First solution. (See [3, Lemma 2.2.1].) We will prove the assertion from the exercise
by induction on n E N. For n = 1, if {x} ~ X is a linearly independent system, then
x #- 0, so llxll > 0. For y EX with IIYII < llxll, we have x + y #- 0 and so {x + y} ~X
is a linearly independent system. Suppose now that the result is true for n - 1 vectors. Let
x 1, x 2 , ... , Xn be n linearly independent vectors in X. Suppose that we cannot find c > 0
as in the statement, and then there are sequences ( zn kEN ' ... ' ( z~) kEN ~ X' zJ ----+ 0,
j = 1, n, and (AD kEN, ... , ( A~_ 1 ) kEN ~ lK such that
If all the sequences (A7) kEN' j = 1, n- 1, are bounded, then passing if necessary to sub-
sequences, we can suppose that A7 --+ Aj, j = 1, n- 1, so passing to the limit fork ----+ oo
in ( *) we obtain that Xn = A1x 1 + · · · + An_ 1 xn_ 1 , which is false, since the elements
x 1, x 2 , ... , Xn are linearly independent in X. Then without loss of generality we suppose
that lim IA~ I = oo. Then there is a rank from where all the components of the sequence
k->oo
(AD kEN are not zero, hence we can suppose that A~ #- 0 Vk E N. It follows then that
x 1 +w~+a~ (x2 + z~) + · .. +a~_ 1 (xn-1 + z~_ 1 ) = 0, where aJ = A7/A~,j = 2, n- 1,
k E Nand w} = z} - (xn + z~) /A~ Vk E N. But w~ --+ 0 fork ----+ oo, and this means that
we can find the sequences (w}) kEN , ( z~) kEN , ... , ( z~_ 1 ) kEN ~ X, all convergent to 0 E X,
such that the system {x 1 + w~,x 2 + z~, ... ,xn_ 1 + z~_ 1 } ~X is linearly dependent, for
every k E N. This contradicts our hypothesis of induction.
Second solution. The assertion from exercise is that for any n linearly independent
elements x 1, ... , Xn E X there is an c > 0 such that: Vy 1 E B(x 1 , c), ... , Vyn E B(xn, c),
the set {y1, ... , Yn} ~ X is linearly independent. Let us assume, for a contradiction, that
this fact is not true. This means that: Vc > 0 :Jy1 E B(x 1 , c), ... , :lyn E B(xn, c), such that
y1, ... , Yn EX are not linearly independent, i.e., Vc > 0 :Jy1 E B(x 1 , c), ... , :Jyn E B(xn, c)
and a1, ... , an ElK not all zero (that is, la1l +···+I ani > 0) such that a1Y1 + · · · + CXnYn =
0. Then a1(Y1 - x1) + · · · + an(Yn- xn) = -(a1x1 + · · · + CXnXn), from whence
lla1X1 + · · · + CXnXnll = lla1 (Y1 -xi)+···+ an(Yn- Xn) II ~ la1IIIY1 - x1ll + · · · +
laniiiYn- Xnll < c la1l + · · · + c lanl. i.e., denoting bye; = a;/(la1l + · · · + lanl), we
have: le1l + · · · + lenl = 1 and lle1X1 + · · · + enxnll <c.
Hence: Vc > 0 :J(e1, ... ,en) E ocn, such that le1l + · · · + len I = 1 and
lle1xl + ... + enxnll < c (1). LetE = {e = (el, ... ,en) E ocn lle11+ .. +1cnl = 1} ~ ocn
and f : E----+ IR, j(e1, ... , en) = lle1x1 + · · · + enxnll· Obviously f is continuous and the
set E is compact, since it is closed and bounded. The relation (I) says that: Vc > 0
:lee E E, such that f(ec) <c. For c = 1/k, k E N, we obtain that there is ek E E, such
that f(ek) < 1/k. Therefore inf f(E) = 0, and, using the Weierstrass theorem, we obtain
that there is e E E such that f(e) = 0, i.e., lle1x1 + · · · + enxnll = 0, e1x1 + · · · +enXn = 0.
Since x 1, ... , Xn E X are linearly independent vectors, it follows that e1 = 0, ... ,en = 0,
which contradicts the fact that e E E, i.e., le 11+···+len I = 1.
36. Ify = Othen <p(t) = llxll '\It E lftandinf <p(t) = <p(O). If y #- O,let m = inf<p(t).
tEJ!l:
tEJ!l:
Let us observe that <p ( t) 2: 0 Vt E lR and hence m E [0, oo). Let (tn) nEN ~ lR be such
that <p(tn) --+ m. Then lltnYII = ll(x- tny)- :rll ~ llx- tnYII + ll.rll = <p(tn) + llxll ~
M + llxll ((zp(tn))nEN being convergent, it is bounded) and since IIYII > 0, itnl :::; (M +
llxii)/IIYII Vn E N, i.e., the sequence (tn)nEN ~ JR. is bounded. By the Cesaro lemma
this sequence contains a convergent subsequence, i.e., there is a t 0 E JR. and a subsequence
(kn)nEN of N such that tkn --+ to. Since lcp(tl)- cp(t2)! = lllx- tlYII-IIx- t2YIII :::;
ll(x- t1y)- (x- t2y)ll = !t1- t2IIIYII we obtain that cp is Lipschitz, hence continuous.
Therefore cp(tkJ --+ zp(t 0 ). Since cp(tn) --+ m it follows that cp(tkJ --+ m, and therefore
m = zp(to).
37. i) Let 6 = d(x, Y). Then there is a sequence (Yn)nEN ~ Y such that llx- Ynll --+
6. It follows then that the sequence (x - Yn)nEN ~ X is bounded, and therefore, using
the triangle inequality, we obtain that the sequence (Yn)nEN is bounded in X, and so it is
bounded in Y. Since Y is finite-dimensional, there is a subsequence (YnkhEN such that
Ynk --+ Yo E Y. Then llx- Ynkll --+ llx- Yo II· Since llx- Ynll --+ 6 we deduce that
6 = II x - Yo II, Yo E Y ·
ii) For the general case the answer is no! Indeed, for any n E N, let En =
Sp{e 1, ... ,en} ~ Z00 and x = en+l E Z00 • It is easy to verify that d(x,En) = 1 and
that llx- Yiloo = 1 for ally= (o:1, ... , O:n, 0, 0, ... ) E En with io:il :::; 1, i = 1, n.
Remark. It is proved in exercise 30 of chapter 4 a more general result in this direction.
38. Let Pk be the space of all the real polynomials of degree at most k. If we consider
on Pk the norms I!PIIoo := sup 1P (t)i and IIPII 1 :=
tE[O,l]
J; 1P (t)i dt VP E Pb then since
Pk is finite-dimensional the norms 11·11 1 and ll·lloo are equivalent, so there is a ck > 0 such
that I!PIIoo :::; ck IIPII 1 VP E Pk, and then IP (O)I :::; sup IP (t)i = I!PIIoo :::; Ck IIPII 1 =
tE[O,l]
39. i) See [ 1, exercise 16, Spring 1988].

Let {fi: X -+JR., i = 1, n} be a basis for V. Then Vf E V, we can find a unique
n
vector (o: 1, o: 2, ... , o:n/ E JR.n such that f = L o:ik Then the operator h : V --+ JR.n,
i=l
defined by h(f) = (o: 1, o: 2, ... , o:n)t E JR.n is a linear isomorphism. We prove that there are
JI(xl) h(xl) fn(xl)
x1, x2, ... , Xn E X such that D(x1, x2, ... , Xn) =
JI(x2) h(x2) fn(x2)
-=J 0.
Let us assume, for a contradiction, that V(x 1 ,x2, ... ,xn) E xn, D(x 1 ,x2, ... ,xn) =
0. Let R be the maximum over those r for which there are x 1, ... , Xn E X, with
JI(xl) h(xi) · · · fn(xl) )
rank ( !I·(·x·2) h·(·x·2) ·. ·. ·. fn·(·x·2) __ r. Then, by our supposition, R < n. Let
JI(xn) h(xn) .. · fn(Xn)
fi(xi) h(xl) fn(xl) )
. ( JI(x2) h(x2) · · · fn(x2)
x 1, ... , Xn EX, with rank . ... .. . . ... ... =Rand suppose, for exam-
h(xn) h(xn) · · · fn(Xn)
1.2 Solutions 29
!I (xi) fR (xi)
!I (xi) fR+l (xi)
pie, that -=/:- 0. Then it follows that
!I (xR) fR (xR)
!I (xR) fR+l (xR)
!I (x) fR+l (x)
R+l
0 \fx E X. Developing this determinant over the line R + 1 we obtain that 2.: adi (x) = 0,
i=l
where a; does not depend on x, and aR+l "I- 0. Then fR+l is a linear combination of
JI, ... , fR, which is false!
So there are x1, x2, ... , Xn EX such that D (x 1, x 2, ... , xn) "I- 0. We have the diagram
V ~ lRn ~ lRn, f --+ a = (a 1 , a 2 , ... , an/ ~ Aa, where the matrix
fi(xi) h(xi) · · · fn(xi) )
A: ]Rn --+ ]Rn is defined by: A= ( f~~~ 2 ) f~~~ 2 ) ::: f~(-~ 2 ) . Since det(A) -:f-
JI(xn) h(xn) · · · fn(Xn)
0, A : JRn --+ JRn is an isomorphism. Let us consider the composition <J : V --+ JRn,
:(:)A~o :·~;,·~,~ )~ hA~(e ~i:)~:~(s ~; r~r;:'~r is: an i;~~:r)ism(. :•)have

an fi(xn) h(xn) · · · fn(Xn) an
(~ a;f;(xr), ... , ~ adi(xn)) t = (f (xi), f (x2), ... , f (xn))t for all f E V.

ii) For (a) and (b), see [13, exercise 9, chapter I, section 2].
a) Using (i) we obtain that there are n pairwise distinct elements x 1 , ... , Xn E X
!I (xi) fn (xi)
and a basis {!I, ... , fn} of V such that "I- 0. Now from
fi (xn) · ·. . . . fn (xn)
the continuity of the determinant and the continuity for the functions JI, ... , fn it fol-
lows that there are ul, ... 'Un ~X, open neighborhoods respectively for XI, ... ' Xn, such
fi (yr) fn (YI)
that "# 0 \fy1 E U1 , ... , Vyn E Un. Since X is Hausdorff
JI (Yn) fn (Yn)
and the points x 1 , ... , Xn are pairwise distinct, then we can find Vi, ... , Vn ~ X, open
neighborhoods respectively for x 1 , ... , Xn, such that v; n Vj = 0, for i "I- j. Hence
if we replace U1 , ... , Un with U1 n Vi, ... , Un n Vn we can assume that the sets U; are
also pairwise disjoint. Let f E V with the property that for any 1 ::::; i ::::; n there
n
is an y; E U; with f (yi) = 0. Let f = 2.: adi be the decomposition of f with re-
i=l
n
spect to the basis {!I, ... , fn} of V. Then 0 = f(yj) = 2.: a;f;(yj), j = 1, n, i.e.,
i=l
( fl. ~~I): : : : : : fn. ~~I)

) ( 7) = 0 and since fl. ~~I)
fi (Yn) · · · · · · fn (Yn) an fi (Yn)
0 it follows that al = ... = an = 0, so f = 0.
b) Let X; E U;, i = 1, n. We consider fr, ... , fn as in (a). We denote by A
fn (xi) )
... . If det A = 0, there are a 1, ... , an E lR not all zero
fn (xn)
n
such that A (a 1, ... , an)t = 0. Let f = L aik Then it follows that f E V and f (x 1) =
i=1
n
· · · = f (xn) = 0. From (a) it follows that f = 0, i.e.,L adi = 0, and since fl, ... , fn is a
i=1
basis, a 1 = 0, ... , an = 0, which is false! Hence det A -=1- 0 and then \7'1 :::;; i :::;; n there are
n
al, ... , a~ E lR such that A ( al, ... , a~)t = ei. Denoting by gi = L aifk we obtain that
k=1
n
gi E V, i = 1, n, with gi (x J) = 6iJ, i, j = 1, n. Let now f E V and let h = f- L gi f (xi) .
i=1
n n
Then h (xk) = f (xk)- L gi (xk) f (xi) = f (xk) - L 6ikf (xi) = f(xk) - f(xk) = 0,
i=1 i=1
11
k = 1, n, and then f = L gd (xi)·

i=1
Consider c = max sup l9i ( x) I . Then c < oo since X is compact and the functions
i=1,n xEX
gi are continuous. Then for every element f E V we obtain the fact that sup If (x) I <
xEX
n
c 2: If (xi) I.
i=1
c) It is clearly a consequence of (b).
Remark. For example, if k E Nand if (Pn)nEN is a sequence of polynomials all of
degree:::;; k, which converges pointwise to 0 on [0, 1], then (Pn)nEN is uniformly convergent
to 0 on [0, 1] .
40. See [40, exercise 1.92].

Obviously f is linear.
i) We have lf(x)l = lx(1)1 :::;; sup lx(t)l = llxll for all x E C[O, 1] and from here it
tE[0,1]
follows that f is continuous.
ii) Iff were continuous, since is linear there is an M > 0 such that lf(x)l :::;; M llxll
(f
\ix E C[O, 1], that is, lx(1)1 :::;; M 01 lx(t)jP dt) 1/P \ix E C[O, 1]. Taking x(t) = tn, we
must have 1 :::;; M j (np + 1) l/p \in E N and for n -+ oo we obtain a contradiction!
41. See [40, exercise 1.93].

i) Let V : C[O, 1] x C[O, 1] -+ C[O, 1], V(f, g) = fg. Obviously V is a bilinear
operator. In addition: IIV(!, g) II = II! gil :::;; llfllllgll \7'(!, g) E C[O, 1] x C[O, 1]. Therefore
V is continuous. Since U(f) = V(f, f) \if E C[O, 1], i.e., U is the quadratic form
associated with V, it follows that U is continuous.
Suppose that U is uniformly continuous. Then for c = 1 > 0 36 > 0 such that:
II!- gil :::;; 6 ==> IIU(f)- U(g)ll < 1, i.e., II!- gil :::;; 6, f, g E C[O, 1] ==> liP -lll < 1.
Taking f = n + 6, g = n (constant functions), n EN, we obtain that 11(6 + n)2- n 2 ll < 1,
i.e., 2n6 + 62 < 1 \in EN, n < (1- 6 2 )/(26) \in EN, a contradiction.
1.2 Solutions 31
ii) Let 0 < a< 1 and b > 0. We consider the function f: [0, 1] ---+ ffi.,
f(x) = { b(1- xja) 0::::; x::::; a,

0 a<x:Sl.
Then 11111; =faa bP (1- xja)P dx = (-all' /(p + 1)) (1- xfaY+ 1 ~~=all' /(p + 1), i.e.,
II fliP = ba 1 1P /(p + 1) 1/P. Also, liP II~ = faa b2P (1- xja) 2 Pdx = ab 2 P/(2p + 1), that is,
IIPIIP = b2a1/p /(2p + 1)1/P.
We choose now a and b depending on n E N such that a 11Pb = 1/n and b2 a 1 1P = 1
(a = 1/n2P and b = n). For these values of a and b we obtain fn E C[O, 1] with llfniiP =
1/(n(p + 1) 11P) ---+ 0 and IIU(fn)IIP = 1/(2p + 1) 1/P, i.e., fn ---+ 0 and the sequence
(U(fn) )nEN does not converge towards zero, i.e., U is not continuous at the origin.
iii) LetT: C[O, 1] x C[O, 1]---+ C[O, 1], T(f, g)= fg. Clearly Tis a bilinear operator
1 ) 1/p
and liT(!, g)ll = llfgllp = ( fa lf(x)g(xW dx :S llflloo llglloo' i.e., Tis continuous.
Since U(f) = T(f, f) it follows that U is continuous. Analogously with (i) one can prove
that U is not uniformly continuous.
42. See [12, exercise 10, chapter IV, section 6].

i) Using the axioms for a norm, we have lla- tbll ::::; II a- tPbll + llfPb- tbll =
lla- tPbll + W- tl = lla- tPbll + (t- tP)::::; lla- tPbll + 1- tP Vt E [0, 1], from whence
II a- tPbll 2: II a- tbll + tP- 1 (1). Also, 1 =II all ::::; II a- tPbll + lltPbll = II a- tPbll + tP
Vt E [0, 1] , from whence II a - tPbll ;::: 1 - tP (2). Adding (1) and (2) we obtain that
lla- tPbll 2: lla- tbll /2 (3). NowO::::; lla- tbll /2::::; (llall +tllbll)/2::::; 1, from whence
IIa- tbiJ/2 2: (jja- tbjj/2Y, hence (3) gives jja- tPbjj 2: jja- tbJI/2 2: (I Ia- tbjj/2Y,
i.e., II a- tbiiP::::; 2P II a- tPbjl, that is, the first inequality from the statement.
For the second one, we have Jla- tPbJI ::::; Jla- tbjj + IJtb- tPbjj = jja- tbjj + t - tP
Vt E [0, 1] (4). If we will prove that t- tP ::::; (p- 1)(1- t) ::::; (p- 1) Jla- tbll (5),
then using (5) from inequality (4) we deduce that Jla- tPbJI ::::; p jja- tbiJ, i.e., the second
inequality. To show (5) we will prove that t - tP ::::; (p- 1)(1 - t) VO ::::; t ::::; 1, and
1 - t ::::; Jla- tbjj VO ::::; t ::::; 1. Let cp : [0, 1] ---+ ffi., cp(t) = t - tP - (p- 1)(1 - t).
Then the derivative of cp is cp' (t) = p( 1 - tP- 1) ;::: 0, hence cp is increasing, from whence
cp(t) ::::; cp(1) = 0 VO::::; t::::; 1. Also, we have 1 = llall ::::; Jla- tbll + jjtbJI = IJa- tbll + t,
i.e., 1 - t ::::; jja- tbjj VO ::::; t ::::; 1.
For the remaining inequalities, we can suppose that x and y are not zero, since if one
of them is zero then the inequalities are trivial. Without loss of generality we can assume
that llxll ::::; JlyJj. Then if we take a= yjjjyJI, b = x/llxll and t = Jlxii/IIYII in the first
inequality which we have already proved, we obtain that
(llxii)P x II
y
I TIYTI - TIYTI IGTI : : ; TIYTI - TIYTI n;;rr '
jjxJI x liP 2Pll Y
i.e., jjx- yjjP ::::; 2P llllxjjP- 1 x- IJyjjp- 1 yjj. For the same values for a, band t, using the
second inequality we obtain that
i.e.,
and then
llllxllp~l x- 11YIIp~ 1 Yll ::::; P llx- YIIIIYIIp~ 1 : : ; P llx- Yll (llxll + IIYIIY~ 1 ·
ii) We have
But for any s E S using (i) we have
IIJ(s)11/p~1 f(s) -lg(s)l1/p~1 g(s)IP::::; 2P lf(s)- g(s)l'
so we obtain that
IITJ- TgiiP::::; 2P is lf(s)- g(s)l dfJ = 2P II!- gil,
i.e., liT!- Tgll : : ; 211!- gii 11P, from whence it follows that Tis uniformly continuous,
since V'E > 0 36E = (E/2)P > 0 such that for any J, g E L 1(fJ) with II!- gil < b"E we have
IITJ- Tgll <E.
iii) For any f, g E Lp(fJ) we have
IIUJ- Ugll =is llf(s)lp~ 1 f(s) -lg(s)lp~ 1 g(s)IP dfJ.
But for any s E S using (i) we have that
llf(s)lp~ 1 f(s) -lg(s)lp~ 1 g(s)IP::::; P lf(s)- g(s)l (lf(s)l + lg(s)I)P~ 1 ,

so we obtain that
is llf(s)lp~ 1 f(s)- lg(s)lp~ 1 g(s) IP dfJ < PIs lf(s)- g(s)l (lf(s)l + lg(s)l)p~ 1 dfJ
< P (Is lf(s)- g(sW dfJ)

1/P
(Is (lf(s)l + lg(s)l)(p~ 1 )q dfJ)

1/q
P II!- glllllfl + lglllp1q(1/p + 1/q = 1).

Thus IIUJ-Ugll ::::; Pllf-glllllfl+lglllp/q, and this implies that IIUf-Ugll : : ;
P II!- gil (11!11 + llgll)p/q. Let A s.;; Lp(fJ) be a bounded set and let M =sup II! II < oo.
jEA
Consider f,g EA. Then IIUJ- Ugll : : ; p II!- gil (2M)pfq, from whence it follows that
U is uniformly continuous on A, since V'E > 0 36E = Ej(p(2M)pfq) > 0 such that for any
f, g E A with II!- gil < b"E we have that IIUf- U gil <E.
1.2 Solutions 33
We have TU = I and UT = I where I is the identity operator, and therefore T and U

are bijective, and r- 1 = U.
iv) By (ii) it remains to be proved that r- 1 = U is continuous. Let in ----+ i in the norm
of Lp(JL). Then the set A = Un I n E N} U {f} is bounded and let M =sup llgll < oo.
gEA
By (iii) we have IIT- 1 in- r- 1ill ::; p II in- ill (2M)p/q Vn E N, and since in ----+ i
in the norm of Lp(JL) we deduce that r-
1 in----+ r-
1 i in the norm of L 1 (p), i.e. r- 1 is
continuous.
43. See [13, exercise II, chapter II, section 2].

i) Using, if necessary, a translation, we can assume that 0 E A. Let x 1 , ... , Xn E A, lin-
early independent elements in JRn. Then { x 1 , ... , Xn} ~ JRn is a basis and let us define the
linear operator T: ]Rn----+ ]Rn by T (ei) =Xi, i = 1, n. Then T, r- 1 : ]Rn----+ ]Rn are contin-
uous (on JRn we consider the Euclidean norm), so T : JRn ----+ JRn is a homeomorphism. Let
B = { (a 1 , ... , an)t E lRn lai ~ 0, i = 1, n, ~ ai::; 1}. For (a 1 , ... , an)t E B we have
= 8aixi = 8aixi + 1- 8ai 0 E A,

n n ( n )
T(a 1 , ... ,an)t
soT (B) ~ A. Let x = (1/(2n), ... , 1/(2n)) E B. Then B (x, 1/(2n)) ~ B. Indeed,
if y E B (x, 1/(2n)), y = (y 1 , ... , YS, then (~ (Yi- 1/(2n)) Y/ 2

2
::; 1/(2n), from
whence IYi- 1/(2n)l ::; 1/(2n), i = 1, n, so Yi E [0, 1/n], i = 1, n. Then Yi ~ 0,
n n
i = 1, n, :Z:::: Yi ::; :Z:::: 1/n = 1, i.e., y E B, so B (x, 1/(2n)) ~ B, from whence
i=1 i=1
T (B (x, 1/(2n))) ~ T (B). ButT (B)~ A, hence we obtain that T (B (x, 1/(2n))) ~A.
Since Tis a homeomorphism, T (B (x, 1/(2n))) is open and non-empty, and then it follows
thatA# 0.
Let now A ~ ]Rn be a convex set which is dense in JRn. Let R = max{ 1 ::; r ::;
n I 3 {x 1 , ... , Xr} ~ A linearly independent vectors}. Let us suppose that R < n, and let
{x 1 , ... , xR} ~ A be a linearly independent system. For any x E A, by the definition of
R, the set {x, x 1 , ... , xR} is linearly dependent, so there are a, a 1 , a 2 , ... , aR E JR, not
R
all zero, such that ax+ :Z:::: aixi = 0. Since x 1 , ... , x R are linearly independent, it follows
i=1
that a# 0, sox E Sp {x 1 , ... , xR}. We proved that A ~ Sp {x 1 , ... , xR}, from whence
A ~ Sp { x 1 , ... , xR} = Sp { x 1 , ... , xR} # JRn since R < n, which is false. So there are
n linearly independent elements in A and by what we have proved above it follows that
0 _::__ 0
A# 0. Now since A is convex, using exercise 12 of chapter 13 we obtain that A=A, i.e.,
0
A= lRn, that is, A= lRn.

ii) Obviously P ~ h is convex. For x = (xn)nEN' we define y = (x~)nEN, z =
(x;;)nEN, where x~ = max(xn,O), x;; = max(-xn,O). We have 0::; x;;,x~::; lxnl
00 CXJ 00
Vn E N, from whence :Z:::: x~ ::; :Z:::: lxnl < oo, :Z:::: x;; < oo, i.e., y, z E P, andy- z = x,
n=1 n=1 n=1
so Sp (P) = l 1 .
Let us suppose now that we can find x = (xn)nEN E P and c > 0 such that
00
B (x, c) c:;; P. Since 2:::: lxnl < oo there is an n 2: 2 such that lxnl = Xn < c/3. Let
n=l
y = (x1, ... ,xn-1,- (xn + c/3) ,xn+l, .. . ). Then y E h. We also have IIY- x\\ 11 =
\2xn + c/3\ = 2xn + c/3 < c, so y E B (x, c), and therefore y E P. It follows that
- (xn + c/3) 2: 0, so Xn + c/3 :S 0, which is false, since Xn 2: 0, E > 0.
iii) a) Obviously, since f is linear, A and Bare convex. We clearly have An B = 0,
AU B = X. If we suppose that B is empty, then A = X, i.e., f (x) 2: 0, f (x) =
f (- ( -x)) = - f ( -x) :S 0 Vx E X, so f (x) = 0, f = 0, f continuous, which is false!
Analogously A -=f. 0.
b) Let x EX. Iff (.T) 2: 0 then x EA. Iff (x) < 0, then f (-x) =- f (x) > 0, i.e.,
-x E A, sox E Sp (A). Therefore Sp (A) =X and, analogously, Sp (B) =X.
c) We will prove that B= 0, and from here it follows that A= X. Let us suppose, for
0
a contradiction, that B# 0, i.e., there are a E X and a balanced neighborhood V ofO such
that a+ V c:;; B. Since Vis balanced, Vx E V we have a± x E B, i.e., by the definition
of B, f(a + x) < 0 and f(a- x) < 0, from whence lf(x)l <- f(a), i.e., f is bounded on
a neighborhood ofO. From exercise 16 of chapter 13 it follows that f is continuous, which
contradicts our hypothesis on f. Analogously we obtain the property B = X.
44. See [9, exercise 12 (a), chapter II, section 5], or [35, exercise I, chapter 3, section
11].
Since X is infinite-dimensional there is a linearly independent system (xn)n EN c:;; X
such that llxn I = 1 Vn E N. The system (xn)nEN can be extended to an algebraic ba-
sis of X. Let (y;);EI c:;; X be a linearly independent system with 1\Y; I = 1 for all
i E I such that { Xn I n E N} U {y; I i E I} is an algebraic basis for X. We take A =
eco( { (1/n )xn I n E N} U {y; I i E J} ), the balanced convex hull. Recall that if E c:;; X
then eco(E) = {A1a1 + · · · + Anan I a1, ... ,an E E, \>.1\ + · · · + i>.ni :S 1, n EN}. We
will prove that A is absorbing. Let x E X, x -=f. 0. Since { Xn I n E N} U {y; I i E I} is an
algebraic basis for X, x can be written in the form x = a1x1 +··+aPxP+P1Y; 1 +··+PmYim'
that is,
x1 Xp
X= al 1 + ... + papp + PlYiJ + ... + PmYim·
Let E = \a1\ + 2\a2\ + · · · + p iapi + \,61\ + · · · + \Pml· Then since x # 0, c > 0. Then
X a1 X1 paP Xp ,61 Pm
- - + ···+ - - + -y;l
c p c
+ · · ·+-y;m
c
c c 1
E eco({xn/n\nEN}U{y;\iEI})=A,
i.e., x E cA. Hence A is absorbing, and also A is balanced and convex. Let PA : X -. JR+
be the Minkowski seminorm associated with A. Since llxnll = 1 Vn E Nand 1\Y;\\ = 1
Vi E J, it follows that {(1/n)xn I n E N} U {y; I i E I} c:;; Bx, and since Bx is
balanced and convex, it follows that A = eco ( { ( 1/ n )xn I n E N} U {y; I i E I}) c:;; B x.
But [pA < 1] c:;; A from whence [p A < 1] c:;; B x and from here it follows in a standard way
that llxll :SPA (x) for all x EX. IfpA (x) = 0, then llxll = 0, x = 0. Therefore PAis a
norm.
We will prove now that PA (xn) = n for all n E N. Since Xn/n E A it follows that
PA (xn) :S n. Let now JL > 0 such that Xn E JLA, i.e., xn/ JL E A. Using the form for
1.2 Solutions 35
the balanced convex hull, it follows that there are p, mEN, i 1, ... , im E I, )11 , ... , Ap E IK,
(31, ... , f3m E IK such that
Xn X1 X2 Xp
2 +···+AP -p + (31y·Zl + · · · + (3rn y·'m'
1 + A2-
-fJ = A1-
and IA1I +···+I API+ l/311 + · · · + lf3ml ~ 1. Ifp < n, i.e., p ~ n -1, since (AI/1)x1 + ···+
(Apjp)xp- (1/tJ)xn+f31Yi 1 +·· ·+f3mYim = Oandthesystem {xn In E N}U{yi I i E I}
is linearly independent, it follows that A1 = · · · = An = 0, -1/ fJ = 0, (31 = · · · = f3m = 0,
which is false! Hence p ~ n, i.e., we have xn/ fJ = (AI/1)x1 + · · · + (An/n)xn + · · · +
(Apjp)xp + f31Yi 1 + · · · + f3mYim and p ~ n, from whence, using the fact that the system
{ Xn I n E N} U {Yi I i E I} is linearly independent we deduce that Ak = 0 for k # n,
1/f.L = An/n, and(31 = · · · = f3m = 0. But from IA1I + · · · + IApl + l/311 + · · · + lf3ml ~ 1
it follows that IAnl ~ 1, and then n/tJ ~ 1, that is, fJ ~ n. Hence {JL > 0 I Xn E tJA} ~
[n, oo) and thenpA (xn) ~ n. So PA (xn) = n for all n EN.
Let 11·11 1 = PA· Then from llxll ~ llxll 1 = PA (x) it follows that the identity operator I:
(X, 11·11 1) ____,(X, 11·11) is continuous, i.e., 7 ~ 71. 1fT= 71 then I: (X, 11·11) ____,(X, 11·11 1)
is also continuous, i.e., there is an M > 0 such that llxll 1 ~ M llxll Vx E X. In particular,
PA (xn) ~ M llxnll Vn EN, i.e., n ~ M \In EN, which is false.
The idea to construct 11·11 2 is to use the same technique as above on the dual space X*.
Since X is infinite-dimensional, X* is infinite-dimensional, and therefore from the first
part there is a norm p : X* ____, lR and a sequence (x~) nEN ~ X* such that II x~ II = 1
\In E N, llx* II ~ p (x*) Vx* E X* and p (x~) = n \In E N. Define now 11·11 2 : X ____, JR+,
llxll 2 =sup {If (x)ll f EX*, p (f)~ 1}. If llxll 2 = 0 then If (x)l = 0 for all f EX*
withp (f)~ 1. Iff EX* thenp (f /(p (f)+ 1)) ~ 1, from whence If (x)l /(p (!)+1) = 0
Vf E X*, and therefore x = 0. The other axioms for the norm 11·11 2 are easy to verify. The
properties 7 ~ 72 and 72 of. 7 can be proved as in the first case.
Chapter 2
Linear and continuous operators on normed

spaces
Definition. Let X and Y be two normed spaces. A linear operator U : X ____. Y is

continuous or bounded if and only if there is an M 2:: 0 such that IIU (x)ll :S M llxll for all
x E X. The operator norm for a linear and continuous operator U is given by
IIUII = inf {M 2:: 0 IIIU (x)ll :S M llxll Vx EX}= sup IIU (x)ll = sup IIU (x)ll·
llxll9 llxll=l
The space L(X, Y) = {U : X ____. Y I U is linear and continuous} is a linear space with
respect to the pointwise operations for addition and scalar multiplication, and a normed
space with respect to the operator norm given above. We write L(X) = L(X, X) and
L(X, IK) =X*.
Definition. Let X and Y be two normed spaces. A linear operator U : X ____. Y is
called:
i) an isometry if and only if IIU (x)ll = llxll Vx EX.
ii) an isomorphism if and only if U is bijective, and U, u- 1 are continuous.
Two normed spaces X and Y are called isometrically isomorphic if and only if there is
a bijective linear isometric operator U : X ____. Y.
Definition. Let X andY be normed spaces. If U E L(X, Y), then the operator U* :
Y* ____.X* defined by U* (y*) = y* o U is called the adjoint or the dual of U.
Using the definition for the operator norm, one can easily see that if U E L(X, Y), then
IIUxll :S IIUIIIIxll Vx EX, and IIUII = IIU*II·
2.1 Exercises 37
2.1 Exercises
Positive operators between C(T) spaces
1. LetT and S be two compact Hausdorff spaces. An operator U : C(T) ---> C(S) is
called positive iff ~ 0 ==> U (f) ~ 0. Prove that if U : C(T) ---> C(S) is a linear positive
operator then U is continuous and II U II = II U ( 1) II, where 1 E C (T) is the constant function
equal to 1.
2. i) Let cp (x, t) : [0, 1] x [0, 1]---> [0, oo) be a continuous function such that acpjax:
[0, 1] x [0, 1] ---> [0, oo) exists and is continuous. Prove that the operator U : C[O, 1] --->
C[O, 1], (U f) (x) = J; cp (x, t) f (t) dt is linear and continuous, with IlUll = J 01 cp (1, t) dt.
ii) Using (i) prove that the operator U: C[O, 1] ---> C[O, 1], (U f) (x) = J 01 ext f (t) dt is
linear and continuous, and IIU II = e - 1.
3. For any n EN, let: Un : C [0, 1] ---> C [0, 1], (Unf) (x) = f (xl+l/n).
i) Prove that Unf---> fin C [0, 1] Vf E C [0, 1].
ii) Prove that IIUn- Ill = 2 for all n EN, and therefore Undoes not converge towards
I in the norm topology, but Un converges pointwise towards I.
4. We consider the operator U: C[O, 1] ---> C[O, 1], (U f) (x) = J 01 ext f (t) dt, and the
sequences of operators Un, Vn : C[O, 1] ---> C[O, 1],
(Unf) (x)
[ 1 (
Jo n (tx)k) f (t) dt,
£; ~
(Vnf)(x) = 1~-Enextj(t)dt,
where 0 < En < 1, En ---> 0. Prove that IIUn - Ull ---> 0 and IIVn - Ull ---> 0.
5. WeconsidertheoperatorU: C[0,1]---> C[0,1], (Uf)(x) = J;etf(t)dt,andthe
sequence of operators Un: C[O, 1]---> C[O, 1],
(Unf) (x) = Jor (£; tk)

n
k! f (t) dt.
Prove that IIUn - Ull ---> 0.
The composition as an operator acting on two C(T) spaces
6. Let T, S be two compact Hausdorff spaces, and h : S ---> T a continuous function.

Let U : C(T) ---> C(S) be the composition operator (U f)(s) = f(h(s) ).
i) Prove that U is linear and continuous, and find the norm of U.
ii) Prove that U is surjective if and only if h is injective.
iii) Prove that U is an isometry if and only if h is surjective.
38 Linear and continuous operators on normed spaces
The norm for some linear and continuous operators
00
7. Let (~n)n>o E Zoo. We define U: h----+ C [0, 1], (Ua) (x)
-
= L an~nXn 'Vx E [0, 1],
n=O
'Va = (an)n>o E h. Prove that U is well defined, linear, and continuous, with IIUII
sup l~nl· -
n2':0
00
8. Let 1 ~ p < oo and U: Z00 ----+ Lp[O, 1], U(x1, x2, ... ) = L XnX[~, 2 n'_f )·Prove that
n=l
U is a linear and continuous operator, and calculate IlUll .
Norm convergence and pointwise convergence for sequences of operators
9. We consider the linear operators An : Z2 ----+ Z2, Bn : Z2 ----+ Z2, An (x)

(xJ/n,,x2/(2n),x3/(3n), ... ), Bn(x) = (O,O, ... ,O,xn+l,Xn+2, ... ) 'Vx = (x1,x2, ... ) E
Z2, 'Vn E N. Prove that IIAnll ----+ 0 and Bn (x) ----+ 0 'Vx E Z2, but that (Bn)nEN does not
converge towards 0 in the operator norm.
If L (X, Y) is a Banach space, then Y is a Banach space
10. Let X andY be two normed spaces such that Xi- {0}. If L (X, Y) is a Banach
space, prove that Y is a Banach space.
lsometries
11. Let 1 ~ p < oo. Find an isometry j :Zoo----+ L (Lp [0, 1]).
00
12. Let 1 ~ p < oo and consider U : Zp ----+ Lp[O, oo), U (x) L XnX[n-l,n)
n=l
'Vx = (x 1, x 2, ... ) E Zp. Prove that U is an isometry.
The Hardy operators on the space ZP
13. i) Let 1 < p < oo, n EN, a 1 2:: 0, ... , an 2:: 0. Prove the inequalities
and
(t, (a,+ ~ +a, rr P: (t,a:f

<; I
ii) Let 1 < p < oo and let H : Zp ----+ Zp be the Hardy operator defined by
Prove that His linear and continuous, and that IIHII = pf (p- 1).
2.1 Exercises 39
iii) Let f : [0, oo) ----+ [0, oo) be a continuous differentiable convex function, with
f(O) = 0, and let (an)nEN <;;; [O,oo). Prove that
iv) Consider 1 < p < oo and let H : lP ----+ lp be the Hardy operator defined by
Prove that His linear and continuous, and that IIHII = p.
The Hilbert, Hardy, and Schur operators on the space LP(O, oo)
14. i) Let 1 < p < oo and K : (0, oo) ----+ ~be a Hardy kernel, i.e., a Lebesgue
J
measurable function with the property that 000 x- 1 /P IK (x) I dx < oo. We consider the
operators IK : Lp(O, oo) ----+ Lp(O, oo) defined by IK f (x) = (1lx) 000 K (ylx) f (y) dy f
and MK : Lp(O, oo) ----+ Lp(O, oo) defined by MKJ (x) = x 1- 2 1P K (xy) f (y) dy. Jt
Prove that IK and MK are linear and continuous, and that
11 00
Y- 1/PK(y)dyl :=:; IIIKII :=:; 100
y- 1/PIK(y)ldy,
11 00
Y- 1 /P K (y) dyl :=:; IIMKII :=:; 1 00
Y- 1 /P IK (y)l dy.
f
In particular, if K :2: 0, then IIMKII = IIIKII = 000 y- 1 /P K (y) dy.
ii) Prove that for the Hardy operator H : Lp (0, oo) ----+ LP (0, oo) defined by H f (x) =
(1lx) fox f (y) dy, we have IIHII =PI (p- 1).
iii) Prove that for the Hilbert operator H : Lp (0, oo) ----+ LP (0, oo) defined by H f (x) =
J0
00
(f (y) I (x + y)) dy we have IIHII = 1rl sin~·
iv) Prove that for the Schur operator S : Lp (0, oo) ----+ Lp (0, oo) defined by Sf (x) =
J0 (f (y) I max(x, y)) dy we have liS II = p I (p- 1).
00 2
v) Prove that for any a > 0, the modified Riemann-Liouville integral operator of order
a, Ra: Lp(O, oo)----+ Lp(O, oo) defined by
1 t (x- Yt- 1
Raf(x) = r (a) Jo xa f(y)dy
is linear and continuous, with IIRall = r (1- 1lp) If (a+ 1- 1lp).

vi) Prove that for any a > 0, the operator I a : LP (0, oo) ----+ LP (0, oo) defined by
Iaf(x) = -1
xa
1x 0
Ya- 1 j(y)dy
is linear and continuous, with Ilia II = B (1- 1lp, a).

Here, r and B are the Euler functions.
The Schauder basis
15. Let a, (3 E C\ {0} such that 0 < lf3/al < 1, and let x1 = (a, (3, 0, ... ), x2 =
(0, a, (3, 0, ... ), x 3 = (0, 0, a, {3, 0, ... ), .... Prove that (xn)nEN is a Schauder basis in l2.
16. Let X be a Banach space and (xn)nEN <;;; X be a Schauder basis. We denote by
Y = { y = (an)nEN <;;; JK.I f 1 anXn converges} and for any y E Y, we define IIYII 1 =
sup lit a;x;ll· Prove that (Y, 11·11 1) is a Banach space.

nEN 2=1
17. Let X be a Banach space which has a Schauder basis (xn)nEN' For every x E X,
00
x = 2:: akxk, and for every n E N we define x~ (x) = an. Prove that x~ E X* for all
k=1
n EN.
18. Let X be a Banach space which has a Schauder basis (xn)nEN' Prove that
Xn t/:- Sp{x 1, ... ,xn_ 1 ,Xn+ 1 ,Xn+ 2 , ... }ll·ll Vn EN, i.e., the system (xn)nEN is topologically
linearly independent.
Separable Banach spaces are quotient of h
19. Prove that any separable Banach space is a quotient of h, i.e., if X is a separable
Banach space, then there is a linear continuous and surjective operator from l 1 to X. More
precisely, if (xn)nEN <;;;Ex is a dense set one can consider Q: l1 --"X, Q ((an)nEN)
00
2:: anXn.
n=1
A characterization for separable Banach spaces
20. Prove that a Banach space X is separable if and only if it is isometrically iso-
morphic with a closed linear subspace of a C (K) space, where K is a compact metric
space.
Non-separable Banach spaces
21. Let (X, d) be a metric space with the property that there are A <;;; X, A uncountable,
and c > 0, such that: Va, b E A, a -=1- b, we have d( a, b) 2: c. Prove that X is not a separable
space.
22. Prove that Zoo is not a separable space.
23. Prove that for any 1:::; p < oo, the space L(LP [0, 1]) is not separable.
24. Find:
i) an isometry j : Zoo --" L (h, C [0, 1]) .
ii) for 1 ::=; p < oo, an isometry j :Zoo--'> L(Zp)·
Then deduce that L (Z 1, C [0, 1]) and L(lp), 1 :::; p < oo, are not separable spaces.
An extension result
25. Let X and Y be two normed spaces, and T : X --" Y a linear continuous and
surjective operator. Prove that the operator T: X/kerT--" Y, T(x+kerT) = Tx
Vx EX, is a well defined bijective linear and continuous operator, and that II Til = IITII·
2.1 Exercises 41
Operators with closed range
26. Let X be a complex normed space and T : X ----+ X a linear and continuous
operator.
i) Prove that if there is S : X ----+ X linear and continuous such that T = T ST, then
the range ofT in X is a closed set.
N
ii) Deduce that if there is P E C [z], P (z) = :Z:::: anzn, such that P (T) = 0, then:
n=O
a) If a 0 # 0, prove that the range ofT is a closed set in X.
b) If min { k = 0, N I ak # 0} = m > 0, prove that rm has closed range.
The dual for the inclusion operator
27. Let X be a normed space, Y ~ X a linear subspace, and i : Y ----+ X the inclusion
operator. Prove that i* : X* ----+ Y* is the restriction operator, that is, i*(x*) = x*ly,
Vx* EX*.
Isometric isomorphisms
28. Let X and Y be two Banach spaces, and T E L (X, Y). Prove that T is an
isometric isomorphism if and only ifT* E L (Y*, X*) is an isometric isomorphism.
Biorthogonal systems
29. Let X be a Banach space and (xi)iEN ~X, (xi)iEN ~ X* a biorthogonal system
for X, i.e., x?(xj) = bij for all i, j EN.
i) If sup II f x* (xi) x7 II < oo for any x* E X*, prove that the representation x
nEN z=l
00 . 11·11
:Z:::: x? (x) Xi lS true for every x E Sp {xn In EN} .
i=l
ii) Ifsupllfx?(x)xill < oo for any x EX, prove that the representation x*
nEl\1 z=l
00 11·11
.
•
:Z:::: x* (xi) x;: 1s true for every x* E Sp {x~ In EN}
i=l
The lifting property for h
30. Let X be a Banach space, and T: l1 ----+X a linear and continuous operator. Prove
that for any Banach space Y, for any metric surjection Q : Y ----+ X, and for any c > 0, there
is a linear and continuous operator T: l1 ----+ Y such that IIT'll : : ; (1 +c) IITII, T = Q o T.
An operator Q E L(X, Y) is called a metric surjection if it is surjective and IIQxll =
inf{IIYIII Qy = Qx} Vx EX.
31. Let X be a Banach space, and Y a closed linear subspace of X. Prove that for
any c > 0 and for any T E L(l 1 , X/Y), there is T E L(h, X) such that Q o T = T and
IIT'll : : ;
(1 +c) IITII, where Q: X----+ X/Y is the canonical projection.
The extension property for leo
32. i) Let X be a normed space. If T : X ---+ leo is a linear and continuous operator,
prove that there is a bounded sequence (x~)nEN s;:; X* such that T (x) = (x~ (x))nEN"
Muchmore, IITII =sup llx~ll-
nEN
ii) If X is a normed space, Y s;:; X is a _linear subspace, and T : Y ---+ leo is a linear
and continuous operator, prove that there is T : X ---+ leo linear and continuous such that
i t = T, IITII = IITII-
An operator with the above properties is called a Phillips extension forT.
2.2 Solutions
1. See [42, exercise 37, chapter IV].
Let f E C(T) with 11!11 ::::; 1, i.e., lf(t)l ::::; 1 Vt E T, that is, -1 ::::; f::::; 1. Therefore
f + 1 2 0, U(f + 1) 2 0, -U(l) ::::; U(f). Analogously, U(f) ::::; U(l). Thus -U(l) ::::;
U(f) ::::; U(l), and therefore IIU(f)ll ::::; IIU(l)ll V 11!11 ::::; 1. Thus U is continuous and
IIUII :S: IIU(l)ll- Also IIU(l)ll :S: IIUIIIIlll- But IIlii = sup 11 (t)l = 1, and therefore
tET
IIU(l)ll::::; IIUII- we obtain that IIU(l)ll = IIUII-
2. (i) Iff E C[O, 1], i.e., f : [0, 1] ---+ lR is continuous, then since r.p : [0, 1] x [0, 1] ---+
[0, oo) is continuous we obtain that h(x, t) = r.p (x, t) f (t), h : [0, 1] x [0, 1] ---+ lR is also
continuous. Then the function x f-------7 J01 r.p (x, t) f (t) dt is continuous, i.e., U (!) E C [0, 1].
Evidently, U is a linear operator. We prove that U is a positive operator. Let f E C[O, 1],
f 2 0, i.e., f (t) 2 0 Vt E [0, 1]. Then since r.p (x, t) 2 0 V (x, t) E [0, 1] x [0, 1] it follows
J
that 01 r.p (x, t) f (t) dt 2 0 Vx E [0, 1], i.e., (U f) (x) 2 0 Vx E [0, 1], U f 2 0. Using
exercise 1 we obtain that IIUII = IIU(l)ll- Let h = U(l). Then h(x) = f 01 r.p(x,t)dt
Vx E [0, 1]. Since or.p I ox : [0, 1] X [0, 1] ---+ [0, 00) is continuous, from the theorem on
differentiation in a Riemann integral with parameter it follows that h is differentiable on
[0, 1] and h' (x) = f01 ~ (x, t) dt Vx E [0, 1]. Also, since or.pjox is positive it follows that
h' (x) = J01 ~ (x, t) dt 2 0 Vx E [0, 1], i.e., his increasing. Then llhll = sup h (x) =
xE[O,l]
h ( 1) = J0
1 r.p ( 1, t) dt.
(ii) We take r.p: [0, 1] x [0, 1] ---+ [0, oo), r.p (x, t) =ext, with~ (x, t) =text. Then by
(i) U is a linear and continuous operator and IlUll = f01 r.p (1, t) dt = f01 etdt = e- 1.

i) Let f E C [0, 1]. Using the Weierstrass theorem, for every n EN there is acnE [0, 1]
such that IIUnf- !II = J! (c~+l/n)- f (cn)J. Suppose now that IIUnf- !II does not
converge towards 0, and therefore there are an E > 0 and a subsequence (nk)kEN of N
such that IIUnkf- !II 2 E Vk EN, i.e., J! (c~~l/nk)- f(cnk)J:::=: E Vk EN (1). Since
(cnk)kEN s;:; [0, 1] we use Cesaro's lemma and without loss of generality we assume that
Cnk ---+ Co E [0, 1]. Then c~~l/nk ---+ Co and f ( c~~l/nk) ---+ f(co), f(cnk) ---+ f(co). We
2.2 Solutions 43
obtain that f (c;,tl/nk) - f(cnk) ____, 0, which contradicts (1).

ii) We have: IIUn- Ill = sup IIUn (f)- !II = sup sup If (xl+l/n)- f (x)l :S
[[/[[9 [[f[[9 xE[O,l]
sup sup (If (xl+l/n) I+ if (x)l) :S 2. For every n E N we consider fn E C [0, 1] such
[[/[[9 xE[O,l]
that the graph off connects, linearly, the points (0, 0), ( (1/2)1+l/n, 1), (1/2, -1) and
(1, 1). Evidently, llfnlloo = 1and
IIUn Un)- fnlloo = sup lfn (x1+ 1/n) - fn (x) I ~ lfn ( (1/2) 1+1/n) - fn (1/2) = 2.
xE[O,l]
I
We obtain that IIUn - Ill ~ 2, and therefore IIUn - Ill = 2Vn E N.
Remark. The same type of reasoning shows that if g : [0, 1] ____, [0, 1] is a continuous
function which is not the identity map, and we define T: C [0, 1] ____, C [0, 1], (Tf) (x) =
f (g (x)), we obtain a linear and continuous operator such that liT- Ill = 2.
We know (see exercise 2) that Uf, Unf, Vnf E C[O, 1] Vf E C [0, 1], Vn EN. Using
00
the Taylor expansion ex = I: xn jn! we have

n=O
(U f - u.f) (x) ~ [ (.~, ( ':!') f (t) dt
By exercise 1 we have
IIUn- VII= sup

xE[0,1]
{
Jo
1
( f
k=n+l
(t:r) dt =
·
t ( f ~) dt ____, o.
Jo k=n+l ·
We also have
(Uf-Vnf) (x) = { 1 extj(t)dt-1 1-en extj(t)dt = f"n extf(t)dt+j 1 extj(t)dt.

Jo en Jo l-en
This equality shows that U - Vn is a positive operator, and using exercise 1 we obtain that
IIU- Vnll = II(U- Vn) (1)11 = sup (

xE[0,1]
rn extdt !,
Jo
+
1
1-en
extdt)
since En ____, 0.

From standard analysis we know that iff : [0, 1] ____, JR. is a continuous function, then
x f----+ J;f (t) dt is also a continuous function, i.e., U and Un take their values in C[O, 1].
Using the Taylor expansion et = f

n=O
t~
n.
we obtain that
(U f- Unf) (x) = r (k~ 1 tk)

Jo
00
k! f (t) dt 'v'x E [0, 1].
Then
I(Uf- Unf) (x)l::; Jo r (k~ 1 k!tk) If (t)l

00
t (k~ 1 k!tk) dt,
dt :::= llfll Jo
00
for all x E [0, 1], thus
IIUn- Ull ::; llfll Jo t (k~ 1 k!tk) dt 'v'f

00
E C[O, 1],
I.e.,
{1 (
IIUn - Ull ::; Jo k~1 k!
00
tk) dt.
tk jk!, Un: [0, 1]

00
2:::
00
But ifun (t) = -4 IR, then lun (t)l ::; 2::: 1/k! -4 0, i.e., Un -4 0
k=n+1 k=n+l
uniformly on [0, 1]. Then f 01 Un (t) dt - 4 0. Thus IIUn- Ull -4 0.
To calculate IIUn- Ull, we can also use exercise 1, if we observe that U - Un
C[O, 1] - 4 C[O, 1] is positive and therefore
IIUn- Ull = II(Un- U) (1)11 = x~Yt1] Jo r (k~1 tk)

00
t ( tk)
k! dt Jo k~1 k! dt. =
00
6. See [36, exercise 1, chapter 3, section 9).

i) Let us observe first that U is well defined, since the composition of two continuous
functions is a continuous function, and that U is linear. Since U is positive and U(1) = 1,
using exercise 1 it follows that IIUII = IIU(1)11 = 1.
ii) Suppose that U is surjective. Let s 1 , s 2 E S with s 1 cJ s 2 . By the well known
Urysohn lemma it follows that there is an f E C (S) such that 0 ::; f (s) ::; 1 Vs E S, with
f(s 1 ) = 1 and f(s 2 ) = 0. Since U is surjective there is a cp E C(T) such that U(cp) = f,
from whence 1 = f(sl) = cp(h(sl)) and 0 = f(s 2 ) = cp(h(s 2 )), thus h(s 1 ) cJ h(s 2 ), i.e., h
is injective.
Conversely, suppose that h is injective. Since h is continuous and S is compact, it
follows that the co-restriction of h, i.e., h : S -4 h(S) is a homeomorphism (see the
remark following the solution for exercise 29 of chapter 14). Let now g E C(S). Then
the function go h- 1 : h(S) - 4 IRis continuous. Now by the Tietze extension theorem it
follows that there is an f E C(T) such that f (t) = (go h- 1 ) (t) \It E h(S), and then
f (h(s)) = g(s) \Is E S, i.e., U(f) =g.
2.2 Solutions 45
iii) Suppose that U is an isometry. Let t 0 E T. If h(S) n {to} = 0, since h(S) is

compact, by the Urysohn lemma we obtain that there is an f E C(T) with 0 :::; f (t) :::; 1
\:It E T, f = 0 on h(S) and f(to) = 1. Since U is an isometry, we have IIU(f)ll = llfll·
But f = 0 on h(S), i.e., f(h(s)) = 0 \:Is E S, i.e., U(f) = 0, so llfll = 0, i.e. f = 0,
which is false, because f (t 0 ) = 1. Hence for each t 0 E T, h( S) n { t 0 } # 0, i.e., there is
s E S such that h(s) = t 0 . Therefore his surjective.
Conversely, if his surjective then h(S) = T, hence sup lf(h(s))l = sup If (t)l, i.e.,
sES tET
IIU(f)ll = llfll \:If E C(T).
n=O
00
Using the Weierstrass criterium we obtain that the series L an~nxn is uniformly conver-
n=o
00
gent on [0, 1] and that the function x L an~nxn is a continuous one, i.e., U(a) E
If: an~nxnl
f-------7
n=O
C [0, 1] \:Ia E h. Clearly U is linear. Also IIU(a)ll = sup :::; llallll~ll, i.e.,
xE[0,1] n=O
U is continuous, IIUII :::; 11~11 =sup l~nl· But (Uen) (x) = ~nxn Vx E [0, 1] and therefore
n::>O
l~nl :::; IIUII \:In 2: 0. We obtain that sup l~nl = IIUII·
n::>O
8. If x E Zoo , then
00 p 00
L XnX[~'zn'__,) = L
n=1
lxnlp X[fn-,-zn'__-, )'
n=1
f' f'
and therefore
Iif! (x) II, ~ ( [ ~ lxnl' X[,k.,.S )d~ ~ (~ lxn I' ;n <; llxll < oo,
i.e., U (x) E Lp[O, 1]. Since U is linear, from the above inequality we obtain that U is
continuous and IIUII :::; 1. But for any n EN, x = (1, 1, ... , 1,0, ... ) E Zoo (n times 1),
n
llxll = 1, and U (x) = L X[~, 2 k'_,) = X[fn-, 1). Using the fact that IIU (x)ll :::; IIUIIIIxll,
k=1
we obtain that (1- 1/2n) 11P :::; IIUII \:In E N, and, for n ___, oo, 1 :::; IIUII, and therefore
IIUII = L
We have
IIAn(x)ll ~ (~ ~~:r ~ ~ (~ ~~rr <; ~ (~1x,1'f ~ ~ llxll

i.e., IIAnll :::; 1/n ----t 0. Also, liEn (x)ll = c=~+11xk1 2 ) 112 Vx E z2. But X E Z2,
oo n oo
i.e., s = 2:: lxnl 2 < oo, and therefore s- 2:: lxkl 2 ___, 0, i.e., 2:: lxkl 2 ___, 0. Thus
n=1 k=1 k=n+1
co ) 1/2 ( co ) 1/2
liEn (x)ll--+ 0 Vx E l2. Also liEn (x)ll = ( k=~+ 1 lxkl 2 :S {::1 1xkl 2 = llxll, i.e.,
liEn II :S 1. For en+l = (0, 0, ... ,0, 1, 0, ... ) E l2, En(en+1) = en+1, thus 1 = llen+111 =
IIEn(en+1)11 :S 11Enllllen+111 = IIEnll, and therefore IIEnll = 1 Vn EN.
10. Consider x 0 E X, with llxoll = 1. Using the Hahn-Banach theorem we obtain

that there is an x* E X*, llx*ll = 1, such that x* (xo) = llxoll = 1. Consider now a
Cauchy sequence (Yn)nEN c;;; Y. We define the operators An :X--+ Y, An (x) = x* (x) Yn·
Evidently An E L (X, Y) Vn E N. Also: IIAn- Am II = sup llx* (x) (Yn- Ym)ll =
llxll-<;1
llYn- Ymll sup lx* (x)l = llYn- Ymll Vn, m E N, that is, (An)nEN c;;; L (X, Y) is a
llxll9
Cauchy sequence. Since L (X, Y) is a Banach space, there is an operator A E L (X, Y)
such that An --+ A in norm. Let Axo = Yo· Then llYn- Yo II = II An (xo)- A (xo)ll =
II(An- A) (xo)ll :S IIAn- Allllxoll--+ 0, therefore Yn--+ Yo, andY is a Banach space.
Remark. The converse is also true. If Y is a Banach space, and X is a normed space,
then L (X, Y) is a Banach space.
11. Let An = [ 2~, 2 }~ 1 ), n E N. For x = (xn)nEN E leo we consider Ux : Lp[O, 1] --+

co
Lp[O, 1], Ux(f) = 2::: XnXAnf. Evidently, Ux is a linear operator. Since (An)nEN are
n=1
co
pairwise disjoint sets, we have IUxUW = 2::: lxniP XAn IJIP, and therefore
n=1
1 1
IUx(JW dJL = ~ lxnlp 1n IJIP dJL
< llxllp ~ 1n IJIP = llxllp 1 1

IJIP dJL < 00
(we have used the property U An = (0, 1) and that if g is a positive measurable func-
nEN
tion then A f----t JA gdJL is a countably additive measure). Thus Ux(f) E Lp[O, 1] and
IIUx(f)ll s; llxllllfll \If E Lp[O, 1], i.e., Ux is linear and continuous, IIUxll :S llxll Vx E leo.
For any kEN we have: IIUx(XAk)ll s; IIUxiiiiXAkll- Since (An)nENare pairwise disjoint
sets, we have Ux(XAJ = XkXAk' and therefore IIUx(XAk)ll = llxkXAJ = lxkl (JL(Ak)) 11P.
Thus lxkl (JL(Ak)) 11P s; IIUxll (JL(Ak)) 11P, JL(Ak) > 0, and therefore lxkl :S IIUxll Vk EN,
hence llxll = sup lxkl :S IIUxll- Thus IIUxll = llxll Vx E leo. Let j : leo --+
kEN
L(Lp[O, 1]), j (x) = Ux. Evidently j is a linear operator, and llj (x)ll = IIUxll = llxll
Vx E l 00 , i.e., j is an isometry.
co
12. We have IU (xW = 2::: lxniP X[n- 1,n), and therefore
n=1
i.e., IIU (x)ll = llxll Vx E lp.

2.2 Solutions 47
13. See [28, p. 328].

Let q be the conjugate ofp. Let M 0 = 0 and Mk =(at+···+ ak) /k, 1 ~ k ~ n. For
1 ~ k ~ n we have
M P - -p- Mp-t ak Mk- _P_Mk-t (kMk- (k- 1) Mk_t)

k p -1 k p-1
pk ) p k - 1
( 1 - - - Mk + --pMk Mk-1·
p-1
==
p-1 p-1
Since the function x f-------+ log x is concave we have the inequality
log axP + f3yP >--~----~~

a log xP + f3log yP
a+/3 - a+/3
for any a, /3, x, y > 0. In particular, for a = p - 1, f3 = 1, we obtain that pxP- 1 y <
(p- 1) xP + yP, for any x 2: 0, y 2: 0. From this we deduce that
P
M k- p Mp-t
- -1 k ak (1- _!!_!;___) MP 1 Mp-l M
+ kp-- 1p
p- p- 1 k k k-1
< (1--
pk-) k - 1 ((p-1 ) M p +Mp_ )
M p +--
p-1 k p-1 k kl
- 1 - ((k -1) MLl- kMk).

p-1
Hence we have the inequality
Adding these inequalities for k = 1, ... , n we deduce that
n n MP
"""'MP - _P_ """'Mp-ta < -~ < 0
~ k 1~ k k- 1- '
k=l p- k=l p-
i.e., the first inequality from the statement. Applying the Holder inequality we deduce that
p~ 1t,Mr'a, $ p~ 1(t,Mr-'>·r (t,atf

n
<
p~1 (t.M,r (t.afr

and from here
(t,M,r p~ 1(t,a:f $
The inequalities from the exercise are called the Elliott's inequalities.
ii) Let x = (xn)nEN E lP" From (i) and the properties for the modulus we deduce that
for any n E N we have
and passing to the limit for n --+ oo we deduce that
i.e., IIH (x)ll ~ (pj (p- 1)) llxll Vx E lp, so since His linear it follows that His con-
tinuous with IIHII ~ pf (p- 1). To prove the converse inequality, consider the element
n
x = (1, 1/21/P, ... , 1/n 11P, 0, ... ) E lp. We have IIH (x)IIP ~ IIHIIP llxiiP, llxiiP = L 1/k
k=1
and
(1 ( 1 1 1 ))p
IIH (x)IIP ~ n
{; k + 21/p + · · · + k1fp
It follows that
n
I: G(1 + ;j,p + · · · + k111v))p
IIHIIP ~ k=1 n \:In E N.
k=1
I:t
Using the Stolz-Cesaro lemma we obtain that
n
lim
I: G(1 + 2/1P + · · · + k/lv))p
_k=_1_ _ _----,n_ _ _ _ __
I:t
n-->oo
k=1
1 + 2fi'P 1 )p
lim (
1
+ ... + ~
n-->00 n1fq
Again by the Stolz-Cesaro lemma,

1 1 - 1- 1 ( n ) 1/p
l" 1 + 2fi'P + ... + ~ = lim (n+ 1 ) 1 /v = lim -;; n+l = _P_
n~~ n1fq n-->oo (n + 1)1/q _ n1/q n-->oo (1 + ~)1/q _ 1 p- 1
Thus IIHII ~ pf (p- 1).

iii) Using Lagrange's theorem, f(b) - f(a) = (b- a)f'(c), a < c < b, and since
f' is increasing (f is convex), we obtain that f(b) - f(a) ~ (b - a)f'(b). Therefore
f(x +a)- f(a) ~ xf'(x +a) \:10 ~ x, a< oo, that is, f(x +a)- xf'(x +a) ~ f(a). If
n+p
x = an and a = L ak, we obtain that
k=n+1
2.2 Solutions 49
Consider now <p : [0, oo )P+ 1 ----+ lR given by
We have that
~(a., an+' a,.w) f @a,)-~.!' (~a,)-'~' a,f' (~ai)

< {~,a}'~' a,f' (~ ai)
<p(O, an+1, an+2• ... , an+p)·
Then <p(O, an+ 1, an+2, ... , an+p) ::; <p(O, 0, an+ 2, ... , an+p) ::; · · · ::; <p(O, 0, 0, ... , an+p)· But
<p(O, 0, 0, ... , x) = f (x) - x/ (x) :S 0 \7'0 :S x < oo, since f is convex on [0, oo) and
f (0) = 0. Thus <p(an, an+ 1, ... , an+p) :S 0, i.e., the inequality we wanted.
Taking f (x) = xP, p > 1, we obtain the Davies-Petersen inequalities, i.e.,
and, form----+ oo,
00
iv) For any positive sequence (an)nEN E lP, let bn = I:; ak/k. Then for any n EN we
k=n
have bn- bn+1 = an/n.
First solution. Fix n E N. Using the Davies-Petersen inequality, we have
(~ ak)P < ~ ak (~ aj)p-

~ k _p ~ k ~ .
1
= ~ akll:- 1'
p~ k k
k=n k=n j=k J k=n
00
i.e., Oft::; pI:; (ak/k) ~- 1 , hence

k=n
n
i=1
thus
00 00
Since (bn)nEN is decreasing we have L (ak/k) ~- 1 S ZY,;- 1 L (ak/k) = {Y,;, hence

k=n k=n
s s
00
n L (ak/k) ~- 1 n[Y,;. Now again by the Holder inequality we have n!Y,;

k=n
00 ) ( 00 )pjq
n (
k~n a~ k~n 1/kq . But
00
- < 1 100 -dx=
1 1
~kq- n-1xq (q-1)(n-1)q- 1 '
so
n
< <
0 nl}P_
~ aP ---> 0.
00 )
- n-
(
k (q- 1)Pjq (n- 1)
Using that
£; ~ S £; a~
n ( n ) 1/p (
£; ~n ) 1/q
r((t,b:r (t,a:f')
p + pnll:,,
that is,
(~~ 1' Spn~

from here it follows easily that the increasing sequence ( 't ~)
k=1 nEN
is upper bounded, i.e.,
L lY,; s
00
L lY,;
00
the series is convergent. Passing to the limit for n ---> ex: we obtain that
n=1 n=1
p (f= a~) (f= lY,;)

1
l/p
1
1
/q, or (f= lY,;)
1
1
/P S p (f= a~) 1
11
P. Now if x = (xn)nEN E lp
00 00
andwewritern = L (xk/k),thenlrnl S L (lxkl/k)andbytheaboveprovedinequality,

k=n k=n
applied for {lxkl}, we have
2.2 Solutions 51
i.e., IIH (x)ll ~ p llxll Vx E lP. To prove the reverse inequality let a > 1/p and for n EN
consider the element x = (0, ... , 0, 1/n", 1/ (n + 1)"', ... ) E lp. We have
1 1 1 )
L L L
(X) CXl CXl
H (x) = (
k"'+l' ... , ko:+l' ka+1' ... '
k=n k=n k=n+1
It follows that
(f k}+!)p +( f k}+l)p + 0 0 0
IIHIIP 2: k=n CXJ k=n+1 \:In E N.

L
k=n
k~P
Using the Stolz-Cesaro lemma we obtain that
.
l Im
(fk=n
k}+l)p +( f
k=n+1
k"\l)p + 0 0 0
lim
-(f k=n
k"1
1
+l)p
CXl
n-----+oo --
n---+oo '"""" _L_ n"'P
~ kap
k=n
(f k}+!)p
lim ---"-'k_=c..::._n.,----'---
n-->CXJ
1
1 )p
hm
0 (
ncr ~ --
CXl
ket+
r'
n-->CXJ 1
hence IIHIIP 2: (;~~ ( n"' k~n (1/k"+ 1)) i.e., IIHII 2: 1~~ (ncr k~n (1/kcr+l)) 0 Now
again by the Stolz-Cesaro lemma we have
00
2:: k}+!
. 1
- ;;:n+r . n a-1 1
lim k=n 1 = 1!ill = 1llll = -.
n---+oo ~
n"'
n-->CXJ - - -
1
(n+1)"
-
n''
1
n-->CXJ n + 1)
--,-(------,--,-<>--
- n" a
Thus IIHII 2: 1/a, a> 1/p, and passing to the limit for a----+ 1/p, a> 1/p we obtain that
IIHII 2: p.
Second solution. Consider a fixed n E N. For 1 ~ k ~ n we have Of. - p!Jf.- 1 ak =
Of.- p!Jf.- 1 (kbk- kbk+ 1 ) = (1- pk) Of.+ kp!Jf.- 1 bk+l· Since pxP- 1 y ~ (p- 1) xP + yP,
for any x 2: 0, y 2: 0, from this we deduce that Of. - p!Jf.- 1 ak ~ ( 1 - pk) Of. +
k ((p- 1) Of.+ ll/.+ 1) = kll/.+ 1 - (k- 1) Of.. Hence we have that Of. - p!Jf.- 1 ak ~
n
kl}f+ 1 - (k- 1) Of. Adding these inequalities fork = 1, ... , n, we deduce that I: Of -
k=1
n n n
p I: Of- 1 ak ::; nfl;,+ 1 . By the Holder inequality, we have I: Of :S p I: Of- 1 ak + nfl;,+ 1 :S
k=l k=1 k=1
p c~1 a~) 1/p c~1 b~-l)q) 1/q + nll;,+1• i.e.,'£ Of ::; p (i=l a~) 1/p (i=1 Of) 1/q + nll;,+1·
From here we continue as in the first solution.
Third solution. If we identify l~ with lP then the operator from (iv) is the adjoint of the
operator from (ii). The details are the following.
Let H* : l~ ----+ l~ be the dual of the operator H from the part (ii). We know that l~ = lp·
(an)nEN if and only if x* (x) = n=1
00
In fact, the map J : l~ ----+ lp defined by J (x*) = I: anXn

Vx = (xn)nEN E lq, is an isomorphic isometry. We consider the diagram
H*
l*q ---'> l*q
J-1 r 1 J
JH*J-1
lp ---'> lp
and we will prove that ( J H* J- 1)(an)nEN = c~n (ak/ k)) nEN v (an)nEN E lp, i.e.,
J H* J- 1 is the operator from the statement. Since IIH*II = IIHII and J is an isomorphic
isometry, we obtain that IIJH* J- 1 1 = IIHII, and by (ii), IIHII = p.
Let a = (an)nEN E lp. Let J- 1 (a) = x*, i.e., J (x*) = (an)nEN, which means that
00
x* ( (xn)nEN) = I; anXn V (xn)nEN E lq. In particular, x* (0, ... 0, 1/n, 1/ (n + 1), ... ) =
n=1
k~n (ak/k). Let also J- 1( c~ (ak/k)) nEJ = y*. Then J (y*) = c~n (ak/k)) nEN)
which means that
00
In particular, y* (en) = I; (ak/ k) Vn E N. We must prove that
J.
k=n
(W.J ')(a)~ r' ( (~ (a,jk))

We have ( H* J- 1 ) (a) = H* ( x*) = x* o H, the last equality by the definition of the dual for
a linear and continuous operator. The equality which we must prove is now x* o H = y*.
Since both members are linear and continuous, it is enough to prove that (x* o H) (en) =
y* (en) 'in E N. We have H (en) = H (0, ... , 0, 1, 0, ... ) = (0, ... 0, 1/n, 1/ (n + 1), ... ),
and then
L (akjk)
00
(x* o H) (en)= x* (0, ... 0, 1/n, 1/ (n + 1), ... ) = = y* (en).

k=n
2.2 Solutions 53
14. See [28, p. 326], or [20, exercises 20, 21, chapter VI, section 11].
i) Let g E Lq(O, oo) where 1/p + 1/q = 1. We use the Fubini theorem to write
1 (~ 1 00 00
K (yjx) f (y) dy) g (x) dx = JJ ~K
(O,oo) 2
(yjx) f (y) g (x) dxdy
~ JJ ((v/xJ" GK(vfxlf' J(vl)

(O,oo) 2
((xfvl" (~K (vfx)f' 9(x)) dcdv,

and therefore, by the Holder inequality we have
for some a E lR which is to be calculated. For the first term we can again use the Fubini
theorem to write
JJ
(O,oo) 2
(yjx)"'P ~ IK (yjx)llf (y)jP dxdy = 1 (1
00 00
(yjx)"'P ~ IK (yjx)l dx) If (y)jP dy.
Now we evaluate the integral J0

00
(yjx)"'P (1/x) IK (yjx)l dx. We consider the change of
variables y / x = t, and then
1 00 (yjx)"'P -IK
1
(yjx)l dx =
100 tap- 1 IK (t)l dt.
0 X 0
We obtain that
JJ
(O,oo )2
(yjx)"'P ~ IK (yjx)llf (y)jP dxdy = (1 00
tap- 1 IK (t)l dt) (1 00
If (y)jP dy).
For the second term we proceed in the same way. We have
JJ
(O,oo )2
(xjy)"'q ~ IK (yjx)llg (xW dxdy = 1 (1
00 00
(xjy)"'q ~ IK (yjx)l dy) lg (xW dx.
Now we evaluate the integral J0 (xjy)"'q (1/x)00 IK (yjx) Idy. We make the change of vari-
ables yjx = t, and then
1 00 1
(xjy)"'q -IK (yjx)l dy = 100 co:q IK (t)l dt.
0 X 0
We obtain that
!!
(O,oo) 2
(xfytq ~ IK (yjx)llg (xW dxdy = (1 00
caq IK (t)l dt) (1 00
lg (xW dx).
Using this relations we obtain that
11 00
(~1 00 K(yjx)f(y)dy)g(x)dxi < (1 00
tap- 1 IK(t)ldtyjp
(1 00
If (y)lp dy) p
11
(1 00
caq IK (t)l dt) /q
1
(1oo lg (xW dx) 1

/q
IIJIIP llgllq (1 00
tap- 1 IK (t)l dt)
1
/p
(1 00
caq IK (t)l dt) /q.
1
Now we choose a E lR such that ap- 1 = -aq, i.e., a = 1/ (p + q) and o:p- 1 =

-qj (p + q) = -1/p, and we obtain that
l.ioo (~ 1 00
K(yjx)f(y)dy) g(x)dxi:::; IIJIIPII9IIq (ioo C 11 PIK(t)1dt).
But, as is well known, if we have a CJ- finite measure space (S, 2:, fJ), f is a measurable
function and M > 0 is a constant such that lfs fgdJ.LI :::; M llgllq Vg E Lq(J.L), then
f E LP (J.L) and I f I P :::; M. In our situation it follows that the function I Kf (x)
(1/x) f 000 K (yjx) f (y) dy belongs to Lp(O, oo) and
IIIKfll:::; IIJIIP (1oo C 11P IK (t)l dt) Vf E Lp(O, oo).
This implies IIIKII :::; fooo

C 11P IK (t)l dt.
For the second operator we will proceed in the same way. Let g E Lq(O, oo ). Then we
use the Fubini theorem to write
1oo (x 1- 2 !P 1oo K(xy)f(y)dy) g(x)dx = jj x fqx- 1PK(xy)f(y)g(x)dxdy

1 1
(O,oo) 2
~ if ((xy)" GK(xy)f' f(y))

(O,oo)2
( (x1y) a (xK (xy)) 1/q g (x)) dxdy.

2.2 Solutions 55
By Holder's inequality,
is lesser than
( !! (xy)"'p ~ IK (xy)iif (y)IP dxdy )

1/p (
!! (xy) 1 aq X IK (xy)iig (xW dxdy

) 1/q
(O,oo ) 2 (O,oo ) 2
for some a E ~ which is to be calculated. For the first term we can use again the Fubini
theorem to write
JJ
(O,oo) 2
(xy)"'P ~ IK (xy)iif (y)IP dxdy = 1 (1
00 00
(xy)"'P ~ IK (xy)i dx) If (y)IP dy.
Now we evaluate the integral J000 (xy)"'P (1/x) IK (xy)i dx. We consider the change of
variables x = tjy, and then
00 1 100
1 (xy)"'P -IK (xy)i dx = tap- 1 IK (t)l dt.
0 X 0
We obtain that
JJ
(O,oo) 2
(xy)"'P ~ IK (xy)iif (y)IP dxdy = (1 00
tap- 1 IK (t)l dt) (1 00
If (y)IP dy).
For the second term we proceed in the same way. We have
Now we evaluate the integral J000

(1/xy)aqx IK (xy)i dy. We make the change of variables
xy = t, and then
loroo ( xy1 ) aq IK (xy)i dy = loroo caq IK (t)l dt.

X
We obtain that
Using this relations we obtain that
11 (x 1
00
1 - 2 /P
00
K(xy)f(y)dy) g(x)dxl < (1 00 1
t'>:p- 1 IK(t)ldty p
(1 00
If (y) lp dy)
11
p
(1 00
raq IK (t)l dt)
11
q
(1 00
lg (x) lq dx) /q
1
II fliP llgllq (1 00
tap- 1 K (t) dt) /p
1
(1 00
raq IK (t)l dt) /q
1
Now we choose a E lR such that ap- 1 = -aq, i.e., a = 1/ (p + q) and ap- 1 =

-qj (p + q) = -1/p, and we obtain that
Then, as above, it follows that the function MKf (x) = x 1 - 2 /P Jt K (xy) f (y) dy belongs
to Lp(O, oo) and that IIMKfll :=::; II fliP (f000 t- 1/P IK (t)l dt) "'f E Lp(O, oo), and then
IIMKII :=::; fo00 t- 1/P IK (t)l dt.
Remark. We tried to choose a E lR such that f 000 tap- 1 K (t) dt < oo and
f 0 CaqK(t)dt < oo, i.e., ta- 11PK 11P(t) E Lp(O,oo) andt-aK 1fq(t) E Lq(O,oo).
00
Then by the Holder inequality it follows that t-a K 1fq (t) ta- 11PK 11P (t) E £ 1 (0, oo), i.e.,
t- 1/PK(t) E L 1 (0,oo),thatis,J000 t- 1/PIK(t)ldt < oo. Hencetheconditionfromthe
hypothesis is a very natural one.
In the remainder, we will use the well known results on the change of variables formula,
integration by parts for the Lebesgue integral and the Lebesgue differentiation theorem. For
a proof for these results the reader can consult [29, chapter V].
For any n E N, consider the functions fn,9n : (O,oo) - t lR defined by fn(x) =
x- 1/p+l/(pn)X(o,1) (x) and 9n (x) = x- 1/q+ 1/(qn)X(o,1) (x) Vx E (0, oo). Then IKfn(x) =
(1/x) J 01 K (yjx) y- 11P+ 1/(pn)dy and
1 00
IKfn(x)gn (x) dx = 11
IKfn(x)x- 1/q+ 1/(qn)dx
11 (~ 11 K (yjx) y-1/p+1/(pn)dy) x-1/q+1/(qn)dx
11 (11
x-1-1/q+l/(qn) K (yjx) y-1/p+l/pndy) dx.
2.2 Solutions 57
Making the change of variables ylx = t, we obtain that
11 K (ylx) y-1/p+1/(pn)dy = 11/x K (t) r1/p+1/(pn)x1-1/p+1/(pn)dt,
and then, since 1 - 1I p = 1I q, we obtain that
1oo 'hj,(.T)g, (x) dx ~ [ x-H/oH/(o"l ([h K ,-'In "l''"'x'h+'/(,mldt) dx

(t)
[ x-Hl/n ( 1* K (t) C l/n+l/(~•l,Jt) dx.

Now if we denote G (y) = J~ K (t) C 1IP+1/(pn)dt we have
1 00
IKfn(x)gn (x) dx = 1 1
x- 1+1/nc (1lx) dx.
For a fixed y E (O,oo), we have IK(t)c 11P+ 1 /(pn)l ::=:; y 1/(pn) IK(t)c 11PI
\It E (O,y], and from here IG(y)l < y 1/(pn) 000 C 11PIK(t)idt, hence J
J
y- 1/niG(y)l ::=:; y- 1/(qn) 000 C 11PIK(t)idt---+ Ofory---+ oo. MoreoverbytheLebesgue
differentiation theorem G' (y) = K (y) y- 1/P+l/(pn) for almost ally E (0, oo ). Making the
change of variables u = 1lx and integrating by parts, we have
1 00
u- 1- 1/nc (u) du = -n 1 00
(u- 11n)' G (u) du
-nu- 1/nc (u) ~~ + n 1 00

u- 1/nc' (u) du
nG(1)+n 1 00
u- 1/nK(u)u- 11P+ 1/(pn)du
n (11 Y-1/p+1/(pn) K (y) dy + 1oo Y-1/p-1/(qn) K (y) dy) .

Also llfnll = (1 0
1 x-1+ 1/ndx) 1/P = n 11P and ll9nll = (1 0
1 x-1+ 1/ndx) 1 /q = n 1/q. Since
IK is continuous, we have IIIKfnll ::=:; IIIKIIIIfnll and also by the Holder inequality
Resuming, we have
that is,
111 Y-1/p+l/(pn) K (y) dy + 1oo Y-1/p-1/(qn) K (y) dyl :'S IIId'
for any n EN.

For any 0 < y ::; 1 we have y- 1/P+l/(pn) IK (y)l ::; y- 1/P IK (y)l. Also
] 0 y- 11PIK(y)ldy :S: j 0=y- 11PIK(y)ldy < ooandy- 1/P+ 1/(pn)K(y)----> y- 1/PIK(y)l
1
for any y E (0, 1), hence by the Lebesgue dominated convergence theorem
11 y-1/p+1/(pn) K (y) dy ____, 11 y-1/p K (y) dy.
In the same way for any y E [1, oo) we have y- 1/P- 1/(qn) IK (y)l ::; y- 1/P IK (y)l,
J1= y-1/p IK (y) Idy ::; fo= y-1/p IK (y) I dy < oo and y-1/p-1/(qn) K (y) ____, y-1/p K (y) for
any y E [1, oo), hence by the Lebesgue dominated convergence theorem,
1oo y-1/p-1/(qn) K (y) dy ____, 1= y-1/p K (y) dy.

We obtain that lfoooY_ 1iPK(y)dyl :S: IIIKII·
For MK we proceed in the same way. For any n E N, let fn, 9n : (0, oo) ----> lR defined
by fn (x) = x- 1/p+l/(pn)X(o,1) (x) and 9n (x) = x- 1/q- 1/(qn)X(l,oo) (x). Then MKfn(x) =
x1-2/p fo1 K (xy) y-1/p+1/(pn)dy and
1 00
MKfn(x)gn (x) dx = 1
00
MKfn(x)x- 1/q- 1/(qn)dx
1oo (x1-2/p 11 K (xy) y-1/p+l/(pn)dy) x-1/q-1/(qn)dx

1oo x1-2/p-1/q-1/(qn) (11 K (xy) Y-1/p+1/(pn)dy) dx.
Then we use the change of variables xy = t, and we obtain that
1x (1/x) K(t) (tfxr 1!P+ 1/(pn) dt

1x K(t)c1/p+l/(pn)x-1+1/p-1/(pn)dt,
and then, since 1- 1/p = 1/q, we obtain that
1 00
MKfn(x)gn (x) dx = 1 00
x 1- 21P- 1/q- 1/(qn)
(.fox K(t)C 1/p+l/(pn)x- 1/q- 1/(pn)dt) dx

1oo x-1-1/n (1x K(t)rl/p+1/(pn)dt) dx.
Ifwe denote now G (y) = J~ K(t)t- 11P+ 1/(pn)dt, we have
1 00
MKfn(x)gn (x) dx = 1
00
x- 1- 1/nc (x) dx.
2.2 Solutions 59
It is proved above that
1oo x-1-1/nc (x) dx = n(11 y-1/p+lf(pn) K (y) dy + 1oo y-1/p-1/(qn) K (y) dy) .
We have llfnll = (! 0
1 x- 1+1/ndx) 1/P = n 11P and ll9nll = (Jt x- 1- 11ndx) 11 q = n 1fq.
Since MK is continuous we have IIMK!nll :::; IIMKIIII!nll, and by the Holder inequality
we obtain that
Resuming, we have
n 11 1
y- 1/p+l/(pn) K (y) dy + 100 y- 1/p- 1/(qn) K (y) dyl : :_: n IIMKII Vn EN,
that is,
111 y-1/p+lj(pn) K (y) dy + 1oo y-1/p-1/(qn) K (y) dyl :::; IIMKII Vn EN.
From here we continue as above to deduce that lfooo y- 1/P K (y) dyl : :_: IIMKII·
ii) We take K (t) ={ ~: !~~; ~: Then H = IK and
iii) We take K (t) = 1/ (1 + t). Then H = IK and
IIIKII = 1
00 Y- 1/p K (y) dy = 100 --dy
y-1/p 7r
= -.
y+1
-7r.
o o sm-p
iv) We take K (t) = 1/ max(t, 1). Then S = IK and
IIIKII = 100 0
y- 1/P K (y) dy = 11 0
y- 1/Pdy +
/,00 y- 11P- 1dy = -p- + p = -p2- .
1 p-1 p-1
v) We take
K (t) = r to:) (1- t)"'- 1 X(o, 1) (t).
Then
1 roo K (yjx) f(y)dy =
;; Jo
1 1 roo
r (o:);; Jo (1- yjx)"'- 1 X(o,1) (yjx) f(y)dy
1
r (o:)
r (x-
Jo
y)"-1
xa f(y)dy = Raf(x).
Moreover,
II Rail 100 y-1/p K(y)dy = r ta) 11 y-1/p (1- y)"'-1 dy = r ta) B (1- 1/p, a)
r(1-1/p)r(a) r(1-1/p)
r(a+1-1/p)r(a) r(a+1-1/p)"
vi) We take K (t) = t"'- 1 X(o, 1) (t). Then
00
-11 K (yjx) f(y)dy
00 (yjx)"'- 1X(O,l) (yjx) f(y)dy
11
=-
1x
X 0 X 0
-1 y"'- 1 f(y)dy = Iaf(x).

x"' o
Moreover,
15. See [26, exercise 30, chapter IX].

If {Xn I n E N} is a Schauder basis in l2, we have: Vx = (~n)nEN E l2 there is a unique
00
sequence (.Xn)nEN ~ 2:: AnXn, the series being convergent in l2. We obtain
lK such that x =
n=l
00
that Vk E N, (x, ek) = L An (xn, ek), i.e., the sequence (.Xn)nEN satisfies the equations:
n=l
.X1a = ~b .Xd3 + .X2a = ~2, .X2,8 + A30'. = 6, .X3,8 + .X4a = ~4, ... ,and therefore .X1 = 6/a,
A2 = (1/a) (6- (,8/a) 6), ... , An = (1/a) ( ~n + x:: (-1)n-k (,8/at-k ~k) Vn 2: 2.
Thus the sequence (.Xn)nEN, if it exists, has the above value. To have a Schauder ba-
oo
sis, we must show that x = L AnXn in l2, i.e., II.X1x1 + · · · + AnXn- xll ---+ 0. But
n=l
.X1x1 + · · · + AnXn = (.X1a, .X1,8 + .X2a, ... , An-1,8 + Ana, .Xn,B, 0, ... ), and therefore
we obtain that II.X1x1 + · · · + AnXn- xll 2 = l.X1a- 61 2 + I.X1,8 + .X2a- 61 2 + · · · +
I.Xn-1,8 +Ana- ~nl 2 + I.Xn,B- ~n+1l 2 + l~n+21 + · · ·.Taking into account the expression
for (.Xn)nEN, we obtain that 11A1x1 + · · · + AnXn- xll 2 = I.Xn,B- ~n+ll 2 + l~kl 2 . f
k=n+2
00 00
But 2:: l~kl 2 ---+ 0, since the series 2:: l~kl 2 converges. Also ~n+l ---+ 0. We know
k=n+2 k=l
00
that if ~k ---+ 0 and the series 2:: ak is absolutely convergent, then an- 16 + an- 26 +
k=l
· · · + a 2 ~n- 2 + a 1 ~n-l ---+ 0 (see the solution for exercise 14 of chapter 6). Applying
this fact for An = (1/a) ( ~n x:: (-1)n-k (,8/at-k ~k) we obtain that An 0 (here
+ ---+
f;1(-1)k (,Bja)k is absolutely convergent, f;11(-1)k (,8/a)kl = [;11,8/alk < oo, since
I,B/al < 1). Therefore 11A1x1 + · · · + AnXn- xll 2 ---+ 0 forn---+ oo.
2.2 Solutions 61

n
Evidently Y is a linear space. Ifwe have IIYII 1 = 0, then I: o:;x; = 0 \In EN, therefore
i=1
O:nXn = (~ o:;x;) ~ (~ o:;x;) = 0 \In E N, and since Xn -1- 0 \In E N (from the
definition for a Schauder basis, more precisely from the uniqueness of the representation
with respect to the basis), we obtain that an = 0 \In E N, thus y = 0. The other axioms
for a norm are easy to verify. We observe that if y = (o:n)nEN E Y, then llo:nxnll =
I c~ O:;X;) ~ (~ o:;x;) I ~ II~ O:;X;II + II~ o:ixill ~ 2 ~~~I lit O:;X;II = 2 11YII 1
\In EN (1).
We prove now that the norm considered on Y is complete. Let (y(k))kEN ~ Y,
y(k) = (o:~)nEN \lk EN, such that: Vc > 0 ::JNE EN such that sup I f. (a?'~ o:f) X; I < E
nEN ,=1
Vm,p 2': Nc (2). For any fixed k E N, using (1) we have ll(o:k' ~ o:f)xkll ~
2sup
nEN t=1
I f. ~
(o:f' o:f)x;ll, and therefore lo:k' ~ o:~l ~
2cl llxkll Vm,p 2': NE. We obtain
that for any kEN, the sequence (o:k)nEN is Cauchy, thus convergent, and let y = (o:k)kEN
a sequence of scalars such that lim o:k = o:k \lk E N. We prove now that y E Y and
n-H)O
that}~~ IIY(k) ~ Yll 1 = 0. Let n E N. Using (2) we have ~~~(a?'~ o:f) x;ll < E,
Vm,p ;:::: N 0 • For p ___, oo we obtain that ~~~(a?'~ a;) x;ll ~ c Vm 2': Nc. Then
sup
nEN t=1
I f. ~
(o:y> o:i)x;ll ~
f Vm 2': Nc, thus IIY(m) ~ Yll 1 ~ f Vm 2': NE, and we obtain
that y E Y and lim y(k) = y.
k->XJ

CX)
For each x E X we have a unique sequence of scalars ( o:;)iEN such that x = I: o:;x;.
i=1
We consider the Banach spaceY given by exercise 16 and we have the operator T: X ___,
Y,
Then T is linear, bijective, and

CX) n n
IIT- 1 ((o:;)iEN)II = LO:;X; = n->oo

lim LO:;X; ~sup Lo:;x;
i=1 i=1 nEN i= 1
This means that r- 1 is continuous. Since X and Y are Banach spaces, by the inverse
mapping theorem (see chapter 9) we obtain that Tis also continuous. For any i E N we
define e? : Y ----t l!C, eT ((o:n)nEN) = a;. Evidently eT is linear for every i E N. Also
le? (o:)l = Ia; I = llo:;x;ll I llx;ll ~ (2llo:ll) I llx;ll, using the relation (1) from the solution
for exercise 16. Therefore e? E Y* Vi E N. We observe that xT = T*e? Vi E N, and
therefore xT E X* Vi E N.

Let us suppose that we can find a positive integer n such that
Xn E Sp {X1, X2, ... , Xn-1 1 Xn+l, Xn+2, ... } 11·11 . COnSl'der then Xn* E X* gtven .
by exercise 17. We have x~ (xm) = Onm Vm E N, thus x~ (xm) = 0 Vm =1- n. Since x~
is linear, we obtain that x~ (x) = 0 Vx E Sp{x 1,x 2 , ... ,Xn-I,Xn+I,Xn+2, ... }and, since
.
. contmuous,
xn* lS . th at xn* ( x ) = 0 \-1vx E sp {x1, x2, ... , Xn_ 1, Xn+I, Xn+ 2 , ... }11·11 •
we ob tam
But Xn E Sp{xl,x2, ... ,Xn-l,xn+l,xn+2,···} 11 .11 , and we obtain that x~(xn) = 0, a
contradiction, since x~ (xn) = 1.
19. See [ 18, chapter 7, the proof of theorem 5].

00
We first prove that Q is well defined, that is, the series L O:nXn converges. We
n=l
00 00 00 00
have L ffo:nxnfl = L fo:nf < oo, and therefore the series L O:nXn
fo:nfffxnfl ~ L
n=l n=l n=l n=l
converges absolutely in X. Since X is a Banach space the series converges, and Q is
well defined. Evidently Q is linear and, for every (o:n)nEN E it, IIQ ((o:n)nEN)II =
lln~l O:nXnll ~ f
1 1fo:nxnfl ~
IJ(o:n)nEI'lllz,' and then Q is continuous. It remains to
be proved that Q is surjective. Let x E Bx. Then there is an n 1 E N such that
fix- Xn,ll < 1/2. If there is k = 1, ... , n 1 such that 2 (x- Xn,) - Xk = 0, then
x = xk/2 + Xn, and then x = Q (ek/2 +en,) E Q (h). If not, let r5 > 0 such
that r5 ~ 1/2 2 and r5 < 112 (x- xn,) - xkll for k = 1, ... , n 1. Then we can find
n2 E Nsuchthatff2(x-Xn 1 )-Xn2 lf ~ r5,andthenff2(x-Xn 1 )-Xn2 ff ~ 1/2 2 and
n 2 > n 1. In this way we obtain that either x E Q (l 1), or we can construct a subse-
quence (nk)kEN ofN such that \l2k-l (x- Xn 1 ) - 2k- 2 Xn 2 - • • · - 2xnk_ 1 - Xnk II ~ 1/2k
for all k E N. Then llx- Xn 1 - Xn 2 /2- · · ·- Xnk/2k-lll ~ 1/2 2k-l, and therefore
X= Xn 1 + Xn 2 /2 + · · · + Xnj2k-l + · · · = Q (a:), where 0: = (o:n)nEN, O:n = 1/2k-l if
00
n = nk for a kEN, O:n = 0 if not, o: E l 1, since L 1/2k < oo. Then Bx <;:; Q (l 1 ), and
k=O
since Q is linear we obtain that X <;:; Q (it) .
20. See [6, theorem 4, chapter 8].

Suppose that X is a separable Banach space. Using exercise 29 of chapter 14 we
obtain that ( B x•, weak*) is a compact metric space. Define then T : X ----+ C ( B x•),
T (x) = x(·). Evidently Tis linear, and for every x EX we have ffTxfl = ffx(·)IIBX* =
sup fx (x*) I = ffxff, thus Tis an isometry. Since Tis linear we obtain that Tis injective.
x*EBx*
Denote by Y = T (X) <;:; C (Bx· ), and we obtain the isometric isomorphism T: X----+ Y
<;:; C (Bx·). Since X is complete and T is an isometry it follows that T(X) = Y <;:;
C (Bx•) is a closed linear subspace. Indeed, let (xn)nEN <;:;X, Txn----+ y E C (Bx• ). Then
the sequence (T (xn))nEN <;:; Y is Cauchy, hence since Tis a linear isometry the sequence
(xn)nEN is Cauchy. Since X is a Banach space there is x E X such that Xn ----+ x and by the
continuity ofT, Txn ----+ Tx, and therefore y = Tx.
Suppose now that X is a Banach space for which there is a compact metric space K,
a closed linear subspace Y <;:; C (K), and an isometric isomorphism T : X ----+ Y. We
know that C (K) is a separable space, and therefore Y is separable. Let (YkhEN <;:; Y be
2.2 Solutions 63
dense. Let (xk)kEN ~ X be such that Txk = Yk Yk E N. Consider x E X arbitrary. For

c > 0 there is k E N such that IIYk- Txll < c ((yk)kEN ~ Y dense), thus IITxk- Txll <
c, liT (xk- x)ll < c, therefore since Tis an isometry llxk- xll < c. We obtain that
(xk)kEN ~ X is dense, thus X is separable.
21. Recall that a topological space X is separable if there is a countable dense set B ~
X. Suppose, for a contradiction, that X is separable and consider { Xn I n E N} ~ X a
countable dense set. For every a E A, B(a, c/2) is a neighborhood of a, and from the
density we obtain that B(a, c/2) n {xn I n E N} i= 0, i.e., there is ann E N such that
Xn E B(a,c/2), i.e., d(xn,a) < c/2. Let na = min{n EN I d(xn,a) < c/2}, and then
d(xna,a) < c/2. Consider the function f :A--+ N, f(a) = na. We shall prove that
f is injective, and we shall obtain that A has the same cardinality as the set f(A) ~ N, and
since N is countable we obtain that A is countable, a contradiction. Let a, b E A such that
a i= band f(a) = j(b). Then na = nb. We have that d(xn"' a) < c/2 and d(xnb' b) < c/2,
i.e., d(xna' b) < c/2, and therefore d(a, b) :::; d(a, xnJ + d(xn"' b) < c, i.e., d(a, b) <
c, which contradicts our hypothesis: '\Ia, bE A, a i= b =? d(a, b) 2 c.
.
22. For A~ N we consider the sequence XA: N--+ IK, XA(n) =
{ 1
a: nEA
n '/:-A: Then
IXA(n)l :::; 1 Yn EN, i.e., XA E Z=. If A, B ~ N, A i= B, then IIXA- XBII 2 1. Indeed,
since A i= B there is a k E N such that k E A\ B, or k E B \A. Suppose, for example, that
k E A\ B. Then: IIXA- XBII =sup IXA(n)- XB(n)l 2 IXA(k)- XB(k)l = 11- Ol = 1.
nEN
(In fact, IIXA- XBII = 1.) Since the set (XA)AEP(N) ~ Z= is not countable, using exercise
21 we obtain that Z= is not separable.
23. From exercise 11 we obtain that there is j :Zoo-+ L(LP [0, 1]), IIJ (x)ll = llxll
Yx E Zoo and j linear. The set {J(XA)I A E P(N)} ~ L(Lp [0, 1]) is uncountable and:
YA, B E P(N), A i= B, IIJ(XA)- J(XB)II = IIJ(XA- XB)II = IIXA- XBII 2 1. Using
exercise 21 we obtain that L( LP [0, 1]) is not separable.
00
24. i) Let~ = (~n)n20 E Zoo. Define u~ : zl -+ c [0, 1], (U~) (a) (x) = L an~nXn
n=O
Ya = (an)n>o E h, Yx E [0, 1]. Using exercise 7 we have IIU~II = II~ II, i.e.,~--+ U~ is an
isometry from Zoo to L(h, C [0, 1]).
ii) Let~= (~n)nEN E Zoo. We define Ue, : Zp--+ Zp, Ue, (x) = (~nXn)nEN Yx = (xn)nEN E
ZP. Evidently
= =
n=l n=l
i.e., Ue, is well defined, and IIUe, (x)ll :::; ll~llllxll Yx E ZP. Since Ue, is linear we obtain
that Ue, is a linear and continuous operator, and that II U~ II :::; II~ 11. But for every k E N
IIUe,(ek)ll :::; IIUe,llllekll· Since Ue,(ek) = (0, ... , 0, ~k, 0, ... )we obtain that l~kl :::; IIUe,ll Yk E
N, and therefore 11~11 =sup l~kl :::; IIU& Thus I!Ud = 11~11 Y~ E Z00 • Let j: Zoo---. L(Zp),
kEN
j(~) = Ue,. Evidently j is linear, and the above relation shows that IIJ(~)II = 11~11 Y~ E Zoo,
i.e., j is an isometry.
Analogously to the solution of exercise 23 we obtain that L( h, C [0, 1]) and L( lp), 1 ::::;
p < oo, are not separable spaces.
25. Since T is a linear and continuous operator, ker T <:;; X is a closed linear sub-
space, and therefore X/ ker T is a normed space. We prove now that T is well defined.
If x + ker~ = y + kerT, then x- y E kerT, thus T (x y) = 0, that is, Tx = Ty. =
Evidently, T is linear. Since T is surjective, we obtain that T is also a surjective operator.
~T(x+kerT) = OthenTx = O,thatis,x E~kerT,thusx+kerT = O+kerT,and
Tis injective. We calculate now the norm forT. Let x = x + kerT E XjkerT. For
any z Ex, IITxll = IITzll :S IITIIIIzll, thus IITxll :S IITII inf {llzlll z Ex}, and therefore
IITxll::; IITIIIIxll VX E X/kerT. WeobtainthatT E L(XjkerT,Y), IITII::; IITII-
Considernow x EX, llxll::::; 1. Then llxll::; 1, thus IITxll = IITxll::::; sup IITyll = IITII·
Ill/ II<::I
Then sup IITxll::::; IITII, that is, IITII::; IITII, and therefore IITII = IITII-
IIxll <::1

Let x E T (X). Then there is (xn)nEN <:;; X with Txn ____, x E X. Then TSTxn ____,
TSx, thus, by hypothesis, Txn ____, TSx, hence x = TSx, i.e., x E T (X).
N
ii) Since P (T) = 0 we have 2::: anTn = 0, where Tn =To··· oT, n-fold composition,
n=O
T 0 =I.
N N
a) If a 0 =1- 0 then I = 2::: bnTn, thus T = 2::: bnTn+l. We obtain that T
n=l n=l
T (f 1
bnTn-l) T, and therefore by (i) the range ofT is closed.
N
b) Suppose now that 2::: anTn = 0, with m > 0, and am =/- 0. We obtain that Tm =
n=m
N
2::: bn Tn. If all the bn are 0 then Tm = 0, and the range of Tm is closed. If not, let k be
n=m+l
N
the smallest n between m + 1 and N such that bn =1- 0. Then Tm = 2::: bnTn with bk =1- 0.
n=k
N
We obtain that Tk = 2::: bnTn+k-m, thus Tk is a linear combination of Tn, n > k. Then
n=k
Tm is a linear combination of Tn, n > k. After a finite number of steps we obtain that
M
Tm is a linear combination of Tn' n 2: 2m. Thus Tm = 2::: CnTn. We obtain that Tm =
n=2m
Tm c~m CnTn- 2m) Tm' and therefore by (i) the range of Tm is a closed set.
27. We have (i*(x*)) (y) = x*(i (y)) = x* (y) 1::/y E Y, and therefore i*(x*) = x*ly for
allx*EX*.
28. Suppose that T E L (X, Y) is a bijective operator, and that IITxll = llxlll::/x E X.
For any y* E Y*, since Tis a surjective isometry we have IIT*y*ll = sup I(T*y*) (x)l =
llxii<::I
2.2 Solutions 65
sup IY* (Tx)l = sup IY* (y)l = IIY*II, and therefore T* E L (Y*,X*) is an isometry.
llxii::::I IIYII::::I
Then T* is injective and we must prove that T* is surjective. Let x* E X*. Since IITxll =
llxll Vx E X, and Tis bijective, we obtain that r-
1 : Y -+ X is well defined, linear,
IIT- yll = IIYII Vy E Y, and therefore

1 r-
1 E L (Y, X) and r-
1 is also an isometry. We
r-l
define then y* E Y*, Y-----+ X-----+ JK, y* = x* o r- 1 . We have (T*y*) (x) = y* (Tx) =
x*
x* (T- 1 (Tx)) = x* (x) Vx EX, and therefore T*y* = x*.

Suppose now that T* E L (Y*, X*) is an isometric isomorphism. For all x E X, since
T* is a surjective isometry, we have IITxll = sup IY* (Tx)l = sup I(T* (y*)) (x)l =
IIY*II::::I IIY*II::::I
sup lx* (x)l = llxll, thus T E L (X, Y) is an isometry. Since Tis linear, we obtain that
llx*II::::I
Tis injective. It remains to be proved that Tis surjective. Since X is complete and T is
an isometry it follows that T(X) ~ Y is closed. This is proved in the solution for exercise
20. Suppose that T (X) # Y, and let y0 E Y\T (X). Since T(X) ~ Y is closed, using the
Hahn-Banach theorem (see chapter 8) there is y* E Y* such that y* lr(x)= 0, y* (y 0 ) # 0.
Then y* (Tx) = 0 Vx EX, thus (T*y*) (x) = 0 Vx EX, and then T*y* = 0 E X*. But
T* is injective, and therefore y* = 0, y* (y0 ) = 0, a contradiction.
29. See [20, exercise 12 (a), (b), chapter II, section 4].
i) Define T : X* -+ Zoo (X*), T (x*) = (f. x* (x;) x:;) nEN . Here, Zoo (X*) is the space
'=1
of all norm bounded sequences (x~)nEN ~ X*, with the norm given by: II (x~)nENII =
sup llx~ll V (x~)nEN E Zoo (X*). In the usual way one can prove that, since X* is a Banach
nEN
space, then Zoo (X*) is a Banach space. By our hypothesis T is a well defined operator.
Since X* and Zoo (X*) are Banach spaces and Tis linear, in order to prove that Tis con-
tinuous we will use the closed graph theorem (see chapter 9). Let (y'k)k?.O ~X*, Y'k -+ y~,
n
T (y'k) -+ A = (A~)nEN E Zoo (X*). Then lim 'L, Y'k (x;) xi = A~ Vn E N, and therefore
k-.oo i=1
n
'L, Yo (x;) xi = A~ Vn E N, that is, T (y0) = A. Thus T E L (X*, Zoo (X*)), and then
i=1
sup liT (x*) llzoo(X*) = II Til < oo, that is, V llx* II :S 1, Vn E N, II f. x* (x;) xi II :S IITII-
IIx*li::::I '= 1
Therefore V llx*ll :S 1, Vn EN, V llxll :S 1, lx* (~xi (x) x;) I :S IITII· Taking the supre-
mum for llx*ll :S 1 it follows that Vn EN, V llxll :S 1, ~~~ x:; (x) x;ll :S IITII, and from
here Vn E N, Vx E X, ~~~ x; (x) x;ll :S IITIIIIxll, thus~~~~~~ xj (x) x;ll :S IITIIIIxll

Vx EX.
Let E = { x EX I~ x; (x) x; converges, x = i~ xj (x) x;}. We prove now that
E ~ X is a closed linear subspace. The fact that E ~ X is a linear subspace is obvi-
ous. Let now (Yk)kEN ~ E, Yk -+ y E X in the norm of X. Let E > 0. There is k E N
such that IIYk- Yll < E. Since Yk E E there is nE E N such that~~~ x:; (Yk) X;- Ykll <E
'in;:::: nc:. Then, for n;:::: nc: we have
n n n
L x: (y) X; - y < L:x:(y)x;- L:x:(Yk)x;

i=l i=l i=l
n
+ L:x: (yk) X;- Yk + iiYk- Yii

i=l
< IITII E + E + E = (2 + IITII) E,
00
thus the series I:; x; (y) x; converges, and y is its limit. Thus E ~ X is a closed linear sub-
i=l
space. We observe that by biorthogonality x; E E Vi E N, and then Sp { x; I i EN} II-II ~
E.
ii) Exercise! Evidently one can use the technique from (i).
30. See [38, C.3.6, chapter 0].

For each n E N let Xn = Ten, Xn E X. Since Q : Y ---t X is a metric surjection,
for each n E N there is an Yn E Y such that Qyn = Xn, llYn! I :=::; (1 +E) llxnll- Define
00 00
T : l1 ---t Y, given by T (o:) = I:; O:nYn Vo: = (o:n)nEN E h. Then I:; llo:nYnll =
n=l n=l
00 00
I:: lo:niiiYnll :=::; (1+E) I:; lo:niiiTenll :=::; (1+E)IITIIIIo:llh· ThusT: h ---t Y iswell
n=l n=l
00
defined (the series I:; O:nYn converges absolutely and, since Y is a Banach space, the series
n=l
II :=::; n=l
00
converges). Evidently Tis linear. Since liT (o:) I:; llo:nYnll :=::; (1 +E) 11TIIIIo:ll 11 we
obtain that Tis also continuous, ll'fll :=::; (1 +E) liT! I- Also Vo: = (o:n)nEN E h, since Q
and T are linear and continuous operators,
Q {T(a)) ~ Q (~"·•·) ~ ~a.Q(y,) ~ ~n,x.

~a.T(e.) ~ T@ a,e,) ~ T(a),
that is, Q o T = T.
31. See [16, exercise 3.21 (a), chapter 1].

We know that if X is a Banach space, andY~ X is a closed linear subspace, then X/Y
becomes a Banach space, with the quotient norm: llxll = inf{IIYIII y Ex} VX E XjY.
We shall show now that Q: X ---t X/Y is a metric surjection and then we will use exercise
30. Evidently Q : X ---t X/Y is a surjection. Then Qx = x Vx EX and by the definition
of the quotient norm we have
IIQxll = inf{IIYIII y Ex}= inf{IIYIII Qy = x} = inf{IIYIII Qy = Qx}.

2.2 Solutions 67
32. See [38, C.3.2, chapter 0].

i) We consider the adjoint ofT, T* : l~ --> X*, which is a linear and continuous
operator. For every n EN letpn: loo--> IK, Pn(x) = Xn Vx = (x1,x2, ... ) E l 00 •
Then Pn E l~ \In E N and we define x~ = T* (Pn)· Since T* is continuous and
IIPnll = 1 Vn EN, we obtain that the sequence (x~)nEN ~X* is bounded. For x EX, if
Tx = (y1, y2, ... ) E l 00 , then Yn = Pn (Tx) = (T*pn) (x) = x~ (x) for all n EN, and there-
fore Tx = (x~ (x))nEN Vx E X. Then IITxlloo =sup
nEN
lx~ (x)l :S: (sup
nEN
llx~11) llxll and
therefore II Til :S: sup llx~ll· ForE > 0 there is anne: E N such that JJx~J J+ E ~ sup
nEN
llx~ll·
nEN
For x~E E X*, since JJx~EJJ = sup Jx~E (x)J there is an x E X, llxll :S: 1, such
llxll9
that Jx~e (x)J + ~ JJx~EJJ. Then Jx~E (x)J ~ supllx~ll- 2c-, and therefore IITII ~
E
nEN
sup lx~ (x)l ~sup llx~ll- 2c-. Since E > 0 was arbitrary we obtain that IITII ~sup llx~ll,
nEN nEN nEN
and therefore IITII =sup llx~ll·
nEN
ii) Since T : Y --> loo is a bounded linear operator we use (i) and we obtain (y~)nEN ~
Y* such that Ty = (y~ (y))nEN Vy E Y and IITII =sup IIY~II· Using the Hahn-Banach
nEN
theorem (see chapter 7) there is a sequence (x~) nEN ~ X* such that x~ Iy = y~, II x~ II =
IIY~II Vn EN. Define then T: X--> l 00 , Tx = (x~ (x))nEN Vx EX. Then by (i) T: X-->
loo is a well defined bounded linear operator, and IITII =sup llx~ll =sup IIY~II = IITII·
nEN nEN
For any y E Y we have Ty = (x~ (y))nEN = (y~ (y))nEN = Ty.
Chapter 3
Linear and continuous functionals. Reflexive

spaces
Definition. For a normed space X its dual L(X, IK) is denoted by X*, and for an
element x* EX* its norm is given by one of the formulas:
llx*ll = inf {M 2: 0 llx*(x)l S M llxll Vx EX}= sup lx*(x)l = sup lx*(x)l.

llxll9 llxll=l
For a normed space X its bidual L( X*, IK) is denoted by X**.

Definition. Let X be a normed space. For x E X consider x : X* --+ IK defined by
x(x*) = x*(x) Vx* EX*. Then x EX** and llxllx•• = llxll, and let Kx :X--+ X** be
x
defined by K x (x) = Vx E X. K x is called the canonical embedding into the bidual.
Proposition. If X is a Banach space then Kx (X) ~ X** is a closed linear subspace.
Definition. A Banach space is called reflexive if and only if the canonical embedding
into its bidual is surjective.
3.1 Exercises
A discontinuous additive functional
1. Prove that there is a discontinuous additive function f : lR ----> JR. (f additive means
f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y) Vx, y E JR..)
Characterizations for finite-dimensional normed spaces
2. Let X be a normed space. Prove that the following assertions are equivalent:
i) X is finite-dimensional;
3.1 Exercises 69
ii) Any linear functional on X is continuous;

iii) Any linear subspace of X is closed.
Dense sets defined by discontinuous linear fuuctionals
3. i) Let X be a linear topological space and f : X ----> ][( a linear functional. Let
G ~ X be a dense linear subspace, f being discontinuous on G. Prove that G n kerf is
dense in X. Thus if f : X ----> ][( is linear and discontinuous on X then ker f is dense in X.
ii) Let X be a real linear topological space and A~ X a dense convex set in X. Prove
that for any closed hyperplane H ~X the setH n A is dense in H.
4. Let E ={PIP polynomial, P(1) = 0} ~ L2([0, 1]; JR). Prove that E is dense in
L2 ([0, 1];1R).
5. For .A E lR we denote E>. = {x E C([O, 1]; JR) I x(O) =.A}. Prove that E>. is a dense
convex set in L2([0, 1]; JR).
Linearly independent functionals and norms
6. Let n E N. Let V be a linear space and / 1, ... , fn ben linear functionals on V.

Prove that there is a norm 11·11 on V such that all the functionals h , ... , f n are continuous
from (V, II· II) to K What happens in the case when we have an infinite number of linear
functionals? lfwe have an infinite number of linearly independent functionals?
The Auerbach Lemma
7. Let (X, II· II) be a finite-dimensional normed space with dimocX n EN. Prove
=
that there are x1, ... , Xn EX, xi, ... , x~ EX*, such that llxill = llx:ll = 1 Vi = 1, nand
xi* (Xj ) =uij=
J: { 1, i = j, \..1' • -1
0 ·-1.. v2,J= ,n.
' 2 r J,
Norm attaining and nou-norm attaining linear and continuous functionals
8. Consider L = {! E C[a, bJI J;a+b)/ 2 f(x)dx = J(:+b)/ 2 f(x)dx }·

i) Prove that Lis a closed linear subspace in C[a, b] and find x* E (C[a, b])* such that
L = ker x*.
ii) Prove that x* E (C[a, b])* does not attain its norm on the closed unit ball.
00
9. Letx*: Co----> :IR, x*(x) =I: Xn/2n-l Vx = (x1,x2, ... ) E Co.

n=l
i) Prove that x* is a linear continuous functional and that llx* II = 2.
ii) Prove that x* E (c0 )* does not attain its norm on the closed unit ball.
10. Find the form for the linear and continuous functionals on c0 which achieve their
norm on the closed unit ball of c0 .
00
11. Let x* : h ----> JR, x*(x) = I: (1- 1/n)xn Vx = (xn)nEN.

n=l
i) Prove that x* is a linear continuous functional on h and that llx* II = 1.
ii) Prove that x* does not achieve its norm on the closed unit ball of h .
12. Let (~n)nEN E Zoo, M = sup l~nl, such that M fJ. {l~nll n EN}. Then let x*
nEN
00
h----> lR given by x*(x) = I: ~nXn Vx = (xn)nEN E h.

n=l
70 Linear and continuous functionals. Reflexive spaces
i) Prove that x* is a linear and continuous functional and that llx* I = M .

ii) Prove that x* does not achieve its norm on the closed unit ball of h.
00
13. Prove that the functional x* : lr --+ JR, x*(x) = 2:: (1/n) Xn achieve its norm on
n=l
the closed unit ball of lt.
The James Theorem
14. Let X be a Banach space. Prove that the following assertions are equivalent:
i) X is reflexive;
ii) Any linear and continuous functional on X achieve its norm on the closed unit ball
of X.
Non reflexive spaces
15. Prove that c0 , lr and C [a, b] are not reflexive spaces.
The weak convergence in reflexive spaces
16. Let (xn)nEN be a bounded sequence in a normed space X. For every n E N we
denote by Kn =co {xn, Xn+l, ... }.
i) Prove that if Xn --+ Xo E X weak then n Kn = {Xo}.
00
n=l
ii) If X is in addition reflexive and n Kn = {xo}, where Xo

00
n=l
E X, then Xn --+ Xo
weak.
iii) Give a counterexample to prove that the assertion from (ii) is no longer true if X is
not supposed to be reflexive.
A hereditary property for reflexive spaces
17. Let X be a reflexive Banach space and Y ~ X a closed linear subspace. Prove
that Y is a reflexive Banach space.
A Banach space is reflexive if and only if its dual is reflexive
18. Let X be a Banach space. Prove that X is reflexive if and only if X* is reflexive.
The annihilator for a set in a normed space
19. For any normed space X and for any subset Z ~ X we denote by
zj_ = {x* EX* I x*lz = 0},

the annihilator of Z.
i) If X is a normed space, and Y ~ X a linear subspace, prove that the operator
T : X* /Y j_ --+ Y*, x* + Y j_ I. y*, where y* = x* IY, is an isometric isomorphism.
ii) If X is a normed space, andY ~ X a closed linear subspace, prove that the operator
S : Yj_ --+ (X/Y)*, x* ~ x*, where x* (x + Y) = x* (x) Vx E X, is an isometric
isomorphism.
iii) Let X be a reflexive space, and consider a closed linear subspace Y ~ X. Prove
that Y j_j_ = Kx (Y).
iv) Is the assertion from (iii) still true if we eliminate the hypothesis that X is reflexive?
3.1 Exercises 71
Tree type of properties for reftexive spaces
20. Using exercise 19 prove that if X is a reflexive space andY ~ X is a closed linear
subspace then X/Y is also a reflexive space (with the quotient norm).
21. Let X be a Banach space and Y ~ X a closed linear subspace. If Y and X/ Y are
reflexive spaces, Y with the norm from X and X/Y with the quotient norm, prove that X
is also a reflexive space.
Separable linear subspaces into the dual
22. Let X be a normed space, and Z ~ X* a separable linear subspace. Prove that
there is a separable linear subspace Y ~ X such that Z is isometrically isomorphic to a
linear subspace of Y*.
A Cantor type of theorem in reflexive spaces
i) X is a reflexive space;
ii) For any sequence (Kn)nEN of non-empty bounded closed and convex sets of X,
with Kn+l ~ Kn Vn EN, we have that n
Kn is non-empty.
nEJI!
Failure for the Cantor type of theorem in non-reflexive spaces
24. i) For each n E N let Kn ~ c0 ,
Prove that Kn is a non-empty bounded closed and convex set for each n EN, that Kn+l ~
Kn \:In E N, but n
nEJI!
Kn = 0.
ii) For each n E N let Kn ~ l1.
Prove that Kn is a non-empty bounded closed and convex set for each n E N, that Kn+l ~
Kn Vn E N, but n
nEJI!
Kn = 0.
iii) Let a E [0, 1), (an)nEN ~ (a, 1], with an"., a. For every n EN let
Kn = {! E C[O, 1]1 f(a) = 0, llfll ~ 1, f(x) = 1 Vx E [an, 1]}.

Prove that Kn is a non-empty bounded closed and convex set for any n EN, that Kn+l ~
Kn Vn E N, but n Kn = 0.
nEJI!
The dual of loo
25. Prove that for any x* E l~ there is a unique finitely additive measure f-l : P (N) ----*
OC, with bounded variation, such that f-l (A) = x* (XA) \fA ~ N, where XA = (xn)nEN'
Xn = { ~ !~ ~ ~ ~: We also have lf-ll (N) : : :; llx* II· (lf-ll is the total variation measure of
f-l.)
Conversely, for every finitely additive measure f-l : P (N) ----* lK, with bounded variation,
there is a unique element x* E l~ such that f-l (A) = x* (XA) \fA ~ N. We also have
llx*ll : : :; lf-ll (N).
3.2 Solutions
1. We consider ~ as a linear space over Q. Evidently, since ~ is not countable and
Q is countable, we obtain that the dimension of JR. over Q is infinite. Analogously to the
solution for exercise 2 (the part '(ii) =? (i)') we obtain that there is f : JR. ----* JR., Q-linear
and discontinuous. The fact that f : JR. ---*JR. is Q-linear is equivalent with the fact that
f :~----*JR. is additive. We have f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y) for every x andy from JR., and
f is discontinuous.
2. '(i) =? (ii)' If X is finite-dimensional let dimlK X = n E N. Consider a basis
n
{ e 1 , ... , en} for X. Consider a linear functional f :X ----* K Thus f (x) = 2.:: ad (e;) =
i=l
n n
2.:: a;a;, where x = 2.:: a;e;, a; := f (e;), i = 1, n. Then
i=l i=l
n
If (x)l:::::; max Ia; ILIa; I.

z=l,n i=l
n n
Since x = 2.:: a;e; r--+ llxll = 2.:: Ia; I is a norm on X, and any two norms on X (X is
i=l i=l
finite-dimensional) are equivalent, we obtain that f is continuous.
'(ii) =? (i)' Suppose, for a contradiction, that X is not finite-dimensional. We can find
then a linearly independent system {xn In EN} ~ X. Then Xn =I 0 \in E N, and the
family {xn/ llxnlll n EN} is again a linearly independent one. Thus, there is a linearly
independent family {xn In EN} ~X such that llxnll = 1 \in EN. Then we can obtain
a basis B for X, B = {xn In EN} U {x; I i E I}. We define f : X ----*][(linear, given
on B by { j ~~~}::; ~7: I~' We can extend J, given on B, to a linear functional

f: X----* K Then If (xn)l = n, llxnll = 1 \in EN, and we obtain a linear functional on X
which is not continuous (iff were continuous, then If (xn)l :::::; llfllllxnll \in E N, that is,
n:::::; 11!11 \in EN).
'(ii) =?(iii)' Consider a linear subspace Y ~ X. We consider a basis { e1 I j E J} for
Y, and we can complete this linearly independent system (in X) to a basis { e; I i E I} for
z;(ek) = 0 if k =I i, l 1'
X (J C . I d fi l* . X
_ I) . F or every z E we e ne ; . ----*
TV
.1!'11.,
{
z; (ek) = 1 if k = i, ; mear. By
our hypothesis (ii), z; : X ----* ][(is a linear and continuous functional, for any i E I.
3.2 Solutions 73
We prove now that Y = n ker li and this solves the exercise, because ker li is a
iEI\J
closed set Vi E I (for the case I = J, that is, Y =X, it is obvious that Y is closed). Since
li ly= 0 fori i:- J, we have Y <:;;: ker li Vi E I\J, that is, Y <:;;: n
iEl\J
ker z;.
Consider
X E n ker z;.
We have X = I: aiei (only a finite number of { Qi I i E I} are non-null).
iEI\J iEJ
Fori E I\ J, since li (x) = 0 (x E ker li, by our supposition) we obtain that Cl!i = 0. Then
x = Laiei+ L a;e; = :l::a;e; E Y,

iEJ iEI\J iEJ
and therefore n z; y.
ker <:;;:
iEI\J
'(iii) => (ii)' Let f : X ----+ lK be a linear functional. Its kernel kerf is a linear subspace
of X, and therefore by our hypothesis is a closed linear subspace. We prove that ifker f <:;;:
X is a closed set then f is continuous. Since f is linear it is sufficient to prove that f is
continuous at 0. Letc; > 0, and denote V = {x EX II! (x)l < c }. Iff= 0, then V =X,
and therefore V is an open neighborhood of 0 E X. Iff =1- 0, there is a E X such that
f(a) =1- 0, and let x 0 =a/ f (a) EX, f (x 0 ) = 1. Then x 0 i:- ker J, EXo i:- ker J, and since
ker f <:;;: X is a closed set, cx0 E Cker f, an open set in a normed space. Therefore there is an
r > 0 such that B (cx 0 , r) <:;;: Cker f• i.e., B (cxo, r) n kerf= 0. Consider x E B (0, r). If
xi:- V then If (x)l ~ E, and, if we denote y =-(ex)/ f (x), then IIYII ::::; llxll < r, that is,
y+cx0 E B (cx 0 , r). But f (y + cx0 ) = 0, and therefore y+cxo E B (cxo, r) nker f = 0,
a contradiction. Thus Vx E B(O, r) we obtain that x E V, i.e., B (0, r) <:;;: V, that is, Vis an
open neighborhood ofO EX. Thus f is continuous at 0. Since f is linear, f is continuous
on X.
3. i) We show that for any open set D =1- 0, we have f(D n G) = K Suppose that
there exists D such that f(D n G) =1- K Since D =1- 0 and G is dense in X, it results that
D n G =1- 0. Let a ED n G. Since a ED we obtain that D- a= Vis a neighborhood
of 0. We prove now that f(V n G) =1- K If, for a contradiction, f(V n G) = lK, we
consider .A E JK, and, for .A - f(a) E JK, :Jx E V n G such that f(x) = - f(a) +.A.
Then x + a E V + a = D and x E G, a E G, x + a E G, thus x + a E D n G and
f(x + a) = .A, i.e., f(D n G) = JK, a contradiction. Since f(V n G) =1- JK, there is
a E lK such that a i:- f(V n G). Let U <:;;: V, U a balanced neighborhood of 0. Since
f(U n G) <:;;: f(V n G) we obtain that a i:- f(U n G). We shall prove that lf(x)l ::::; a
Vx E U n G, and we shall obtain that f is continuous at 0, on G (VE > 0 :3 (c/a) U
neighborhood ofO such that Vx E ((c/a) U) n G, lf(x)l ::::; c), and using the fact that f is
linear we obtain that f is continuous on G, a contradiction. If Ia I < lf(x)l, x E U n G,
then Ia/ f (x) I < 1. Let .A = a/ f (x) . Since G is a linear subspace and U balanced,
.Aj(UnG) = f(.AUn.AG) <:;;: f(UnG), and therefore .Af(x) E f(UnG), i.e., a E f(UnG),
a contradiction!
Thus for any non-empty open set D we have f(D n G) = lK, and since 0 E lK, :Jx E
D n G such that f(x) = 0, i.e., xED n G nker f. We obtain that D n G nker f =1- 0 VD
open, and therefore G n ker f = X.
ii) See [9, exercise 18, chapter II, section 1].
Recall that a closed hyperplane H <:;;: X is a set of the form H = { x E X I x* (x) = a},
where x* : X --> lR is a linear continuous functional and a E JR.
.
Cons1der a closed hyperplane H ~ X. If x* = 0, then H =
{ X
0
if a= 0
if a=/=o: Then
HnA = { ~ !~~; ~: asetwhichisdenseinH. Supposenowthatx* :I 0. Letx0 E H

and consider V, a balanced neighborhood ofO. We prove that (x 0 + V)n [x* < a] =/= 0.
If, for a contradiction, (x 0 + V)n [x* < a] = 0, i.e., x 0 + V ~ [x* 2 a], then, Vx E V,
x + xo E x 0 + V ~ [x* 2 a], i.e., x*(x + xo) 2 a. Since xo E H, x*(x0 ) =a, we obtain
that x*(x) 2 0. Thus Vx E V we have that x*(x) 2 0. But V being balanced, Vx E V
we have -x E V, and therefore x*( -x) 2 0, x*(x) ~ 0. Thus Vx E V, x*(x) = 0. But
Vis absorbing, i.e., Vx E X there is A =I 0 such that Ax E V. Therefore x*(Ax) = 0,
and x*(x) = 0, i.e., x* = 0, a contradiction. The set [x* < a] = (x*)- 1( -oo, a) is open
(x* is continuous) and therefore (x 0 + V) n [x* < a] is a non-empty open set. Since A is
dense we obtain that An (x 0 + V) n [x* < a] =/= 0. Therefore there is a 1 E V such that
x 0 + a1 E A and x*(x0 +at) < a. Analogously, An (x 0 + V) n [x* > a] =/= 0, i.e.,
there is a 2 E V such that x 0 + a 2 E A and x*(x 0 + a 2) > a. Let now f : [0, 1] --+ ~.
f(t) = x*(t(xo +at)+ (1- t)(xo + a2)). Then f is continuous, f(O) > a, f(l) < a.
Therefore there is t E (0, 1) such that f(t) =a, i.e., x = t(x 0 +a!)+ (1- t)(x 0 +a2 ) E H.
Since A is convex, x E A, as a convex combination of x 0 + a 1, x 0 + a 2 E A. Also,
x = x 0 + ta 1 + (1- t)a 2 E x 0 + V + V (Vis balanced, a 1, a 2 E V, 0 < t, 1- t < 1, and
then ta1 E V, (1-t)a 2 E V). Thus, x E HnAn(x 0 +V +V), i.e., HnAn(x 0 +V +V) =/= 0.
Therefore we have proved that Vx 0 E H, VV a balanced neighborhood of 0, we have
H nAn (x 0 + V + V) =I 0. Now let x 0 E Hand let W be a neighborhood ofO. There is
a balanced neighborhood V of 0 such that V + V ~ W. From what we have proved above,
we have H nAn (x 0 + V + V) # 0, and therefore H nAn (x 0 + W) # 0. This implies
that H n A is dense in H.

Evidently E is a linear subspace of L 2 [0, 1]. We consider a linear continuous func-
tional f : L 2 [0, 1] --+ ~ such that f IE= 0. There is g E L 2 [0, 1] such that f (x) =
J01 g (t) x (t) dt for all x E L 2 [0, 1]. If we define h (t) = (1- t) g (t) then h E L 2 [0, 1],
and for every polynomial P we have
f (P (t)(1- t)) = 0, 1 1
g (t) (1- t) P (t) dt = 0, 1 1
h (t) P (t) dt = 0.
Thus h is orthogonal on the set of all polynomials. But for any u E C [0, 1] there is a
sequence of polynomials (Pn)nEN such that IIPn- ulloo --+ 0 (the Bernstein theorem), and
since
11 1
h (t) U (t) dtl = 11 1
h (t) (u (t)- Pn (t)) dtl ~ 1 1
lh (t)llu (t)- Pn (t)l dt
< IIPn- ulloo (1 1

lh (t)l 2 dt)
112
= IIPn- ulloo llhll2,
for n --+ oo we obtain that J~h (t) u (t) dt = 0 Vu E C [0, 1], thus h is orthogonal on
C [0, 1] ~ L 2 [0, 1]. But C [0, 1] is dense in L 2 [0, 1] and therefore h = 0, J.L-a.e., that is,
3.2 Solutions 75
g = 0, tJ-a.e., and then f = 0. We have proved that iff E (L 2 [0, 1])*, f IE= 0, then
f = 0. We obtain that E is dense in L 2 [0, 1] (see the theorems from chapter 8).
We can obtain another solution by using exercise 3(i) (see the second solution for exer-
cise 5).

First solution. LetE = {x E C[O, 1]1 x(O) = 0}. ThenE ~ L 2 [0, 1] is dense. Indeed,
let x E C[O, 1]. We consider xn(t) = x(t) (1- (1- t)n), and therefore xn(O) = 0, Xn E E
Vn EN, and
M = sup lx(t)l < oo. Thus Ell·ll 2 :2 C[O, 1]. But C[O, 1]ll·ll 2 = L 2 [0, 1], and therefore
tE[0,1]
=11·112 = L 2 [0, 1], 1.e.,
. £11·112 = L 2 [0 , 1]. s·mce E ;_ = "'\ + E we o btam . th at -E;_ = ~E
E "' + =
A+ L 2 [0, 1] = L 2 [0, 1], i.e., E;_ is dense in L 2 [0, 1]. Obviously E;_ is also convex.
Second solution. We consider £ 2 [0, 1] and not L 2 [0, 1], thus we do not identify a
J
function f E £ 2 [0, 1] with its equivalence class E L 2 [0, 1] (see Notations). £ 2 [0, 1] is a
seminormed space with respect to the seminorm f f------+ (J 0 dx)
1 If (x)l 2 112 , hence a linear
topological space. Then C[O, 1] ~ £ 2 [0, 1] is dense (with respect to the topology given by
this seminorm).
We consider f : £ 2 [0, 1] ---+JR., f(x) = x(O). Then E = C[O, 1] n kerf. We prove that
f is discontinuous on (C[O, 1], 11·11 2). Let Xn(t) = (1- t)- (1- t)n+ 1, x(t) = 1- t. Then
i.e., Xn ---+ x. But f(xn) = Xn(O) = 0 'Vn E N, and f(x) = 1, i.e., f is discontinuous
on C[O, 1]. Then, by exercise 3(i), Ell·ll 2 = £ 2 [0, 1], and therefore, if we consider E
as a subset in L 2 [0, 1], we have Ell·ll 2 = L 2 [0, 1]. Since E;_ = A+ E, we obtain that
E;_ll·ll 2 =A+ Ell·ll 2 =A+ L 2[0, 1] = L 2[0, 1], i.e., E;_ is dense in L2[0, 1].
6. See [6, exercise 23, chapter 2].

Using exercise 1 of chapter 1 we obtain that there is a norm 11·11 1 on V. Consider now
the set {!I, ... , fn} ~ v'. Let 11·11 : v---+ JR.+, llxll = llxll1 + max If; (x)l. If llxll = 0,
1<;,<;n
then llxll 1 = 0, and sox= 0. Obviously II Axil = IAIIIxll 'VA E K, 'Vx E V, and llx + Yll ::;
llxll + IIYII Vx, y E V. Hence (V, 11·11) is a normed space. For any 1 ::; i ::; n we have
If; (x)l::; llxll Vx E V, so f;: (V, 11·11)---+ K is continuous.
In the case when we have an infinite linearly independent set of functionals on V, we
cannot say that there is always a norm on V with respect to which all the functionals from
our set are continuous. For example, one can take, if V is infinite-dimensional, our set of
functionals as being a (linear) basis B for V', the algebraic dual ofV. Then using exercise
2 we obtain that we cannot find a norm 11·11 on V with respect to which all the functionals
from B are continuous, since then it follows that all the functionals from V' are continuous.
7. See [38, B.4.8, chapter 0] or [19, chapter 6].

Let e 1 , ... ,en be an algebraic basis for X and let us defined: (Ex· t----+ [0, oo),
Since X* is finite-dimensional B x• is compact. Hence ( B x• is compact, and since d t

is continuous by the Weierstrass theorem we can find xi, ... , x;, E X* such that d attains
its maximum on ( B x•) n at (xi, ... , x~). Let 60 > 0 be this maximum. Since 60 -/=- 0,
det (xi (eJ))i,j=l,n -/=- 0, hence there are x 1 , ... , Xn E X, linearly independent, such that
n n
2::: xj (ei) Xj = ei, i = 1, n. Applying now x'k we obtain that 2::: xj (ei) x'k(xJ) = x'k(ei),
j=l j=l
i.e., BA = A, where B = (x'k(xJ))k ., A = (x 1*(e;)) . . The matrix A is invertible, and
,J J,l
n
therefore B is the unit matrix, that is, xk(xj) = 6kj, k, j = I;"n. From 2::: xj (ei) ak(xJ) =
j=l
ak( ei), 'Vk, i, it follows that det ( ( xj (ei))) det (ak(xJ)) = det ( ( ak( e;)) ), hence, by our
choiceforxi, ... ,x~, ldet(ak(xj))l:::; 1 'Va 1 , ... ,an E Bx•. Fora;:= a,ak :=x'k 'Vk-/=- i,
we obtain that la(x;)l :::; 1 'Va E Bx•, and therefore llx;ll :::; 1. Then 1 = xj (x;) :::;
llxillllx;ll:::; 1, and hence llxill = llxill = 1, i = 1, n.
8. See [40, exercise 11.25].

i) Let x* : C[a, b] ----+ JR, x*(f) = J~a+b)/ 2 f(x)dx- J(~+b)/ 2 f(x)dx. Then x* is linear,
and
lx*(f)l < j (a+b)/2

lf(x)l dx +
ib
lf(x)l dx
a (a+b)/2
1b lf(x)l dx :S IIJII1b 1dx = (b- a) 11!11,
i.e., x* is continuous, llx* I :::; b- a. Since L = ker x*, we obtain that Lis a closed linear
subspace.
Let us now calculate the norm for x*. There is n 0 such that 1/n < (b- a) /2 'Vn 2 n 0 .
Let fn : [a, b] ----+ lR,
1, x E [a, (a+ b) /2- 1/n],

fn(x)= { n((a+b)/2-x), xE((a+b)/2-1/n,(a+b)/ 2+1/n), 'Vn 2 no.
-1, x E [(a+ b) /2 + 1/n, b],
Then lfn (x)l :::; 1 'Vx E [a, b], i.e., llfnll :S 1, and x*(fn) = b- a+ 2/n :S llx*llllfnll :S
llx*ll 'Vn 2 n 0 . For n----+ oo we obtain that b- a:::; llx*ll, and therefore llx*ll = b- a.
ii) Suppose that x* achieve its norm on the unit ball of C[a, b], i.e., there is f E C[a, b]
with 11!11 :::; 1 such that x*(f) = llx*ll = b- a, i.e., f is continuous, lf(x)l :::; 1 'Vx E [a, b],
that is, -1:::; f(x):::; 1 'Vx E [a,b] and
(a+b)/2 ib jb
j f(x)dx- f(x)dx= 1dx.
a (a+b)/2 a
3.2 Solutions 77
l
Then
(a+b)/2 l.b
(f(x)- 1)dx = (f(x) + 1)dx.
a (a+b)/2
But f(x)- 1 :::; 0 \ix E [a, b] and f(x) + 1 :::=: 0 \ix E [a, b]. Thus
0 :::=: la
(a+b)/2
(f(x)- 1)dx =
l.b
(a+b)/2
(f(x) + 1)dx :::=: 0,
l
i.e.,
(a+b)/2 l.b
(f(x)- 1)dx = (f(x) + 1)dx = 0,
a (a+b)/2
and therefore f(x) - 1 = 0 \ix E [a, (a+ b) /2], f(x) + 1 = 0 \ix E [(a+ b) j2,b], and
then J((a +b) /2) = 1, J((a +b) /2) = -1, a contradiction.
9. See [40, exercise 11.26].

i) Obviously x* is linear. Also
lx*(x)l :::; fn=1

~~:~ : :; f
llxll
n=1
1
2n_1 = 2llxll \ix E Co,
i.e., x* is continuous and llx*ll :::; 2. For n EN let x = (1, 1, ... , 1, 0, 0, ... ) E co (n times
n 1
1). Then x*(x) = I: k- 1 , and then
k=1 2
:t L
k=1
2 1 = lx*(x)l:::; llx*llllxll = llx*ll·
For n ____, oo, f001 2n_1 1 :::; llx* II , i.e., 2 :::; llx* II-
ii) Suppose that x* achieve its norm on the unit ball of c0 , i.e., there is x = (xn)nEN E c0
oo X
such that llxll :::; 1, x*(x) = llx*ll = 2. Then I: n: 1 = 2, and therefore
n=1 2
00 0011 001
2= '""'~
~ 2n-1 -<"~<"-=2
~ 2n-1 - ~ 2n-1 ·
n=1 n=1 n=1
00 lxnl 00 1 . 00 1 - lxnl
Thus L n-1 = L n-1' that lS, L n-1 = 0. But 1 - lxnl ::::: 0 \in E N, and
n=1 2 n=1 2 n=1 2
therefore
0 < 1-lxnl < ~ 1-lxkl = 0
- 2n-1 - ~ 2k-1 '
k=1
i.e., 1 - lxnl = 0, lxnl = 1 \in EN, a contradiction, because (xn)nEN E co, i.e., lxnl ----> 0.
10. See [23, exercise 5.7, section 5].

00
Let f E c0, f -=1- 0. Since c0 = l1 there is~= (~n)nEN E h such that f(x) = L Xn~n
00
n=l
Vx E co and 11!11 = 2:: l~nl· Iff achieve its norm on the closed unit ball of c0 , i.e., :=lx E co
n=l
with llxll ::; 1 such that f(x) = 11!11, then
00 00
IIJII =If (x)l::; L lxnll~nl::; L l~nl = llfll·

n=l n=l
00 00 00
Thus llfll = L lxnll~nl = L l~nl, and therefore L l~nl (1 -lxnl) = 0. Since
n=l n=l n=l
L
00
0::; (1 -lxni) l~nl ::; ~~kl (1 -lxkl) = 0

k=l
we obtain that (1- lxnl) l~nl = 0 Vn E N. Let A= {n EN I ~n -=1- 0}. Suppose that A
is infinite. Then there is a subsequence (kn)nEN of N such that kn E A Vn E N. Then
lxkn I = 1 Vn E N. Since Xn ____, 0, we obtain that xkn --+ 0, a contradiction. Therefore A
is finite(~ E c00 ) and suppose, for example, that A= {1, 2, 3, ... , n }. Then ~k = 0 Vk ~ A
and therefore f(x) = x16 + · · · + Xn~n Vx E co. Then 11!11 = 161 + · · · + l~nl and f
achieve its norm at (sgn (6) , ... , sgn (~n) , 0, ... ) ,element from the unit ball of c0 .
11. i) Let ~n = 1- 1/n Vn E N. Then l~nl = ~n / 1, and 1 = lim ~n = sup~n =

n----+(X) nEN
sup l~n I , i.e., ( ~n)nEN E Zoo . We obtain that x* : l1 --+ lR is a linear and continuous
nEN
functional and that llx*ll =sup l~nl = 1.
nEN
ii) See [23, exercise 5.3, section 5].
Suppose that there is x E h with llxll ::; 1 such that llx*ll = x* (x) = 1. Then
00 00 00
Thus 2:: (1- 1/n) lxnl = 2:: lxnl = 1, therefore 2:: (1/n) lxnl = 0, and we obtain that
n=l n=l n=l
00
lxnl = 0 Vn E N, i.e., llxll = 2:: lxnl = 0, x = 0. Thus x* (x) = x* (0) = 0, a

n=l
contradiction.
12. i) It is obvious from the general theory.

ii) Suppose that there is x E l 1 with llxll::; 1 such that x*(x) = llx*ll = M. Then
L ~nXn = L ~nXn L l~nllxnl ::; M L lxnl = M llxll ::; M.

~ 00 00 00
M = ::;
n=l n=l n=l n=l
00 00 00
Thus M L
lxnl = L
l~nllxnl, that is, L
(M -l~nl) lxnl = 0. Since M- l~nl 2 0
n=l n=l n=l
Vn E N, we obtain that (M- l~nl) lxnl = 0 Vn E N. But M -=1- l~nl Vn E N, and
3.2 Solutions 79
00
therefore lxnl = 0 Vn E N, i.e., llxll = 2:: lxnl = 0, x = 0, x*(x) = llx*ll = M = 0, a

n=l
contradiction.
13. llx*ll =sup 1/n = 1, and x* (e1) = 1 = llx*ll for e1 = (1, 0, 0, ... ) E h.
nEN
14. '(i)::::? (ii)' See [40, exercise 13.16].

Let x* E X*, x* -:/:- 0. Using a consequence of the Hahn-Banach theorem we obtain
that there is x** E X** such that llx**ll = 1 and x**(x*) = llx*ll· But X is reflexive and
therefore the canonical embedding Kx : X -+ X**, Kx(x) = xis surjective, and then
there is x EX such that x = x**. Then 1 = llx**ll = llxll = llxll, and x*(x) = x(x*) =
x** (x*) = llx* II , i.e., x* achieve its norm at x.
'(ii)::::? (i)' For a proof, see [17, chapter I, section 3, theorem 3.2].
15. See [40, exercise 13.17].

We use exercises 8, 9 and 12, and the easy part of the James theorem (see exercise 14).
16. See [20, exercise 43, chapter V].

-weak -11·11
i) We know that if A ~ X is a convex set then A = A (the Mazur theorem).
Suppose that Xn -+ x 0 weak. For any m E N, (xn)n>m converges weak to x 0 . Since
. -weak -ll·f
Xn E Km Vn 2:: m, we obtam that Xo E Km = Km = Km. Thus Xo E Km Vm E N,
i.e., {xo} ~ n Kn.
00
n=l
n Kn.
00
Let now y E Consider E > 0 and an element x* E X*. Since Xn -+ Xo

n=l
weak there is an m E N such that Jx* (xn- x 0 )1 :S E, for any n 2 m. Let then A =
{x EX llx* (x- xo)l :S E}. We obtain that A is a closed convex set, Xn E A Vn 2:: m, and
therefore Km ~ A. Since y E Km we obtain that y E A, and therefore lx* (y- x 0 )1 :S E.
Since E > 0 was arbitrary, passing to the limit forE -+ 0 we obtain that x* (y- x 0 ) = 0
Vx* E X*, and therefore y = x 0 •
ii) We first make the following general remark. If X is a linear topological space and
(xn)nEN ~ X, x 0 E X are such that for any subsequence (kn)nEN of N we can find a
subsequence (Pn)nEN such that Xkvn -+ Xo, then Xn -+ Xo. Indeed, if we suppose that Xn
does not converge towards x 0 then there is a neighborhood V ofO such that Vn E N 3k 2:: n
such that Xk- x 0 ~ V. Then in a standard way we can construct a subsequence (kn)nEN of
N such that for any n, Xkn - x 0 ~ V. By hypothesis there is a subsequence (Pn)nEN such
that xkvn -+ x 0 , hence there is an m E N such that Xkv= - x 0 E V, and this contradicts our
choice for the subsequence (kn)nEN.
In order to prove that Xn -+ x 0 weak we will use the above remark. Consider a sub-
sequence (kn)nEN ofN. Since the sequence (xkn)nEN ~ X is bounded and X is a reflex-
ive space, using the Eberlein-Smulian theorem we obtain that we can find y E X and
a subsequence an = XkPn such that an -+ y weak. Using (i), nAn = {y}, where
nEN
An = co{ an, an+l, ... }. We have kPn 2:: Pn 2:: n Vn E N, and therefore {an, an+l, ... } ~
{xn, Xn+l, ... }.We obtain that An= co{ an, an+l, ... } ~ co{xn, Xn+l, ... } = Kn, and there-
fore {y} = nAn ~
nEN
n
Kn. By our hypothesis,
nEN
n
Kn = {xo}, and therefore y = Xo,
nEN
i.e., Xkvn -+ x 0 weak. Now we apply the above remark.
iii) Let (en)nEN <;;;; h be the standard basis. Then the set co{ en, en+l, ... } is included
in the set of elements from l 1 which have 0 at the first n - 1 positions, and therefore Kn
is included in the set of elements from h which have 0 at the first n - 1 positions. Then
n Kn = {0}. But if x* : h --+ lK, x*(xl, x2, ... ) = n=l
00
n=l
00
I: Xn, i.e., x* = (1, 1, ... ) E zr =Zoo,

then x*(en) = 1 Vn EN and therefore (en)nEN does not converge weak towards 0.
17. See [20, theorem 23, chapter II, section 4].

Let y** : Y* --+ ][{ be a linear and continuous functional. For any x* : X --+ ][{ linear
and continuous, we consider its restriction on Y, x* ly: Y --+ K Then x* IY is linear and
llx* IYIIY· = sup lx* (y)l :S sup lx* (x)l = llx*ll,

yEY, IIYII9 xEX, llxll9
i.e., x* lyE Y*, llx* IYIIY· :::; llx*ll- We define y** : x· ---) lK, y** (x*) = y** (x* IY)
Vx* E X*. Then y** is well defined and linear. We have
i.e., y•• E x··. Since X is a reflexive space, there is X E X such that X = y**' i.e.,
y** (x*) = x* (x) Vx* E X*, and therefore y** (x* IY) = x* (x) Vx* E X*. Suppose
that x tf. Y. Using a corollary for the Hahn-Banach theorem (see chapter 7), we obtain
that there is x* E X* such that x* ly= 0, x* (x) = 1, llx*ll = 1/8, 8 = d (x, Y) > 0
(Y is closed). But y** (x* IY) = x* (x), and we obtain a contradiction. Thus x E Y,
and therefore there is any = x E Y such that y** (x* IY) = x* (y) Vx* E X*. Let now
y* E Y*, y* : Y --+ lK linear and continuous. Using the Hahn-Banach theorem we obtain
an extension x* :X--+ lK for y*, and therefore y** (y*) = y** (x* IY) = x* (y) = y* (y).
We obtain that y** (y*) = y* (y) Vy* E Y*, i.e., Y is reflexive.
18. See [18, exercise 3 (iv), chapter III].

Suppose that X is a reflexive space, and consider a linear and continuous functional
x*** : X** --+ lK. We then construct x* : X --+ lK, given by x* (x) = x*** (x). Then x*
is linear, and lx* (x)l :S llx***llllxll = llx***llllxll, that is, x* E X*, llx*ll :S llx***ll- If
we prove that x*** (x**) = x** (x*) Vx** E X**, we will obtain that X* is reflexive. Let
x** E X**. Since X is reflexive there is x E X such that x = x**. Then x*** ( x**) =
x*** (x) = x* (x) = x** (x*).
Suppose now that X* is reflexive. Since X is a Banach space then Kx (X) <;;;; X**
is a closed linear subspace, and suppose that K X (X) i= X**. Then there is x** E X**'
x** tf. Kx (X). Since d (x**, Kx (X)) > 0, using a corollary of the Hahn-Banach theorem
we obtain that there is x*** E X*** such that x*** (x) = 0 Vx E X and x*** (x**) = 1.
But X* is a reflexive space, and therefore there is x* E X* such that x*** (x**) = x**(x*)
't/x** EX**. Then x* (x) = x(x*) = x*** (x) = 0 't/x EX, and therefore x* = 0. We
obtain that x*** (x**) = x**(O) = 0, and we contradict x*** (x**) = 1.

i) We observe that for any Z <;;;; X, Z _]_ <;;;; X* is a closed linear subspace, since Zl_ =
n ker X, where X : X* --+ lK, x( x*) = x* (X). Then X* I y _]_ is well defined as a normed
xEZ
3.2 Solutions 81
space. We prove now that T : X* I Y _j_ -+ Y* is well defined. If x* + Y j_ = z* + Y j_, then

x*- z* E Yj_, thus (x*- z*) (y) = 0 "'y E Y, that is, x* (y) = z* (y) \fy E Y, i.e., x* ly=
z* Iy, that is, T (x* + Y _j_) = T ( z* + Y _j_). Evidently, T is linear. We now prove that T
is an isometry. We must prove that inf {liz* Ill (z*- x*) ly= 0} = llx* IYIIY· \fx* EX*.
If z* E X*, (z*- x*) ly= 0, then z* ly= x* ly, and therefore llx* IYII = liz* IYII- But
liz* IYII :S liz* II, and therefore llx* IYII :S liz* II- Also, for x* lyE Y*, using the Hahn-
Banach theorem (see chapter 7), there is z* E X*, z* ly= x* ly, llz*llx· = llx* IYIIY*·
Thus T is an isometry, and since T is linear we obtain that T is injective. We now prove
that T is surjective. Let y* E Y*. Again, using the Hahn-Banach theorem we obtain that
there is x* EX* such that x* ly= y*, thus T (x* + Y_j_) = y*.
ii) As above, S is well defined, that is, S x* E (X I Y)* Vx* E Y j_. Evidently, S is a
linear operator. We prove that Sis an isometry, that is, sup lx* (x)l = sup lx* (x)l
llxll<l llx+YII<l
\fx* E Y_j_. For any x E X, from the definition of the quotient norm, llx + Yll =
inf llx + Yll :S llxll, and therefore we obtain the inequality ':S'. Let now x EX such that
yEY
inf llx + Yll = llx + Yll < 1. There is then z E X such that liz II < 1, z - x E Y. Then
yEY
x*(z-x) =O,thatis,x*(z) =x*(x). Weobtainthatlx*(x)l = lx*(z)l :S sup lx*(w)l,
llwll<l
and since x + Y E X IY was arbitrary of norm < 1 we obtain the inequality '2:'. Thus
Sis an isometry, and since S is linear we obtain that Sis injective. Let x* : XIY -+ lK
linear and continuous. Define x* : X -+ JK, x* (x) := x* (x + Y), \fx E X. We have
X ~ XIY ~ JK, x* = x* o n, where n : X -+ XIY is the canonical surjection,
n(x) = x + Y \fx E X, and therefore x* E X* since nand x* are linear and continuous
operators. Evidently Sx* = x*.
iii) Let fj E Kx (Y). For x* E Y_j_, fj(x*) = x* (y), and x* (y) = 0, since y E Y and
x* E Y_j_, and therefore Kx (Y) ~ Y_j_j_. Now let x** E Yj_j_. Since X is reflexive there
is x E X such that x = x**. Thus x E Y H, i.e., from the definition of Y j_j_, x = 0 on
Y_j_, and, from the definition ofY_j_, x(x*) = 0 Vx* EX* with x* ly= 0. Thus x* EX*
and x* ly= 0 implies that x* (x) = 0. Using a corollary of the Hahn-Banach theorem we
obtain that x E Y. Since Y is closed we obtain that x E Y, and therefore x** E Kx (Y).
iv) Evidently the assertion from (iii) is no longer true if X is not a reflexive space.
Consider X = c0 , Y = X. An element x* E h = c0 belongs to Y j_ if and only if
x* lea= 0, that is, x* = 0. Thus Y_j_ = {0}, and therefore yH = {x* E tr I x*(O) =
0} = tr= lr:xo = c0*. From exercise 15 we know that c0 is not a reflexive space, i.e.,
Kco (co)-=/- loo, Kx(Y)-=/- YH.

We use the notations from exercise 19. We have the following bijections
XIY!:!.., X** IY_j__j_ ~ (Yj_ )* (s.=_:)* (XIY)**,
where U (x + Y) = x + Y _1__1_ "'x E X. Let x** E (X I Y)**, and therefore there is

x = x + Y E XIY such that x** = (S- 1 )* (T (x + YH)). For any x* E (XIY)* we
have
We denote y* = s- 1x*, y* E Y _j_. Then
x** (x*) = (T (x + Y_j__j_)) (y*) = x(y*) = y* (x),
by the definition ofT. But Sy* = x* and therefore, by our definition for S, x* (x + Y) =
y* (x), and therefore x** (x*) = x* (x) VX* E (XjY)*, where x = x + Y E XjY. We
obtain that X/Y with the quotient norm is a reflexive space.

First we prove that if x~* E X** then there is an x 0 E X such that x~* (y*) = y* (x 0 )
Vy* E Y _j_. Let 1r : X ---+ X j Y be the canonical projection, a linear and continuous
operator. Then 1r** : X** ---+ (XjY)**, thus 1r**(x~*) E (X/Y)**. But XjY is reflexive,
and therefore there is x 0 E XjY, x 0 = x 0 + Y, x 0 E X, such that 1r** (x~*) = :?a, i.e.,
(1r**(x~*)) (x*) = (x*) (x 0 ) Vx* E (XjY)*. Using exercise 19 we have the isometrical
isomorphismS : Y_j_ ---+ (XjY)*. Then (1r**(x~*)) (Sy*) = (Sy*) (x0 ) Vy* E Y_j_, thus
x~* (1r* (Sy*)) = y* (x 0 ) Vy* E Y _j_. If we denote 1r* (Sy*) = x* E X* then for any x E X
we have
x* (x) = [1r* (Sy*)] (x) = (Sy*) (1r (x)) = y* (x)
by the definition of S, and therefore x* = y*, that is, 1r* (Sy*) = y*. Then x~* (y*) =
y* (x 0 ) Vy* E Y _j_. We have proved that for any x** E X** there is an x 0 E X such that
x** (y*) = y* (x 0 ) Vy* E Y_j_. We obtain that (x**- x 0 ) E yH_ Using exercise 19, we
have
yH ~ (X*jY_!_)* (T_::)* Y**,
where the operators S and (T- 1 )* are isometrical isomorphisms. Since Y is a reflex-
x
ive space, there is y0 E Y such that [(T- 1 )* (S(x**- 0 ))j (y*) = y* (y0 ) Vy* E Y*,
that is, [S (x**- x0 )] (T- 1 y*) = y* (y 0 ) Vy* E Y*. Let now x* E X* arbitrary. Then
T(x*+Y_j_) E Y*,thus[S(x**-x0 )](x*+Y_j_) = [T(x*+Y_j_)j(y 0 )Vx* EX*.
Using the definitions for SandT, we have
[S (:r**- xo)] (x* + Y_j_) = (x**- xo) (x*), [T (x* + Yj_)] (Yo)= x* (Yo),
and therefore x** (x*) = x* (x 0 + y0 ). If we denote x = x 0 + y0 , we obtain x E X,

depending only on x** E X**, such that x** (x*) = x* (x) Vx* EX*, and therefore X is a
reflexive space.
22. See [20, lemma 8, chapter VI, section 8].

Let (x~)nEN <;;;; Z\{0} be a countable dense set in Z. For every n E N and
for every m E N, (m/ (m + 1)) llx;,ll < llx~ll = sup (x)l, and therefore there
llxll=l
is an Xn,mE X such that ll:r:n,mll = 1 and lx~ (xn,m)l 2': (rn/ (m + 1)) llx;,ll- Let
Y = Sp {xn,m In, mEN}, Y <;;;; X. Then Y is a separable space, and letT : Z -+ Y*,
T (x*) = x* IY Vx* E Z <;;;; X*. For any x* E Z,
IITx*IIY* = sup 1-T* (y)l::; sup lx* (x)l = llx*llx·•

IIYII S 1, yEY ll:rll :SJ, :rEX
3.2 Solutions 83
thus Tis well defined, linear, and continuous. For any n E N,
IITx~lly· = sup lx~ (y)l 2 sup lx~ (xn,m)l 2 sup__!!!_ llx~llx• = llx~llx· ·
IIYII9, yEY mEN mEN m +1
Thus IITx~IIY* = llx~llx· \In E N, i.e., IITx*IIY* = llx*llx· Vx* E {x~ In EN}. Let
x* E Z arbitrary. Since (x~)nEN ~ Z is a dense set there is a sequence (ak)kEN of elements
from the set (x~)nEN such that ak ---. x* in the norm of Z, thus in the norm of X*. Since
Tis continuous, Tak ---> Tx* in the norm of Y*. Thus llakllx· ---> llx*llx·• IITaklly· --->
IITx*IIY*' IITakiiY· = llakllx· Vk EN, and we obtain that IITx*IIY· = llx*llx· Vx* E Z.
Thus Z is isometrically isomorphic with T ( Z) ~ Y*.
23. See [23, theorem 5.5, section 5].

'(i) ::::} (ii)' For any n E N we have Kn # 0 and we can choose Xn E Kn. Then
(xn)nEN ~ K 1 , and since K 1 is bounded we obtain that the sequence (xn)nEN is bounded.
Since X is a reflexive space, using the Eberlein-Smulian theorem we obtain that there
is x 0 E X and a subsequence (kn)nEN ~ N such that Xkn ---> Xo weak in X. For any
n E N the sequence (xkJs>n is included in Kkn and since Xkn ---> Xo weak we obtain that
x 0 E Kkn weak Vn E N. B~t Kkn is a convex and norm closed set, and therefore Kkn is
closed in the weak topology (the Mazur theorem). Thus x 0 E Kkn \In E N. But kn 2 n
n Kkn ~ n Kn. Since xo E n Kkn we
00 00 00
\In E N, and therefore Kkn ~ Kn \In E N, i.e.,

n=l n=l n=l
n Kn, and therefore n Kn # 0.

00 00
obtain that Xo E
n=l n=l
'(ii) * (i)' Let x* E X*\ {0}. For n E N, we define
Kn = {x EX lllxll ~ 1,x*(x) 2 llx*ll-1/n}.
Since llx*ll- 1/n < llx*ll, there is a EX with iiall ~ 1 such that llx*ll-1/n < lx*(a)l =
x*(x), where x = asgn(x*(a)), i.e., x E Kn # 0. Evidently Kn is a closed convex and
bounded set, and Kn+l ~ Kn \In E N. From (ii) n Kn #
00
n=l
0, i.e., there is x E n Kn, i.e.,
n=l
00
llxll ~ 1 andx*(x) 2 llx*ll-1/n 't:/n EN. Forn---> oo, it results that x*(x) 2 llx*ll- Then
llx*ll ~ x*(x) = lx*(x)l ~ llx*llllxll ~ llx*ll, i.e., there is llxll = 1 with llx*ll = x*(x).
Using the difficult part of the James theorem (see exercise 14) we obtain that X is a reflexive
space.
24. i) Kn = Bco n Hn, where Bco is the closed unit ball in Co, and
n
n
Hn = {x E Co I X= (xk)kEN,Xk = 1,k = 1,n} = [pk = 1]'

k=l
with usual notations, i.e., Pk(xl, x2, ... ) = Xk Vx = (xn)nEN E eo. Since Pk E c0Vk E N,
Hn is a closed convex set \In E N. Thus Kn is a closed convex bounded set \In E N. The
fact that Kn is non-empty Vn E N, is obvious (for example (1, ... , 1, 0, 0, ... ) E Kn, 1 on
n Kn. Then
00
the first n positions). Evidently Kn+l ~ Kn \In EN, and suppose that Xo E
n=l
x 0 E Kn 'Vn EN, thus Pn(x 0 ) = 1 'Vn EN, and therefore x 0 = (1, 1, ... ).This contradicts
xo E co.
ii) We observe that en E Kn, i.e., Kn cl 0. The other properties for Kn are obvious.
co co
If, for a contradiction, there is X= (xl, X2, ... ) E n
n=l
Kn, we obtain that L lxkl
k=l
~ 1 and
co co
L (1- 1/k) xk ~ 1- 1/n 'Vn EN, and, for n --7 oo, L (1- 1/k) xk ~ 1. But
k=l k=l
and therefore xk = 0 'Vk EN, a contradiction.

iii) See [40, exercise 3 .45].
For n E N, for example, the function f : [0, 1] --7 JR.,
ifO ~ x ~a,
if a< X~ an,
if an< X~ 1
belongs to K n- It is obvious that K n is a closed convex set, and, since K n <;;; BC[o, 1J, K n
co
is also bounded. If, for a contradiction, there is f E n Kn, then f(a) = 0 and f(x) = 1
n=l
'Vx E [an, 1], 'Vn EN. We obtain that f(an) = 1 'Vn EN. Since an --7 a for n --7 oo and f
is continuous we obtain that f(a) = 1, a contradiction.

Consider x* E l:'x, and definqt : P (N) --7 K, p, (A) = x* (XA) 'VA <;;; N. If A1 , ... ,An E
P(N) are pairwise disjoint sets, then XA, + · · · + XAn = XA,U···UAn' and therefore
I' (~A,)~ x• (XA,U···UA.) ~ tx' (XA.) ~ tp(A.)
t
Thus p, : P (N) --7 K is finitely additive. The variation lfLI : P (N) --7 [0, oo] is defined by
II' I (8) ~ ~up { II' (A.) 11 ~ A, ~ E, A n Ai ~ 0 Vi i" j} VE c; P (N) .
If lfLI (N) < oo, we say that p, is a measure with bounded variation. Consider A 1 , ... , An<;;;
N, pairwise disjoint sets. Then we have
n n
L lx*(xAJI = L x*(xAJsgn (x*(xAJ)

t
i=l i=l
x• ( sgn (x'(XA.l) XA,) <; llx'll,
since~~~ sgn (x*(xAJ) XAi "co ~ 1. We take the supremum over A 1 , ... ,An <;;;Nand we
obtain that lfLI (N) ~ llx* II·
3.2 Solutions 85
Consider now a finitely additive measure J-L : P (N) ----> IK, with bounded variation
n
IJ-LI (N) Zoo of the form I: O:iXEi' with o:i E IK, Ei ~ N pairwise disjoint
< oo. For any x E
n
i=l
sets, we define x* (x) = L O:if-t (Ei)· If we denote by X ~ Zoo the linear subspace of
i=l
n
elements of the form I: O:iXEi' with ai E IK, Ei ~ N pairwise disjoint sets, using exercise
i=l
21 of chapter 1 we obtain that X ~ (Zoo, ll·lloo) is a dense linear subspace. Evidently x* is
well defined and linear on X, and
n n
lx* (x)l s; L lo:illf-L (Ei)l s; llxlloo L IJ-L (Ei)l s; llxlloo IJ-LI (N) Vx EX.
i=l i=l
Since lK is a complete space, we can extend x* to a linear continuous functional on Zoo,
denoted again by x* : Zoo ----> IK, such that llx* II s; IJ-LI (N). By our construction x* (xe) =
J-L (E) VE E P (N).
Chapter 4
The distance between sets in Banach spaces
Definition. Let X be a norrned space, A <;;; X a non-empty subset, and let x E X. Then
d(x, A) = dist(x, A) = inf d(x, a) = inf llx- all

aEA aEA
is called the distance from the element x to the subset A.

Definition. Let X be a norrned space, and A, B <;;;X two non-empty subsets. Then
d(A, B)= dist(A, B)= inf

aEA, bEB
d(a, b)= inf
aEA, bEB
II a- bll
is called the distance from the set A to the set B.

The Riesz Lemma. Let X be a norrned space, and G <;;; X a closed linear subspace
with G #X. Then for any 0 < E < 1 there is x" ~ G with llx"ll = 1 and d (x", G) 2 1- E.
4.1 Exercises
Properties for the distance from a point to a set
1. Let X be a norrned space, A <;;; X a non-empty set, and f : X ____, JR:+, f(x) =
d(x, A)= inf llx- all· Prove that:
aEA
i) d(x, A) = d(x, A) 'Vx EX. In particular d(x, A) = 0 q. x EA.
ii) ld(x, A)- d(y, A) I ::::; d(x, y) 'Vx, y EX.
iii) d(>..x, >..A)= 1>..1 d(x, A)\;/)... E JK, 'Vx EX, and d(x+y, A+B) ::::; d(x, A)+d(y, B)
'Vx, y E X, VA, B <;;; X non-empty. In particular, if A is a linear subspace then f is a
seminorrn, and f(x) ::::; llxll 'Vx EX.
iv) If A is convex then f is convex.
4.1 Exercises 87
The distance from a function to a set of polynomials inC [0, 1]
2. Calculate the following distances in C([O, 1]; JR.).

i) From x 0 (t) = t to the linear subspace of all constant functions.
ii) From x 1 ( t) = t 2 to the linear subspace of all the polynomials of degree at most 1.
The distance from a point to the kernel of a norm-one projector
3. i) Let X be a normed space and P E L (X) a non-null projector (that is, P 2 = P,

P #- 0). Let L = ker P. Prove that
IIP(x)ll
IIPII ~ d(x,L) ~ IIP(x)ll Vx EX.
In particular, if PEL (X) is a norm-one projector, then d (x, L) =liP (x)ll Vx EX.
ii) Consider L = {f E C [-1, 1] I f(x) = f( -x) Vx E [-1, 1]}, and S = {f E
C [-1, 1]1 f(x) = - f( -x) Vx E [-1, 1]}. Using (i) calculated (ex, L) and d (ex, S).
iii) Let a = (an)nEN E l 00 , and Ma : l2 ---t h be the multiplication operator
Ma (x1, x2, ... ) = (a1x1, a2x2, ... ). Let L = {U E L (l2) I U = U*} and S = {U E
L (l2 ) I U = -U*}. Using (i) calculated (Ma, L) and d (Ma, S).
iv) Let L = {U E L (L2 [0, 1]) I U = U*}, S = {U E L (L 2 [0, 1]) I U = -U*},
cp E L 00 [0, 1] and M'P : L 2 [0, 1] ---t L 2 [0, 1], the multiplication operator M'P (!) = fcp
Vf E L 2 [0, 1]. Using (i) calculated (M'P, L) and d(M'P, S).
The distance from a point to the kernel of a linear and continuous functional
4. Let X be a normed space, x* E X*, x* #- 0 and L = ker x*. Prove that
lx*(x)l
d(x,L) = Tx1 Vx EX.
A geometric characterization for reflexive spaces
5. i) Let x* E X*, x* #- 0, c E IK, and consider the closed hyperplane A = { x E X I

x*(x) = c}. Prove that A#- 0 and that
lx*(x)- cl
d(x, A)= llx*ll Vx EX.
ii) Prove that if X is a Banach space then the following assertions are equivalent:
a) X is reflexive;
b) Each closed hyperplane contains a minimal norm element.
The distance from a point to an open half-plane
6. Let X be a real normed space, x* E X*\{0}, and let x EX such that x*(x) ~ 0.
Prove that
• x*(x)
d(x, [x < 0]) = M.
88 The distance between sets in Banach spaces
The distance from an element to a linear subspace
7. Let L be a one-dimensional linear subspace in a Hilbert space H, and a E L, a f- 0.

Prove that
_j_ I(x, a)l
d(x, L ) = -l-lal-l 1::/x E H.
8. i) Let n E N. In the space l 2 , calculate d(x, Ln), the distance from the element
x = (1, 0, 0, ... ) E l2 to the linear subspace
What is lim d(x, Ln)?

n->oo
ii) Let (ak)kEN <;;:; lK\ {0} be a sequence for which there exists lim lan+danl, and this
n->oo
limit is not equal to 1. Let n E N and let
Calculated (en, Ln) and lim d (en, Ln)·

n->oo
9. Let x E LI[O, oo) n L 2 [0, oo ). For n EN we denote by
Calculate d(x, Ln) and lim d(x, Ln).

n->oo
10. Let (S, I:, p,) be a measure space, 1 < p < oo, 1/p+ 1/q = 1, and let g E Lq(p,) be
a fixed function. Calculate the distance from a function f E Lp(/1) to the linear subspace
11. In the space L 2 [0, 1], calculate the distance from the function f (t) = t 2 to the
linear subspace
The distance between two parallel linear manifolds
12. i) Let X be a normed space, and vl = L +X], v2 = L + x2 two parallel linear

manifolds, i.e., L <;;:; X is a linear subspace and x 1 , x 2 E X. Prove that d (\11, V2 ) =
d(x 1 -x 2 ,L).
ii) Using (i) prove that if X is a normed space and H 1 = {.r E X I x* (x) = a 1 },
H 2 = {x EX I x* (:r) = a 2 } are two closed hyperplanes (.r* E X*\{0}, a 1 ,a 2 E JK),
then
4.1 Exercises 89
iii) Consider two parallel planes in JR3 , n 1 : a 1 x + b1 y + c1z + d 1 = 0, n 2 : a 1 x +

b1 y + c1 z + d 2 = 0. Using (ii) deduce the following well known formula from the analytic
geometry:
ld1- d21
d(n1,7r2)=J2 b2 2
a1 + 1 + C1
iv) Using (ii) calculate the distance between the closed hyperplanes
and
H2 = {1 C[0,1]11
E
1
f(x)dx = -1}.
v) Let H be a Hilbert space, and a E H, a -=/= 0. Let A 1 = {x E HI (x, a) = 1} and
A 2 = {x E HI (x,a) = 2}. Using(ii)provethatd(A1,A2) = 1/llall·
The structure for the set of all minimal norm elements
13. Let X be a normed space and A ~ X a convex set which has at least two elements
of minimal norm. Prove that A contains an infinity of elements of minimal norms. More
precisely: {x E AI xis an element ofminimal norm in A} is convex.
Effective calculation for the set of all minimal norm elements
14. Let
H ~ { (x.)"'" E !,I ~ ~x" ~ 1}.
Prove that in H there is a unique element of minimal norm, and find this element.
15. Let
H = { (xn)nEN E hi X1 + X2 + ~3 + ~4 + · · · = 1}.
Prove that H has an infinity of elements of minimal norm, and find these elements.
16. Let
H = { f E C ([0, 1]; JR) 11 1
: ~i dx = 1}.
Prove that H has only one element of minimal norm, and find this element.
17. Let
H ~ {t E C([O, 1j ;lR) I [ ' ' xf(x)dx ~ 1}.
Prove that H has an infinity of elements of minimal norm, and find these elements.
18. Let
M ~ {t E c (JO, 1j;JR) I ['' f (t)dt -l;,t (t) dt ~ 1}.

Prove that M is a closed, convex non-empty subset of C [0, 1] which has no minimal norm
element.
19. Let
M = { f E Ll[O, 1]11 f1
(t) dt = 1}.
Prove that M ~ L 1 [0, 1] is a closed, convex non-empty set which has an infinity of ele-
ments of minimal norm.
Limitations for the Riesz lemma
20. i) Let X be the closed linear subspace of C [0, 1] given by all the functions taking
the value 0 at 0. Let Y ~ X be the closed linear subspace of all functions x E X for which
J01 x (t) dt = 0. Prove that we cannot find an x E Sx such that d (x, Y) 2 1.
ii) If X is a Hilbert space, and Y ~ X is a proper closed linear subspace, prove that
thereis an x E Sx such that d (x, Sy) = J2.
i) X is reflexive;
ii) For each closed linear subspace Y ~ X, Y =F X, there is an x E Sx such that
d (x, Y) 2 1.
22. Let
and
Y ~ { (x,),,. EXI ~ ;> 0}

Prove that we cannot find an x E Sx such that d (x, Y) 2 1.
A proof of the Riesz theorem
23. Let X be a normed space such that B x is norm compact.

n
i) Prove that there are n EN and x 1 , ... , Xn E Bx such that Bx ~ U (xi+ (1/2) Bx).
i=l
ii) Let Y = Sp{x 1 , ... , Xn}· Prove that Bx ~ Y + (1/2n) Bx 'in EN.
iii) Deduce that X = Y and hence that X is finite-dimensional (The Riesz Theorem).
Sparse sequences in the unit sphere of an infinite-dimensional normed space
24. Let X be an infinite-dimensional normed space. Using exercise 21 prove that there
is a sequence (xn)nEN ~ Sx such that llxn- xmll 2 1 'in =F m.
25. i) Let n E Nand x 1 , ... , Xn ben linearly independent elements in a normed space X
of dimension n + 1. Prove that there is Xn+l E S x such that llxn+l - xi II > 1 '\/1 ::; i ::; n.
ii) Using (i) prove that if X is an infinite-dimensional normed space, then there is a
sequence (xn)nEN ~ X such that llxnll = 1 'in E Nand llxn- xmll > 1 Vm, n E N,
m =I= n.
4.1 Exercises 91
The distance to the unit sphere of a finite-dimensional subspace
26. Let X be a real infinite-dimensional normed space, and Y ~ X a finite-

dimensional linear subspace.
i) For each c E (0, 1), let y;, ... , y~ E Sy· be an c-net for Sy·. Prove that
maxy; (y) 2': (1- c) IIYII Vy E Y.

i=l,n
ii) Prove that for each c E (0, 1) there is an x E X with llxll 1 such that
(1- c) IIYII :S llx + Yll Vy E Y. Deduce that d (Sp{x }, Sy) 2': 1- c.
An evaluation for the norm of a bijective operator on l~
27. i) Let X be a real normed space and x 1 , ... ,xn E X with llxill 1 for each
1 :S i :S n. Let c E (0, 1) and let us suppose that
n
Prove that
n
ii) Let c E (0, 1) and let X be a real normed space. If T E L (l~, X) is bijective,
IITII :S 1 + c, and IITeill = 1, i = 1,71, prove that IIT- 1 11 2': 1/ (1- c).
A finite-dimensional normed space is close to a subspace of an l~ -space
28. Let (X, 11·11) be a finite-dimensional normed space. Then Bx· is compact and
for 0 < c < 1 let {xi, ... , x~} ~ Bx• be an c-net for Bx·. Define then T : X --+ l~,
T(x) = (xl(x), ... , x~(x)). Prove that:
i) Tis injective, linear, continuous, and IITII :S 1.
ii) Denoting by G = T(X) ~ l~, prove that r- 1 : G --+ X is linear, continuous, and
IIT- 1 11 :S 1/ (1- c).
A surjectivity property for lx
29. i) Let X be a norrned space, and consider a closed linear subspace G ~ X,

G :f. X. Prove that Vc > 0 3xE tfc G such that d(:r", G) 2': c.
ii) Using (i) prove that if X is an infinite-dimensional norrned space then there is
a sequence (:rn)nEI\l ~ X with the property that: V(.An)nEN E lx 3.r* E X* such that
:r*(:rn) =An Vn EN.
Geometric characterizations for reflexive spaces
30. i) Let X be a Banach space. Prove that for each closed convex non-empty set
A ~ X, the function x f------+ d (x, A) is lower semicontinuous on X with respect to the
weak topology, i.e., V)... E JR, {x E X I d (x, A) :=:; )... } is weak closed.
ii) Let X be a Banach space. Prove that the following assertions are equivalent:
a) X is reflexive;
b) Each closed convex non-empty subset A ~ X has a minimal norm element, i.e.,
there is an x 0 E A such that llxoll = d (0, A)= inf llxll-
xEA
If, in addition, each point of the unit sphere S x is an extremal point of B x then the
element x 0 is unique.
iii) Using (i) and (ii) prove that the following assertions are equivalent:
a) X is reflexive;
b) For each closed convex non-empty set A ~ X and each closed convex non-empty
and bounded set B ~ X we can find x E A andy E B such that llx- Yll = d (A, B).
4.2 Solutions
1. i) We will prove that (i) and (ii) are true in any metric space. If (X, d) is a metric
space and A ~ X a non-empty set, then the distance from the point x E X to the set A is
d(x, A) = inf d(x, a).
aEA
Since A ~ A it follows that d(x, A) :=:; d(x, A). Let a E A. Then there is a sequence
(an)nEN ~ A such that an ---> a, and therefore d(x, an) ---> d(x, a). But d(x, an) 2: d(x, A)
Vn E N. Passing to the limit for n ---> oo we obtain that d(x, a) 2: d(x, A) Va E A, hence
d(x, A) 2: d(x, A).
If d(x, A) = 0, then d(x, A) < 1/n Vn EN, i.e., there is a sequence (an)nEN ~A such
that d(an, x) < 1/n Vn E N, i.e., d(an, x) ---> 0, x E A. Conversely, if x E A, then it is
clear that d(x, A) = 0, and therefore d(x, A) = 0.
ii) We have
d(x, A) inf d(x, a) :=:; inf (d(x, y)

aEA aEA
+ d(y, a))
inf d(y, a)+ d(x, y) = d(y, A)+ d(x, y),
aEA
hence d(x, A)- d(y, A) :=:; d(x, y). Changing x withy, we obtain that d(y, A)- d(x, A) :=:;
d(y, x) = d(x, y). Then ld(x, A)- d(y, A)l :=:; d(x, y).
iii) Let x EX,)... E K. We have
d(>..x, >..A) = inf

aEA
11>-.x- >..all = inf
aEA
1>-.lllx- all = 1>..1 aEA
inf llx- all = 1>..1 d(x, A).
Let a E A, bE B. Then a+ bE A+ B, from whence
d(x + y, A+ B) :S ll(x + y)- (a+ b)ll :S llx- all+ IIY- bll-

Taking the infimum over a E A and b E B we obtain that d(x + y, A+ B) :=:; d(x, A)+
d(y, B).
4.2 Solutions 93
If A is a linear subspace then >.A= A V>.-:/- 0, from whence we obtain that d(>.x, A) =
1>-1 d(x, A) V>.-:/- 0. For>. = 0, we have d(>.x, A) = d(O, A) = 0 = 1>-1 d(x, A), since 0 E
A. Since A is a linear subspace, A+ A = A, from whence d( x + y, A) :::::; d( x, A)+ d(y, A).
In addition, we have d(x, A) :::::; d(x, 0) = llxll because 0 E A.
iv) Let x 1, x 2 E X, and consider 0 < >. < 1. Let a 1, a 2 E A. Then since A is convex,
>.a 1 + (1- >.) a 2 E A, from whence
d (>.x 1 + (1- >.) x 2, A) < d (>.x 1 + (1- >.) x 2, >.a 1 + (1- >.) a 2)
ll>-x1 + (1- >.) x2- >.a1- (1- >.) a2ll
< >. llx1- ad+ (1- >.) llx2- a2ll,
i.e.,
Taking the infimum over a 1 E A and a 2 E A, we obtain that
2. We denote by P0 the linear subspace of all the polynomials of degree zero and with
P 1 the linear subspace of all polynomials of degree :::::; 1.
i) We have: d (xo, Po) = inf {llxo- klloo IkE JR} = inf sup It- kl. Since
kE!f!. tE [0,1]
sup It- 1/21 = 1/2 and sup It- kl > 1/2 Vk-:/- 1/2, we obtain that d (x 0 , P 0 ) = 1/2,
tE[0,1] tE[0,1]
and this distance is attained only at one element of P0 , the constant function 1/2.
ii) We have:
d (x1, PI)= inf {llx1- (at+ b)lloo I a, bE JR} = inf sup lt 2 - at- bl.
a,bE!f!. tE[0,1]
Let us denote Ta,b = sup 1t 2 - at- bl, a, bE R Then:

tE[0,1]
a) If a E ( -oo, 0] then the vertex of the parabole t f----t t 2 - at - b is not in the
interval (0, 1), and then Ta,b =max {11- a- bl, lbl}. Since a E ( -oo, OJ it follows that
Ta,b ~ 1/2 in this case.
b) If a E [2, oo) then again the vertex of the parabole t f----t t 2 - at - b is not in the
interval (0, 1), and then Ta,b = max {11 -a- bl , lbl}. Since a E [2, oo ), again Ta,b ~ 1/2.
c) Let us suppose now that a E (0, 2). Then the vertex of the parabole is in the interval
(0, 1), and hence
Ta,b = max{l1- a- bl, lbl, la 2 /4 + bl}.
If a = 1, then T 1 ,b = max {lbl, 11/4 + bl}. Forb = -1/8, T 1 ,- 1; 8 = 1/8. If b > -1/8,
then 1/4 + b > 1/8 and Ta,b > 1/8, and if b < -1/8 then lbl > 1/8 and T 1 ,b > 1/8. Let
us suppose now that there is an a E (0, 2), a-:/- 1, and a b E lR such that Ta,b :::::; 1/8. Then
11- a- bl :S 1/8, lbl :S 1/8 and ia 2 /4 + bl :S 1/8. Since max {lbl, ia 2/4 + bl} ~ a 2 /8,
it follows that 1/8 ~ a 2 /8, and since a E (0, 2), a-:/- 1, we obtain that a E (0, 1). If b > 0,
then a 2 /4 :::::; 1/8, i.e., a :::::; 1/ )2, and since b :::::; 1/8, it follows that a + b :::::; 1/ J2 + 1/8.
Then 118 2 11- (a+ b)l = 1- (a+ b) 2 1- (11.;2 + 118), which is false. If b::::; 0,
then if a 2 14 + b < 0, we have a 2 14 < -b = lbl S 118, i.e., a ::::; 11.;2, which is false,
by the above calculations. Hence a 2 14 + b 2 0, and then a 2 14 + b ::::; ~ (1). We have
a E (0,1),b S Oandthen 11-a-bl = 1-a-b S 118 (2). Adding(l)and(2)we
obtain that 1- a+ a 2 14 :S 114 and then a 2 - 4a + 3::::; 0, which is false, since a E (0, 1).
We obtain that d (xi, PI) = 118.
3. i) Let y E L = ker P. Then P(x- y) = P(x)- P(y) = P(x), from whence
liP (x)ll =liP (x- Y)ll :S IIPIIIIx- Yll, i.e., liP (x)ll I IIPII S llx- Yll Vy E L. Taking
the infimum over y E L we obtain that liP (x)ll I IIPII S d (x, L). Since Pis a projector,
P 2 = P, x- P (x) E ker P, from whence llx- (x- P (x))ll 2 d (x, L), i.e., d (x, L) S
IIP(x)ll-
ii) Let P : C [-1, 1] ---. C [-1, 1], (Pf) (x) = (! (x)- f (-x)) 12. Then ker P = L
and Pis a projector with IIPII = 1 (this is easy to prove, see exercise 16 of chapter 5).
Using (i)we have d (ex, L) = liP (ex) II- Since P (ex)= (ex- e-x) 12 we have liP (ex) II =
(e 2 - 1) I (2e).
LetnowP: C[-1,1]---. C[-1,1], (Pf)(x) = (f(x)+f(-x))l2. Thenagain
Pis a norm-one projector. Using (i) we have that d(ex,s) = IIP(ex)ll- But P(ex) =
(ex+ e-x) 12, and hence liP (ex) II = (e 2 + 1) I (2e).
For (iii) and (iv) we use the same notations as for exercises 14 and 26 from chapter 12.
iii) Let P : L (h) ---. L (l 2 ), P (U) = (U- U*) 12. We have P 2 (U) = P (V) =
(V- V*) 12, where V = P (U), V* = (U*- U**) 12 = (U*- U) 12 = -P (U), and
therefore Pis a projector. We have liP (U)II S (IIU II+ II U*ll) 12 = IIUII, i.e., IIPII S 1,
and then since Pis a non-null projector we have IIPII = 1. Also ker P = L, and using (i)
we obtain that d (Ma, L) = liP (Ma)ll- We have
P (Ma) (xi, X2, ... ) = ( Ma; M;) (xi, X2, ... ) = (ibiXI, ... , ibnXn, ... ),
where bk = 'Sak. i.e., P (Ma) is a multiplication operator. Therefore, liP (Ma) II

sup lbkl =sup !'Saki, i.e., d (Ma, L) =sup !'Saki·
kEN kEN kEN
We take now P (U) = (U + U*) 12 and let S = ker P. Then from (i) since P
is a norm-one projector we have d(Ma,S) = IIP(Ma)ll- Since P(Ma) (xi,x 2 , ... ) =
(xi~ai, ... , Xn~an, .. ) is a multiplication operator, then liP (Ma)ll =sup i~akl, and there-
kEN
fore d (Ma, S) =sup l~akl·
kEN
iv) By (i), d (M'P, L) = liP (M'P)ii, where P (V) = (V- V*) 12 for all V E
L (L2 [0, 1]). Therefore (P(M'P)) (f) = i ('Scp) f for all f E L2 [0, 1]. Then
liP (M<p)ll = IISS'PIILoo[O,I] ·
Analogously we obtain that d (M'P, L) = II~'PII £ 00 [0,1[
.
4. Let x E X and consider£ E L = ker x*. Then x*(£) = 0 and lx*(x- £)1 ::::;
llx*llllx- £11, and therefore lx*(x)l I llx*ll S llx- £11 W E L, from whence d(x, L) 2
lx*(x)l I llx*ll- Since x* -=1- 0 then llx*ll > 0, and let 0 < c: < llx*ll- Then
0 < llx*ll- c: < llx*ll = sup lx*(x)l,
llxii=I
4.2 Solutions 95
from whence it follows that there is xE EX, llxcll = 1, such that llx*ll- E < lx*(xs)l :S
llx*ll· Let Yc = xEjx*(xc) and at:= x- y<x*(x). Then as E L = ker x*, from whence
* llxsll I * lx*(x)l
d(x, L) :S llx- as II = IIYclllx (x)l = lx*(xc)l x (x)l = lx*(xt:)l'
i.e., d(x, L) :S lx*(x)l / lx*(xc)l 'Vc > 0. Since lim lx*(xc)l = llx*ll, we obtain that
£>0,£-tO
d(x, L) :S lx*(x)l / llx*ll·
5. i) Since x* =J 0 there is an x E X such that x* (x) =J 0, from whence a = ex/ x* (x) E
A, and therefore A =J 0. Then A = a + ker x*. Using exercise 4 we obtain that
d(.1:, A) inf {llx- a- Ylll y E kerx*} = d(x- a, ker x*)

lx*(x- a) I lx*(x)- cl
ll.1:* II llx* II
ii) '(b)=? (a)' Let.1:* EX*\ {0} and leta E lK\{0}. Consider H = [x* =a], H =1- 0.
Then
. lx* (0) - al lal
;~1 11 .1: 11 = d (O, H) = 11.1:* II = 11.1:* II
(the last equality by (i)). From our hypothesis (b), there is an a E H\ {0} such that
llall = inf 11.1:11 = lal / llx*ll. But a E H, from whence .1:* (a) = a, and then
xEH
llall = l.1:* (a)l / 11.7:*11· Then liT* II = .1:* (u), where u = (asgn (.1:* (a)))/ llall, i.e., .1:*
attains its norm on B x. Using the James theorem (the difficult part of the James theorem,
see exercise 14 of chapter 3) we obtain that X is reflexive.
'(a) =?(b)' Let .1:* E X*, x* =J 0, and let H = [.1:* =a] =J 0, where a =J 0. Since
by hypothesis X is reflexive, using the James theorem (the easy part of the James theorem)
there is u E S x such that .1:* (u) = llx* II· Then x* (u/ ll.1:* II) = 1, and then a = au/ ll.1:* II E
H. In addition, by (i)
lalllull lal
llall = Tx1 = liT* II = d (0, H)'
i.e., a is a minimal norm element in H. If a = 0, then 0 E His a minimal norm element
for H.
Remark. If h: ax+ by- c = 0 is a line in the Euclidean plane and M(x 0 , y0 ) E IR 2 ,
then
d(M, h)= la.To + byo- cl
v'a2+b2
and ifJr: a.T +by+ cz- d = 0 is a plane in the Euclidean space and M 0 (x 0 , y0 , z 0 ) E IR 3 ,
then
d(Mo, 1r) = laxo + byo + czo- dl,
y'a2 + b2 + c2
i.e., we obtain the well known formulas from the analytic geometry.
Indeed, let .1:* : IR 2 --> IR, .1:*(x, y) = ax+ by. Then .1:* is linear and continuous, with
ll.1:* II = v' a2 + b2 . In addition h = { (x, y) E IR 2 I x*(.T, y) = c} and then
d (M h) = lx* (To, Yo)- cl = la.To + byo- cl

' llx*ll v'a 2 +b 2 ·
The same for the second case.
6. Obviously,d(x, [x* s; 0]) s; d(x, [x* = 0]). Letnowy E [x* s; 0], thatis,x*(y) s; 0.
Then
y*(x- y)
llx- Yll sup ly*(x- y)l = sup y*(x- y) =sup II *II
IIY* 11=1 IIY* 11=1 y* iO y
> x*(x- y) = x*(x) _ x*(y) > x*(x)
llx*ll llx*ll llx*ll - llx*ll.
From the definition of the distance from a point to a set it follows that d(x, [x* s; 0]) ~
x*(x)/ llx*ll· Since x*(x) ~ 0, using exercise 4 we obtain that d(x, [x* = 0])
x*(x)/ llx*ll from whence we obtain that
d(x, [x* s; 0]) = d(x, [x* = 0]) = ~;~~.

Also, since x* is continuous and x* # 0 it follows that [x* < OJ = [x* s; OJ. Indeed, it
is clear that [x* <OJ ~ [x* :S OJ and [x* < OJ ~ [x* <OJ. Let x EX such that x* (x) = 0.
Let x 0 E X such that x* (x 0 ) # 0, and for every n E N let Xn = x- x 0 / (nx* (x 0 )).
Then Xn E [x* <OJ and Xn --+ x, and therefore [x* <OJ = [x* s; OJ. Using exercise l(i),
we have d(x, [x* < 0]) = d(x, [x* s; 0]), from whence we obtain that d(x, [x* < 0]) =
x*(x)/ llx*ll·
7. Let f : H _, IK, f(x) = (x, a). Then Ll_ = kerf and using exercise 4 we obtain
that
d( L l_) = d( k f)= lf(x)l = l(x,a)l
x, x, er IIJII llall
since IIlii = llall·
8. i) Let an = (1, 1, ... , 1, 0, 0, ... ) E l2 (n times 1). Then Ln = {x E l2 l (x, an) =

0} = {an} j_. Then by exercise 7, we have
ii) We have Ln = {xn}l_, where Xn = (a1, ... ,an, 0, ... ).Then
Let l = lim Ian+ 1/an 1. The following cases can occur:

n-+CXJ
CXJ
1) l > 1. From the well known ratio test for series it follows that the series L lanl 2
n=1
diverges. Using now the Stolz-Cesaro lemma, we obtain that
4.2 Solutions 97
and then lim d (en, Ln) = yf1- 11!2.

n~oo
00
2) l < 1. Again by the ratio test for series it follows that the series :Z::::: lanl 2 converges.
n=1
In particular an ----+ 0. Then
00 2
where s = :Z::::: lanl .
n=1
9. Let an= X[o,n] E L 2 [0, oo). Then Ln = {an}l_ and using exercise 7 we obtain that
We have
11n x(t)dtl :S 1n lx(t)l dt :S 1 00
lx(t)l dt = llxll 1 ,
hence d(x, L) :S llxll 1 I Vn ----+0.
10. Let x* : Lp(JL) ----+ IK, x*(x) = J5 gxdJL. Obviously x* is linear, and from the Holder
inequality,
lx*(x)l = Jfs gxdJLJ :s:: fs lgllxl dJL :s:: (fs lglq dJL r/q (fs lxlp dJL riP
= llgllqllxiiP VxELp(JL)
it follows that x* is continuous, i.e., x* E ( Lp(JL) )*. Using exercise 4 it follows that
d(f,L) = lx*(f)llllx*ll (clearly kerx* = L). We have llx*ll :S llgllq· Taking
x = lglq- 1 sgn(g ), where sgn(g) = { lgl I g g -=1- O, we have
0 g = 0,
x*(x) =Is gsgn(g) lglq- 1 dJL =Is lglq dJL.
Then
lx*(x)l :S llx*llllxiiP = llx*ll (Is 1

lxiP djL) /P
llx* II (Is 11
lglp(q- 1) djL) p = llx* II (Is lglq djL) p.
11
Using the fact that 1- 1lp = 11 q we obtain that llgllq :S llx* II and therefore llx* II = llgllq·
Hence
11. Take g(t) = 1 E L 2 [0, 1]. Using exercise 10, we obtain that
12. i) We have
d (Y;, Vz) inf llx- Yll = inf llx + x 1 - (y + x2) II

yEV2,xEV1 x,yEL
inf liz- (x1- x2)ll = d (x1- x2, L).

zEL
ii)LetH1 = kerx*+x 1 wherex* (x 1 ) = a 1,andH2 = kerx*+x 2 wherex* (x 2) = a 2 .

Then by (i) and exercise 4 we have
iii) We have x* : lR3 ---+ JR, x* (x, y, z) = a1x + b1y + c1z, llx* I = ai + bi + and J ci
we use (ii).
f
iv) Since for x* E ( C [0, 1])*, x* (f) = 01 f (x) dx, we have llx* II = 1, then using (ii)
we obtain that d (H1, H 2) = 2.
v) Using (ii), d (A1, A2) = 1/ llall-
13. Let a1, az E A, a1 i' a2 be such that lla1ll = llazll = inf llxll = d (0, A)=: d. Let
xEA
0 ::; ), ::; 1 and a>-. = >.a 1 + (1 - >.) a 2 E A, since A is convex. Then
lla>-.11 ::; >. lla1ll + (1- >.) lla2ll = >.d + (1- >.)d = d = inf llxll ::; lla>-.11,
xEA
i.e., lla>-.11 = inf llall- Let us now observe that if >.1

aEA
i' >.2 then a>-., i' a>-. 2, since a1 cl a2.
00
14. Using exercise 5(i), min llxll = 1/ llx*ll, where x*(xl,x2···) = I: Xn/n, and
xEH n=l
llx*ll =sup {1/nl n EN}= 1. We have e1 E Hand lle1ll =min llxll = 1.
xEH
00
Let now a = (an)nEN E H be such that llall =min llxll = 1, i.e., I: an/n = 1 and
xEH n=l
()()
L lanl = 1. Then
n=l
~ n-1
L.,.lanl-- = 0,
n=2
n
from whence Iani = 0 Vn 2: 2, i.e., an= 0 Vn 2: 2. Then a 1 = 1, hence a= e 1.
4.2 Solutions 99
15. We have (see exercise 5(i)) inf llxll = 1 = lle1ll = lle2ll· Using exercise 13 we
xEH
obtain that Ae1 + (1- A) e 2 = (A, 1- A, 0, 0, ... ),A E [0, 1], are minimal norm elements.
Let now x = (xn)nEN E H be a minimal norm element. Then
X3 X4
x1 + x 2 + -2 + -3 + · · · = 1
and lx1l + lx2l + lx31 + · · · = 1. We then have
1 x1 + x2 + ~3 + · · · = Ix1 + x2 + ~3 + · · ·I
lx31
< lx1l + lx2l + 2 + · · · :S lx1l + lx2l + · · · = 1,
so it follows that lx31 = 0, lx41 = 0, ... , i.e., x = (x1, x 2, 0, ... ). In addition x 1 + x 2 = 1 and
lx1l + lx2l = 1. This easily implies that x2 = 1 -A, x1 = A, with A E [0, 1].
16. We will use in the solutions for exercises 16-18 the following well known property:
iff: [a,b] ----> [O,oo) is a continuous functions and J:
f(x)dx = 0, then f(x) = 0
Vx E [a,b].
Let x* : C [0, 1] ----> IR, x* (f) = f 01 (! (x) I (x + 1)) dx. We have lx* (f) I :::;
IIIII fo1 (11 (x + 1)) dx = ln2llfll Vf E C [0, 1] and from lx* (1)1 :S llx*lllllll = llx*ll,
llx*ll ~ f 01 (1l(x+1))dx = ln2, we obtain that llx*ll = ln2. Let f 0 (x) = 1lln2.
Obviously fo E H and using exercise 5(i) we have
. lx*(0)-11 1
i~h 11911 = d (0, H)= llx*ll = ln 2 =lifo II,
i.e., fo is a minimal norm element.

Let now f E H be a minimal norm element, i.e., IIIII = min 11911 = 11 ln2. Then
gEH
lf(x)l :::; 1lln2 VO:::; x:::; 1, i.e., -1lln2 :::; f(x) :::; 1lln2. But f E H, that is,
f 01 (! (x) I (x + 1)) dx = 1, i.e., f 01 ((! (x)- 11 ln 2) I (x + 1)) dx = 0. Since 11 In 2-
f (x) ~ 0 Vx E [0, 1], we obtain that(11 ln2- f (x)) I (x + 1) = 0 VO:::; x:::; 1, that is,
f (x) = 1I ln 2 VO :::; x :::; 1.
17. Let x* : C [0, 1] ----> IR, x* (f) = f 0112 xf (x) dx. We have lx* (f) I :::;
11!11 ! 0112 xdx = 11!11 18, i.e., llx*ll :S 118. Taking fo : [0, 1] ----> IR, fo (x) = 1
Vx E [0, 1], we have lx* (fo) I :S llx* II II foil = llx* II , that is, f 0112 xdx :::; llx* II, and therefore
llx* II = 118. Now using exercise 5(i) we obtain that
. lx*(0)-11
mf
/EH
IIIII = d(O,H) = II X* II = 8.
If we consider 9 = 8fo then 9 E Hand 11911 = inf IIIII·

/EH
Let now f E H be a minimal norm element, i.e., IIIII = gEH
inf 11911 = 8. Then If (x)l :::; 8
Vx E [0, 1], that is, -8 :::; f (x) :::; 8 Vx E [0, 1]. Since f E H we have f 0112 xf (x) dx =
1 = Jo rln 8xdx, that IS,

. Jorln .T (8- f (x)) dx = 0. Then x (8- f (x)) = 0\10 ~ x ~
1/2,
i.e., f (x) = 8 \10 < x ~ 1/2, from whence, since f is continuous, f (x) = 8\10 ~ x ~
1/2. Hence iff E H is a minimal norm element, then f (x) = 8 \10 ~ x ~ 1/2, and
If (x)l ~ 8 \fx E [0, 1].
Conversely, let f E C [0, 1] with f (x) = 8\10 ~ x ~ 1/2 and If (x)l ~ 8\10 ~ x ~ 1.
Then llfll = 8 and x* (f) = f 0112 xf (x) dx = f0112 8xdx = 1, i.e., f E His a minimal
norm element.
18. Let us consider x* : C [0, 1] --+JR., x* (f) = f0112 f (t) dt- f1112 f (t) dt. Then x* is
linear and from the property
lx* (f) I ~ 1 0
1/2
If (t)l dt +
/,1
1/2
If (t)l dt ~ llflloo
we obtain that x* is continuous. Hence M is a hyperplane inC [0, 1] and therefore M r;;;
C [0, 1] is a closed, convex, and non-empty set. But it is proved in exercise 8 of chapter 3
that llx*ll = 1, and then, by exercise 5(i), inf {llfll If EM} = 1. Suppose that we can
find an f E M such that llfll = 1. Then
1 0
1/2
( 1 - f (t)) dt +
/,1
1/2
(1 + f (t)) dt = 0'
and the functions t f-----+ 1 - f (t) and t f-----+ 1 + f (t) are continuous and positive. It
follows that f (t) = 1 on [0, 1/2], f (t) = -1 on [1/2, 1], so f(1/2) = 1 and f(1/2) = -1,
contradiction!
19. Let x* : L 1 [0, 1] --+ OC, x* (f) = J~f (t) dt. Then x* is linear and since lx* (f) I ~
J~ If (t)l dt = llfll 1 \If E L 1 [0, 1], we obtain that x* is continuous with llx*ll ~ 1. Also,
taking f = 1 we deduce that llx*ll = 1. Hence M is a hyperplane in L 1 [0, 1], therefore
a closed, convex, and non-empty set. By exercise 5(i), inf {llfll 1 f EM} = 1. For each 1
a, b E [0, oo ), with a/2 + b = 1, define fa,b : [0, 1] --+ ][{, fa,b (t) = at + b. Then
x* Ua,b) = 1, i.e., fa,b EM. Also llfa,bll = J~ lfa,b (t)l dt = 1.
20. i) See [ 18, exercise 3 (i), chapter 1].

Suppose that there is x E C [0, 1], x (0) = 0 and lx (t)l ~ 1 \It E [0, 1], such that
d (x, Y) 2: 1. For each a> 1, define Xa E C [0, 1] by
Xa (t) =X (t)- ata-l 1 1

x (s) ds.
Then Xa (0) = 0 \fa> 1, and
11
:ra (t) dt = 1 1
x (t) dt (1- a 1 1
ta- 1 dt) = 0 \fa> 1.
Hence Xa > 1, from whence llxa - xlloo 2: d (x, Y) 2: 1 \fa > 1, i.e.,
E Y \fa
\fa > 1 there is a ta E [0, 1] such that lat~- 1 J01 x (t) dtl 2: 1 (we use the Weier-
strass theorem: any real continuous function on a compact set attains its bounds), i.e.,
4.2 Solutions 101
IJ0
1 x (t) dtl 2 1/ (at~-l ), and hence lf01 x (t) dtl 2 1/a 'Ia > 1 (obviously, (, # 0
Va > 1). Passing to the limit for a----+ 1, we obtain that lf01 x (t) dtl2 1. Then
1 1
(1- lx (t)l) dt = 1 -1 1
lx (t)l dt:::; 0
and since 1-lx (t)l 2 0 Vt E [0, 1] and xis continuous it follows that x (t) = 1 Vt E [0, 1],
which is false, because x (0) = 0.
ii) See [18, exercise 3 (ii), chapter 1].
Since Y is a closed proper linear subspace in X then Y ..L # {0} , and then there is an
element x E y..L such that llxll = 1. Then for each y E Y, IIYII = 1 we have llx- Yll 2 =
(x- y, x- y) = (x, x) - (x, y) - (y, x) + (y, y) = 2, i.e., llx- Yll = J2, and therefore
d(x,Sy) = J2.
21. See [18, exercise 3 (iii), chapter 1].
'(i) ==? (ii)' Since Y ~ X is a proper linear subspace, there is x 0 E X\ {0} such that
x 0 tj_ Y. Using the Hahn-Banach theorem (see chapter 7) and that Y is closed we obtain
that there is x 0 E X such that x 0 ly= 0 and x 0(x 0 ) # 0. Since X is reflexive, by the easy
part ofthe James theorem (see exercise 14 of chapter 3) we obtain that x 0 attains its norm
on the unit sphere of X, i.e., there is an x EX, llxll = 1 such that llxoll = x 0(x). For each
y E Y, we have x 0(x- y) = x 0(x) = llxoll. Then
x* (x- y)
llx- Yll = sup lx* (x- y)l 2
llx'II<:I
°II Xo*II = 1.
Hence llx- Yll 2 1 Vy E Y and then it follows that d (x, Y) 2 1.

'(ii) ==? (i)' Let x* E X*, x* # 0. Then Y = kerx* #X. Using the hypothesis (ii)
there is an x E Sx such that d (x, Y) 2 1, i.e., d (x, ker x*) 2 1. Using now exercise 4 we
obtainthatd(x,kerx*) = lx*(x)l/llx*ll· Hencelx*(x)l2llx*ll,orllx*l l lx*(x)l :S :S
llx*llllxll = llx*ll, i.e., u = xsgn (x*(x)) E Bx and x* (u) = llx*ll· From the difficult part
of the James theorem it follows that X is reflexive.
22. Let x* : X ----+ JK, x* ( (xn)nEN) = f: x:. We have Y

n=l 2
= ker x*. We will prove
that llx*ll = 2/3. Indeed, let x = (x 1 , x2, ... ) E X. Then x = (x 1 , 0, x 3 , 0, ... ) E c0 and
~ X2n-l
x* ( x ) = L... 2 n-l, from whence
n=l 2
lx* (x)l :Sf ~~~:=~I :S llxll f 22~_ 1 = ~ llxll'

n=l n=l
that is, llx* II :::; 2/3. For any n E N let x = (1, 0, 1, 0, ... , 1, 0, 0, 0, ... ) E X (n occasions
n
n
of 1). Then x* (x) = 2::: 1/2 2k-l and 2::: 1/2 2 k-l :::; llx*llllxll = llx*ll, hence passing
k=l k=l
00
to the limit for n ----+ oo we obtain that 2::: 1/2 2n-l :::; llx*ll, i.e., llx*ll = 2/3. Let us
n=l
suppose that there is an x E Sx such that d (x, Y) :;::: 1. Then by exercise 4 we have
lx* (x)l / llx*ll :;::: 1 and therefore there is u = sgn (x* (x)) x E Sx such that x* (u) = llx*ll·
lfu = (x 1, 0, x 3 , 0, ... ) E c0 , then sup lx2n-1l
nEN
= 1 and f
n=l 2
x~:=~ = x* (u) = 2/3. We have
-
2
Leo X2n-l
22n-l <
-
Leo -
lx2n-1l
-<
22n-l -
Loa -1- - -2
22n-l - 3'
3
n=l n=l n=l
from whence
~ lx2n-ll ~ 1
~ 22n-l = ~ 22n-l'
n=l n=l
i.e., lx 2n-ll = 1 Vn EN, which is false, since u = (x 1, 0, x 3 , 0, ... ) E c0 , i.e., lx 2n- 1l----+ 0.
co
Remark. Ifwe take f : c0 ----+ IK, f ((xn)nEN) = 2::: Xn/2n, then we have x* =fix
n=l
and we observe that llflxll = 2/3 < 11111 = 1.
23. See [18, Notes and Remarks, chapter 1].

i) Denoting by B the open unit ball of X, since Ex s;;; U (x + (1/2) B) and using
xEBx
the compactness of Ex it follows that there are n E N and x 1 , ... , Xn E Ex such that
n n
Ex s;;; U (xi+ (1/2) B) s;;; U (x; + (1/2) Ex).
i=l i=l
ii) By (i) we have Ex s;;; Y + (1/2) Ex. Then using (i) again and that Y is a linear
subspace, we deduce that
By induction we obtain that Ex s;;; Y + (1/2n) Ex 'Vn EN.

iii) Let x E Ex. For each n EN, by (ii) there are Xn E Ex and Yn E Y such that
x = Yn + (1/2n) Xn. Since llxnll .::=; 1 Vn E N, it follows that (1/2n) Xn ----+ 0 and hence
Yn----+ x. Thus x E Y. But Y s;;; X is a finite-dimensional linear subspace, thus Y is closed.
It follows that B x s;;; Y and since Y s;;; X is a linear subspace, it follows that X = Y.
24. See [18, Notes and Remarks, chapter 1].

Let x 1 E X, llx 1ll = 1. Since X is infinite-dimensional, it follows that Sp {x 1 } =/= X,
and let £2 EX\ Sp{xi}. We denote by X 2 = Sp{x 1,x2}, X 1 = Sp{xi}. We obtain
that X 1 is a~osed linear subspace (since is finite-dimensional) of a closed linear subspace
X 2 of X (X2 is also finite-dim~sional). ~o we have the following situation: X 1 is a
closed proper linear subspace of X 2, where X 2 is finite-dimensional, hence reflexive. Using
exercise 21 there is x 2 E Sx; such that dist (x 2 , Sx 1 ) :;::: 1. Hence we can find x 2 E X,
llx2ll = 1 such that llx2 - x1ll :;::: 1. Let us consider::ow X2 = Sp {x1, x2}. X is infinite-
dimensional, so there is X3 E X\X 2 . Denote by X 3 = Sp{x 1,x 2,X3}. Now the same
reasoning as above can be applied, and we can find x 3 E Sz such that dist (x 3 , Sx2 ) :;::: 1,
therefore llx3 - x 1ll :;::: 1, llx3 - x2ll :;::: 1. It is clear now the inductive process to construct
a sequence (xn)nEN s;;; Sx such that llxn- xmll :;::: 1 Vn =/= m.
4.2 Solutions 103
25. i) See [6, lemma 11, chapter 4].

Since dimocX = n + 1 there is a z E X such that {x 1 , ... , Xn, z} <:;;; X is a basis for
X. Because z tf: Sp{x 1 , ... , xn}, by the Hahn-Banach theorem there is an x* E X* such
that x* (x;) = 0 \11 Sis nand x* (z) = 1. Normalizing, i.e., replacing x* with x* / llx*ll
it follows that there is an x* E Sx• such that x* (x;) = 0 'Vi = 1, n. In the same way
there is y* E X* such that y* (x;) = 1 'Vi = 1, n (for example, for i between 1 and n,
since x; tf: Sp {x 1 , ... , x;_ 1 , x;+ 1 , ... ,xn} we can find x;: E X* such that xi (x;) = 1 and
xj = 0 on Sp{ x 1 , ... , X;_ 1 , xi+l, ... , xn}, and then consider y* = xi + · · · + x~). Since
llx*ll = 1 and Sx is compact it follows that K := (x*)- 1 ({1}) n Sx is a compact (as a
closed subset of a compact set) and non-empty set (the Weierstrass theorem!). Now, again
from the Weierstrass theorem, there is an Xn+l E K such that y* (xn+l) = min y* (x ). We
xEK
have llxn+l- x;ll :2: x* (xn+l- x;) = 1, and since y* (xn+l- x;) = y* (xn+l) - 1 <
y* (xn+l) = miny* (x) \11 S i S n, it follows that Xn+l- X; t/: K \11 S i S n. Then
xEK
llxn+l- x;ll -=f. 1, i = 1, n, and hence llxn+l- x;ll > 1, i = 1, n.
ii) See [18, Notes and Remarks, chapter 1].
It follows immediately from (i), by induction.
26. i) Since Y is finite-dimensional Y* is also finite-dimensional and hence Sy·

{y E Y* I IIY* II = 1} is compact. It follows that there is an E-net {yi, ... , y~} for Sy., i.e.,
n
Sy· <:;;; U B (yi,E). Then for each y* E Sy· there is 1 SiS n such that lly*- Yill S E.
i=l
Ify E Y we have l(y*- yi) (y)l S E IIYII and hence
y* (y) S Yi (y) + E IIYII S maxyj (y) + E IIYII·

j=l,n
Thus we have proved that 'v'y E Y and 'v'y* E Sy. we have
y* (y) S maxy; (y) + E IIYII-

i=l,n
Now taking the supremum with respect toy* E Sy. we obtain that IIYII S maxy; (y) +
i=l,n
c IIYII 'v'y E Y, and hence max Yi (y) :2: (1- c) IIYII 'v'y E Y.
i=l,n
With the same notations as in (i), for each 1 S i s
n let x;: E X* be a Hahn-Banach
extension for y;,
i.e., llxill = IIYill = 1, ly= x;n y;.
Since X is infinite-dimensional, there
is an X EX with lixil = 1 such that x E n ker xf: (see exercise 16(ii) of chapter 14). Then
i=l
'v'y E Y we have
llx + Yll :2: maxx: (x + y) = maxx: (y) = maxy; (y) :2: (1- c) IIYII·
i=l,n i=l,n i=l,n
From this inequality we deduce that 'VA. E lR\ {0} and 'v'y E Sy we have
ii>..x + Yll = i>..lllx + ~~~2 i>..i ( 1 - c)~~~~~= 1 - 10 •
Hence, d (Sp ( {x}) , Sy) :2: 1 - c.


n
i) LetT : l~ ____, X, T (>q, ... ,An) = L
AiXi lfA1, ... ,An E :!Pi.. Then, by hypothesis,
i=1
T E L (l~, X), IITII s; 1 + E and hence liT* :X* ____, l?ll :::; 1 +E. Since T* (x*) =
n
(x* (xi), ... , x*(xn)) it follows that \fx* EX* with llx*ll = 1 we have 2:: lx* (xi) I :::; 1 +E.
i=1
Let now A1, ... ,An E lR and suppose, for example, that IA 11 = max IAil· By the Hahn-
i=l,n
Banach theorem there is x* E X*, llx* II = 1 such that lx* (x1) I = llx1ll = 1. Then
> x• ( t, >.,x,) 2 1>., llx' (x,) I - t I>.,llx' (x,)!
n
2 :":'; 1>..1 ( 1- t lx' (x.JI)
n
Since 2:: IY* (xi) I :::; 1 + E \fy* E Sx·, and lx* (x1)l = 1, we obtain that 2:: lx* (xi) I :::; E.
i=1 i=2
Then~~~ Aixill2 (1- E)~~~ IAil·
ii) It follows immediately from (i), taking xi = Tei, i = 1,71.
28. i) Obviously, T is linear, and
IITxll= =max lx7(x)l :::; llxll max llx711 :::; llxll,

i=l,n i=l,n
hence T is continuous, with IITII s; 1. Let x E X such that Tx = 0. For each x* E

Bx·, since {xi, ... , x~} s;;; Ex• is an E-net, there is ani such that llx*- x711 :::; E. Then
l(x*- xi)(x)l s; E llxll· Since Tx = 0, that is, (xi(x), ... ,x~(x)) = 0, it follows that
x;(x) = 0, and therefore lx*(x)l s; E llxll- Taking the supremum over x* E Ex•, it follows
that llxll s; E llxll, and therefore x = 0 since E < 1. Thus Tis injective.
ii) Let r- 1 : G ____,X, which is well defined and linear. Let y E G and x EX such that
r- 1(y) = x, i.e., Tx = y. For x* E Ex• there is ani such that llx7- x*ll <E. Then
lx*(x)l < l(x*- x7)(x)l + lx7(x)l:::; llx;- .l:*llllxll +max lx7(x)l
i=l,n
< E llxll + IITxll = E llxll + IIYII·

Taking the supremum over x* E Bx· we obtain that llxll :::; E llxll + IIYII, and therefore
IIT- 1yll s; IIYII / (1- E) \fy E G. We obtain that r- 1 is continuous, with IIT- 111 :::;
1/(1-E).
Remark. For two finite-dimensional Banach spaces X andY of the same dimension,
the real number d (X, Y) = inf { IITIIIIT- 1 11 I T : X ____, Y is an isomorphism} is called
the Banach-Mazur distance between X andY. Hence the exercise shows that for a finite-
dimensional normed space X, the Banach-Mazur distance between X and some closed
linear subspace of some l~ -space is as close to 1 as we wish.
For more information concerning the Banach-Mazur distance the reader can consult
[49].
4.2 Solutions 105
29. i) Let us suppose, for a contradiction, that there is an co > 0 such that 'Vx '/:- C we
haved(x,C) < c 0 ,i.e.,C 0 ~ {x EX I d(x,C) < c 0 }. Since'Vx E C,d(x,C) = 0 <co,
then C ~ {x E X I d(x,C) < co} and we deduce that X = C U C 0 ~ {x E X
I d (x, C) < co} ~ X, i.e., X = { x E X I d (x, C) < c 0 }. Let x E X and n E N. Then
nx E X, from whence d (nx, C) < co, i.e., 3gn E C such that llnx- 9nll < co, that is,
llx- 9n/nll < co/n '<In E N. For n -> oo, llx- 9n/nll -> 0, i.e., 9n/n -> x. Using that
(gn/n)nEN ~ Cit follows that x E G = C, since Cis closed. Hence X = C, which is
false!
ii) See [9, exercise 19 (a), chapter IV, section 5].
Let x 1 E X, llxi!I = 2. By the Hahn-Banach theorem there is an xi E X* such
thatxi(x 1 ) = 1andllxill:::; 1/2. Letussupposenowthatweha vex 1 , ... ,xn-l EX
and xi, ... , x~_ 1 E X* such that llx?ll :::; 1/2i, i = 1, n- 1 and x; (xJ) = 6iJ for i,j =
1, ... , n- 1. Let Cn = Sp{x 1 , ... , Xn-d· Then Cn is a finite-dimensional linear subspace
and Cn of. X, since X is infinite-dimensional. From (i) there is an Xn '/:- Cn such that
d (xn, Cn) 2 2n. Now, from the Hahn-Banach theorem there is an x~ E X* such that
x~ len= 0, x~(xn) = 1 and llx;,ll = 1/d(xn,Cn). Then x~(xi) = 0, i = 1,n-1,
and llx~ll :::; 1/2n. In this way we obtain by induction two sequences (xn)nEN ~ X,
(x~)nEN ~ X* such that x; (xj) = 6ij 'Vi,j E Nand llx~ll :S 1/2n '<In E N. Let now
(An)nEN E l 00 • Since X* is a Banach space and
1
L ML--:;;2 < oo, M=sup
00 00
IIAnX~II :S IAnl < oo,

n=l n=l nEN
00 00
the series I: An X~ converges. Let x* = I: An X~ E X*. Then

n=l n=l
00 00
n=l n=l
30. i) See [9, exercise 1 (a), chapter IV, section 5].

Let A E R Since A is convex, by exercise 1 (ii) and (iv), x f--+ d (x, A) is norm
continuous and convex, and we obtain that the set E;.. = { x E X I d (x, A) :::; A} is norm
closed and convex. But the norm closed convex sets are weak closed (the Mazur theorem),
and then E;.. is weak closed.
ii) '(a)=? (b)' See [9, exercise 1 (b), chapter IV, section 5].
Let us suppose that X is reflexive. Let d = d ( 0, A) = inf II a II- For each n E N there
aEA
is an an E A such that d :S II an II < d + 1/n. Let An = { x E A I llxll :::; d + 1/n }. Then
An of. 0 '<In E N. Obviously An = An Bd+l/n is convex and closed, and An+I ~ An
'<In E N (Br is the closed ball of center 0 and radius r in X). Then An is weak closed
'<In E N. X is reflexive, hence by the Alaoglu-Bourbaki theorem B x is weak compact
and therefore Bd+l/n is weak compact. Hence An ~ Ba+I/n is (weak) closed ~ (weak)
compact, and it follows that An is weak compact '<In E N. Since An+I ~ An '<In E N,
and An is weak compact and non-empty '<In E N, we obtain that n An of. 0, that is,
nEN
3xo E nnEN
An, i.e., xo E An '<In E N, and therefore Xo E A and d :S llxoll :S d + 1/n
'<In EN. Then, forn-+ oo, d :S llxoll :S d, i.e., d = llxoll-
'(b)==? (a)' Let x* EX*, x* =1- 0 and let A= {x EX I x* (x) = 1}. Then A is closed
convex and non-empty. By (b) there is a E A a minimal norm element, i.e.,
. lx* (0)- 11
I all = mf llxll
xEA
= d (0, A) = I X* I
(the last equality, by exercise 5(i)), that is, llall = 1/ llx*ll, i.e., x* (a) = 1 and llall =
1/ llx*ll. Then llall = x* (a)/ llx*ll, that is, llx*ll = x* (x), where x =a/ llall· From the
James theorem (the difficult part) it follows that X is reflexive.
Let us suppose now that each point of the unit sphere S x is an extremal point in B x.
Let a1, a2 E A such that lla 1ll = lla2ll = d = dist (0, A). If d = 0, then lla 1ll = lla 2ll = 0,
a1 = a2 = 0. If d =1- 0, let x1 =add, x2 = a2/d and x = (x 1 + x2) /2 = (a 1 + a2) / (2d).
Since A is convex, (a 1 + a 2) /2 E A, and therefore d ::; ll(a 1 + a 2) /211, and then d ::;
ll(al + a2) /211 :s; (lla1ll + lla2ll) /2 = d, and therefore llxll = 1. Hence llxll = 1, llx1ll =
llx 2 ll = 1 and x = (x 1 + x 2) /2. Now using the hypothesis that each point of the unit
sphere Sx is an extremal point in Bx it follows that x = x 1 = x 2 , and then a 1 = a2 .
iii) '(a)==? (b)' See [9, exercise 1 (c), chapter IV, section 5].
First solution. We have
d (A, B) = inf d (a, b) = inf (inf d (b, a)) = inf d (b, A).
aEA,bEB bEB aEA bEB
Let f :X ----> [0, oo), f (x) = d (x, A). We know from (i) that f is lower semicontinuous
with respect to the weak topology. Since B is closed and convex, B is weak closed. Also,
by hypothesis X is reflexive, hence B x is weak compact, and since B is bounded, there is
an M 2 0 such that B ~ M B x. Then B is (weak) closed ~ (weak) compact and hence
B is weak compact. Now, as is well known, each lower semicontinuous function on a non-
empty compact set attains its infimum, i.e., ::Jy E B such that d (A, B) = inf f (b) = f (y),
bEB
that is, d (A, B) = d (y, A) = d (0, A- y). Using (ii) there is a E A - y such that
d (0, A- y) = II all· Since a E A- y, there is an x E A such that a= x- y, and therefore
llx- Yll = d (A, B).
Second solution. We have d (A, B) = inf I a- bll = d (0, A- B). Since by
aEA,bEB
hypothesis X is reflexive and B is closed, convex, and bounded, it follows that B is weak
compact. Also, by the Mazur theorem, since A is norm closed and convex it follows that A
is weak closed. Then A- B is weak closed (see exercise 1O(iv) of chapter 13, for a proof).
Also, since A, B are convex it follows that A - B is convex. Hence A - B is weak closed,
convex, and non-empty. Again, since X is reflexive, by (ii) there exists x E A - B such
that d (0, A- B) = llxll, i.e., (b).
'(b) ==?(a)' Let x* E X*, x* =1- 0, and consider A = [x* = 1], B = {0}. There is
then, by hypothesis, an a E A such that d (A, B) = I a- Oil = I all, i.e., x* (a) = 1
and llall = 1/ llx*ll· Then llall = x* (a)/ llx*ll, and therefore llx*ll = x* (x), where
x = aj II all· Then from the James theorem (the difficult part) it follows that X is reflexive.
Remark. From (ii) we deduce that if X is reflexive and A ~ X is closed convex and
non-empty, then 'v'x E X ::Ja E A such that d (x, a) = d (x, A), i.e., for example, if X is
a Hilbert space we have a new proof, much more complicated, for the existence part in the
orthogonal projection theorem.
Chapter 5
Compactness in Banach spaces. Compact

operators
Theorem. Let (X, d) be a metric space and consider a set As;;; X. Then the following
assertions are equivalent:
i) A is totally bounded, i.e., Vc > 0 3 a finite system x 1 , ... , Xn EX called an c-net for
n
A such that As;;; U B (xi, c);
i=l
ii) Any sequence (xn)nEN s;;; A contains a Cauchy subsequence.
If in addition (X, d) is a complete metric space then A is totally bounded if and only if
A is relatively compact, i.e., A is compact.
The Arzela-Ascoli Theorem. Let (T, d) be a compact metric space and A s;;; C(T).
Then the following assertions are equivalent:
i) A is relatively norm compact;
ii) A is uniformly bounded, i.e., 3M > 0 such that lf(t) I :::; M Vf E A, Vt E T, and
A is equicontinuous, i.e., Vc > 0 38" > 0 such thatVx, y E T with d(x, y) < 8" it follows
that lf(x)- f(y)l < c Vf E A;
iii) Any sequence Un)nEN s;;; A contains a uniformly convergent subsequence.
Relative compactness in lp, 1 :::; p < oo. A subset A s;;; lp is relatively norm compact
00
if and only if A is bounded and Vc > 0 3n" EN such that L IPk(xW < c Vx EA.
k=ne
Relative compactness in eo. A set A s;;; c0 is relatively norm compact if and only if
there is a sequence>.= (>.n)nEN E Co such that IPn(x)l :::; l>.nl Vx E A, Vn EN.
Definition. Let X, Y be normed spaces. An operator U E L(X, Y) is called compact
if and only if U ( B x) s;;; Y is totally bounded.
If, in addition, Y is a Banach space then U E L(X, Y) is a compact operator if and
only if U ( B x) s;;; Y is relatively compact.
108 Compactness in Banach spaces. Compact operators
We denote K(X, Y) = {U E L(X, Y) I U is compact} and K(X) = K(X, X).

Theorem. i) Let X, Y be normed spaces. Then K(X, Y) is a closed linear subspace of
L(X, Y).
ii) Let X, Y, Z, T be normed spaces. If A E L(X, Y), B E K(Y, Z), C E L(Z, T),
then the composition C BA is a compact operator (the ideal property for the compact oper-
ators).
Definition. Let X, Y be normed spaces. A linear and continuous operator U : X --+ Y
is called a finite rank operator if and only if the range U(X) ~ Y is finite-dimensional,
or, equivalently, if there are n E N, xi, ... , x~ E X* and y1 , ... , Yn E Y such that U (x) =
xi(x)yl + · · · + x~(x)yn \lx EX.
The Schauder Theorem. Let X, Y be Banach spaces and U E L(X, Y). Then U is
compact if and only if U* is compact.
The Mazur Theorem. Let X be a Banach space and A C X a subset. Then the
following assertions are equivalent:
i) A is relatively compact.
ii) co (A) is relatively compact.
iii) ec (A) is relatively compact.
iv) eco (A) is relatively compact.
The Grothendieck Theorem. Let X be a Banach space and A ~ X a subset. Then
A is relatively compact if and only if there is (xn)nEN ~ X such that Xn --+ 0 and A ~
CO { Xn I n E N}.
5.1 Exercises
Examples of compact sets in l 2
1. Under what conditions on the sequence (.An)nEN ~ (0, oo) are the following sets
compact in l 2 ?
i) The parallelepiped {(x1, x2, ... ) E l2 llxnl :SAn \In EN}.
ii) The ellipsoid { (xl' x2, ... ) Ez21 f l (lxnl 2 I>.;,) :S 1} .
Relatively compact sets in C(T)
2. Prove that a set M ~ C [a, b] for which there are m, L > 0 and x 0 E [a, b] such
that If (xo)l :S m \If E M and If (x)- f (y)l :S L lx- yl\lf E M, \lx, y E [a, b], is
relatively compact inC [a, b].
3. Prove that a set M of C 1 functions f on the interval [a, b] which satisfy the conditions
If (a) I :S k1,
C[a,b].
J:
J' (x) 2 dx :S k2, (k1, k2 > 0 are constants) is relatively compact in
I 1
4. Prove that a set M ofC 1 functions f on the interval [a, b] which satisfy the condition
J:(1f(x)l 2 + l/(x)l 2) dx S k, (k > 0 is a constant), is relatively compact in the space
C[a,b].
5.1 Exercises 109
5. Let M be a bounded set in the space C [a, b]. Prove that the set A containing all
functions of the form y(t) = J~ x(s)ds, where x EM, is relatively compact inC [a, b].
6. Let (gn)nEN be a sequence of twice continuous differentiable functions on a fixed
open neighborhood of [0, 1] such that 9n (0) = g~ (0) = 0 \:In E N. Suppose also that
lg~ (x)l ::::; 1 Vn E N, Vx E [0, 1]. Prove that there is a subsequence of (gn)nEN which is
uniformly convergent on [0, 1].
7. Let M be a set of C 1 functions on the interval [a, b] which satisfy the following
conditions:
i) There is L > 0 such that lf'(x)l ::::; L \:If EM, Vx E [a, b];
ii) For each function f E M, the equation f(x) = 0 has at least one solution.
Prove that M is a relatively compact set in C[a, b].
8. Establish ifthe following sets of functions are relatively compact inC [0, 1].
i) fn(x) = xn, n EN.
ii) fn(x) = sinnx, n EN.
iii) fa(x) =sin ax, a E R
iv) fa(x) = sin(x +a), a E R
v) fa(x) =arctan( ax), a E R
vi) fa(x) = ex~a, a E ~'a 2 0.
9. i) Let X be a Banach space, and consider a Cauchy sequence (xn)nEN ~ X. Prove
that the set A = {Xn I n E N} ~ X is relatively compact.
ii) LetT be a compact metric space, Un)nEN ~ C(T) a uniformly bounded sequence,
and let g : T-+ l00 , g(x) = Un(x))nEN· Prove that the set Un)nEN ~ C(T) is relatively
compact if and only if the function g is continuous.
10. i) Find the continuous functions if!: [0,1]-+ [O,oo) such that the set A=
{! E C [0, 1JIIf(x)l ::::; ~.p(x) Vx E [0, 1]} be relatively compact in the space C [0, 1].
ii) LetT be a compact metric space and 'P : T-+ [0, oo) continuous. Find 'P for which
the set A= {f E C(T) llf(x)l ::::; ~.p(x) Vx E T} is relatively compact in the space C(T).
Limitations for the Arzela-Ascoli theorem
11. The Arzela-Ascoli theorem implies that a sequence Un)nEN of real valued con-
tinuous functions defined on a metric space ~ is relatively compact (i.e., has an uniformly
convergent subsequence) if:
i) ~ is compact;
ii) sup llfnll < oo;
nEN
iii) The sequence is equicontinuous.
Give examples of sequences which are not relatively compact as a set, such that: (i) and
(ii) are true, but (iii) is false; (i) and (iii) are true, but (ii) is false; (ii) and (iii) are true, but
(i) is false. Taken as a subset ofR
The Arzela-Ascoli theorem, a more general case
12. Let(~, T) be a compact space and (X, d) a metric space. On the space C(~, X) =
{f : ~ -+ X I f continuous} we will consider two topologies: the pointwise convergence
topology, Tp, i.e., the weaker topology for which the operators f -+ f (t) are continuous
for every t E S1, and the uniform convergence topology, Tw given by the distance: p :
C(Sl,X) x C(Sl,X) ---+ JR+, p(J,g) = supd(f(t),g(t)) Vf,g E C(Sl,X). A subset
tEO
A <:;; C(Sl, X) is called equicontinuous if for every t 0 E S1 and E > 0 there is an open
neighborhood U oft0 in S1 such that d (f(t), f(t 0 )) < E \It E U, \If EA.
i) If A <:;; C(Sl, X) is equicontinuous, prove that Tp and Tu coincide on A.
ii) If A<:;; C(Sl, X) is equicontinuous and for any t E S1, the set {f(t) I f E A} <:;;X
is relatively compact, prove that A is relatively compact in the Tu topology.
Compact composition operators
13. Let X be a Banach space. For each A, BE L(X) we define TA,B : L(X) ----> L(X),
TA,s(S) = ASB \IS E L(X).
i) If A, Bare compact operators prove that TA,B is also compact.
ii) If A, B are not zero and if TA,B is compact prove that A and B are compact opera-
tors.
Compact multiplication operators between C(T) spaces
14. i) For a function 'P E C[O, 1], we consider the multiplication operator M'P
C [0, 1]----> C [0, 1], (M'Pf)(x) = 'P(x)f(x) Vx E [0, 1], \If E C[O, 1].
a) Find the norm IIM'PII-
b) Under what conditions on the function 'Pis the operator M'P compact?
ii) Let T be a compact metric space and 'P E C(T). Under what conditions on the
function 'Pis the multiplication operator M'P : C(T) ----> C(T), (M'Pf)(x) = 'P(x)f(x)
Vx E T, \If E C (T) compact?
Effective examples of compact and non-compact operators
15. Given U : C[O, 1] ----> C[O, 1] as below, find its norm and establish if U is compact.
i)(Uf)(x) =xf(x).
ii) (U f) (x) = f (0) + xf (1).
iii) (U f) (x) = J01 etx f (t) dt.
iv) (Uf) (x) = f (x 2 ).
16. Prove that the operators U, V : C [-1, 1] ----> C [-1, 1] given by (Uf) (x) =
(f (x) + f (-x)) /2 Vx E [-1, 1] and (V f) (x) = (f (x)- f (-x)) /2 Vx E [-1, 1] are
linear and continuous and find their norms. Are U and V compact operators?
17. For 1 ::::; p < oo, find the norm for the operators U : lP ----> lp below, and if they are
compact.
i) U (x1, x2, ... ) = (0, x1, x2, ... ) V (x1, x2, ... ) E lp.
ii)U(x 1,x 2, ... ) = (x 1,x2/2,xJ/3, ... )V(x 1,x2,···) E lp·
iii) U (x 1, x 2 , ... ) = (0, x 1, x2/2, x3/3, ... ) V (x1, x2, ... ) E lp·
18. Is the canonical inclusion J: l1 ----> l2, J (x) = x Vx E l1 a compact operator?
5.1 Exercises 111
The Volterra and Hardy operators

19. i) Let V: C [0, 1] - t C [0, 1], (Vf) (x) = J;
f (t) dt Vf E C [0, 1], Vx E [0, 1] (V
is the Volterra operator). Prove that V is linear, continuous, and compact. Find its norm.
ii) Let 1 < p < oo. Let H : Lp (0, oo) - t Lp (0, oo), (Hf) (x) = (1/x) J;
f (t) dt
Vf E Lp (0, oo ), Vx E (0, oo) (H is the Hardy operator). Prove that H is well defined,
linear and continuous but not compact.
An example of a non-compact operator for which its square is compact
20. Let X be one of the spaces c0 or lp with 1 :=::; p :=::; oo. We consider the operator
U: X - t X, U (x1, x2, ... ) = (0, x1. 0, x 3, 0, x 5 , ... ).Prove that U isnotacompactoperator
but U 2 is compact.
Compact multiplication operators on lp
21. Let 1 :=::; p < oo, and,\ = (>.n)nEN IK with sup 1>-nl < oo. We define the
<:;;;
nEN
multiplication operator M;.. : lp - t lp, M;.. (x) = (>.1x1, >.2x2, ... ) Vx = (x 1, x 2, ... ) E lp:
Prove that:
i) M;.. is linear and continuous and liM;.. II =sup 1>-nl·
nEN
ii) M;.. is a compact operator if and only if>. E ea.
The summation operator is not compact
22. i) Prove that the summation operator E : h -t lao given by E ( (tn)nEN)
:t t;) nEN is linear, continuous, but not compact.
(•=1
ii) Prove that the inclusion i : l1 - t lao is a linear and continuous operator which has E
defined at (i) as a factor, and that i is not compact.
iii) Let U : L 1(0, oo) - t Lao(O, oo ), U f(x) = fox f( t)dt. Prove that U is linear and
continuous but not compact.
Compact operators on infinite-dimensional Banach spaces are not surjective
23. i) Let X be an infinite-dimensional Banach space, and A E K (X). Prove that
there is y EX such that the equation A (x) = y has no solution, i.e., A is not surjective.
ii) Let 1 :=::; p < oo, and U : lp - t lp, U (x1, x2, ... ) = (x1, x2/2, x3/3, ... ). Find an
element y E lp for which the equation U (x) = y has no solution.
iii) Let A : Coo - t Coo, A ((xn)nEN) = (xnfn)nEN V (xn)nEN E Coo· Prove that A is
compact and bijective. (On c00 we have the norm from lao.)
Compact non-injective operators on infinite-dimensional normed spaces
24. Let X, Y be normed spaces and A E L (X, Y) which has the property: :Jc > 0
such that Vx EX, II Axil ~ c llxll· Can A be a compact operator?
25. i) Let X, Y be normed spaces, X infinite-dimensional, and A E K (X, Y). Prove
that there is a sequence (xn)nEN <:;;; X with llxnll = 1 Vn E Nand Axn - t 0. Therefore
0 E A(Sx).
ii) Using (i) prove that if X, Yare normed spaces, X infinite-dimensional, then {U E
K(X, Y) I U is not injective} is dense in K(X, Y).
Compact projection operators are finite rank operators
26. Let X be a normed space and T E L (X) which is compact and T 2 = T. Prove
that T is a finite rank operator.
The range of a bounded, closed, and convex set by a compact operator
27. Let X be a reflexive space, Y a Banach space, and A : X ---t Y linear and
continuous. If M <;;;X is closed, convex, and bounded, prove that A(M) <;;; Y is closed.
If, in addition, A is a compact operator, prove that A(M) <;;; Y is compact.
28. Let H be a Hilbert space and T : H ---t H a compact operator. Prove that T attains
its norm, i.e., there is an x E H with llxll :S 1 such that IITxll = IITII·
29. i) Let X be a reflexive space, Y a Banach space, and A : X ---t Y a compact
operator. If M <;;; X is a non-empty bounded closed and convex set and y E Y prove
that there is an xo E M such that inf IIAx- Yll = IIAxo- Yll· If, in addition, Y is a
xEM
Hilbert space prove that x 0 E M obtained as above is a solution for the equation A(x) =
PrA(M)(y), where Pr denotes the orthogonal projection onto a closed, convex, and non-
empty set in a Hilbert space.
ii) Let 1 < p < 2, A : lp ---t l2 is the multiplication operator A (x 1 , x 2 , ... )
(xl/2, x2f3, ... , Xn/ (n + 1), ... ),and
M ~ { (r.,x,, )Elpl ~ ~~~r, $I}

Find an explicit element xo EM such that inf
xEM
IIAx- 2e1ll = IIAxo- 2e1ll·
Relatively compact sets and weak* null convergent sequences in separable Banach
spaces
30. Let X be a separable Banach space and A <;;; X a subset. Prove that A is relatively
compact if and only if for every sequence (x~)nEN <;;; X*, weak* convergent to zero, it
follows that x~ ---t 0 uniformly on A.
A compact set in a Banach space
31. Let X be a Banach space, and (xn)nEN <;;; X such that lim llxnll = 0. Prove that
xj = f 1 f 1lanl :S
n-->oo
the set K = { x E x anXn, 1} <;;;X is norm compact.
Limitations for the Mazur Theorem
32. Give an example of a normed space X, a sequence (xn)nEN in X, norm convergent

00
to 0, for which there is a sequence (.An)nEN E h such that the series L AnXn is not con-
n=l
vergent in X. Then deduce that there is a normed space (which is not a Banach space!) in
which the closed convex hull of a compact set is not always compact and hence that the
Mazur theorem is no longer true without the hypothesis on the completeness of the norm.
5.1 Exercises 113
A general property for a compact operator
33. Let X andY be Banach spaces, and T : X ____, Y a linear, continuous, and com-
pact operator. Prove that there is a sequence (y;,)mEN <;;; By. such that (T* (y:r,) )mEN <;;;
T*(By·) is norm dense, and for any fixed 1 :::; p < oo, we have: Vc > 0 3610 > 0 such that
IITxiiP :S: E llxllp + 6" f

m=l
IY;n ;~xW Vx EX.
Compact operators factor through closed linear subspaces of c0
34. Let X andY be two Banach spaces. Prove that:

i) A linear and continuous operator T : X ____, Y is compact if and only if there is a
sequence (x~)nEN <;;; X* norm convergent to zero such that
IITxll :S: sup lx~ (x)l Vx EX.

nEN
Hence T is compact if and only if there are .\ = (.\n)nEN E co and (y~)nEN <;;; X*
bounded such that IITxll :::; sup (l.\nl 2 ly~ (x)l) Vx EX.
nEN
ii) Each linear, continuous, and compact operator between two Banach spaces factors
compactly through a closed linear subspace of c0 , i.e., if T E L (X, Y) is compact, then
we can find a closed linear subspace Z <;;; c0 and two compact operators A E L (X, Z),
BEL (Z, Y) such that T = BA.
Operators on c0
35. Prove that the linear and continuous operators from c0 into a Banach space X cor-
respond to weak Cauchy series in X, with the correspondence given by T E L (c0 , X) f---+
(Ten)nEN ·
CXl
The series L Xn in X is said to be weak Cauchy ((xn)nEN E w1 (X)) if and only if

n=l
CXl
L lx* (xn)l < oo Vx* EX*.

n=l
36. Let X be a Banach space. Prove that the operator TEL (c0 , X) is compact if and
CXl
only if every subseries of the series 2:: Ten is norm convergent.

n=l
37. Let X be a Banach space. Prove that T : c0 ____, X is weak compact if and only if
T : c0 ____, X is compact.
(X)
38. Let (~n)nEN be a scalar sequence. Prove that the function L an~nX[ 2 n-I, 2 n) is in
n=l
(X)
£1[1, oo) for any (an)nEN E co if and only ifthe series 2:: 2n-l~n is absolutely convergent,
n=l
and in this case prove that the operator U : c0 ____, £ 1 [ 1, oo) defined by U ( (an) nEN) =
CXl
L an~nX[2"-',2") is compact.
n=l
Operators on Z1
39. Prove that the linear and continuous operators from h to a Banach space
X
correspond to the bounded sequences from X, with the correspondence given by T E
L (h, X) 1------+ (Ten)nEN ~X.
40. Let X be a Banach space. Prove that the operator T E L (Z1 , X) is weak compact
if and only if the set {Ten I n E N} ~ X is relatively weak compact.
41. i) Let X be a Banach space. Prove that the operator T E L ( Z1 , X) is compact if
and only if the set {Ten I n E N} ~ X is relatively norm compact.
ii) Let (an)nEN E Z00 • Using (i) prove that the operator U: Z1 ----> Z00 , U (x 1 , x 2 , ... ) =
(fk=l
akxk)
nEN
is compact if and only if ( an)nEN E c0 .
00
iii) Let (~n)n2:0 E Zoo. We define U : Z1 ----> C [0, 1], (Ua) (x) I:; an~nXn \/a =
n=O
(an)n2:0 E h, \/x E [0, 1]. Using (i) prove that U is compact if and only if (~n)n2:0 E c0 .
Operators into c0
42. Prove that the linear and continuous operators from a Banach space X to the
space c0 correspond to weak* null sequences in X*, with the correspondence given by
TEL (X, c0 ) ~-------+ (T*pn)nEN ~X*. (Here, Pn: c0 ----> IK are the canonical projections.)
More precisely, if T : X ----> c0 is a linear and continuous operator, we can find
(x~)nEN ~ X* such that x~ ----> 0 weak* and T(x) = (x~(x))nEN \/x E X, and con-
versely, ifx~----> 0 weak*, and T: X----> c0 , T(x) = (x~(x))nEN \/x EX, then Tis linear
and continuous.
43. Let X be a Banach space. Prove that TEL (X, c0 ) is weak compact if and only if
T*pn----> 0 weak in X*. More precisely, ifT E L(X, c0), T(x) = (x;,(x))nEN with x~----> 0
weak*, prove that T is weak compact if and only if x;, ----> 0 weak. Therefore the weak
compact operators with values in c0 correspond to weak null sequences.
44. i) Let X be a Banach space. Prove that T E L (X, c0 ) is compact if and only if
T*pn ----> 0 in the norm of X*.
More precisely, letT E L(X, c0 ), T(:r) = (x;,(.r) )nEN with x;, ----> 0 WPak*. Prove that
T is compact if and only if x;,
----> 0 in norm, i.e., the compact operators with values in c0
correspond to norm null sequences.
ii) Let (an)nEN E Z00 , and let U: Co----> Co, U (x1, X2, ... ) = (a1x1, a2.r2, ... ).Prove that
U is weak compact-¢=? U is compact -¢=? (an)nEN E co.
iii) Let H be a Hilbert space, and (xn)nEN ~ H\ {0} an orthogonal system. Prove that
the sequence ( (x, Xn) lnEN converges towards 0 for any x E H if and only if sup llxnll < oo,
nEN
and in this case the operator U : H ----> c0 , U (x) = ( (x, Xn) )nEN is linear and continuous.
If U is linear and continuous, prove that U is compact if and only if ll:cn I ----> 0.
Operators into l 1
45. Prove that the linear and continuous operators from a Banach space X to the
oc
space Z1 correspond to wmk Cauchy series I:: :r~.' with the correspondence given by T E
n=l
5.2 Solutions 115
L (X, l 1 ) f------+ (T*pn)nEN E w1 (X*) (see exercise 35 for the definition for weak Cauchy
series). (Here Pn : l 1 ----+ IK are the canonical projections.)
46. Let X be a Banach space and T E L (X, li). Prove that Tis compact if and only
if T is weak compact.
4 7. Let X be a Banach space. Prove that an operator T E L (X, l 1 ) is compact if and
00
only if all the subseries for the series 2::: T*pn are norm convergent.
n=l
48. i) Let (an) nEN be a scalar sequence. Prove that the series 2::: an J01/n f (x) dx
CXl
n=l
00
is absolutely convergent for any f E C [0, 1] if and only if the series 2::: an/n is abso-
n=l
lutely convergent, and in this case the operator U : C [0, 1] ----+ h defined by U (f) =
( an J /n f (x) dx) nEN is compact.
0
1
ii) Let H be a Hilbert space, (xn)nEN ~ H\ {0} an orthogonal system, and (an)nEN a
00
scalar sequence. Prove that the series 2::: an (x, xn) is absolutely convergent for any x E H
n=l
if and only if (an llxnll)nEN E l2, and in this case the operator U : H ----+ h defined by
U(x) = (an(X,Xn))nENiscompact.
Operators on lP, 1 < p < oo
49. Let 1 < p < oo, and let X be a Banach space. We denote by wP (X) the set
of all sequences (xn)nEN ~ X with the property that (x* (xn) )nEN E lp 1::/x* E X*. For
1/p
L
CXl )
each x = (xn)nEN E Wp (X), we define llxll;eak = sup (

lx* (xnW . Prove that
llx*ll<:! n=1
( wp(X), ll·ll;e•k) is a Banach space.

50. Let 1 < p < oo and let X be a Banach space. Prove that there exists an isomorphic
isomorphism from L (lp, X) onto wq (X) given by the correspondence T E L (lp, X) f------+
(Ten)nEN E Wq (X), where q is the conjugate ofp, i.e., 1/p + 1/q = 1.
Operators into lp, 1 < p < oo
51. Consider 1 < p < oo and let X be a Banach space. Prove that there exists
an isometric isomorphism from L (X, lp) to wP (X*), given by the correspondence T E
L (X, lp) f------+ (T*pn)nEN E wP (X*). (Here Pn : lp ----+ IK are the canonical projections.)
5.2 Solutions
1. See [40, exercise 15.51].
i) Let P be the parallelepiped from the statement. We have P = n An, An =
nEN
{x llxnl :S: An}· Since Pn : l 2 ----+ lR is continuous, it follows that Ar, is closed,
An = p~ 1 ( [-A.,, An]) 1::/n E N, and therefore P is a closed set. Suppose that P is compact.
2
2:::
CXl
Then 1::/c > 0 3n[ E N such that IPk(x)l :=::: c 1::/x E A. Let n 2: nE and p 2: 0.
k=nc
2
IPk (x) I ::; c,
CXJ
The element x = (0, ... , 0, An, ... , An+p, 0, ... ) belongs to A and therefore 1::=
n+p CXJ
1::= 1Akl 2 ::; c, i.e., by the Cauchy test for series, 1::= 1Anl 2 converges.
k=n n=l
CXJ
Conversely, let us suppose that the series 1::= 1Anl 2 converges. Then Vc > 0 3n E N 6
n=l
CXJ
such that 1::= 1Akl 2 ::; c. Since IPn(x)l ::; An Yx E P, \In E N, it follows that
CXJ
1::= 1Pk(x)l 2 ::; c Yx E P, i.e., Pis relatively compact in l2.

k=ne
Hence P ~ l2 is compact<=? (An)nEN E l2.
CXJ
Remark. Since the series 1::= 1/n2 converges, it follows that the parallelepiped
n=l
is a compact set in l 2 .
ii) Let E be the ellipsoid from the statement. We have E = n En, En =
f
nEN
{xI 1
(lxkl 2 jA%) ::; 1}· Since T: l2 --+ JR, T(x) = f 1
(lxkl 2 jA%) is obviously con-
tinuous (Tis not linear!), we obtain that En = r- 1 (( -oo, 1]) is a closed set for every
n E N, hence E is closed. Suppose that E is compact. Then Vc > 0 3n6 E N such that
00
1::= lpk(x)l 2 ::; c 2 Yx E E. Let n 2 n 6 • Then Anen = (0, ... , 0, An, 0, ... ) E E, and then
k=nc
00
1::= 1Pk(Anen)l 2 ::; c 2 , 1Anl 2 ::; c 2 , IAnl::; c. Therefore An--+ 0.

k=nc
Conversely, if An --+ 0 then Vc > 0 3n6 E N such that IAni ::; c Yn 2 n 6 • If x =
(xn)nEN E E then
00
and then E is relatively compact, since E is also bounded (see exercise 13 of chapter 1).
Hence the ellipsoid is compact<=? (An)nEN E co.
Remark. Since (1/n)nEN converges towards 0, it follows that the ellipsoid
is a compact set in l 2 . The same reasoning as above shows that if 1 ::; p < oo, the set
5.2 Solutions 117
is compact in lp if and only if ( >-n)nEN E c0 .
2. See [40, exercise 15.33].

We have lf(x)- f(y)l :s; L lx- Yl \If E M, Vx, y E [a, b]. This assures that M
is equicontinuous. We also have lf(xo)l :s; m \If E M. Using the uniform Lipschitz
condition we obtain that
lf(x)l < lf(x)- f(xo)l + lf(xo)l ::; L lx- xol + m

< L (lxl + lxol) + m
< L (max (lbl, lal) + lxol) + m \If EM, Vx E [a, b],
i.e., M is uniformly bounded. The Arzela-Ascoli theorem assures that M is relatively
compact.
I: j' (t) dt and using the Holder

3. See [40, exercise 15.34].
Let x, y E [a, b], x < y. We have f(y) - f(x) =
inequality we obtain
lf(y)-f(x)l < 1YIJ'(t)ldt:s; (1YIJ'(t)l2dtr/2 (1y1dtr/2
< VY- X (1b l l (t)l 2dt)

112
::; yk;Jy- X.
Hence lf(y)- f(x)l :s; ylk;~ \If E M. From here it follows that M is equicon-
tinuous: Vc > 0 :36" = E 2/ yik; > 0 such that Vx, y E [a, b] with lx - Yl < be: =?
lf(x)- f(y)l < f: \If E M. Let now x E [a,b]. Then lf(x)- f(a)l :s; yik;~
Vf E M from whence using the hypothesis,
lf(x)l :s; lf(x)- f(a)l + lf(a)l :s; k1 + y'k2(b- a) \If EM, Vx E [a, b],
i.e., M is uniformly bounded. The Arzela-Ascoli theorem assures that M is relatively

compact.
I: Ij' (x) 12dx ::; I: (lf(x) 12+ If' (x) ndx ::; k vf
4. See [40, exercise 15.35].
Obviously, E M. Then as in the
solution for exercise 3, we obtain that lf(x)- f(a)l :s; Jk(b- a) = k1 \If EM, Vx E
[a,b], from whence lf(a)l :s; lf(a)- f(x)l + lf(x)l :s; k1 + lf(x)l \If EM. Then
1b 1b k1dt 1b dx
r
(b- a) lf(a)l lf(a)l dt :s; + lf(x)l
< k1(b- a)+ (1b dx (1b 1dxy12

lf(x)l 2
12
< k1(b- a)+ (b- (1b

a)1/2 (1f(:r)l2 + lf'(x)12) dx) 1/2
< k 1 (b-a)+~Vk,
i.e., If (a) I ::; c1 Vf E M. Using exercise 3 it follows that the set M is relatively compact
inC [a, b].
5. See [40, exercise 15.31].

Let t 1 < t 2, t 1, t 2 E [a, b]. We have
ly(t2)- y(t1)l = 11t x(s)dsl ::; 1t lx(s)l ds::; (sup lx(t)l) (t2- ti) ::; L(t2- t1),
t1
2
t1
2
tE[a,b]
i.e., ly(t2)- y(t1)l ::; L lt 2 - t 11 Vt 1, t2 E [a, b], and therefore the set A is uniformly
Lipschitz (L = sup llxll < oo, by hypothesis). Since y(O) = 0 \ly E A, using exercise 2 it
xEM
follows that the set A is relatively compact.
6. See [1, exercise 5, Spring 1982].

By the Taylor formula, Vx, x 0 E [0, 1] we have 9n (x) = 9n (x 0 ) + (x- x 0 ) g~ (x 0 ) +
((x- x 0 ) 2 /2) g~ (c), c E (0, 1). Taking x 0 = 0 we have by hypothesis 9n (x) =
(x 2 /2)g~(c), l9n(x)l = (x 2/2) lg~(c)l::; 1/2\/n EN, \lx E [0,1], i.e., (gn)nEN is uni-
formly bounded. In the same way
, lx-xol 2
l9n (x)- 9n (xo)l ::; lx- xall9n (xo)l + 2
But lg~ (x)- g~ (O)I = lxllg~ (d) I ::; lxl, i.e., lg~ (x)l::; lxl \lx E [0, 1], from whence
lx- xol2
l9n (x)- 9n (xo)l::; lx- xal + 2 Vn EN, Yx,xo E [0, 1],
and then (gn)nEN is equicontinuous. We apply now the Arzela-Ascoli theorem.
7. See [40, exercise 15.36].

Using the Lagrange formula it follows that lf(tl)- j(t2)l = lt1- t2llf'(c)l ::;
L 1t 1 - t 21 \If E M, Vt 1, t 2 E [a, b] and therefore M is equicontinuous, i.e., VE > 0
::36" = Ej L > 0 such that Vt 1, t 2 E [a, b] with lt1- t2l < be:, we have lf(tl)- j(t2)l < E
Vf E M. Let f E Mandt E [a, b]. Then, by our hypothesis, there is u E [a, b] such that
f(u) = 0 (u depends on the function f EM). Then
lf(t)l = lf(t)- f(u)l =It- ullf'(c)l::; LIt- ul::; L(ltl +lui)::; 2Lmax(b, -a)
(t E [a, b] =? ltl = max(t, -t) ::; rnax(b, -a)), i.e., M is uniformly bounded. From the
Arzela-Ascoli theorem it follows that M is relatively compact in C[a, b].
8. See [40, exercise 15.44].

i) The answer is no, since {fn I n E N} is not equicontinuous. If the set were
equicontinuous then Vc > 0 ::36" > 0 such that Vx, y E [0, 1] with lx- Yl < be: =?
lfn(x)- fn(Y)I < E \In E N. There is nE E N such that 1/n < be: \In 2 nE. Then
for x = 1 - 1/n, y = 1, lx- Yl = 1/n < be:, we have lfn (1- 1/n)- fn(1)1 < E
\In 2 nE, i.e., 1(1-1/n)"- 11 < EVn 2 no: and forn---+ oo, le- 1 -11 <EVE> 0, which
is false!
5.2 Solutions 119
Let us observe that lfn(x)l ~ 1 \In EN, \lx E [0, 1].

ii) The answer is no, since the family {!n I n E N} is not equicontinuous. The proof is
similar to (i), taking for example Xn = 1r I (2n), Yn = ( 27r) In.
iii) The answer is no, since Un In EN} S: {fa I o: E lR}.
iv) The answer is yes! We have lf~(x)l = lcos(x + o:)l ~ 1 Vx E [0, 1], Vo: E JR, and
from the Lagrange formula it follows that lfa(x)- fa(Y)I = lx- Yllf~(c)l ~ lx- Yl
Vo: E JR, \lx, y E [0, 1], i.e., (fa)aEffi. is uniformly Lipschitz. Since lfa(x)l ~ 1 Vo: E JR,
\lx E [0, 1], from exercise 2 it follows that Ua)aER is relatively compact.
v) The answer is no, since the considered set is not equicontinuous. If the set were
equicontinuous, then Vc > 0 38£ > 0 such that: lx- Yl < 8£ =} lfa(x)- !a(Y)I < c
Vo: E R Let n E N such that 1ln < 80 • For x = 1ln, y = 0, lx- Yl = 1ln < 8£, from
whence lfn(1ln)- fn(O)I <c. But fn(1ln) = arctan(1) = 7rl4, fn(O) = 0, and we
obtain that 1r I 4 < c Vc > 0, which is false!
vi) The answer is yes! We have lfa(O)I = e-"' ~ 1 Vo: 2 0, and
11 IJ~(x)l2 11dx = e2x-2adx = e2; 1 e-2a ~ e2; 1 Vo: 2 0.
From exercise 3 it follows that the set {fa I o: 2 0} is relatively compact.
9. i) Suppose that (xn)nEN s;;; X is a Cauchy sequence. Since X is a Banach space, there
is an x E X such that Xn ----* x, i.e., Vc > 0 3n£ E N such that llxn - xll < c \In 2 n£. We
n"
will show that A s;;; U B(x;, c) UB(x, c), which will assure that A is relatively compact.
i=1
Letn EN. Ifn ~ n£ thenxn E B(xn,c). Ifn 2 n£ then llxn- xll < c, i.e., Xn E B(x,c).
In fact, from Xn ----* x it follows that the set B = { Xn I n E N} U{ x} is compact, hence
relatively compact. Since A s;;; B it follows that A is relatively compact.
ii) Let us observe that by hypothesis g takes its values in Z00 • Since Tis a compact metric
space, g is continuous if and only if it is uniformly continuous, i.e., Vc > 0 38£ > 0 such
that \lx, y E T with d(x, y) < 8£ it follows that llg(x)- g(y) II < c. Using the definition
for the norm in the space Zoo, this is equivalent to Vc > 0 38£ > 0 such that \lx, y E T
with d(x, y) < 8£ it follows that lfn(x)- fn(Y)I < c \In EN. Now, by the Arzela-Ascoli
theorem this is equivalent to the family Un)nEN s;;; C(T) being relatively compact.
10. i) See [40, exercise 15.45].

We show that A is relatively compact if and only if cp(x) = 0 \lx E [0, 1]. Let us
suppose that A is relatively compact. Let a E (0, 1). For n E N with 1ln < a, we
0 0 ~ x < a- 1ln,
define fn : [0, 1] ----* JR, fn(x) = { n(x- a)+ 1 a- 1ln ~ x ~a, Then fncp E A
1 a<x~l.
Vn > 11a. Since A is relatively compact, it is equicontinuous, and therefore Vc > 0,
3810 > 0 such that: Vx, y E [0, 1] with lx- Yl < 8£ =} lfn(x)cp(x)- fn(y)cp(y)l < c
Vn E N with 1ln < a. There is an n 10 E N such that 1ln < min (a, 8£) \In 2 nE. For x =
a- 1ln, y =a, lx- Yl = 1ln < 6£, we have lfn(a- 1ln)cp(a- 1ln)- fn(a)cp(a)l < c
Vn 2 n£, that is, lcp(a)l < c Vc > 0, and passing to the limit for c ----* 0, lcp(a)l ~ 0, i.e.,
cp(a) = 0 Va E (0, 1). Since cp is continuous we have cp(O) = lim cp(a) = 0 and cp(1) =
a'\.0
lim cp(a) = 0. Hence cp(a) = 0 \Ia E [0, 1].
a/1
The converse is obvious, since A = {0}.

ii) Let T' be the set of all the accumulation points in T. We will prove that if T' = 0
then A is relatively compact for any 'P : T -+ [0, oo), and that if T' -=1- 0 then A is
relatively compact if and only if <p(a) = 0 Va E r'. Indeed if T' = 0 then since T
is a compact metric space it follows that T is a finite set, say with n elements, and in
this case we can identify in a natural way C (T) with l~ and the set A with a set of the
form { (x 1, ... , xn) E l~ I lxil ::; ai 'i/1 ::; i ::; n} for some fixed (a1, ... ,an) E JR~, which is
clearly relatively norm compact.
Let a E T. Forn EN define fn : T-+ JR, fn(x) = min(nd(x, a), 1). We will show that
fn(x) -+ { 01 ' ~ff x "!:__a, Vx E T. Indeed, if x = a then fn(a) = min(nd(a, a), 1) = 0
, 1 x- a,
Vn E N. If x -=1- a then d(x, a) > 0, hence there exists nx E N such that 1/n < d(x, a)
Vn 2 nx, i.e., fn(x) = min(nd(x, a), 1) = 1 Vn 2 nx, and then fn(x) -+ 1. Suppose that
T' -=1- 0 and let a E r'. If A is relatively compact then Vc > 0 38" > 0 such that Vx, yET
with d(x, y) < 80 it follows that lf(x)- f(y)l < E: Vf EA. Since fn'P E A Vn EN then
Vx E T, x -=1- a, with d(x, a) < 80 , it follows that lfn(x)<p(x)- fn(a)<p(a)l < E: Vn EN,
i.e., lfn(x)<p(x)l < E: Vn E N. For n -+ oo we obtain that I'P(x)l ::; E:. Hence Vc > 0
380 > 0 such that Vx E T, x -=1- a with d(x, a) < 80 , it follows that I'P(x)l ::; E:, i.e.,
lim <p(x) = 0. As 'Pis continuous, lim <p(x) = <p(a), and then <p(a) = 0.
x---+a x---+a
The converse for the case when T' = T is obvious, since A = {0}. If r' -=1- T then
T\T' is finite (in a compact metric space an infinite subset has an accumulation point).
If T\T' has at least two elements let 8 = min (81, 82 ) > 0 where <h = d (T\T', T')
and 82 = min {d (a, b) I a, bE T\T', a -=1- b}. Then as is easy to see, Vx, y E T with
d(x, y) < 8 it follows that either x andy belong toT', or x = y E T\T', and then for
any f E A we have f (x) = f (y) (since 'P = 0 on T'). From this and the Arzela-Ascoli
theorem it follows that A is relatively compact. IfT\T' has one element, T\T' ={a}, we
take 8 = d (a, T'). Then as it is easy to see, Vx, y E T with d(x, y) < 8 it follows that
either x andy belong toT', or x = y =a. In both cases we have that f (x) = f (y) for any
f E A. From this and the Arzela-Ascoli theorem it follows that A is relatively compact.
i) Let 0 = [0, 1] and let fn : [0, 1] -+ JR, fn (x) = xn. Then 0 is compact and llfnll =
sup lxnl = 1 Vn E N, i.e., the conditions (i) and (ii) are satisfied. Suppose that there
xE[O,l)
is a subsequence Unk)kEN such that fnk -+ f uniformly [0, 1]. Then f is continuous.
Since fnk (x) -+ f (x) Vx E [0, 1], we obtain that f (x) = { ~ ~: [~, 1)' which is
not a continuous function. Hence Un)nEN is not relatively compact and therefore it is not
equicontinuous (by the Arzela-Ascoli theorem!).
ii) Let 0 = [0, 1] and fn : [0, 1] -+ JR, fn (x) = n Vx E [0, 1], Vn E N. Then 0 is
compact, the sequence Un)nEN is equicontinuous and since llfnll = n Vn E Nit follows
that sup llfnll = oo.
nEN
iii) Let n=
lR and fn : lR-+ JR, fn (x) = { 0 t (
arc an x - n
) X::; n, It is clear that
x > n.
fn is continuous Vn E N. We also have llfnll =sup lfn (x)l = 1rj2 Vn E N. Hence 0
xETII.
5.2 Solutions 121
is not compact, and sup llfnll < oo.We will show that the set Un)nEN is equicontinuous.
nEN
For this, let x 0 E R We will show that for each x E lR with lx- x 0 1 < E we have
Ifn (x) - f n (xo) I < E Vn E N. Let n E N. Without loss of generality, we can suppose that
x :=::; x 0 . For x and x 0 we can have one of the following situations:
1) x :=::;nand Xo :=::; n. Then fn (x) = fn (xo) = 0, thus lfn (x)- fn (xo)l <E.
2) x :=::; n < x 0 . Then fn (x) = 0 and fn (x 0 ) =arctan (xo- n). Since
1
!(arctan (t- n))'l = 2 :=::; 1 Vt E JR,
1+(t-n)
using the Lagrange formula it follows that
lfn (xo)- fn (x)l =!arctan (xo- n)- arctan (n- n)l :=::; lxo- nl :=::; Xo- x <E.
3) n < x :=::; x 0 . Then we have fn (x) =arctan (x- n) and fn (x 0 ) =arctan (x 0 - n).
Analogously with (2), we obtain the fact that
lfn (x)- fn (xo)l = Iarctan (x- n)- arctan (xo- n)l :=::; Xo- x <E.
Hence the sequence Un)nEN is equicontinuous.

We show now that the set Un)nEN is not relatively compact. For x E JR, there is anN E
N such that x :=::; n Vn ~ N. Then fn (x) = 0 Vn ~ N, i.e., Un)nEN converges pointwise
to the zero function on R If Un)nEN has a convergent subsequence, then this subsequence
must converge to the zero function. Suppose, therefore, that there is a subsequence (nk)kEN
of N such that f nk ---. 0 uniformly on JR. Then, there is k1 E N such that Ifnk ( x) I < 1
Vk ~ k1, Vx E R Hence; lfnk 1 (x) I < 1 Vx E R For x-+ oo, fnk 1 (x) -+ n/2, and then
1r /2 :=::; 1, false!
12. See [8, lemma 1 and theorem 2, chapter IV].

i) For each f E C(D, X), a basis of neighborhoods for fin the Tp topology is given by
W(f; t 1, ... , tn; c) = {g E C(D, X) I d(f(t;), g(t;)) < E, i = 1, n }, withE> 0, t 1, ... , tn E
n. Let E > 0. Since by hypothesis A is equicontinuous, for each t E n, there is an
open neighborhood V(t) oft such that d(f(s), f(t)) < c/3 Vs E V(t), Vf E A. Then
n
D = U V(t), and since D is compact there are t 1, ... , tn E D such that D ~ U V(t;).
tEO i=l
For an element fo E A, let us consider the set W(f0 ; t 1, ... , tn; c/3) defined above. Let
f E W(fo; t1, ... , tn; c/3) nA. Lett E D. Since D ~
n
U V(t;),
i=l
there is ani such that
t E V(t;), and then d(f(t), f(t;)) < c/3, d(f0 (t), fo(t;)) < c/3. Then d(f(t), f 0 (t)) :=::;
d(f(t), j(t;)) + d(f(t;), fo(t;)) + d(fo(t;), fo(t)) <E. Since t E 0 is arbitrary, it follows
that p(f, fo) :=::; c. Hence: for every fo E A and E > 0 there is U E Tp, fo E U, such
that UnA ~ Bp(fo, c) n A, with an obvious notation. It follows that TuiA ~ TpiA· But
obviously, we have TpiA ~ TuiA, and then TuiA = TpiA·
ii) We consider the product space X 11 , endowed with the product topology. The el-
ements of X 11 are of the form r.p = ('Pt)tE!I' with 'Pt E X for each t E n. We define
'ljJ : C(D, X) ---. X 11 , 'ljJ (f) = (f(t))tEO· Let us consider on C(n, X) the topology Tp
and on X 11 the product topology. We show that 'ljJ is continuous. By the definition of the
product topology it is sufficient to prove that for each t E 0, the function f ----+ f (t) from
(C(O, X), Tp) to X is continuous, which is obviously true. Clearly 'lj; is injective, and let
us prove now that 'lj;- 1 : 'lj;( C(O, X)) ----+ C(O, X) is continuous. Again this is equiva-
lent to the continuity for the functions bt o 'lj;- 1 : 'lj; (C(O, X)) ----+X where 8t(f) = f(t)
Vf E C(O, X). But bt o 'lj;- 1 = prt on 'lj;( C(O, X)), where prt is the canonical projection
'P = ('Pt)tEO ~ 'Pt from X 0 to X, which, by the definition of the product topology is
continuous. Hence 'lj;: (C(O, X), Tp)----+ 'lj;(C(O, X))~ X 0 is a homeomorphism (1).
Let F = :;p, A ~ C(O, X) equicontinuous. We show that F is also equicontinuous.
Let t 0 E 0, c > 0. Since A is equicontinuous, there is U an open neighborhood of t 0
such that d(f(t), f(t 0 )) < c/3 'it E U, 'if E A. Lett E U, g E F. Since g E F =
lfp and W(g; t, t 0 ; c/3) is a neighborhood of g with respect to the Tp topology, from the
definition of the closure it follows that W(g; t, t 0 ; c/3) n A -=1- 0, hence there is f E A,
with d(f(t),g(t)) < c/3, d(f(t 0 ),g(t0 )) < c/3. Then d(g(t),g(t 0 )) :::; d(g(t),f(t)) +
d(f(t),f(to))+d(f(to),g(to)) < c,andhenceVg E F, 'it E Uwehaved(g(t),g(t 0 )) < c,
hence F is equicontinuous (2).
By (1 ), 'lj; (lfP) ~ X 0 is closed in the product topology. Since X is Hausdorff (every
metric space is Hausdorff) it follows that X 0 is also Hausdorff. If we will show that
'lj; (lfP) ~ X 0 is contained in a compact set, then 'lj; (lfp) will also be compact, and then
by (1) it follows that lfp is compact. By (2), Jfp is equicontinuous. Then by (i), Tu and Tp
coincide on lfp, and then lfp = ;ru. Since (lfp, Tp) is compact it follows that (lfp, Tu)
is compact, hence (lfu, Tu) is compact, which is just what we want to prove.
Hence it remains to be proved that 'lj; (lfp) is contained in a compact set of X 0 . By
our hypothesis, for each t E n there is a compact set Xt ~ X such that f (t) E Xt Vf E A.
For 'P = 'lj;(J), f E ATp, 'Pt = f(t) 'it E n. Since f E jfP there is a net (J,s)dE!l ~ A
such that J,s ~ f. Hence f.s(t) ----+ f(t). Then f(t) E X: = Xt, and hence 'P E tEO
IT Xt,
i.e., {¢(!)I IT Xt. Since Xt is compact for each t E
f E lfP} ~ n, by the well known
tEO
Tychonoff theorem it follows that IT Xt is compact.
tEO
13. i) See [8, theorem 3, chapter IV].
Obviously TA,B E L(L(X), L(X)), [[TA,B[[ :::; [[A[[[[B[[. Let us denote as usual
with Bx the closed unit ball in X. Since B is compact, B(Bx) ~ X is compact. Let
s
n = B(Bx). Let A= {AS I E L(X), [[S[[ :::; 1} ~ C(O,X). For Xo En, c > 0,
let x E 0 with [[x- xo[[ < c/ ([[A[[ + 1). Then [[ASx- ASxoll :S [[A[[[[S[[[[x- xo[[ :S
(c [[A[[)/ ([[A[[ + 1) < c VS E L(X), [[S[[ :::; 1 and hence A ~ C(O, X) is equicon-
tinuous. For each x E n the set {ASx [ S E L(X), [[S[[ :::; 1} is contained in
A ( { z E X [ [[z[[ :::; [[x[[} ), which, since A is compact, is relatively compact.
By the Arzela-Ascoli theorem, the form from exercise 12, it follows that A~ C(O, X)
is relatively compact with respect to the uniform convergence topology. If we consider a
sequence (Sn)nEN ~ BL(X), there is a subsequence (nk)kEN ofN such that the sequence
(ASnk)kEN is uniformly convergent in C(O, X). Then (ASnkB)kEN is uniformly conver-
gent on B x, hence in the operator norm.
ii) Since B -=1- 0 we also have B* -=1- 0 (we know that [[B[[ = [[B*[[). Let then x~ EX*,
with B*x~ -=1- 0. For x* E X* and x E X we have TA,B(x* ® x) = B*x* ®Ax, since
[TA,B(x* ® x)](y) = [A o (x* ® x)](By) = x*(By)Ax = [(B*x*) ® Ax)](y) 'iy E X.
5.2 Solutions 123
Let (xn)nEN ~ Bx. Then llx0® xnll = llxollllxnll ::=; llx()ll, and since TA,B is com-
pact, there is a subsequence (nk)kEN ofN such that (TA,s(x 0® Xnk))kEN converges. Then
lim IITA,s(x 0® Xnk) - TA,s(x 0® xnJ II = 0, hence lim IIB*x 0® (Axnk - AxnJ II =
k,s--+00 k,s---+oo
0, i.e., lim IIB*x()IIIIAxnk- Axnsll = 0. Since B*x 0 -=1- 0 it follows that the sequence
k,s-+oo
(Axnk)kEN ~X is Cauchy, hence convergent (X is a Banach space). Therefore A is com-
pact and in the same way one can prove that B is also compact.
Remark. For x* E X*, x E X we denote as usual with x* ® x E L(X) the operator
(.T* ® x) (y) = x*(y)x Vy EX. Obviously, llx* ® xll = llx*llllxll-
14. i) a) M'Pf E C [0, 1], since the product of two continuous functions is a continuous
function. Obviously M'P is linear. Also
IIM'Pfll = sup I(M'Pf)(x)l = sup l<p(x)f(x)l::::; II4JIIIIfll,

xE[O,l] xE[O,l]
from whence IIM'PII ::::; 114?11- Since M'P(1) = <p and 114?11 = IIM'P(1)11 ::::; IIM'PIIII1II
IIM'PII, it follows that IIM'PII = 114?11 = sup l<p(x)l.
xE[O,l]
b) If M'P is compact then {M'Pf lllfll::::; 1} is relatively compact, i.e.,
{f<p llf(x)l ::::; 1 Vx E [0, 11} is relatively compact. Reasoning as in the solution for
exercise lO(i) we obtain that <p(x) = 0 Vx E [0, 1], i.e., M'P = 0.
ii) LetT' be the set of all the accumulation points in T. Reasoning as in the solution
for exercise 10(ii) we obtain that ifT' = 0 then M'P is compact for any <p E C (T), while
ifT' -=1- 0 then M'P is compact if and only if <p(a) = 0 \Ia E r'.
15. See [40, exercise 16.1].

i) Taking <p (x) = x, we have U f = <pf and from exercise 14, IlUll = 114?11 =
sup 1.T1 = 1. Since <p -=1- 0 we obtain that U is not compact.
xE[O,l]
ii) Since U is positive using exercise 1 of chapter 2 we obtain that IIUII = IIU (1)11 =
sup (1+x) = 2. LetA= {Uflllfll:s;1}. Ifg E Atheng(x) = f(O)+xf(1)
xE[O,l]
Vx E [0, 1], from whence lg (O)I = If (O)I ::::; llfll ::::; 1, i.e., lg (O)I ::::; 1 Vg E A. Also,
g' (x) = f (1), and f 01 lg' (x)! 2 dx = If (1)1 2 ::::; llfll 2 ::::; 1 Vg E A. From exercise 3 it
follows that A is relatively compact, i.e., U is a compact operator. (In fact, U is a finite
rank operator.)
iii) For llfll ::::; 1let g (x) = f 01 etx f (t) dt Vx E [0, 1]. Using the differentiation theorem
for the Riemann integral with a parameter, we have
g' (x) 1 1
:x(etxf(t))dt= 1 1
tetxf(t)dt,
< t tetx If (t)l dt ::=; .fot tetxdt ::=;

.fo
C Vx E [0, 1] .
Using the Lagrange formula it follows that the set of all functions g is uniformly Lipschitz.
We also have
for all g. From exercise 2 it follows that {U f lllfll ~ 1} is relatively compact. The norm
of II U I is calculated at exercise 2 of chapter 2.
iv) Since cp: [0, 1]--? [0, 1], cp (x) = x 2 is surjective, we have
IIUfll sup IUf(x)l =sup lf(x2)1 =sup lf(cp(x))l

xE [0,1] xE [0,1] xE ]0,1]
sup If (x)l = llfll \If E C [0, 1],
xE[0,1]
i.e., IIUII =
1. See also exercise 6 of chapter 2. For the compactness we have that
{Uf lllfll ~
1} = {! lllfll ~ 1} = Bc[o,1]•whichisnotrelativelycompact,sinceC[0,1]
is infinite-dimensional.
16. See [40, exercise 16.2].

Let g = U f. Then (U g) (x) = (g (x) + g (-x)) /2 = g(x) = (U f)(x), since g (x) =
g (-x) \fx E [-1, 1]. Hence U2 = U, i.e., U is a projector. Then IIUII = IIU2I ~ IIUII 2
and since U -=1- 0 we obtain that 1 ~ IIUII- But IIUfll = sup IUf (x)l, and
xE[0,1]
IUf (x)l ~ If (x)l +21f (-x)l ~ II! II; llfll = llfll,
i.e., IIUfll ~ llfll \If E C [-1, 1], IIUII ~ 1. Therefore IIUII = 1. Also, U is not compact:
we consider the set {U fn I n EN} <;;;; {U f lllfll ~ 1}, where fn (x) = x 2n \fx E [-1, 1],
and we use exercise 8(i).
The same type of reasoning can also be applied for V.
17. See [40, exercise 16.8].
i) We have IIUxll = (f 1xniP) /P

1
1
= llxll \fx E lp, from whence IIUII =
1. Let us observe that U(x 1,x2, ... ) = (O,x 1,x2 , ... ) and hence if we denote V :
lp --? lp, V(x1,x2, ... ) = (x2,x3, ... ) then (VU)(x1,x2, ... ) = V(U(x 1,x2, ... )) =
V (0, x1, x2, ... ) = (x 1, x2, ... ), i.e., VU = I. Obviously, V is linear and continuous,
since
IIVxll ~ (~ lx.l') 'iP <; (t, lx.l') '/' ~ llxll ·

If U were compact, by the ideal property for the compact operators, we would obtain that
VU is compact, i.e., I is compact, i.e., the set
must be relatively compact in lp. But from exercise 1(ii) (see the remark following the so-
lution), this set corresponds to the sequence ( 1, 1, ... ) ~ c0, and therefore it is not relatively
compact.
The above technique can also be used in other situations. We can obtain a much shorter
solution, observing that A = {U (x) lllxll ~ 1} is not relatively compact, since en E A
5.2 Solutions 125
'in 2: 2and llen+p- en II = 21/P 'in 2: 2, Vp E N, i.e., {en I n 2: 2} ~ A does not contain
Cauchy subsequences. We can also solve the exercise by using the Riesz theorem, since lp
is not finite-dimensional.
ii) We have
uuxu ~ (t, l:;'f" (t,lx.l'f ~ uxu

i.e., IIUII : : ; 1. In addition, lle1ll = IIU (e1)ll : : ; IIUIIIIe111, i.e., IIUII 2: 1, from whence
IIUII = 1. We have
Since the sequence (1/n)nEN is in c0 , from exercise 1(ii) the set {Ux lllxll : : ; 1} is rela-
tively compact in lp, and therefore U is a compact operator.
We give now another solution for the fact that U is compact. Let Un : lp ---+ lp,
Un (x1, X2, ... ) = (x1, x2j2, ... , Xn/n, 0, 0, ... ).Then for llxll : : ; 1we have
from whence IIUn- Ull ---+ 0. But Un are finite rank operators, since Un (x)
n
2:: Pk (x) ek/k Vx E lp, where Pk : lp ---+ IK are the canonical projections. Since every
k=l
finite rank operator is compact it follows that Un is compact 'in E N, and since Un ---+ U in
norm it follows that U is compact.
iii)LetA: lp---+ lp,A(xl,x2,···) = (O,x 1 ,x 2 , ... )andB: lp---+ lp,B(x 1 ,x2, ... ) =
(x1, x2j2, ... ),i.e., the operators from (i) and (ii). Then U = AB. Since B is compact, by
the ideal property of the compact operators it follows that U is compact. Analogously with
(ii) one can prove that IlUll = 1. (We use that U (el) = e2.)
18. See [40, exercise 16.10].

If X E h, X= (x 1 , X2, ... ),then
i.e., J(x) E l2 and IIJ(x)ll : : ; llxll Vx E l2. Therefore IIJII : : ; 1. In addition, lle1ll
IIJ (el) I :S IIJIIIIe& Then IIJII 2: 1, and therefore IIJII = 1. Since
{en I n E N} = {J (en) I n E N} ~ J ( Blt) ,
it follows that J is not compact.
19. i) V: C[0,1] ~ C[0,1], (Vf)(x) = J;

f(t)dt\:/f E C[0,1], Vx E [0,1],
isclearlyalinearoperator. Also, IIVJII =sup lfoxf(t)dtl :S IIJIIVJ E C[0,1],and
xE[O,l]
therefore V is continuous with IlVII :S 1. If we consider the constant function 1 (x) = 1
Vx E [0, 1], with IIlii = 1, we obtain that IIV (1)11 = sup I fox dtl = sup lxl = 1, and
xE[O,l] xE[O,l]
therefore IIVII = 1. For the compactness see exercise 5.
ii) It is proved in the solution for exercise 14(ii) of chapter 2 that His linear and con-
tinuous.
It is proved in the solution for exercise 38(i) of chapter 14 that the following general
result is true: if X, Y are Banach spaces and U E L (X, Y) is a compact operator, then
from Xn ~ 0 weak in X it follows that U Xn ~ 0 in the norm of Y. For the sequence
fn = nx(o,ljnP), we have fn ~ 0 weak (the reasoning used in the solution for exercise 12
of chapter 14 is also true in LP (0, oo)) and if, for a contradiction, H is compact, then by the
above result we must have H fn ~ 0 in norm. Now, if a, b > 0 and f = ax(o,b) then
1 r a
H f(x) =;: Jo ax(o,b) (t) dt = ;:tt((O, x) n (0, b))=
{ a
ab/x
ifO <X< b,
ifx 2:: b,
from whence
IIH fliP = aPb + (abY 1
b
00
x~Pdx
p
= --aPb.
p-1
Thus IIH fniiP = pj (p- 1) Vn E N, and therefore His not compact.
20. See [40, exercise 16.13].

We have U2 (x) = u (U (x)) = u (0, xl, 0, x3, 0, X5, ... ) = (0, 0, ... )' i.e., U 2 = 0,
and therefore U2 is compact. We have U (e2n~l) = e2n \In E N. Since for n,p E N,
llen+k- enll = 1 if X = Co or Zoo, and llen+k- en II = 21/P if X = lp, 1 :S p < oo,
it follows that the set { U ( e 2 n~ 1 ) I n E N} = {e2 n I n E N} <:;;; U (B x) is not relatively
compact, from whence it follows that U ( B x) is not relatively compact, i.e., U is not a
compact operator.
21. See [40, exercise 16.21].

i) Let x = (xn)nEN E lp. We have 1>-.nxniP :S 11>.11~ lxniP \In E N and the se-
oo
ries I:= lxn IP converges, hence by the comparison test for series it follows that the series
n=l
00
2:::= 1>-.nxniP converges. Moreover,

n=l
Since M>. is linear it follows that M>. is continuous and IIM>.II :S IIAIIoo· Also, for any
n EN,
5.2 Solutions 127
SO IIAIIoo =sup IAnl ~ liM>- li-

nEN
ii) Suppose that M.>. is compact, i.e., M.>. (B1p) is relatively compact. Then Vc > 0
00
3ne EN such that L IPk(M.>. (x))IP ~ EP Vx E Bzp. Let n ~ ne. Then for en E BzP we
k=n,
00
have L IPk(M.>. (en)W ~ EP, that is, IAnl ~E. Therefore An--> 0.
k=nc
Conversely, if An --> 0, then Vc > 0 3ne E N such that IAnl < E 'In > ne. If
x = (xk)kEN E Bzp, then
00 00 00 00
and therefore M.>. (B 1p) is relatively compact, i.e., M.>. is compact.
22. See [18, exercise 7 (i), chapter VII].

Obviously I: is well defined and linear. We have
n n
III: ((tn)nEN) lloo =sup I:>i

nEN i=l
~sup
nEN i=l
L ltd= ll(tn)nENIIl'
hence I: is a continuous operator. To show that I: is not compact, let {en I n E N} be the
standard basis from h. We have llenll 1 = 1 Vn EN and III: (en)- I: (em)lloo = 1 Vn i- m.
Hence the sequence (I: (en))nEN cannot contain Cauchy subsequences, and therefore I: is
not compact.
ii) Clearly i is well defined and linear. We also have
00
hence i is continuous. We define j : Zoo --> Zoo,
j ((tn)nEN) = (iJ, t2- t1, t3- t2, ... , tn+l- tn, ... ).
Obviously j is well defined and linear. We have IIJ((tn)nEN)IIoo ~ 2ll(tn)nENIIoo

V (tn)nEN E Zoo, and therefore j is continuous. Also, for each (tn)nEN E h we have
j (I:((tn)nEN)) j (tl, h+ t2, t1 + t2 + t3, ... )

= (tl, (h + t2)- tl, (tl + t2 + t3)- (tl + t2) ' ... ) = (tl, t2, t3, ... )'
i.e., j o I: = i.
Let us consider again the elements {en I n E N} in h. We have IIi (en) - i (em) lloo = 1
Vm i- n, and i cannot be a compact operator. The property j o I: = i now implies (this is
already proved at (i)) that I: is not compact.
In connection with this exercise, see exercise 43 of chapter 14.
iii) We have
11x f(t)dtl ~ 1x lf(t)l dt ~ 1 IJ(t)l dt = 11!11 1 Vx

00
E (0, oo),
i.e., U takes its values in Loo(O, oo), and IIUJIIoo:::::; 11!11 1 \:If E L1(0, oo). Since obviously
U is linear, it follows that U is continuous, and IJUII :::::; 1. From
U(xco,l))(x) =
r
lo X(o,1)(t)dt =
{1
X ifO < X
ifx 2: 1,
< 1,
IIU(xco,l))lloo = 1 and IIU(xco,1))11oo :::::; IJU11IIxco,1)11 1, it follows that IJUII 2: 1, and

therefore IJUII = 1.
Let now fn = X[n,n+1), llfnll 1 = 1 Vn EN. Ifwedenotebygn = Ufn, we have
0 ifO < x < n,

9n (x) = { x - n if n :::::; x < n + 1,
1 ifx2:n+1,
and therefore ll9n+k - 9n lloo = 1 Vn E N, Vk E N. The sequence (U fn)nEN cannot contain

Cauchy subsequences and therefore U is not compact.
23. i) See [40, exercise 16.38].

Let us suppose, for a contradiction, that A is surjective. From the open mapping
theorem it follows that A is an open operator, in particular A (B (0, 1)) ~ X is an
open set, i.e., there is E > 0 such that B(O,E) = cB(0,1) ~ A(B(0,1)), where
B (0, 1) = {x EX lllxll < 1}. Since A is compact it follows that A (B (0, 1)) is rela-
tively compact. Hence there is E > 0 such that B (0, E) = EB (0, 1) is relatively compact,
from whence B (0, 1) is relatively compact, and therefore compact. But if B (0, 1) is com-
pact then by the Riesz theorem X is finite-dimensional, which is false! Hence, A is not
surjective.
00
ii) Choose y = (1/n"')nEN E lp, i.e., the generalized harmonic series L

1/n"'P con-
n=1
verges, that is, ap > 1, a > 1/p. If x = (xn)nEN E lp has the property that U(x) = y,
then (1/n) Xn = 1/n"' \:In E N, i.e., Xn = 1/n"'- 1 \:In E N. Since x E lp, the generalized
00
harmonic series L1jnC<>- 1)P converges, and therefore (a- 1)p > 1, a> 1 + 1/p. From
n=1
here it follows that for y = (1/n 1/P+l )nEN E lp, the equation U(x) = y has no solution.
iii) For n EN, let An :Coo-+ Coo, An(x1,x2, ... ) = (x1,x2/2, ... ,xn/n,O, ... )
V (xkhEN E Coo· Then IIA- An II = 1/ (n + 1) \:In E N, and therefore An -+ A. Since
An are finite rank operators, we obtain that A is compact. The fact that A is bijective is
obvious.
24. See [40, exercise 16.41].

Let Z = A (X) ~ Y. The condition from our hypothesis assures that A is injective
(if Ax = 0 then x = 0). Hence U : X -+ Z, U (x) = A (x) is bijective. Let us consider
u- 1 : Z -+ X. Clearly u- 1 is linear. Also IIU- 1 (y)ll :::::; IIYII jc Vy E Z. Indeed, let
y E z =A (X). There is then an X EX such that A (x) = y, i.e., u (x) = y, u- 1 (y) =X.
By our hypothesis, II Axil ~ c llxll, i.e., IIYII 2: c IIU- 1 (y)ll, IIU- 1 (y)ll :::::; IIYII /c Vy E Z,
i.e., u- 1 : Z -+ X is linear and continuous. If U is a compact operator, then by the
ideal property for the compact operators it follows that u- 1 u : X -+ X is compact, i.e.,
I : X -+ X is compact, which means that X is finite-dimensional (the Riesz theorem).
5.2 Solutions 129
If X is finite-dimensional then every A E L (X, Y) is compact (in a finite-dimensional

normed space a set is compact if and only if it is closed and bounded). Hence A is compact
if and only if X is finite-dimensional.
25. i) See [40, exercise 16.25].

Since X is infinite-dimensional, using exercise 24 it follows that Vc > 0 3xc E X such
that II Axe II < c llxcll- In particular, 'In EN ::lxn EX such that IIAxnll < llxnll jn. Let us
observe that Xn # 0 'In EN. Let
an= ll::ll EX, llanll = 1 'In EN.
Then IIA (an) II < 1/n 'In EN, and therefore A (an)-+ 0.
ii) Let U E K(X, Y) and c > 0. From (i) it follows that there is x" E X with
llx"ll = 1 such that IIU (x")ll < c. Using now the Hahn-Banach theorem it follows that
there is x; E X* with x;(x") = llx"ll = 1 and llx;ll = 1. We define U" : X -+ Y
by U"(x) = U(x) - x;(x)U(x"). Since U is compact and the space of all the compact
operators is a linear subspace it follows that U" E K(X, Y). Clearly, U"(x") = 0, i.e., U" is
notinjective,sincex" # 0. In addition, IIU- U"ll:::; llx;IIIIU(x")ll < c,and(ii)isproved.
26. Let Y = T (X) be the range ofT in X. Then Y with the norm given by X is a
normed space and consider Tl y : Y -+ Y. If y E Y there is an x E X such that T (x) = y
and therefore T (Tx) = T (y), T (x) = T (y), y = T (y). Hence Tly is the identity ofY.
Since Tis compact Tly is also compact, hence the identity ofY is a compact operator. By
the Riesz theorem it follows that dimoc Y < oo, i.e., Tis a finite rank operator.
27. See [40, exercise 16.33 (a)].

Let (Yn)nEN <:;;; A(M), Yn -+ y E Y. Let Yn = Axn, Xn E M 'In E N. Since
M is bounded it follows that the sequence (xn)nEN is bounded, and using the fact that
X is reflexive, from the Eberlein-Smulian theorem it follows that there is a subsequence
-weak . . -weak
(xkn)nEN such that xkn -+ x E X weak. Then x E M . Smce M ts convex, M =
Mll·ll = M, M being norm closed. Hence x E M. Since A : X -+ Y is continuous,
A : X -+ Y is weak-to-weak continuous (see exercise 18 of chapter 14). Since Xkn -+ x
weak it follows that Axkn -+ Ax weak. But Axn -+ y in norm, and hence Axn -+ y
weak. Since the weak topology is Hausdorff it follows that Ax= y and thus y E A(M),
i.e., A(M) <:;;; Y is closed.
If A : X -+ Y is in addition compact, since M <:;;; X is bounded it follows that
A(M) <:;;; Y is relatively compact. Since A (M) is closed it follows that A(M) <:;;; Y is a
compact set.
28. See [40, exercise 16.36].

From exercise 27 we have that T (BH) <:;;; His a compact set. Since 11·11 is continuous,
from the Weierstrass theorem it follows that there is an x E B H such that
IITxll = sup IITYII = IITII-

IIYII9
29. i) See [40, exercise 16.33 (b)].

Denote by d = inMf IlAx- Yll- There is a sequence (xn)nEN ~ M such that
xE
IIAxn- Yll ----+ d. Using exercise 27, the set A(M) ~ Y is a compact one, and there-
fore there is a subsequence (xkn)nEN and an element x 0 EM such that Axkn ----+ Ax0 • Then
Axkn- y----+ Axo- y, I!Axkn- Yll ----+ I!Axo- Yll· We obtain that d = I!Axo- Yll, i.e.,
IIAxo- Yll = inf IlAx- Yll·
xEM
Suppose now that Y is a Hilbert space. We have inf
xEM
!lAx- Yll = d(y,A(M)), and
since Y is a Hilbert space, by the projection theorem (see chapter 11), d(y, A(M)) =
II y - Pr A(M) (y) II and PrA(M) (y) is the only element for which the infimum is attained.
Then A(x0) = PrA(M)(y).
ii) Let >. = (>.n)nEN E c0 , and consider the multiplication operator A : lp ----+ l2,
A( (xn)nEN) = (>.nxn)nEN· It is easy to see that under our hypothesis (1 < p < 2) the
operator is well defined, linear and continuous (see also exercise 24 of chapter 9 for a
more general result). Also, if we consider the sequence of finite rank operators defined
by An(XI, x2, ... ) = (>.1x1, A2X2, ... , AnXn, 0, ... ),we have IIAn- All = sup 1>-kl ----+ 0,
k2:n+l
hence A is compact. A simple calculation shows that if, for a sequence a = (an)nEN E
Zoo \c0 with an -=f. 0 Vn E N, we consider the ellipsoid
(which by exercise 13(ii) of chapter 1 is a bounded set and by exercise 1(ii) is not a compact
set), then
{ (xn)nEN
00
lxnlp }
A(Ea) = E l2 I ~ i>-nip ianip :=:; 1 .
By (i) x 0 E Ea with the properties from the statement is a solution for the equation A(x) =
PrA(Ea)(2ei). For our exercise we have An= 1/ (n + 1), an= (n + 1) jn, Ea = M, and
As in the solution for exercise 6 of chapter 11 we obtain that PrA(Ea)(2e 1 )

equation A(x0 ) = e 1 has x 0 = 2e 1 as a solution.
30. This result is known as the Gelfand-Phillips theorem, see [33].

First we prove the easy implication. Let A ~ X be a relatively compact set and x~ ----+ 0
weak* in X*. Let B = A, B ~ X is compact, and if we show that x~ ----+ 0 uniformly on B,
it follows that x~ ----+ 0 uniformly on A. Let us suppose that x~ does not converge uniformly
to 0 on B. Then there is Eo > 0 such that for each N E N there is an n ;:::: N and an Xn E B
such that lx~ (xn)i :2: Eo. We can then construct in a standard way a subsequence (nk)kEN
ofN such that lx~k (xnk)l :2: Eo, Xnk E B Vk EN. Since the sequence (x~JkEN is weak*
convergent, it is bounded, i.e., there is an M > 0 such that llx~J : :;
M Vk E N. Since
(Xnk) kEN ~ B, and B is norm compact, there is a subsequence (nkp) pEN of the sequence
5.2 Solutions 131
(nk)kEN and an x 0 E B such that Xnkv --> x 0 in norm. Hence there is Pea E N such that
llxnkp - xoll ::; co/ (2M) Vp ~ Pw Then, for p ~Pea we have
lx~kv (xo)l ~ lx~kv(xnkv)l-lx~kv(xnkv -xo)l ~ Eo-llx;,kvllllxnkv -xoll ~Eo- E; = c;,
so lx~kp (xo) I~ co/2 Vp ~ Pea• which is false, since x~kp --> 0 weak*.
Conversely, let us suppose now that x~ --. 0 weak* implies x~ --> 0 uniformly on
A. LetT : X --. T (X) ~ C (K) be the isometric isomorphism given by exercise 20
of chapter 2. Recall that K = (Bx•, weak*) and T (x) = x (·),where x : K --> lK is
given by x (x*) = x* (x) Vx* E Bx·· We will show that T (A) ~ C (K) is relatively
compact, and the fact that T : X ~ T (X) ~ C (K) is an isometric isomorphism will
assure that A is relatively compact. In order to prove that T (A) ~ C (K) is relatively
compact, we will use the Arzela-Ascoli theorem, i.e., we show that T (A) ~ C (K) is
equicontinuous and uniformly bounded. If A is not bounded, then for any n E N we can
find Xn E A such that llxnll > n. Then we can find y~ E X* such that IIY~II = 1 and
IY~ (xn) I > n. Let x~ = y~/ fo Vn E N. Then llx~ll --> 0 and therefore x~ --> 0 weak*.
By our hypothesis, x~ --> 0 uniformly on A. But lx~ (xn) I > fo Vn E N, and we obtain
a contradiction. Therefore A is norm bounded, i.e., there is an M > 0 such that llxll ::; M
Vx E A. Then for each x E A, IITxll ::; IITIIIIxll ::; M, hence T (A) is uniformly bounded.
We must also prove that the family (x(·))xEA is equicontinuous. Let x~ E K = Bx·
Vn ~ 0, and suppose that x~ --> x 0 with respect to the metric on (Bx·, weak*). We
must prove that Vc > 0 3nE E N such that sup lx(x~)- x(x0)1 < c Vn ~ n 0 • Let
xEA
us suppose, for a contradiction, that this is not true, i.e., there is an co > 0, (nkhEN a
subsequenceofN, andxnk E A'Vk EN such that 1£:: (x~J- £:: (x0)l ~Eo Vk EN, i.e.,
lx~k (xnk) - x 0(xnk) I ~ Eo Vk E N. Now for any k E N we have 'Pk := x~k - x 0 E X*.
Also, since x~ --. x 0with respect to the metric on ( B x•, weak*) it follows that x~k --> x 0
with respect to the metric on (Bx•, weak*), and then x~k --> x 0 weak*, that is, 'Pk --> 0
weak*. Then by hypothesis 'Pk --> 0 uniformly on A, i.e., sup I'Pk (x)l --> 0, and this is not
xEA
true, since we have sup I'Pk (x)l ~ lx~k (xnk)- x 0(xnk) I ~Eo Vk EN.
xEA
31. See [37, Proposition l.e.2].
00
Define the operator T : h --> X, T((an)nEN) = L

anXn· Let us show first that
n=l
T is well defined, i.e., we must show that the series converges. Since llxnll --> 0,
00
sup llxnll = M < oo. Then for each (an)nEN E h, i.e., L lanl < oo, we have
nEll! n=l
00 00 00
L llanxnll ::; M L lanl < oo, i.e., the series L anXn is absolutely convergent. Since X
n=l n=l n=l
00
is complete it follows that the series 2.: anXn converges. Hence T is well defined and it is
n=l
easy to see that Tis linear, continuous, with II Til :<:::: M. For n E N, define Tn : h --> X,
n oo
Tn((ak)kEN) = 2.: akxk. We have T- Tn = 2.: akxk, and from what we have just
k=l k=n+l
proved, liT- Tnll ::; sup llxkll --> 0, i.e., IITn- Til --> 0. Since Tn is a finite rank op-
k~n+l
erator Vn E N, it follows that Tis compact, hence T(B1J ~ X is relatively compact.
132 Compa ctness in Banach spaces. Compa ct operat ors
If we will show that T(B1J ~ X is norm closed, the exercise willoobe solved. Let there-
fore ak E Bz, Vk E N, ak = (a~)nEN Vk E N, such that lim L a~xn = y E X in

k-.oo n=l
nEN of the sequence
norm. Since Ia~ I :::; 1 for each k E N, there is a subsequence ( a~n)
(an kEN and a scalar al such that lim a~n = al. Again, Ia~n I :::;
1 for each n E N and
n~oo
so there is a subsequence (a~nr) pEN of the sequence ( a~n) n EN and

a scalar a 2 such that
lim a~np = a 1 . In this way we can construct, by induction, a se-

lim a~np = a 2 . Then also p--too
p-----+oo
ence (mP)nEN ~ N
quence of scalars (an)nEN such that: for each N E N there is a subsequ
00
such that lim a;'r = ai, for each 1 :::; j :::; N. Let us show that L lanl
:::; 1. For this it is
n=l
p-+oo
N
sufficient to show that for each N E N, L lanl :::; 1. Let N E N, and let us consider the
n=l
subsequence (mP) pEN as above. Then (a';', ... , a';;1 ) ------" ( a 1 , ... , aN) for j ------" oo and since
N oo
N
L la;n' I :::;
oo
L la;n1 I :::; 1 for each j E N, it follows that L Ia; I :::; 1. Hence L lanl :::; 1,
i=l n=l
i=l i=l 00
so we can consider the element L

00
anXn E X. We will show that y = L anXn, and

n=l n=l
the exercise will be solved. Indeed, let s >00 0. Since llxnll - - - " 0
there is an N~ E N
such that llxnll :::; s Vn 2: N~. Since lim L a~xn = y there is an

N~' E N such that
k~oo n=l
111::1 a~xn- Yll :::; s Vk 2: N~'. Let N" = max(N~, N~'). Then for N, k 2: N 6 we have
N oo oo
L a~Xn - L a~Xn + L a~Xn - y

n=l n=l n=l
n=l
< J~; 'a;x,. +' S "~' la;lllx,.ll +' S {~, Ia;!) C'
< ' (~ Ia; I) +' S 2€

of N such that
Let N 2: NE. By our construction, there is a subsequence (mP)pEN
la;rrj- a; I :::; s/2\
lim a;ni =a;, i = 1, N, hence there is j EN such that mi 2: N, and
]--tOO
i = 1, N. Then
N N
N
L anXn- Y < L(an - a~J)xn + L a~1 Xn- Y

n=l n=l
n=l
N
< L Ian- a~i lllxnll + 2s

n=l
N
< ML ;; + 2s = (2 + M)s,
n=l
5.2 Solutions 133
where M = ~~~ llxnll. So, 'lie > 0 3Ns E N such that llf anXn- Yll
1
< (2 + M)e
DO
'II N ::::: N£, i.e., y = L anXn·

n=l
32. See [23, exercise 6.19].

Let c00 be the space of all scalar sequences with finite support, with the norm given by
l1 . Let Xn = en/n 'linEN, where {en I n EN} is the standard basis for c00 . Let us observe
that llxnll = 1/n----+ 0, i.e., Xn----+ 0.
DO DO n
Let now An = 1/n2 . Then L IAnl = L 1/n2 < oo. Let us denote by sn = L AiXi
n=l n=l i=l
'lin E N, and suppose that there is y = (Yn)nEN E c00 such that sn ----+ y. Then s~ ----+ Yk
'Ilk E N (the convergence on the components), and therefore Yk = 1/ P 'Ilk E N, sox tf- c00 ,
contradiction!
If we consider K = {xn I n E N} U {0} then K <;;; c00 is compact. If we denote by
n DO
An = 1jn 312 ' s n D'

= " At x t and A = 6'
" 1/n312 ' then
i=l n=l
Sn n Ai ( n Ai)
--:\ = ~ ):Xn + 1- ~ ): · 0,
so sn/ A E co (K) 'lin E N. Therefore sn/ A E co (K) 'lin E N. As above, one can prove
that the sequence (sn/ A)nEN has no convergent subsequence in c00 , and therefore co (K) is
not a compact set.
33. See [15, Lemma 2].

Since T is compact, from the Schauder theorem it follows that T* is compact, i.e.,
T*(By·) is compact. We shall prove that if A is a set in a metric space such that A is
compact then there is a countable subset E <;;; A such that A <;;; E. Applying this fact for
T*(BY*) it follows that there is a sequence (y~)mEN <;;; By· such that (T*(y~))mEN <;;;
T* (By.) is norm dense.
Indeed, if A is a compact set in a metric space (X, d) then since 'lie > 0 we have A<;;;
n
U B (x, c/2) it follows that we can find x 1 E A, ... , Xn E A such that A<;;; U B (xi, c/2).
xEA i=l
Then for any 1 :0::: i :0::: n we have xi E A and B (xi, e/2) is a neighborhood of xi, thus by
the definition of a closure point we have B (xi, E /2) n A # 0, i.e., there is ai E A such that
n
d (xi, ai) < c/2. From here we obtain that A <;;; U B (ai, c). Then it follows that for any
i=l
km
mEN we can find km EN and {xf' 11 :0::: i :0::: km} <;;;A such that A<;;; U B (xf', 1/m)
i=l
(1). Let E = {xf' I mEN, 1 :0::: i :0::: km} <;;; A, which is obviously a countable set. We
shall prove that A <;;; E. Indeed, let x E A and e > 0. Then there is m E N such
km
that 1/m < E. Then by (1), x E UB (xf', 1/m) hence there is 1 :0::: i :0::: km such that
i=l
x E B (xf', 1/m), i.e., llx- xf'll < 1/m < E, that is, xf' E En B (x, c), and then x E E.
The second assertion from the exercise is the following: Vc > 0 36c: > 0 such that
IITxllp ::::; E + 6c: f

m=l
IY;;. ;:xw V llxll = 1.
Let us suppose, for a contradiction, that this is not true, i.e., 3c 0 > 0 such that \In E N
3llxnll = 1 with the property that
IITxniiP >Eo+ n f
m=l
IY;;. ~~nW
Then
IY;;. (Txn)l < IITxnll < IITIIIIxnll = IITII --4 O
2m/p - nl/p - nl/p nl/p '
that is, lim y;;. (Txn)

n->oo
= 0 Vm E N, i.e., x* (xn) --4 0 Vx* E {T*(y;;.) I m E N}, which, by
our hypothesis, is norm dense in T*(By· ). Therefore x* (xn) --4 0 Vx* E T*(By. ). Then
y*(Txn) --4 0 \ly* E By •. But since Tis compact we can find y E Yanda subsequence
(xkn)nEN such that Txkn --4 yin norm. Let y* E By •. Then y*(Txkn) --4 y*(y). But
y*(TxkJ --4 0, from whence y*(y) = 0. Therefore y = 0, i.e., Txkn --4 0 in norm, and
then IITxkn II --4 0. But IITxkn liP > Eo \In E N, and we obtain a contradiction.
34. See [ 18, exercise 6 (ii) and (iii), chapter I].

i). LetT E L (X, Y) compact. Then T* E L (Y*, X*) is compact, by the Schauder
theorem, hence T* (By·) <;;; X* is relatively norm compact. Then by the Grothendieck
theorem there is a sequence (x~) nEN <;;; X*, lim II x~ II = 0, such that T* (By.) <;;;
n->oo
co ({x~}nEN). For each x EX, we have IITxll = sup IY* (Tx)l = sup I(T* (y*)) (x)l.
IIY*II9 IIY*II9
Consider A, the set of all elements from X* which are limit of convex combinations of ele-
ments from the sequence ( x~ )nEN, and we obtain a closed, convex set with { x~ }nEN <;;; A.
It follows that co ( { x~} nEN) <;;; A, and so T* (By.) <;;; A. Hence for every y* E By·,
there is a sequence ( z~)nEN <;;; X* such that z~ --4 T*y* in the norm of X*, each z~ being
a convex combination of elements from the set { xj I j EN}. Let x E X. For n E N,
~ ~ ~
z~ = L O:jnXj, O:jn 2: 0, j = 1, kn, L O:jn = 1, and then iz~ (x)i = L (ajnxj) (x) ::::;
j=l j=l j=l
sup lx; (x)l \In EN. Since z~ --4 T*y* in the norm of X*, z~ (x) --4 (T*y*) (x), and then
jEN
I(T*y*) (x)l ::::; sup lx~ (x)l V IIY*II ::::; 1, from whence IITxll ::::; sup lx~ (x)l Vx EX.
nEN nEN
Let us suppose now that x~ --4 0 in X* and that IITxll ::::; sup lx~ (x)l Vx EX. Using
nEN
exercise 44, or using the characterization of relatively norm compact sets in c0 , it follows
that the operatorS : X --4 co, S (x) = (x~ (x))nEN is compact. We have IITxll ::::; IISxll
Vx E X and since Sis compact, it follows that Tis also compact (if (xn)nEN <;;; Ex, since S
is compact there is a subsequence (kn)nEN ofN such that (SxkJnEN is a Cauchy sequence,
so from IITxkn - Txk, II ::::; IISxkn - Sxkm II \In, m E N it follows that (TxkJnEN is a
sequence Cauchy, and therefore Tis a compact operator).
The last assertion from (i) is obvious.
5.2 Solutions 135
ii) Let T E L (X, Y) be compact. By (i), we can find A = (An)nEN E c0 and

(y~)nEN <;;; X* bounded such that IITxll :::; sup (1Ani 2 IY~ (x)l) Vx E X. Let W <;;; co,
nEN
W = {(AnY~ (x))nEN I x EX}. Since An----+ 0 and (y~)nEN <;;; X* is bounded, it follows
that W <;;; c0 , and from the fact that y~ is linear for each n E N it follows that W <;;; c0
is a linear subspace. We define A : X ----+ W, A (x) = (AnY~ (x))nEN Vx E X. Then A
is linear and from IIAxll = sup IAnY~

nEN
(x)l :::; (11AIIoo sup
nEN
IIY~11)
llxll it follows that A is
continuous. Denoting Tn = IAniiiY~II \In EN, we have Tn----+ 0 and I(Ax)nl :S: Tn \In EN,
V llxll :::; 1, hence by the characterization of relatively norm compact sets in c0 we obtain
that A ( B x) <;;; c0 is relatively compact and therefore A is compact.
Define now B: W----+ Y, B ((AnY~ (x))nEN) = Tx Vx EX. Let us observe first that
B is well defined, since if(AnY~ (x))nEN =(AnY~ (y))nEN, then sup l>-.nl 2 ly~ (x- y)l = 0,
nEN
hence liT (x- y) II = 0, i.e., Tx = Ty. Obviously B is linear, from the linearity ofT. We
also have
hence B is continuous. DefineS : W----+ Co, S((o:n)nEN) = (AnO:n)nEN" Since (An)nEN E

c0 , S is linear, continuous, and compact (we use again the characterization for the rela-
tively norm compact sets in c0 ). We have, in addition, II B ( (O:n) nEN) II :S: II S ( (O:n) nEN) II
V (o:n)nEN E W, and then (see the final part of the solution for (i)) B is also compact. We
have BA = T, the only inconvenience is that W is only a linear subspace of c0 , and not
necessarily a closed one.
Let Z = W <;;; c0 . Then A can be considered with values in Z, and we obtain A E
L (X, Z) compact. We have B E L (W, Y) and since Y is complete we can extend Bin
the usual way to an operator C E L (Z, Y). Then T = CA, and we must prove that Cis
compact. Let (zn)nEN <;;; Z, llznll :::; 1 Vn E N. Since Z = W there are (wn)nEN <;;; W,
llwn- znll :::; 1/n \In E N. It follows that the sequence (wn)nEN <;;; W is bounded and
from the compactness of B E L (W, Y) we can suppose that Bwn ----+ y E Y. We have
IICwn- Cznll :::; IICII /n, hence I!Bwn- Czn!l :::; IICII /n----+ 0, from whence Czn----+ y E
Y, i.e., Cis also compact.
35. See [ 18, exercise 2, chapter VII].

00
Let (xn)nEN <;;;X, with I: !x* (xn)l < oo Vx* EX*. Then the operatorS: X* ----+ h,
n=l
S (x*) = (x* (xn))nEN is well defined. Obviously S is linear and since X* and h are
Banach spaces we will use the closed graph theorem in order to prove that S is continuous.
Let x~----+ x 0 in X*, Sx~----+ Yo in l 1. Then x~ (xk) ----+ x 0(xk) Vk EN, and x~ (xk) ----+ y~
Vk E N. It follows that y~ = x 0(xk) Vk E N, i.e., Sx0 = y0 . The graph of Sis closed, and
therefore S is continuous. Then
L
00
IISII = sup lx* (xn)! < oo.

llx*ll<::l n=l
We show now that there is T: c0 ----+ X linear and continuous such that T* = S. Using
exercise 19 of chapter 14, it is sufficient to show that S : (X*, weak*) ----+ ( c0, weak*)
is continuous. For this we will use the characterization of the continuity with nets. Let
(x;i) 8 E~ <;;;; X* be a net such that x;\ ---+ x~ weak*. Then by the Uniform Boundedness
Principle it follows that there is an M > 0 such that llx:511 ~ M Vb E .6., and since
x;; ---+ x~ weak*, we also have llx~ll ~ M. We must show that Sx;; ---+ Sx~ weak*, or,
equivalently, (Sx;j) (a) ---+ (Sx~) (a) Va E co. Let a= (an)nEN E co. For any E > 0 there
is annE E N such that lanl < Ej (4M IISII) Vn 2': nE. Since x;j ---+ x~ weak*, it follows
that x;\ (xk) ---+ x~ (xk), k = 1, nE, and then there is a bE E .6. such that
Then for b 2': bE we have

oo ne
I(Sx;5) (a)- (Sx~) (a) I L a;(xj- x~)(x;) ~ L la;llx:;(x;)- x~ (x;)l
i=l i=l
L
00
+ la;llxj (x;)- x~ (x;)l.

i=ne+l
But
L L + L lx~ (x;)l
00 00 00
lx;i (x;)- x~ (x;)l ~ lxj (x;)l = IISxjll + IISx~ll ~2M IISII

i=l i=l
and then
ne
I(Sxj) (a)- (Sx~) (a) I ~ 2 (l + i~~ 1 lakl) 81a;l + 4MEIISII ·2M IISII ~ E,
hence Sx;j ---+ Sx~ weak*. Then by exercise 19 of chapter 14 there is a linear and continu-
ous operator T: c0 ---+X such that T* = S. We have (x*) (Ten)= (T*x*) (en) Vn EN,
V.x* E X*, hence x* (Ten) = (Sx*) (en), i.e., x* (Ten) = x* (xn) Vn E N, Vx* E X*, that
is, Ten = Xn Vn E N.
Let now T : c0 ---+ X be linear and continuous, and let Ten = Xn Vn E N. Then for
each x* EX*,
L L L
00 00 00
lx* (xn)l = lx* (Ten) I= I(T*x*) (en) I= IIT*x*ll < oo,

n=l n=l n=l
36. See [18, exercise 2 (ii), chapter VII].

Let T : c0 ---+ X be a compact operator. Then, by the Schauder theorem, T* : X* ---+ 11
is compact, i.e., T* (Ex·) <;;;; h is relatively compact. Then, using the characterization for
00
relatively compact sets in h, VE > 0 :JNE EN such that ~ I(T*x*)kl ~ E Vx* EX*,
k=Ne+l
llx*ll ~ 1. We denote Xn =Ten Vn EN. We have (T*x*)k = (T*x*) (ek) = x* (Tek) =
5.2 Solutions 137
00
x* (xk) 'Vk EN, and then :Z::::: lx* (xk)l :S c'Vx* EX*, llx*ll :S 1. Let now (nk)kE'N be a
k=N6 +1
subsequence of N. Then for m > p 2 NE we have
00
and since X is a Banach space the series :Z::::: Tenk converges.

k=l
00
Let us suppose now that all the subseries for :Z::::: Xn are norm convergent, where Xn =
n=l
Ten 'Vn EN. Since T takes its values in Sp {xn In E N} 1111 <;;:X, we can and do suppose,
replacing if necessary X with Y = Sp { Xn I n E N} I II, that X is separable. We will show
that T E L (c0 , X) is compact, and for this, by the Schauder theorem, it is enough to show
that T* : X* ----+ l 1 is compact. For each x* E X*, (T*x*)k = (T*x*) (ek) = x* (Tek) =
x* (xk), hence T*x* = (x* (xk))kE'N 'Vx* EX*. Let (x~)nE'N <;;: Bx•. Since X is separable,
by exercise 29 of chapter 14 the weak* topology on Bx· is metrizable, and since by the
Alaoglu-Bourbaki theorem B x• is weak* compact, there are x~ E B x• and a subsequence
(x~JkEN of the sequence (x~)nEN such that x~k ----+ x~ weak* in X*. We will show that
T*x~k ----+ T*x~ in l 1 . Using the Schur theorem, exercise 3(iv) of chapter 14, it is enough to
show that T* x~k ----+ T* x~ weak in h. Since the sequence ( x~k) kEN is bounded, we obtain
that the sequence (T*x~k) kEN <;;: ll is bounded. Since zr = lao and by exercise 21 of chapter
1, {XM I M <;;: N} is a fundamental set, to show that T* x~k ----+ T* x~ weak in h it is enough
to show that XM (T*x~J ----+ XM (T*x 0) 'VM <;;: N (see exercise 10 of chapter 14). Let M
be a subset ofN. If M is finite then
lim '"""'x~ (x;) = lim XM(T*x~ k ).

k--+cx:; ~ k k-HX)
iEM
If M is not finite, M = { m 1 , m 2 , ... },then
00
lim '"""'x~ lim XM(T*x~ k )

L.....t k (xm J ) = k---+oo
k---+CXJ
j=l
00
(all the subseries 2.::: Xm 1 are convergent).

j=l
37. We prove first that if Y is a Banach space then U : Y ----+ h is weak compact if and
only if U is compact. Indeed, suppose that U is weak compact, i.e., U (By) is relatively
weak compact in l1, and let (Yn)nEN <;;: By. Then (U (Yn) )nEN <;;: U (By) and then by the
Eberlein-Smulian theorem we can find a subsequence (kn)nEN ofN and an element~ E h

such that U (ykJ ---+ ~ weak. Now by the Schur theorem, exercise 3(iv) of chapter 14, it
follows that U (ykJ ---+ ~ in norm. Thus U (By) is relatively norm compact, i.e., U is a
compact operator. Conversely, if X andY are Banach spaces and U E L (Y, X) is compact,
then U is weak compact. Indeed, since U is compact, then U (By ) 11 . 11 is norm compact. But
• 11·11 weak
U (By) is convex, and using the Mazur theorem we obtam that U ( B x) = U ( B x) .
~----,--,-·weak
Since the identity I : (X, 11·11) ---+ (X, weak) is continuous we obtain that U (B x) is
weak compact and then U is weak compact.
Using the Gantmacher theorem, T : c0 ---+ X is weak compact if and only ifT* : X* ---+
l 1 is weak compact. Using what we have proved above, this is equivalent toT* : X* ---+ l 1
being compact, which by the Schauder theorem is equivalent to T : c0 ---+ X being compact.
38. We will prove the following more general result. Let (S, I:, tL) be a measure space,
and (An)nEN <;;; I: a sequence of pairwise disjoint sets. For a scalar sequence (~n)nEN,
00 00
we have L an~nXAn E L1 (tL) V (an)nEN E Co if and only if the series L ~niL (An)
n=l n=l
is absolutely convergent, and in this case the operator U : c0 ---+ L 1 (tL) defined by
00
U ((an)nEN) = L an~nXAn is compact.

n=l
00
Suppose that L an~nXAn E L1 (tL) V (an)nEN E Co. Using the countable additivity for
n=l
00
the integral of positive measurable functions, the fact that the function L an~nXAn is in
n=l
L 1 (tL) means that
~ lan~nf-L (An) I=~ fs1an~nl XAndf-L =Is ~ an~nXAn df-L < 00,
hence the multiplication operator M: c0 ---+ h, M ((an)nEN) = (an~ntL (An))nEN is well

defined, linear, and, as it is easy to prove, with its closed graph. Since c0 , h are Ba-
nach spaces, by the closed graph theorem M is a linear and continuous operator. For
n
any fixed n E N we have L l~k/-L (Ak)l = IIU (1, 1, ... , 1, 0, ... )II :<::; IIUII, and therefore
k=l
00 00 00
L l~k/-L (Ak)l :<::; IIUII· If L l~k/-L (Ak)l < oo, it is easy to see that L an~nXAn E L1 (tL)
k=l k=l n=l
V (an) nEN E co. To prove the compactness of the operator U we consider for any n E N
n
the operator Un: co---+ L1 (tL) defined by Un ((akhEw) = L ak~kXAk· Then Un is a finite
k=l
rank operator, thus compact, and we observe that by the countable additivity of the integral
for positive measurable functions we obtain that
00 00
k=n+l k=n+l
00
so IIUn- Ull :<::; L l~k/-L (Ak)l---+ 0, that is, Un----+ U. Since the space of all the compact
k=n+l
operators is closed, it follows that U is compact.
5.2 Solutions 139
39. See [18, exercise 5, chapter VII].

Let (xn)nEN <:;; X for which there is an M > 0 such that llxnll :<:; M Vn E N. Define
00
T: l1 -+ X, T ((an)nEN) = L anXn. For each a= (an)nEN E l1, we have

n=l
00 00 00
n=l n=l n=l

00
Hence the series I: anXn

is absolutely convergent, and since X is a Banach space, it
n=l
converges, so T is well defined. Obviously T is linear and
L anXn L llanxnll :<:; M JJaJJl

00 00
liT (a)JI = :<:; Va = (an)nEN E h,

n=l n=l
which implies that Tis continuous. We also have Ten = Xn Vn EN.

Conversely, ifT: h -+X is linear and continuous, then denoting Xn =Ten Vn EN,
since Jlenll 1 = 1 Vn EN it follows that IJTenll :<:; IITII Vn EN, i.e., llxnll :<:; IITII Vn EN,
hence the sequence (xn)nEN <:;; X is bounded.
40. See [ 18, exercise 5 (i), chapter VII].

If T : l 1 -+ X is weak compact, then T (B1J <:;; X is relatively compact in the
weak topology. As en E Bz 1 Vn E N we have {Ten I n E N} <:;; T (Bz 1 ) , and hence
{Ten I n E N} <:;; X is relatively compact in the weak topology.
Let us suppose now that {Ten I n E N} <:;; X is relatively compact in the weak
topology. Then there is a weak compact set A <:;; X such that {Ten I n EN} <:;; A.
Since A is weak compact, by the Krein theorem, the set eco (A) weak <:;; X is also weak
----;-;-;-weak . .
compact. If we show that T ( Bh) <:;; eco (A) , the exercise will be solved. Let
00
Xn = Ten Vn E N. Let a = (an)nEN E Bz~' that is, L lanl :<:; 1. Let us denote
n=l
k k
Yk = 2::: anXn Vk E N. Since 2::: Jan! :<:; 1, we have Yk E eco(A) Vk E N. For
n=l n=l 00
00
each k E N we have llYk- T(a)ll < L Janlllxnll < JJTII L Jan! -+ 0, hence
n=k+l n=k+l
----:---,-11·11 weak
T (a) E eco (A) = eco (A) .
41. i) See [ 18, exercise 2 (ii), chapter VII].

The solution is the same as the one given at exercise 40, working with the norm topology
instead the weak topology and using the Mazur theorem (the closure for the balanced
convex hull of a norm compact set is a norm compact set) instead of the Krein theorem.
ii) Clearly, U is linear and continuous, with IJU II :<:; II (an) nEN II 00 . Suppose that the
set A = {U (en) I n EN} <:;; loo is relatively norm compact. If, for a contradiction, the
sequence (an)nEN does not converge towards zero, then there are c > 0 and a subsequence
(kn)nEN of N such that Jaknl ~ c Vn E N (1). We have {U (ekJ I n EN} <:;; A,
therefore we can find a convergent subsequence (U (eknv))pEN of (U (ekJ)nEN· Then
IIU (eknp) - U(ekn.) II ____. 0 for p, s ____. oo. But for p > s we have
I
and then we can find an s such that aknsl < c:, and this contradicts (1 ).
Conversely, if (an)nEN E c0 then using that
form > n, m, n ____. oo, we obtain that the set {U (en) In EN} <:;;; Zoo is relatively norm
compact.
iii) Clearly U is linear and continuous. By (i) U is compact if and only if
{U (en) In 2 0} C C [0, 1] is relatively compact, i.e., if and only if the set
{~nxn In 2 0} <:;;; C [0, 1] is relatively compact.
Suppose that U is compact. From the Arzela-Ascoli theorem it follows that Vc: > 0
38c > 0 such that Vx, y E [0, 1] with lx- Yl < 8c we have that l~n (xn - yn) I < c: Vn E N.
There is no E N, such that 1/ (2n) < 80 Vn 2 n 0 • Let n 2 n 0 • For x = 1 - 1/n,
y = 1 - 1/ (2n) we have lx- Yl < 80 , and then l~nll(1- 1/nf- (1- 1/ (2n)fl < c:
Vn 2 n 0 • For n ____. oo we obtain that lim sup l~nlll/e- 1/ftl :::; c:, i.e., lim sup l~nl :::;
n~oo n~oo
(c:e) / ( y'e- 1) Vc: > 0, i.e., lim sup l~nl = 0, ~n ----t 0.

n.-oo
Conversely, we have ll~nxnlloo = l~nl ____. 0, and therefore the set {~nXn In 2 0} <:;;;
C [0, 1] is relatively compact.

First solution. Let T : X ____. eo be linear and continuous. Then T* : h ____. X* is linear
and continuous, and hence weak*-to-weak* continuous (see exercise 19 of chapter 14).
Consider the set (Pn)nEN <:;;; c0 =h. For each a= (an)nEN E Co, Pn (a) =an ----t 0, hence
Pn ----t 0 weak* in c0. Then it follows that T*pn ----t 0 weak* in X*. Now let (x~)nEN <:;;;X*
with x~ ____. 0 weak*. Define T : X ____. c0 , T (x) = (x~ (x))nEN. Since x~ ____. 0 weak* it
follows that x~ (x) ____. 0 Vx EX, hence T takes its values in c0 . Tis linear and to show that
T is continuous since X and c0 are Banach spaces we can use the closed graph theorem.
Let Xn ----t x, Txn ----t y = (yk)kEN E Co· Then x'k (xn) ----t x'k (x) Vk E N. Since Txn ----t y
it follows that x'k (xn) ____. Yk Vk E N, and then x'k (x) = Yk Vk EN, i.e., Tx = y. Let us
observe that (T*pn) (x) = Pn (Tx) = x~ (x) Vx EX, hence T*pn = x~ Vn EN.
Second solution. Let (x~)nEN <:;;; X* with x~ ____. 0 weak*, i.e., x~ (x) ____. 0 Vx E X.
Then (x~ (x) )nEN E co, i.e., T : X ____. co, T( x) = (x~ (x) )nEN is well defined. Obviously, T
is linear. We also have
IIT(x)ll =sup
nEN
lx~(x)l :::; (sup
nEN
llx~11) llxll·
Since x~(x) ____. 0 Vx E X, from the Uniform Boundedness Principle it follows that
sup llx~ll < oo. Therefore Tis linear and continuous. Let us also observe that
nEN
IITII = sup IIT(x)ll = sup sup lx~(x)l =sup sup lx~(x)l =sup llx~ll·
llxll:<::i llxll:<::i nEN nEN llxll:<::i nEN
5.2 Solutions 141
Conversely, suppose that T : X ----+ c0 is a linear and continuous operator. Then Pn o T :

X ----+ lK is linear and continuous as a composition of two linear and continuous operators.
Let x~ = Pn o T E X*. If x E X, T(x) = (Pn(Tx))nEN = (x~(.T))nEN· For x E X we
have Tx E c0 , that is, Pn (Tx) ----+ 0, x~(x) ----+ 0, and therefore x~ ----+ 0 weak*.
43. See [ 18, exercise 4 (i), chapter VII].

By the Gantmacher theorem, T : X ----+ c0 is weak compact if and only if T* : h ----+ X*
is weak compact, which by exercise 40 is equivalent with the fact that {T*pn I n E N} c,;;;
X* is relatively compact in the weak topology.
In the sequel we will use the following general result. Let (X, T) be a topological
Hausdorff space and Xn ----+ x in X. Then the set A = {Xn I n E N} U { x} is compact. Since
X is Hausdorff, A is closed, and from B = {Xn I n E N} c,;;; A it follows that B c,;;; A = A.
Since A is compact and B closed it follows that B is compact, i.e., B = { Xn I n E N} is
relatively compact.
If we suppose that T*pn ----+ 0 weak in X* then by the general result proved above it
follows that {T*pn I n E N} is relatively compact in the weak topology. Conversely, let us
suppose that T: X----+ c0 is weak compact. Then {T*pn I n EN} c,;;; X* is relatively weak
compact. Suppose that T*pn does not converge towards 0 in the weak topology. Then there
is an x** E X** such that x** (T*pn) does not converge towards 0. Then there are E > 0
and a subsequence (nkhEN ofN such that lx** (T*pnk)l 2': E Vk EN. Using the relative
compactness in the weak topology for the set {T*pnk I k E N}, by the Eberlein-Smulian
theorem it follows that there are x* E X* and a subsequence (nk1 ) jEN of (nk) kEN such that
T*pnk ----+ x* weak. Since TEL (X, c0 ), T* is weak*-to-weak* continuous (see exercise
J
19 of chapter 14), and therefore T*pnk ----+ 0 weak*. But T*pnk ----+ x* weak, and therefore
J J
T*pnk. ----+ x* weak*. Then x* = 0, x** ( T*pnk1 ) ----+ 0, and we obtain a contradiction!
J
Hence T*pn----+ 0 weak.
44. i) See [18, exercise 4 (ii), chapter VII].

First solution. From the Schauder theorem a linear and continuous operator T : X ----+
c0 is compact if and only ifT* : l1 ----+ X* is compact. Using exercise 41, T* : h -+X* is
compact if and only if {T*pn In EN} c,;;; X* is relatively compact in norm. Ifwe denote
by x~ = T*pn, since T E L (X, c0 ) and Pn ----+ 0 weak*, by exercise 19 of chapter 14 it
follows that x~ -+ 0 weak*. Now we show that if X is a Banach space and (x~)nEN c,;;; X*
is weak* convergent to 0, then {x~ I n E N} c,;;; X* is relatively norm compact if and only
if x~----+ 0 in the norm on X*.
Let {x~ I n E N} c,;;; X* relatively compact, with x~ -+ 0 weak*. Let us suppose
that (x~)nEN does not converge towards 0 in the norm of X*. Then there are E > 0 and
a subsequence (nk)kEN such that llx~k II 2': E Vk E N. But from the relative compactness,
there are a subsequence (nk1 ) jEN of the sequence (nk) kEN and x* E X* such that x~k 1 -+ x*
in the norm of X*. It follows that x~ kJ -+ x* weak*, and since the weak* topology is
Hausdorff it follows that x~k -+ 0, which contradicts the above inequality.
J
The other implication is obvious (see the solution for exercise 43).
Second solution. Suppose that T is compact, i.e., A = T(Bx) c,;;; c0 is relatively
compact. Then there is a sequence>. = (>-n)nEN E co such that IPn(OI :::; 1>-nl '<In E N,
v~ E A, and therefore IPn(Tx)l:::; 1>-nl '<In EN, Vllxll:::; 1. Then llx~ll :::; 1>-nl '<In EN
and since An--+ 0 it follows that Jlx~/1 --+ 0, i.e., x~--+ 0 in norm.
Conversely, let us suppose that x~ --+ 0 in norm. Let Tn : X --+ c 0 given by Tn (x) =
(xi(x), ... , x~(x), 0, 0, ... ).We obtain that
JJTx- Tnxlic = !i(O, ... ,O,x~+l(x), ... )jj = sup Jxk(x)J::; (sup /lxkll) /lxll,
0 k2':n+l k2':n+l
i.e., liT- Tn/1 ::; sup llxkll --+ 0, since llx~ll --+ 0. Hence Tn --+ Tin norm. Since for
k2':n+l
every n E N, Tn is a finite rank operator, it follows that Tis compact (K(X, c0 ) ~ L(X, c0 )
is a closed linear subspace).
ii)Letx~: Co--+ JK,x~(xl,Xz, ... ) = anXn. ThenU(x) = (x~(x))nENandfrom
exercise 43, U is weak compact if and only if x~ --+ 0 weak. Since x~ E c 0 = l1. x~ --+ 0
weak in h ¢:? x~ --+ 0 in norm, by the Schur theorem (see exercise 3(iv) of chapter 14).
But llx~/1 = Jan I 'Vn E N. Hence by the above and (i) U is weak compact¢:? U compact
¢:? x~ --+ 0 in norm ¢:? ( an)nEN E Co·
iii) For any n E N, let x~ : H --+ lK be defined by x~ (x) = (x, xn)· Then x~ --+ 0
weak* if and only ifU is linear and continuous, with IIUII =sup llx~/1. Since llx~/1 = /lxnll,
nEN
if U is linear and continuous it follows that sup llxnll < oo. Moreover by (i) U is compact
nEN
if and only if Jlx~ II --+ 0, i.e., the statement.

LetT : X --+ l 1 be linear and continuous. Then T* : l 00 --+X* is linear and continuous,
and for each x E X we have
L L
00 00
J(T*pn)(x)J = iPn (Tx)J = IITxll < 00.

n=l n=l
00
Let x~ = T*pn E X* 'Vn E N. Then we have E Jx~ (x)J = IITxll ::; IITII 'Vx E X
n=l
with llx/1 ::; 1. Consider now x** E X** with /lx**/1 ::; 1. Using the Goldstine theorem,
there is a net (xa)aELl. ~ Ex such that x* (x,s) --+ x** (x*) 'Vx* E X*. For any n E N
n
we have E Jxk, (x 6 )J ::; /ITII W E ~ and passing to the limit for 8E ~ it follows that
k=l
n oo
E Jx** (xk)J ::; /ITII, hence E Jx** (x~)i::; /ITII, i.e., (x~)nEN E w1 (X*).
k=l n=l
00 00
Let now (x~)nEN ~X* such that E Jx** (x~)i < oo 'r/x** EX**. Then E Jx~ (x)J <
n=l n=l
oo 'r/x E X. This inequality shows that T : X --+ h, T (x) = (x~ (x))nEN is well defined.
The operator T is obviously linear, and since X and l 1 are Banach spaces, in order to show
that Tis continuous we can use the closed graph theorem. Let therefore (xn)nEN ~ X,
Xn--+ x, y = (Yk)kEN E h, Txn--+ y. Then xZ: (xn)--+ xZ: (x) 'Vk EN, and xZ: (xn) --+ Yk
'Vk EN. It follows that Yk = xZ: (x) 'Vk EN, hence T (x) = y. Then T E L (X, h) and for
each x E X we have
(T*pn) (x) = Pn (Tx) =X~ (x),
i.e., T*pn = x~ 'Vn E N.
5.2 Solutions 143
46. See the solution for exercise 37.
47. See [18, exercise 3 (ii), chapter VII].

Let us suppose that T : X ----t h is linear, continuous, and compact. By the Schauder
theorem, T* : l 00 ----t X* is also compact. Consider the operator S : Co ----t X*, S (x) =
T* (x) \:/x E co, i.e., S = T* o Kco, where Kc0 : Co C-....+ loo is the canonical embedding into
the bidual. Since Kco is linear and continuous, by the ideal property for compact operators
it follows that S is compact and using exercise 36 we obtain that all the subseries for the
00
series I:; S (en) are norm convergent. We also have S (en) = T* (Kca (en)) = T*pn
n=l
VnEN. 00
Let us suppose now that all the subseries for the series I:; T*pn are convergent. We can
n=l
then define a compact operatorS : Co ----t X* by considering S (en) = T*pn \:In E N (see
exercise 36). Then by the Schauder theorem, S* : X** ----t h is also compact. If we show
that T = S* o Kx, the exercise will be solved, since Twill be a compact operator, by the
ideal property for compact operators. Let x E X. Then for each n E N we have
[S* (Kx (x))] (en) (S* (x)) (en)= x(Sen) = x(T*pn) = (T*pn) (x)
Pn (Tx) = (Kco (en)) (Tx) = (Tx) (en),
and then it follows that T = S* o Kx.
48. i) Indeed, if the first condition from the exercise is satisfied, then in particular for
the constant function f = 1 we have (anfn)nEN E h. Conversely, if (anfn)nEN E h and
f E C[O, 1], then since lanf01/n f(x)dxl:::; llflllanfnl\:/n EN, bythecomparisontestfor
series it follows that f: an J;/n f (x) dx is absolutely convergent. Moreover, IIU (f) I :::;
n=l
00
IIJII I:; lanfnl \:If E C [0, 1] so since the linearity of U is trivial we deduce that U is
n=l
continuous.
For the compactness consider for any n EN the operator Un : C [0, 1] ----t h,
U" (f) ~ (a, [ f (x) dx, ... ,a,. [/• f (x) dx, 0, 0, .. .) ,
which is clearly a finite rank operator, hence compact. We have
L
00
IIU- Unll:::; lak/kl----t 0,

k=n+l
00
since the series I:; anfn is absolutely convergent. From here we deduce that U is compact.
n=l
ii) Suppose that the first condition from the statement is true. For any n E N, consider
the linear and continuous operator Un : H ----t h, Un (x) = (a 1 (x, x 1 ), ... ,an (x, Xn), 0, ... ).
The hypothesis assures that the operator U : H ----t h, U (x) = (an (x, Xn) )nEN is
CXl
well defined. For any x E H we have II(U- Un) (x)ll = 2:: lak (x,xk)l ---+ 0,
k=n+l
CXl
since by hypothesis the series E an (x, xn) is absolutely convergent. From the Banach-
n=l
Steinhaus theorem it follows that U is also continuous. Then for any n E N we have
IIU (a1x1 + · · · + anxn)ll :S:: IIUIIIIa1xl + · · · + anxnll- Using the orthogonality of the
system (xn)nEN and the Pythagoras theorem we obtain that
n n
L lakl 2
llxkll 2 :S:: IIUII L lakl 2 llxkll 2 ,
k=l k=l
n CXl
i.e., 2:: lakl 2 llxkll 2 :S:: IIUII 2 , so the series E lanl 2 llxnll 2 is convergent. Conversely, by
k=l n=l
the Cauchy-Buniakowski-Schwarz inequality and the Bessel inequality we have that for
any x E H,
L ian (x,xn)l I L lanl

CXl
~ 1\x, 11::11 )1
CXl
n=l
~I an llxnll \X, ll::ll) :S::
n=l
2
llxnll 2 2
L lanl
CXl
< llxll 2 llxnll 2 < 00.

n=l
For the compactness we have that
L
CXl CXl
II(U- Un) (x)ll =

k=n+l
lak (x,xk/1 :S:: llxll I: lakl
k=n+l
2
llxkll 2 'ixEH,
CXl CXl
i.e., IIU- Unll 2 :S:: 2:: lakl 2 llxkll 2 ---+ 0, since the series E lakl 2 llxkll 2 is convergent.
k=n+l k=l
Observing that {Un} nEN are finite rank operators, and since the space of all compact oper-
ators is closed we deduce that U is compact.
49. See [19, chapter 2].

Let x = (xn)nEN such that (x* (xn))nEN E lp Vx* EX*. Then we can define T: X*---+
lp, T (x*) = ( x* (Xn)) nEN Vx* E X*. The operator T is well defined, linear, and using the
closed graph theorem (see, for example, the solution for exercise 42) it follows that Tis
l/p
2::
CXl )
continuous. Then sup (
lx* (xnW = IITII < oo, and so, for each x E Wp (X),
n=l
llx*ll9
llxll;eak < oo. Obviously, if x, y E Wp (X), a, f3 E JK, then ax+ f3y E Wp (X). It is easy
to see that ll·ll;eak is indeed a norm on the linear space Wp (X). Let us prove now that this
norm is a complete one. Let therefore x<k) = (x~k)) E wP (X) Vk E N be a Cauchy
nEN
sequence with respect to the norm ll·ll;eak. For each E > 0 there is ann< E N such that
5.2 Solutions 145
L lx* (x~ml) - x* (x~q)) IP:::; EP Vx* E Bx··

00
n=l
Then
llx~n) - x~;') II = sup lx* (x~ml) - x* (x~l) I :S c Vm, q ~ nE,
llx*ll <::1
and hence the sequence (x~k))

is Cauchy Vn E N. Since X is a Banach space, there
kEN
are Xn E X \In EN such that lim x~k) = Xn \In EN. We must prove that x = (xn)nEN E
k-->oo
Wp (X) and that x(k) ---+ x in the norm ll·ll;eak. For each N E N we have
N
L lx* (x~ml) - x* (x~q)) IP :S EP Vx* E Bx·, Vm, q ~ nE.
n=l
For q ---+ oo it follows that
N
L lx* (x~ml)- x* (xn)IP :S EP Vx* E Bx·, Vm ~ nE.
n=l
Since N E N is arbitrary, it follows that
hence x<ncJ - x E wp (X), and then, since wP (X) is a linear space it follows that x E
Wp (X). We also have Vc > 0 ::Jnc E N such that llx(m) - xll;eak :::; c Vm ~ nE, hence
x(m) ---+ x in the norm of Wp (X).
50. LetT : lp ---+ X be a linear and continuous operator. Denoting Xn = Ten \In E N,
then x* (xn) = (T*x*) (en) Vx* EX*, i.e., x* (xn) = (T*x*)n \In EN (the n 1h component
of the sequence T*x* E lq). Then
(~ lx' (en )I") 'h ~ liT' x'll, Vx* EX*,
and hence (xn)nEN E Wq (X) and II (xn)nEN ll;eak = liT* II = liT II .

Consider now a sequence (xn)nEN E Wq (X). Then (x* (xn) )nEN E lq Vx* E X* and
we define the linear and continuous operatorS : X* ---+ lq, S (x*) = (x* (xn))nEN' Then
IISII = II (xn)nEN ll;eak (see exercise 49). We prove now that for every A = (>-n)nEN E lp the
00
series L AnXn converges. Let 1 :::; m :::; n < oo. Then, using the Holder inequality, we
n=l
have
and then
n
i=m
00
I:: IAi IP < oc and since X

00
Since is complete it follows that the series I:: AnXn converges.
i=l n=l
00
Let us define T : lp -+ X, T ((.-\n)nEN) = I:: AnXn. Then Tis linear and Xn = Ten
n=l
Vn EN. From what we have proved above we obtain that IIT(.-\)11 S:: 11.-\llll(xn)nENII;eak
\:/,\. E lp, hence Tis continuous. We also have T* = S, and then IITII = liT* II = IISII =
ll(xn)nENII;eak ·
It is easy now to see that we have an isometric isomorphism from L (lp, X) onto wq (X).
51. The solution is analogous to the one given for exercise 50.
Chapter 6
The Uniform Roundedness Principle
Theorem (The Uniform Roundedness Principle). Let X be a Banach space, Y a

normed space, and Ui : X -+ Y, i E I, a family of linear and continuous operators which
is bounded pointwise, i.e., Vx E X the set {Ui (x) I i E I} is norm bounded. Then the
family (Ui)iEI is uniformly bounded, i.e., sup IIUill < oo.
iEI
The Banach-Steinhaus Theorem. Let X be a Banach space, Y a normed space, and
Un : X -+ Y, n E N, a sequence of linear and continuous operators such that: Vx E X,
there exists lim Unx =: Ux E Y. Then the family (Un)nEN is uniformly bounded, i.e.,
n~oo
sup IIUnll < oo, and the operator U is linear and continuous.
nEN
6.1 Exercises
Sequences of scalars which map null convergent or bounded sequences into null
convergent sequences
1. i) Let (an)nEN be a sequence of scalars with the property V (xn)nEN E c0 it follows

that (anXn)nEN E Co. Prove that (an)nEN E Z00 •
ii) Let (an)nEN be a sequence of scalars with the property V (xn)nEN E Zoo it follows
that (anXn) nEN E Co. Prove that (an) nEN E Co.
Sequences of operators which map norm null convergent sequences into norm null
convergent sequences
2. i) Let Y be a Banach space, Z a normed space, and En : Y-+ Z, n EN, a sequence

of linear and continuous operators with the property V(yn)nEN <;;; Y with llYn II -+ 0, it
follows that IIBn(Yn)ll -+ 0. Prove that sup liEn I < x.
nEN
148 The Uniform Bonndedness Principle
ii) Let 'Pn : [0, 1] ----. JR, n EN, be a sequence of continuous functions. Using (i) prove
that sup sup I'Pn (x)l < oo is the necessary and sufficient condition for the property that
nEN xE[O,l]
for each sequence of continuous functions fn : [0, 1] ----. JR, n E N, with the property that
fn----. 0 uniformly on [0, 1] it follows that 'Pnfn----. 0 uniformly on [0, 1].
iii) Let 'Pn : [0, 1] ----. JR, n E N, be a sequence of bounded Lebesgue measurable
functions. Using (i) prove that sup II'PniiL"" < oo is the necessary and sufficient condition
nEN
for the property that for each sequence of Lebesgue measurable functions fn : [0, 1] ----. JR,
n EN, with the property that j 01 lfn(x)l dx----. 0 it follows that f01 I'Pn(x)fn(x)l dx----. 0.
iv) Let (an)nEN ~ [0, 1] and (bn)nEN ~ R Using (i) prove that the sequence (anbn)nEN
being bounded is the necessary and sufficient condition for the fact that for each sequence
of continuous functions fn : [0, 1] ----. JR, n E N, with the property that fn ----. 0 uniformly
on [0, 1] it follows that bn Joan fn(x)dx----. 0.
v) Let Y and Z be two normed spaces, and Bn : Y----. Z, n EN, a sequence oflinear
and continuous operators with the property that: V(yn)nEN ~ Y a bounded sequence, it
follows that IIBn(Yn)ll ----. 0. Prove that IIBnll----. 0.
3. Is the part (i) from exercise 2 still true without the hypothesis that Y is a Banach
space? I.e., if Y is a normed space, Z is a normed space and Tn : Y ----. Z, n E N, is
a sequence of linear and continuous operators with the property that V(xn)nEN ~ Y with
llxnll ----. 0 we have that IITn(xn) II ----. 0, does it follow that sup IITnll < oo?
nEN
Sequences of operators which map norm convergent series into norm null convergent
sequences
4. Let X be a Banach space, Y a normed space, and Tn : X----. Y, n E N, a sequence

of linear and continuous operators. Prove that the following assertions are equivalent:
00
i) For each norm convergent series 2: Xn it follows that Tn(xn) ----. 0 in norm;
n=l
ii) sup IITnll < oo.
nEN
Sequences of functionals which map norm null convergent sequences into convergent
series
5. i) Let X be a Banach space, and (x~)n;:o:o ~ X*. Prove that the following assertions
are equivalent:
00
a) If Xn ----. 0 in norm it follows that the series 2: x~ (Xn) converges;

n=O
00
2: x~ is absolutely convergent;
b) The series
n=O
ii) Let X be a Banach space, A ~ X a dense subset, and (x~)n;:o:o ~ X* a uniformly
bounded sequence of linear and continuous functionals. Using (i) prove that the following
a) For any sequence (xn)n;:o:o ~ A with Xn ----. 0 in norm it follows that the series
00
2: x~(xn) converges;
n=O
6.1 Exercises 149
00
b) The series 2:: x~ is absolutely convergent;

n=O
iii) Using (i) prove that if (xn)n>o is a sequence of scalars then the following assertions
are equivalent:
00
a) For any null convergent scalar sequence (an)n::>D it follows that the series 2:: anXn
n=O
converges;
00
b) The series 2:: Xn is absolutely convergent;

n=O
iv) Can we find a sequence of scalars (cn)n::>o with the property that a scalar series
00
2:: an converges if and only if an en -+ 0?

n=O
v) Let (an)n>o <:;;JR. Using (i) prove that the necessary and sufficient condition for the
property that for any sequence of continuous functions fn : [0, 1] -+ JR, n 2 0, with the
00
property that fn-+ 0 uniformly on [0, 1], it follows that the series 2:: an J01 xn fn(xn)dx is
n=O
00
convergent, is that the series 2:: an/ (n + 1) is absolutely convergent.

n=O
vi) Let (an)n;>o <:;; lR be a bounded sequence. Using (ii) prove that the necessary
and sufficient condition for the property that for any sequence of Lipschitz functions fn :
[0, 1] -+ JR, n 2 0, with the property that fn -+ 0 uniformly on [0, 1], it follows that the
2:: an J; fn(xn)dx converges, is that the series L
00 00
series an is absolutely convergent.

n=O n=O
vii) Let (an)n::>D <:;; lR be a sequence with the property that sup (lanl (J2n + 1) <
n;>O
oo. Using (ii) prove that the necessary and sufficient condition for the property that for
any sequence of continuous functions fn : [0, 1] -+ JR, n 2 0, with the property that
00
J01 lfn(x)l 2 dx -+ 0, it follows that the series L an f 01 xn fn(x)dx converges, is that the
n=O
00
series 2::
(an/ )2n + 1) is absolutely convergent.
n=O
viii) Let (bn)n::>o <:;; JR. Using (i) prove that the necessary and sufficient condition for the
property that for any double-indexed sequence of scalars (ank )n,k::>o with the properties that
lim ank = 0 for any n 2 0 and lim ank = 0 uniformly with respect to k 2 0, it follows
k--+oo n_____,.oo
00 00
that the series 2:: annbn converges, is that the series 2:: bn is absolutely convergent.
n=O n=O
Sequences of operators which map norm null convergent sequences into convergent
series
6. Does the part (i) from exercise 5 remain true if the linear and continuous functionals
are replaced with linear and continuous operators? I.e., if X, Y are Banach spaces and
Vn : X -+ Y, n 2 0, is a sequence of linear and continuous operators with the property
00
that for each Xn-+ 0 in norm it follows that the series 2:: Vn(:r:n) is norm convergent, does
n=O
00
it follow that the series 2:: 11;, is absolutely convergent in the space L(X, Y)?
n=O
150 The Uniform Boundedness Principle
Sequences of functionals which map convergent series into convergent series
7. i) Let X, Y be two Banach spaces, and Tn : X Y, n 2 0, a sequence of linear

-+
and continuous operators. Prove that the following assertions are equivalent:
00 00
a) For each norm convergent series 2:: Xn it follows that the series 2:: Tn(xn) is norm
n=O n=O
convergent;
b) sup IITnll < oo, and for all (xn)n::::o <;:;; X with llxnll -+ 0 it follows that the series
n2':0
00
2:: (Tn- Tn+l) (xn) is norm convergent;

n=O
ii) Using (i) prove that if X is a Banach spaces and (x~)n>o <;:;; X*, then the following
00 00
a) For each norm convergent series 2:: Xn it follows that the scalar series 2:: x~(xn)
n=O n=O
converges;
00
b) 2::
llx~- x~+ 1 jj < oo;
n=O
iii) Using (ii) prove that if X is a Banach spaces, A <;:;; X is a dense subset and
(x~)n>o <;:;; X* is a uniformly bounded sequence oflinear and continuous functionals, then
the following assertions are equivalent:
00
a) For any sequence (xn)n::::o <;:;; A for which the series 2:: Xn is norm convergent it
n=O
00
follows that the scalar series 2:: x~(xn) converges;

n=O
00
2:: llx~- x~+ 1 jj < oo;

b)
n=O
iv) Using (ii) prove that if (xn)n::::o is a sequence of scalars then the following assertions
are equivalent:
00 00
a) For each scalar convergent series 2:: Yn it follows that the series 2:: XnYn converges;
n=O n=O
00
b) 2:: lxn- Xn+ll < oo;

n=O
00
v) Find all sequences of scalars (cn)n>o with the property that a scalar series 2:: an
- n=O
00
converges if and only if the series 2:: ancn converges.

n=O
00
vi) Find the values for the real number a such that a scalar series 2:: an converges if
n=O
and only if the series
oo( 1
"" 1--+···+
(-1)n)
a
~ 2" (n + 1)" n
converges.
Sequences of operators which map convergent series into convergent series
8. Does the part (ii) from exercise 7 remain true if the linear and continuous functionals
are replaced with linear and continuous operators? I.e., if X, Y are Banach spaces and
6.1 Exercises 151
Tn : X ----+ Y, n 2: 0, is a sequence of linear and continuous operators with the property

00 00
that for each norm convergent series 2::: Xn it follows that the series 2::: Tn(xn)
is norm
n=O n=O
00
convergent, does it follow that the series 2::: (Tn - Tn+l) is absolutely convergent in the
n=O
space L(X, Y)?
Sequences of functionals which map absolutely convergent series into series with
bounded partial sums
9. i) Let X be a Banach space and (x~)nEN ~ X* a sequence of linear and continuous

functionals. Prove that the following assertions are equivalent:
00
a) For each absolutely convergent series 2::: Xn in X it follows that the sequence
n=l
( £= x'k(xk))
k=l nEN
is bounded;
b) The sequence (x~)nEN ~X* is norm bounded;
ii) Let (an)nEN ~ JK. Using (i) prove that the following assertions are equivalent:
a) For each sequence (xn)nEN E hit follows that (£= akxk) E Zoo;
k=l nEN
b) (an)nEN E Zoo;
In the case when (an)nEN E Z00 , prove that the operator U : Z1 ----+Zoo,
is linear and continuous, and calculate IlUll .
Sequences of operators which map absolutely convergent series into series with
bounded partial sums
10. Does the part (i) from exercise 9 remain true if the linear and continuous function-
als are replaced with linear and continuous operators? I.e., if X, Y are Banach spaces and
Tn : X ----+ Y, n E N, is a sequence oflinear and continuous operators with the property that
for each absolutely convergent series f: Xn it follows that the sequence ( £= Tk(xk))
n=l k=l nEN
is norm bounded, does it follow that the sequence (Tn)nEN is norm bounded in the space
L(X, Y)?
Weak Cauchy series

00
11. Let X be a normed space, and (xn)nEN ~X with the property that L lx*(xn)l <
n=l
oo Vx* E X*. Prove that
L
00
sup lx*(xn)l < oo.

llx*ll<::! n=l
152 The Uniform Roundedness Principle
Sequences of functionals which map p-absolutely convergent series into convergent

series
12. Let 1 < p < oo, and q the conjugate ofp, i.e., 1/p + 1/q = 1.
i) Let X be a Banach spaces, and (x~)nEN ~ X* a sequence oflinear and continuous
functionals. Prove that the following assertions are equivalent:
00 00
a) For each p-absolutely norm convergent series I: Xn (that is, I: llxniiP < oo) it
00
n=l n=l
follows that the scalar series I: x~(xn) converges;
00
n=l 00
b) The series I: x~ is q-absolutely norm convergent, i.e., 2:: llx~llq < oo;
n=l n=l
ii) Using (i) prove that if (xn)nEN is a sequence of scalars then the following assertions
are equivalent:
a) (xn)nEN E lq;
00
b) For each (Yn)nEN E lp, the series I: XnYn converges.

n=l
Sequences of operators which map p-absolutely convergent series into convergent
series
13 . Does the part (i) from exercise 12 remain true if the linear and continuous func-
tionals are replaced with linear and continuous operators? I.e., if 1 < p < oo, q is the
conjugate of p, X, Y are Banach spaces, and Tn : X --+ Y, n E N, is a sequence of linear
and continuous operators with the property that for each p-absolutely norm convergent se-
oo 00
ries I: Xn it follows that the series I: Tn(xn) is norm convergent, does it follow that the
n=l 00
n=l
series I: IITnllq is convergent?
n=l
The 'Cauchy product' of a sequence of functionals with a norm null convergent
sequence
14. i) Let X be a Banach space, and let (x~)n>o ~ X*. Prove that the following
assertions are equivalent: -
a) V(xn)n>o ~X with llxnll --+ 0, it follows that x~(xo) +x~_ 1 (xi)+··· +x0(xn) --+ 0;
00 00
b) I: llx~ll < oo, i.e., the series I: x~ is absolutely convergent in the space X*;
n=O n=O
ii) Let X be a Banach space, A ~ X a dense subset, and (x~)n>o ~ X* a sequence
of linear and continuous functionals with llx~ll --+ 0. Using (i) prove that the following
a) V(xn)n>O ~ A with llxnll --+ 0, it follows that x~(xo) +x~_ 1 (x1) + · ··+x0(xn) --+ 0;
00
b) The series I: llx~ll converges;

n=O
00
iii) Let (an)n:::o ~ [0, 1] and (bn)n:::o ~ K. Using (i) prove that the series I: anbn
n=O
being absolutely convergent is the necessary and sufficient condition for the fact that for
each sequence of continuous functions fn : [0, 1] --+ JK, n 2 0, with the property that
6.1 Exercises 153
fn----. 0 uniformly on [0, 1], it follows that bnft fo(x)dx + bn-1 foan-l h(x)dx + · · · +
bo foao fn(x)dx ___. 0.
iv) Let (bn)n:=:o ~ ][{be such that bn/ )2n + 1 ----. 0. Using (ii) prove that the series
00
2:: (bn/ )2n + 1) being absolutely convergent is the necessary and sufficient condition
n=O
for the fact that for any sequence of continuous functions fn : [0, 1] ----. JR, n ;::: 0, with the
property that f 01 lfn(x)l 2 dx----. 0, it follows that bn f01 xn fo(x)dx + bn-1 f01 xn- 1h (x)dx +
· · · + bo f01 fn(x)dx ___. 0.
00
v) Let (bn)n>o ~ IK. Using (i) prove that the series 2:: bn being absolutely convergent
- n=O
is the necessary and sufficient condition for the fact that for any double-indexed sequence
(ank)n,k:O:O ~ IK with the properties that lim ank = 0 for any n ;::: 0 and lim ank = 0
k~oo n----+oo
uniformly with respect to k ;::: 0, it follows that bnaon + bn-1 a1,n-1 + · · · + boano ----. 0.
The 'Cauchy product' of a sequence of operators with a norm null convergent

sequence
15. Does part (i) of exercise 14 remain true if the linear and continuous func-
tionals are replaced with linear and continuous operators? I.e., if a X is a Banach
space, Y a normed space, and Tn : X ----. Y, n ;::: 0, is a sequence of linear and
continuous operators with the property that Y(xn)n>o ~ X with llxnll ----. 0 we have
00
IITn(xo) + Tn-1(x1) + · · · + To(xn)ll ___. 0, does it follow that 2:: IITnll < oo?
n=O
The conditions when the Uniform Boundedness Principle can be applied
16. Let 1 < p < oo, and 1 < q < oo be the conjugate ofp, i.e., 1/p+1/q = 1. Let X=
(c[0,1],11·11p),where II/IlP = (I 1 If(x)!Pdxr 1PYJ E C[0,1].
0 Let(bn)nEN ~ [0,1],
(cn)nEN ~ [0, 1] with bn ::; Cn \In E N and let (an)nEN ~ K For any n E N define
X~: X___. IK by X~ (f)= an Jb:n f (x) dx Yf E C [0, 1].
i) Prove that x~ E X* \In E N.
ii) Prove that the sequence (x~)nEN ~ X* is pointwise bounded if and only if the
sequence (an( en- bn))nEN is bounded.
iii) Prove that the sequence (x~)nEN ~ X* is uniformly bounded if and only if the
sequence (an( en- bn) 1fq)nEN is bounded.
iv) Prove then that we can find (x~)nEN ~ X* pointwise bounded which is not uni-
formly bounded.
What can we deduce?
17. Let R.[O, 1] = {! : [0, 1]----. lR I f is Riemann integrable} which is a real linear
space with respect to the usual operations for addition and scalar multiplication. Let 11·11 1 :
R[O, 1] ----. lR defined by 11/11 1 = f01 If (x)l dx and let
N = {! E R[O, 1]111/11 1 = 0} ·
Then on the quotient space R[O, 1] = R.[O, 1]/.Af, the map 11111 1 = f01 If (x)l dx gives a
structure of a normed space (for f E R[O, 1] we denote by 1
E R[O, 1] the equivalence
class for f).
i) Let 9n : [0, 1] ____, [0, oo ), n E N, be a sequence of continuous functions, (bn)nEN ~ JR,

- - 1
and x~ : R[O, 1] ____, lR defined by x~(f) = bn fo 9n (x) f (x) dx. Prove that
a) (x~)nEN is pointwise bounded if and only if the sequence (bn 01 9n (x) dx)
nEN
is J
bounded;
b) (x~)nEN is uniformly bounded if and only ifthe sequence (bn sup 9n (x)) is
xE[0,1] nEN
bounded;
ii) Let( an)nEN ~ [0, oo) and x~ : R[O, 1] ____, lR defined by
Prove that:
a) (x~)nEN is pointwise bounded if and only if the series f: __!!::::____
n=1 n +1
converges;
00
b) (x~)nEN is uniformly bounded if and only if the series 2::::: an converges;

n=l
iii) Let (an)nEN ~ lR and x~ : R[O, 1] ____, lR defined by x~(J) =an f01 xn f(x)dx. Prove
that:
a) (x~)nEN is pointwise bounded if and only if the sequence (an/ (n + 1))nEN is
bounded;
b) (x~)nEN is uniformly bounded if and only ifthe sequence (an)nEN is bounded;
iv) Prove then that we can find (x~)nEN ~ ( R[O, 1J) *pointwise bounded, which is not
uniformly bounded.
What can we deduce?
18. Let X be a normed space, and (xn)nEN ~ X. For every n E N the operator
n
Tn: Coo____, X is defined by Tn ((ak)kEN) = 2::::: akxk. Prove that:
k=l
i) The sequence (Tn)nEN converges pointwise;
ii) If on Coo we consider the norm I (an)nEN I = sup Iani. then the sequence (Tn)nEN is
nEN
00
uniformly bounded if and only if sup 2::::: lx*(xn)l < oo;

llx*ll9 n=1
00
iii) If on Coo we consider the norm II (an)nEwll = 2::::: Iani. then the sequence (Tn)nEN is
n=l
uniformly bounded if and only if sup llxn II < oo;
nEN
iv) If on coo we consider the norm II (an) nEN I = (

f 1 Ian IP
00 ) 1/p
, then the sequence
00 ) 1/q
(Tn)nEN is uniformly bounded if and only if sup 2::::: lx* (xnW
(
< oo, where q is
llx*ll9 n=l
the conjugate of p (1 < p < oo );
v) If on c00 we consider one of the above norms, prove that we can find a pointwise
bounded sequence (x~)nEN ~ c~ 0 , which is not uniformly bounded.
What can we deduce?
6.2 Solutions 155
The Cantor Lemma in Banach spaces
19. Let X be a Banach space and (xn)nEPh (Yn)nEN two sequences of elements from
X. If Xn cos nt + Yn sin nt ____, 0 in norm on a non-degenerate interval, then Xn ____, 0 and
Yn ____, 0 in norm.
A Banach-Steinhaus type of theorem for bilinear operators
20. i) Let X and Y be two normed spaces, one of them being a Banach space, and
Z be a normed space. Consider a bilinear operator B : X x Y ____, Z which is separately
continuous. Prove that B is continuous.
ii) Let X and Y be Banach spaces, Z a normed space, and consider a bilinear operator
B : X x Y ____, Z. If Bn : X x Y ----> Z, n E N, is a sequence of bilinear and continuous
operators and Bn (x, y) ____, B (x, y) V (x, y) EX x Y, prove that B is also continuous.
6.2 Solutions
1. i) Let U : co ----> co, U ( (xn)nEN) = (anxn)nEN. By our hypothesis, U is well defined.
For n E N, let Un : co ----t Co, Un (x1, x2, ... ) = (a1x1, a2x2, ... , anXn, 0, ... ). Then Un is
linear, and
IIUn (x1, X2, ... )II ll(a1x1, a2x2, ... , anXn, 0, ... )II =max (la1x1l, ... , lanxnl)
< llxll max(la1l, ... , lanl) '1:/x E co,
i.e., Un is continuous, IIUnll :::;: max(la1l, ... , lanl). For 1 :::;: k :::;: n we have IIUnll 2
IIUn(ek)ll = 11(0, ... , 0, ah 0, ... )II= lakl, and therefore max (la1l, ... , lanl):::;: IIUnll· Hence
IIUnll = max (la1l, ... ,I ani) '1:/n E N. We also have Un (x) ____, U (x) '1:/x E co, because
IIUn (x)- U (x)ll = sup lakxkl----> 0. Now from the Uniform Boundedness Principle it
k;>n+l
follows that sup IIUnll < oo, i.e., sup Iani < oo.
nEN nEN
ii) This follows easily, without using the Uniform Boundedness Principle. Indeed, since
the sequence (sgn (an))nEN is in l'X!, from the hypothesis it follows that ansgn (an) ____, 0,
i.e., Ian I ----t 0.
2. i) For a normed space X we will denote co(X) = { (xn)nEN ~X I llxnll ____, 0},
which is a linear space with the usual operations, and a normed space with respect to the
norm llxll =sup llxnll '1:/;r; = (xn)nEN E co (X). In a standard way one can prove that if X
nEN
is in addition a Banach space then c:0 (X) is a Banach space.
For any n E N let us consider the operator hn : c0 (Y) ____, c:0 (Z) defined by
hn(Yl, Y2, ... ) = (Bl(Yl), B2(Y2) .... , Bn(Yn), 0, 0, ... ), and let h : co(Y) ----t co(Z),
h(y1,Y2, ... ) = (Bl(yJ),B2(Y2), .... Bn(Yn), ... ). By hypothesis, his well defined. It is
easy to see that for each n E N, hn is a linear and continuous operator. Moreover, if
y = (Yn)nEN E co(Y), then h(y) - hn(Y) = (0, 0, ... , 0, Bn+l (Yn+l), ... ), from whence
llh(y)- hn(Y)II = sup IIBk(YtJII--> lim sup IIBn(Yn)ll = lim IIBn(Yn)ll = 0,

k>IL+ 1 n-cx) n-oo
by our hypothesis. Hence hn --+ h pointwise, and hn is linear and continuous Vn E N.

Since Y is a Banach space, c0 (Y) is a Banach space. From the Banach-Steinhaus theorem
it follows that his linear and continuous, and therefore sup llh(y)ll = llhll < oo. Let
IIYII~l
now n E N be fixed. For y E Y, the element (0, 0, ... , 0, y, 0, ... )is in c0 (Y) (yon the n 1h
position), and then llh(O, 0, ... , y, 0, ... ) II :::; llhllll (0, 0, ... , y, 0, ... ) II, i.e., by the definition
for hand for the norm on ca(Y) we have IIEn(Y)II :::; llhiiiiYII, from whence liEn II :S llhii-
Since n EN was arbitrary it follows that sup liEn II :::; llhll, i.e., the statement.
nEN
Let us observe that the converse is also true. Indeed, if sup liEn II = M < oo, then
nEN
V(yn)nEN <;;;; Y with IIYnll---> 0 we have IIEn(Yn)ll :S IIEniiiiYnll :S M IIYnll---> 0.
ii) Let En : C[O, 1] --+ C[O, 1] be the multiplication operator given by CfJn, i.e.,
Enf(x) = 'Pn(x)f(x) Vf E C[O, 1]. The condition from the hypothesis is that V llfnll--+ 0
it follows that IIEn(Jn)ll --+ 0. Using (i) this is equivalent to sup IIEnll < oo. But it
nEN
is proved in exercise 14 of chapter 5 that liEn II = II'Pnll = sup I'Pn(t)l, and therefore
tE[O,l]
sup II'Pnll < 00.
nEN
iii) Let En : L 1 [0, 1] --+ L 1 [0, 1] be the multiplication operator given by CfJn, i.e.,
Bnf (x) = 'Pn(x )f(x) Vf E L 1 [0, 1]. The condition from the hypothesis is that VII fn II --+ 0
it follows that liEn (in) II --+ 0. Using (i) this is equivalent to sup liEn II < oo. But we have
nEN
IIEnll = II'Pnll£= Vn EN, and we obtain the statement.
iv) Let En : C[O, 1] ---> JR, En (f) = bn .{0a" f(x)dx. Then the condition from the
statement becomes: V(Jn)nEN <;;;; C[O, 1] with llfnll --+ 0, it follows that En(Jn) ---> 0.
Using (i) it follows that the sequence (IIEnll)nEN is bounded. But as it is easy to see,
IIEnll = lanbnl Vn EN.
v) Since Y is not a Banach space, we cannot apply the Banach-Steinhaus theorem.
But for each n E N from the definition for the operator norm there is llYn II :::; 1 such that
IIEnll- 1/n < IIEn(Yn)ll- Now from the hypothesis it follows that IIEn(Yn)ll ---> 0, and
from here liEn II ---> 0.
3. The answer is yes. We prove first that if (an)nEN <;;;; [0, oo) is an unbounded sequence
then there is a subsequence (akn )nEN such that ak" > n Vn E N. Indeed, since the sequence
(an)nEN <;;;; [0, oo) is unbounded, there is k 1 2': 1 such that ak 1 > 1. Then the sequence
(an)n;,.k 1 + 1 <;;;; [0, oo) is unbounded, thus there is k2 2': k 1 + 1 > k1 such that ak 2 > 2. The
inductive construction is now clear.
Return now to our exercise. If, for a contradiction, sup IITnll = oo then by the above
nEN
observation there is a subsequence (TkJnEN such that IITkn II > n Vn E N. Since n <
IITk,ll = sup IITk,(x)ll we deduce that we can find llanll :::; 1 such that IITkJan)ll > n
llxll~l
Vn EN. Consider now the sequence (xn)nEN, Xn = 0 ifn f kj, j EN, and xk1 = ajjj
Vj E N. Clearly, this sequence is norm convergent to 0, and then by hypothesis we must
have IITn(xn)ll --+ 0, that is, IITk"(a,jn)ll --+ 0, which is false, since by our construction
IITk,(an/n)ll > 1 Vn EN.
4. We will use the same notations as in the solution for exercise 2(i). We prove first
that if Tn : X --+ Y, n E N, is a sequence of linear and continuous operators, then for
6.2 Solutions 157
any n the operator hn : c0 (X) ----. Y defined by hn (x1,x2, ... ) = Tn (Xn+l - Xn) is linear
and continuous, with llhnll = 2IITnll· Indeed, we have by the definition of the norm in the
space eo( X) that
llhn(x)ll = IITn(Xn+l- Xn)ll :S 2IITnll sup llxkll = 2IITnllllxll Vx E Co(X),
kEN
i.e.,llhnll : : ; 2IITnll· For x E X, the element (0, ... , 0, -x, x, 0, ... )is in co(X) (-x on the
n 1h position), hence llhn(O, ... , 0, -x, x, 0, ... )II : : ; llhnllll (0, ... , 0, -x, x, 0, ... )II , i.e., by the
definition of the operator hn and of the norm in the space eo(X), 2IITn(x)ll : : ; llhnllllxll
Vx EX, thus 2IITnll :S llhnll·
00
'(i) =? (ii)' First solution. Let Xn ----. 0 in norm. Then the series I:: (xn+l - xn) is
n=l
norm convergent, hence by hypothesis (i) it follows that Tn (xn+l - Xn) ----. 0 in norm. This
shows that the sequence of linear and continuous operators hn : c0 (X) ----. Y defined by
hn(x) = Tn(Xn+l- Xn) Vx = (x1,x2, ... ) E co(X) has the property that Vx E co(X),
lim hn(x) = 0. Since X is a Banach space then c0 (X) is a Banach space. By the Uniform
n->oo
Boundedness Principle it follows that sup llhnll < oo, and therefore sup IITnll < oo, i.e.,
nEN nEN
(ii).
IITnll = oo, then sup llhnll = oo. There is then a subsequence
Second solution. If sup
nEN nEN
(hkJnEN such that llhkn I > 2n Vn E N (see the solution for exercise 3). Since 2n <
llhknll = sup llhkn(x)ll we deduce that there is an = (x;,,x;,, ... ) E co(X), llanll : : ; 1
llxll9
(i.e., by the definition of the norm in the space eo( X), llx~ll : : ; 1 Vi E N), such that
llhkJan)ll > 2n. That is, IITkn(x~n+l- x~n)ll > 2n. We consider now the sequence
(xn)nEN ~ X such that Xn = 0 if n =/- kj, j E N, and Xkn = (x~n+l - x~n) /2n Vn E N.
00
Clearly for this sequence the series I: Xn is absolutely convergent, since

n=l
00
Since X is a Banach space the series I:: Xn is norm convergent and then by hypothesis (i)
n=l
we must have IITn(xn) I ----. 0, that is, I!Tkn ( (x~n+l - x~n )/2n) II ----. 0, which is false, since
by our construction IITkn ((x~n+l -xnn)j2n)ll > 1 Vn EN.
00
'(ii) =? (i)' It is obvious, since if I: Xn is a norm convergent series then Xn ----. 0 in

n=l
norm, and hence by hypothesis (ii) it follows that Tn(xn) ----. 0 in norm.
00
5. i) '(a)=? (b)' Let V : co(X) ----. IK, V((xkk::o) = I:: x'k(xk), and, for n ~ 0, let
k=O
Vn : co(X) ----. IK, Vn((xk)k>o) = x 0(x 0 ) + · · · + x~(xn)· The hypothesis assures that
00
if (xk)k=o:o E c0 (X) then the series I:: x~(xn) is convergent, i.e., V is well defined. In
n=O
addition,
L
00
IV(x)- Vn(x)l = x'k(xk) ____. 0 Vx E ca(X),

k=n+l
n
i.e., Vn(x)----+ V(x) \fx E co(X). We have IIVnll = 2: llxkll \fn 2 0. Indeed,
k=O
n
i.e., IIVnll : : :; 2: llxkll·
For Xo, ... ,Xn E X with llxoll : : :; 1, ... , llxnll : : :; 1 and Ao
k=O
sgn (x 0(x 0 )), ... , An= sgn (x~(xn)), the element (.Xoxo, ... , AnXn, 0, 0, ... ) is in eo(X), and
then
n
L lx;,(xk)l = IVn(AoXo, ... , AnXn, 0, ... )1 : : :; IIVniiii(.Aoxo, ... , AnXn, 0, ... )II : : :; IIVnll,
k=O
n
i.e., 2: lxk(xk)l :::::; IIVnll· Passing to the supremum over llxoll ~ 1, ... , llxnll : : :; 1 we obtain
k=O
n
that 2: llxkll : : :; IIVnll·
k=O
We have Vn ----+ V pointwise and Vn is linear and continuous \fn 2 0. Since X is a
Banach space eo( X) is a Banach space. By the Uniform Boundedness Principle it follows
00
that the sequence (Vn)n>o is norm bounded, and therefore llx~ll < oo. 2:
- n=O
'(b)::::} (a)' It is obvious since Xn----+ 0 implies that (xn)n>o is norm bounded.
ii) '(a) ::::} (b)' Let (xn)n>o <;:;; X with Xn ----+ 0 in norm:- Since A is dense, it follows
that for any n 2 0 there is Yn E A such that llxn- Ynll : : :; 1/2n. Hence Xn- Yn ----+ 0 and
from Xn ----+ 0 it follows that Yn ----+ 0. Since (Yn)n>o <;:;; A, by hypothesis (a) it follows that
00
the series2: x~(Yn) converges. Since the sequence (x~k~o <;:;;X* is uniformly bounded it
n=O
follows that lx~(xn- Yn)l :::::; M llxn- Ynll : : :; M/2n \fn 2 0, where M =sup llx~ll < oo,
n2':0
00
hence the scalar series L x~ (xn - Yn) is absolutely convergent, hence convergent. Since
n=O
00 00
the series L x~(Yn) converges, it follows that the series 2: x~(xn) converges. Using (i) it
n=O n=O
follows that (b) is true.
'(b) ::::} (a)' It is trivial.
iii) Let x~ : ~ ----+ ~. x~(x) = anx \fx E R We apply (i) observing that llx~ll = lanl
\fn 2 0.
iv) Suppose, for a contradiction, that there is such a sequence. We will prove first that:
3k E N such that en =1- 0 \fn 2 k. Indeed, if this is not true, i.e., \fk E N 3n 2 k such that
en= 0, then we can construct a subsequence (kn)nEN ofN such that ckn = 0 \fn EN. Then
for the sequence (an)n2':0 whose components are all equal to 0, with the exception of those
on the knth positions which are equal to (-1)n, we have Cnan = 0 \fn 2 0. Therefore by
00 00
hypothesis the series L an converges, i.e., the series 2: (-1 )n converges, which is false.
n=O n=l
Hence there is a k E N such that en =1- 0 \fn 2 k, and therefore we may suppose that
00
Cn =1- 0 \fn 2 0. We know that for any convergent series 2: an it follows that ancn ----+ 0.
n=O
6.2 Solutions 159
Using exercise 4 it follows that the sequence (cn)n~o is bounded, i.e., :3M > 0 such that
lcnl ~ M Vn ~ 0. If an -+ 0 then Cn (anfcn) -+ 0, and it follows by hypothesis that
00 00
the series 2:: anfcn converges. Using (iii) it follows that the series 2:: 1/cn is absolutely
n=O n=O
convergent, in particular 1/cn-+ 0, which is false since 1/ lcnl ~ 1/M Vn ~ 0.
v) Let x*: C[O, 1]-+ IK, x*(f) = J;
xn f(xn)dx Vf E C[O, 1]. We have
lx*(f)l ~ { 1 Xn lf(xn)l dx ~ llfll { 1 xndx = ___!_1 llfll,

lo lo n+
and therefore llx*ll ~ 1/ (n + 1). Taking fo = 1, the constant function, we obtain that
1/ (n + 1) = lx*(fo)l ~ llx*ll, and therefore llx*ll = 1/ (n + 1). For n ~ 0, let x~ (f) =
an J01 xn f(xn)dx Vf E C[O, 1]. Then the condition from the exercise becomes: V(fn)n~o <:;;:
00
C[O, 1] with llfnll -+ 0 it follows that the series 2:: x~(fn) converges. From (i) this is
n=O
00
equivalent with the fact that the series 2:: llx~ll converges. Since llx~ll = lanl / (n + 1)
n=O
Vn ~ 0, we obtain the statement.
vi) Let x~ : C[O, 1] -+ IK be defined by x~(f) = an f01 f(xn)dx. Then llx~ll = lanl
Vn ~ 0. Since the set of all the Lipschitz functions on [0, 1] is dense in C[O, 1] (see exercise
4(ii) of chapter 9) the statement follows if we use (ii).
vii) Let x~ : L 2 [0, 1] -+ ~defined by x~(f) = an f01 xn f(x)dx = (!, anxn), where
(·,·)denotes the inner product on L 2 [0, 1]. Then
The condition from the exercise is that V(fn)n~o <:;;: C[O, 1] with llfnll 2 -+ 0 it follows that
00
the series 2:: x~(fn) converges. Since

n=O
llx* I = lanl Vn ~ 0,
n -/2n + 1
using the hypothesis it follows that the sequence (x~)n>o is uniformly bounded. Using the
fact that C[O, 1] <:;;: (L2[0, 1], 11·11 2) is dense, from the part (ii) we obtain (vii).
viii) Consider (ank)n k>O as in the statement. Let Xn = (ana, ani' ... ) Vn ~ 0. Then
Xn E Co Vn ~ 0. Moreover llxnll = sup lankl Vn ~ 0, hence Xn -+ 0 in the space co.
k~O
Let now x~ : c0 -+ IK defined by x~(y0 , y 1 , ... ) = bnYn, which is a linear and continuous
functional, with llx~ll = Ibn I· The first condition from the exercise is that: Vxn -+ 0 in the
00
space c0 it follows that the series 2:: x~(xn) converges. Using (i) this is equivalent with the
n=O
00 00
fact that the series 2:: llx~ II converges, i.e., the series 2:: bn is absolutely convergent.
n=O n=O
6. For general Banach spaces X and Y the answer is: not necessarily. Let H be
an infinite-dimensional Hilbert space, (an)n~o <:;;: H\ {0} is an orthogonal system with
00
I: llanll 2 < oo, and consider a bounded sequence (bn)n~o ~ H. We consider the rank 1
n=O
operators Vn : H ---t H defined by Vn(x) =an (x, bn) 'Vx E H. We will show that for any
00
bounded sequence (xn)n>o s;::; Hit follows that the series I: Vn(xn) is norm convergent.
- n=O
Indeed for n, p ?: 0 from the Pythagoras theorem and the Cauchy-Buniakowski-Schwarz
inequality it follows that
IIVn(Xn) + Vn+l(Xn+I) + · · · + Vn+p(Xn+p)ll 2
= I an (xn, bn) + an+l (xn+l, bn+l) + · · · + an+p (xn+p' bn+p) 1 2
= llanll 2 l(xn, bn)l 2 + llan+lll 2 l(xn+l, bn+I)I 2 + · · ·
+ llan+pll 2 l(xn+p' bn+p)l 2
::; M 2 L 2 (llanll 2 + llan+III 2 + · · · + llan+pll 2 ) ,
00
where M =sup llbnll < oo and L =sup llxnll < oo. Since the series I: llanll 2 converges,
n::::o n~O n=O
using the Cauchy test and that H is a Hilbert space (therefore a complete space) we deduce
00
the norm convergence of the series I: Vn(xn).

n=O
00
If the assertion from exercise is true, then the series I: IIVnll must be convergent and
n=O
00
using that IIVnll = llanllllbnll 'Vn?: 0, the series I: llanllllbnll must be convergent. But a
n=O
such situation is false in general, as the following example shows: take Vn : l 2 ---t l 2 defined
by Vn(x) = (1/ (n + 1)) en+l (x, en+I)·
7. i) '(a) =? (b)' Let Xn ---t 0 in norm. Then the sequence sn = Xn - Xn+I 'Vn ?: 0
oo n
has the property that I: sn is norm convergent, since I: sk= x 0 - Xn+I ---t x 0 • It
n=O k=O
00 00
follows, by hypothesis, that the series I: Tn(sn) = I: Tn(Xn- Xn+I) converges, hence
n=O n=O
00
the operator U : co(X) ---t Y, U(x) = I: Tn(Xn- Xn+l) 'Vx = (xn)n~o E eo(X) is well
n=O
n
defined. For any n ?: 0, let Un : eo(X) ---t Y be defined by Un(x) = I: Tk(xk- Xk+l)
k=O
'Vx = (xk)k>o E co(X). We have
n oo
IIUn(x)- U(x)ll = LTk(xk- Xk+l)- s ---t 0, s = LTk(xk- Xk+I) E Y.

bO k~
From the Banach-Steinhaus theorem it follows that sup IIUnll = M < oo, i.e.,
n~O
LTk(xk- Xk+l) ::; M 'Vn?: 0, 'V(xk)k~o E co(X) with ll(xk)k~oll::; 1.

k=O
For n ?: 0 and x E X with llxll ::; 1, the element (xk)kEN = (0, ... , 0, x, 0, ... ) is in co(X)
(n times 0 before x),
n
LTk(Xk- Xk+I) = To(Xo- XI)+···+ Tn-I(Xn-1- Xn) + Tn(Xn- Xn+l) = -Tn (x),
k=O
6.2 Solutions 161
and then IITn(x)ll ~ M, so IITnll ~ M, and therefore sup IITnll ~ M.

n;;>O
Using the linearity for the operators Tn we have
To(Xo- xi)+ T1(x1- x2) + + Tn-1(Xn-l- Xn) + Tn(Xn- Xn+1)
0 0 0
= To(xo) + (TI- To) (xJ) + · · · + (Tn- Tn-d (xn)- Tn(Xn+1)·

For every n E N consider the operator Vn : c0 (X) - - -> Y,
n-1
Vn(x) = To(xo)- L)Tk- Tk+I)(xk+I) Vx = (xk)k;o.o E co(X).
k=O
Using the above summation formula we have Un(x)- Vn(x) = -Tn(Xn+ 1) Vx = (xk)k;o.o E
co(X), so IIUn(x)- Vn(x)ll ~ 2M llxn+III - - -> 0 Vx E co(X). Hence we have Un(x)-
Vn(x) - - -> 0 in norm, Un(x)-U(x) - - -> 0 in norm, from whence Vn(x) - - -> U(x) in norm Vx E
00
co(X), i.e., V(xn)n>o <;;;X with llxnll-----> 0 it follows that the series L (Tn- Tn+I)(xn+d
- n=O
00
is norm convergent, and from here if llYn II - - -> 0 then L (Tn - Tn+I)(Yn) converges (we
n=O
consider the sequence ( Xn)n;o.o = ( 0, Yo, YI, Y2, ... )).
00 00
'(b) =?(a)' Let L Xn be a norm convergent series. Lets = L Xn E X. We denote
n
n=O n=O
an = L Xk - s, an - - -> 0 in norm. Let us observe that an - an-1 = Xn Vn E N. By
k=O
00
our hypothesis, L (Tn - Tn+I)(an) is norm convergent. We now prove that the series
n=O
00
L Tn(xn) is norm convergent, i.e., since Y is a Banach space, it must be shown that
n=O
'VE > 0 ::lne: EN such that II% Tk(xk)ll < E Vn?: ne:, Vp?: 0. To show this, we will use
again the Abel summation formula to write
Tn(Xn) + Tn+l (xn+I) + · · · + Tn+p(Xn+p)
= Tn(anan-I)+ Tn+I(an+l- an)+ 0 0
•
+Tn+p-I(an+p-1- an+p-2) + Tn+p(an+p- an+p-d

= -Tn(an_I) + (Tn- Tn+I)(an) + · · ·
+(Tn+p-1- Tn+p)(an+p-I) + Tn+p(an+p)·
Hence
IITn(Xn) + Tn+l (Xn+I) + · · · + Tn+p(Xn+p) I
~ IITn(an-1)11 + II(Tn- Tn+I)(an) + · · · + (Tn+p-1- Tn+p)(an+p-dll
+ IITn+p(an+p)ll
~ M llan-1ll + M llan+pll
+ II(Tn- Tn+1)(an) + · · · + (Tn+p-1- Tn+p)(an+p-dll,
00
where M = sup IITkll < oo by hypothesis. Since the series L (Tk- Tk+I)(ak) is norm
k;;>O k=O
convergent, Vc: > 0 ::lm6 EN such that
n+p-1
L (Tk- Tk+I)(ak) < c:/2 Vn ?: me:, Vp?: 1.
k=n
Also, since an ---t 0 in norm, there is k 6 E N such that I an I < c / (4M) \In 2:: kc.
Let nE = 1 + max(m 6 , kE) and consider n 2:: nE and p 2:: 0. If p 2:: 1 we deduce that
IITn(Xn) + Tn+I(Xn+l) + · · · + Tn+p(Xn+p)ll <c. Ifp = 0, then IITn(Xn)ll :S: M llan-111 +
M llanll <c.
ii) '(a)=? (b)' Using (i) we have sup llx~ll <ex:: and V(xn)n;:>o <;;;X with llxnll ---t 0 it
n2:0
00
follows that the series I: (x~- x~+ 1 )(xn) converges. From exercise 5(i) it follows that the
n=O
CXl
series 2::: II x~ - x~+ 1 II is convergent.

n=O CXJ
'(b)=? (a)' Let us suppose now that the series 2::: (x~- x~+I) is absolutely convergent,
n=O
hence convergent since X* is a Banach space. Then the sequence (x~)n 2 o is convergent,
hence bounded. If ( Xn)n2:0 <;;; X with llxn II ---t 0, then there is L > 0 such that llxn II ::; L
\In 2:: 0. We have l(x~- x~+ 1 )(xn)l :S: L llx~- x~+lll \In 2:: 0 and therefore by our
00
hypothesis (b) the series 2::: (x~- x~+ 1 )(xn) converges absolutely. Now we apply (i).
n=O
00
2::: Xn be a norm convergent series with elements from X. Since

iii) '(a) =? (b)' Let
n=O
A <;;; X is dense for any n 2:: 0 there is Yn E A such that llxn- Ynll ::; 1/2n. Then it
CXl
follows that the series 2::: (xn- Yn) is absolutely convergent and since X is a Banach space
n=O 00
the series is norm convergent. It then follows that the series I: Yn is norm convergent. By
n=O
CXl
our hypothesis (a) the scalar series 2::: x~(Yn) converges. Since the sequence (x~)n 2 o is
n=O
uniformly bounded we have lx~(xn- Yn)l ::; M llxn- Ynll \In 2:: 0, so the scalar series
CXJ
2::: x~(xn)
00
2::: x~(xn - Yn) is absolutely convergent, hence convergent. Then the series
n=O n=O
converges, and we use (ii).
'(b) =? (a)' It is trivial.
iv) See [22, exercises 7.1, 7 .2, chapter 7].
Let x~ : IK ---t IK, x;,(x) = XnX. We apply (ii), observing that llx~- x~+lll =
lxn- Xn+ll·
v) Let (cn)n>o <;;; IK be a sequence which satisfies the condition from the exercise. We
have: -::Jk :::: 0 such that Cn # 0 \In :::: k (see the solution for exercise 5(iv)). Suppose that
00
en # 0 \In 2:: 0. From our hypothesis, for any convergent series I: an it follows that the
n=O CXJ
CXl
series 2::: ancn converges. Using (iv) it follows that the series ~ len - cn+ll converges.
n=O n=O
00 CXJ
Also, for any convergent series 2::: an the series 2::: an/ en converges, and then by (iv) it
n=O n=O
00
follows that the series 2::: 11/cn- 1/cn+ll converges. Therefore the sequences (cn)n>o and
n=O -
(1/cn)n>o are convergent and then lim Cn = x # 0. We obtain that lim Cn = x # 0 and
n----+oo n---+oo
-
00
the series 2::: len - cn+II converges.

n=O
6.2 Solutions 163
One can easily see now that the solutions for our exercise are the sequences ( en)n:::o for
00
which lim en = x =;F 0 and the series L len - en+ll converges.

n---;.oo n=O
vi) We use (v) with
e =1-~+-··+ (-1)n
n 2"' (n + 1)"'.
We have len- en+ll = 1/(n + 2)"' \In 2 0, thus the series f
n=O
len- en+ll = f (n +1 2)"
n=O
is convergent if and only if a > 1. In this case we have
oo ( -1)n oo 1 oo 1 oo 1 oo 1
lim en
n~oo ~ (n + 1)"' = ~ (2n- 1)"' - ~ (2n)" = ~ n"' - 2 ~ (2n)"
(1- 21-n) L--;;-
00
n
1
=;F 0,
n=l
for a > 1. Hence the values of a E lR which satisfy the condition from the exercise are:
a E (1, oo).
an infinite-dimensional Hilbert space, (an)n>o <;;; H\{0} is an orthogonal system with
CXJ
the property that the series 2:.:: llanll 2 is convergent, and consider a bounded sequence
n=O
(bn)n::co <;;; H. We consider the rank 1 operators Vn : H -+ H, n 2 0, defined by
Vn(x) =an (x,bn) Vx E H, andtakeTn = Vo+V1+···+Vn. WehaveTn-Tn+l = -Vn+l'
and as in the solution for exercise 6 it follows that for any bounded sequence (xn)n::co <;;; H,
00
the series L (Tn- Tn+ 1)(xn) is norm convergent. Also, for x E X and n 2 0 we have
n=O
and then sup IITnll < oo. We apply the part (i) from exercise 7 and we obtain that if
n::CO
00 CXJ
L Xn converges, then L Tn (xn) converges. If the assertion from the exercise is true then
n=O n=O
00 00
the series L IITn- Tn+ 1ll must be convergent, i.e.,l".:: IIVnll is convergent. Using that
n=O n=l
00
IIVnll = llanllllbnll \In EN, it follows that the series llanllllbnll is convergent.L
n=l
A such situation is false in general, as the following example shows: take Vn : l2 -+ l 2
defined by Vn(x) = (1/ (n + 1)) en+l (x, en+l), thus Tn: l2 -+ l 2 are given by
1 1
e1 (x, e1) + -e2 (x, e2) + · · · + --en+l (x, en+l)
2 n+1
( x 1, ~2 , :~~, 0, ···)
... , \lx = (xk)kEN E l2.
9. i) We consider the space h (X) = { (xn)nEN ~ xl f 1

llxnll < oo} which is a linear
space with respect to the usual operations. In a standard way one can prove that if X is a
Banach space then h (X) is also a Banach space with respect to the norm
L
00
llxll = llxnll Vx = (xn)nEN E h(X).

n=l
n
For n E N let hn : h (X) -t JK, hn ( (xk)kEN) = L
xt,(xk), which is clearly a linear
k=l
and continuous functional. Let us prove that llhnll = max llxkll Vn EN. We have
l:c;k:c;n
ihn ((x,)"")l ~ t,x;(x,) t, llxkllllx•ll

<; <; c~ llx:ll) (t, llx•ll)
< clf~n llx'kll) llxll Vx = (xk)kEN E h(X),
i.e., llhnll :::; max llx'kll· For every 1 :::; k:::; n andx EX the element (0, ... , 0, x, 0, ... )is in
l:c;k:c;n
l1(X) (k- 1 times 0), and therefore lhn(O, ... , 0, x, 0, ... )1 :S llhniiii(O, ... , 0, x, 0, ... )11, i.e.,
lxt,(x)l :S llhnllllxll, and therefore llx'kll :S llhnll· We obtain that l:c;k:c;n
max llxkll :S llhnll, and
therefore llhnll = max llx'kll· The hypothesis is that Vx E h(X) the sequence (hn(x))nEN
l:c;k:c;n
is bounded. Since l 1 (X) is a Banach space by the Uniform Roundedness Principle it fol-
lows that sup llhnll <
nEN
oo,
from whence sup llx~ll <
nEN
oo.
The converse is clear.
ii) Take x~ : lK ___, JK, x~ (x) = anx, and then apply (i).
We have
~ akxk :S ~ lakllxkl :S (~~~ lakl) llxll \:In EN,
from whence IIU (x)ll :::; sup lanlllxll Vx E h, and therefore IIUII :::; sup lanl· Since
nEN nEN
IIU (en) II 2: lanl \:In E N, we have IIUII 2: lanl \:In EN, and therefore IIUII =sup lanl =
nEN
llalloo·
10. The answer is yes! The same argument as in the solution for exercise 9 can
be applied, working with the space Y instead of lK (for n E N, hn : h(X) ---. Y,
n
hn ((xk)kEN) = L Tk(xk), etc.).
k=l
11. LetT : X* - t h, T(x*) = (x*(xn))nEN· The hypothesis assures that T(x*) E
h Vx* E X*. Let Tn : X* - t h, Tn(x*) = (x*(xi), ... , x*(xn), 0, ... ). Then for each
00 00
x* E X*, since the series L lx*(xn)l converges it follows that 'L lx*(xk)l ---. 0, i.e.,
n=l k=n+l
n
Tn(x*) -t T(x*) Vx* E X*. Tn is linear and continuous \:In E N, <IITnll :::; L llxkll
k=l
6.2 Solutions 165
"in E N) and X* is a Banach space. From the Banach-Steinhaus theorem it follows that T
is linear and continuous. We have
L
00
IITII = sup IIT(x*)ll~t = sup lx*(xn)l,

llx*ll9 llx*ll9 n=1
and IITII < oo.

12. i) '(a)=? (b)' For a Banach space X we will denote by
l,(X) ~ { (x.).CN <;; XI ~ llx.ll' < 00} ,

which is a linear space with respect to the usual operations. In a standard way, one can
prove that lp(X) is a Banach space with respect to the norm
()()
Let U : lp(X) ---> OC, U(x) = I:; x~(xn) Vx = (xn)nEN E lp(X). The hypothesis (a)
n=1 n
assures that U(x) E ][( Vx E lp(X). Let Un : lp(X) ---> ][(, Un(x) = I:; xt,(xk)· Then
k=1
Un(x) ---> U(x) Vx E lp(X) and from the Uniform Roundedness Principle it follows that
sup IIUnll < oo. We have
nEN
IU"(x)l < 't,uxkllllx•ll:,; ('t,ux:ll') ''' ('t,ux,ll') '''

< llxll ('t,llxkll') '" Vx E l,(X),
n ) 1/q
i.e., IIUnll ~ ( '{;1llxt,llq . Let x1, ... ,Xn E X with llx1ll ~ 1, ... , llxnll ~ 1. Take
.\1, ... ,An E ][( such that Akxt,(xk) = lxt,(xkW Vl ~ k ~ n (if xt,(xk) = 0 then we
take Ak = 0). Then the element x = (.\ 1 x 1 , ... , AnXn, 0, ... ) is in lp(X), and Un(x)
n
I:; lxt,(xkW· We have IUn(x)l ~ IIUnllllxll and therefore
k=1
n
L lxt,(xkW < IIUnll (I.\1IP llx1IIP + · · · + l.\nlp llxnllp) 1/P

k=1
< IIUnll (l.\1lp + · · · + l.\nlp) 1/p,
and since l.\kl ~ lxt,(xkW- 1 it follows that
n ) 1/q
i.e., ( ~ lxk,(xkW ::; IIUnll· Passing to the supremum over llx1ll ::; 1, llx2ll ::; 1,
... , llxnll ::; 1, we obtain that (t 1

1 llxk:llq) /q ::; IIUnll· Thus IIUnll = (~ llxkllq) 1/q
\:In EN, from whence sup
nEN k=1
1
(t
llxk:llq) /q = supiiUnll < oo, i.e., the series
nEN n=1
f= llx~llq
converges.
'(b)=? (a)' We use the Holder inequality and it follows easily from our hypothesis that
00
the series L
x~(xn) is absolutely convergent, hence convergent.
n=1
Take x~ : ][{ ----+ ][{ , x~ (y) = XnY and then apply (i).
13. For general Banach spaces X and Y the answer is: not necessarily. Take p = 2,
for example. Let H be an infinite-dimensional Hilbert space and (an)nEN ~ H\ {0} an
orthogonal system. Consider also the sequence (bn)nEN ~ H such that sup (llanllllbnll) <
nEN
oo. As in the solution for exercises 6 and 8, consider the rank 1 operators Vn : H ----+ H,
Vn(x) = an (x, Ynl Vx E H. We will show that for each 2-absolutely convergent series
00 00
L L
Vn(xn) is norm convergent. Indeed for n E Nand p :2: 0
Xn it follows that the series
n=1 n=1
from the Pythagoras theorem and the Cauchy-Buniakowski-Schwarz inequality it follows
that
IIVn(Xn) + Vn+1(Xn+d + · · · + Vn+p(Xn+p)ll 2
= II an 11 2 I(xn, bn) 12 + llan+111 2 1(xn+1, bn+ll I + · · ·
+ llan+pll 2 1(xn+p' bn+pl 12
::; M 2 (llxnll 2 + llxn+111 2 + · · · + llxn+pll 2 ) ,
00
where M =sup (llanllllbnll). Since the series L llxkll 2 converges, using the Cauchy test
nEN k=1
and the fact that His a Hilbert (therefore complete) space we deduce the norm convergence
00
for the series L Vn(xn).

n=1
00 00
If L IIVnll 2 < oo, since IIVnll = llanllllbnll \:In E N, the series

llanll 2 llbnll 2 must L
n=1 n=1
be convergent. A such situation is false in general, as the following example shows: one
can take Vn: l2 ----+l 2 , Vn(x) =en (x,en) Vx E l2.
00
14. We recall first the following classical result: if L An is a scalar absolutely conver-
n=D
gent series and (J.Ln)n?O is a null convergent scalar sequence then
00
Indeed, lets= L IAnl· Since J.ln----+ 0, then Vc > 0 3nE EN such that IJ.Lnl < c/ (1 + 2s),
n=O
00
\:In :2: nE (l ). Also, since the series L An is absolutely convergent it exists kE E N such
n=O
6.2 Solutions 167
that I.Anl < r::/ (2 (lflol + l111l + · · · + lfln,-11)) \:In 2:: kc (2). Then for n 2:: nE + kc using
(1) and (2) we have
IAnf.LO + An-lf.Ll + · · · + Aof.Lnl < I.Aollflnl + I.A1IIfln-ll + · · · + I.An-n<llflnJ

+ I.An-n<+lllfln<-11 + · · · + I.Anllflol
E
< 1 + 2s (I.Aol + I.A1I + · · · + I.An-ncl) +
E
2(lflol + l111l + · · · + lfln,-11) (lflno-ll + ... + lflol)
E E
< 2 + 2 =E.
Return now to the solution for our exercise. We shall use the notations from exercise 2.
i) '(a)==> (b)' For n 2:: 0, let hn : c0 (X) ----+ c0 defined by
and let h : c0 (X) ----+ c0 defined by
h(x 0 , x1, ... ) = (x~(xo), x;'(xo) + x~(x1), ... , x~(xo) + x~_ 1 (xi)+···+ x~(xn), ... ).
By our hypothesis (a) h is well defined. For each n 2:: 0, hn is a linear and continuous
operator with llhn II = llx~ II + · · · + llx~ II (see the final part for this solution). In addition,
if x = (xk)k;;.o E co( X), then h(x)- hn(x) = (0, 0, ... , 0, x~+l (x 0 ) + x~(x 1 ) + · · · +
x~(xn+ 1 ), ... ),from whence
llh(x)- hn(x)ll = sup lx~(xo) + x~_ 1 (xl) + · · · + x~(xk)l----+ 0 (n----+ oo),

k;;.n+l
by our hypothesis (a). Hence hn ----+ h pointwise and hn is a linear and continuous operator
\:In 2:: 0. Since X is a Banach space then c0 (X) is a Banach space. By the Uniform
Roundedness Principle it follows that the sequence (hn)n;;.o is uniformly bounded, i.e.,
sup llhnll < 00.
n;;.o
Let now n 2:: 0 be fixed. Let x = (xj)j;;,o E c0 (X) with llxll :::; 1, i.e., from the
definition of the norm on the space c0 (X), llxj II :::; 1 \:lj 2:: 0. We have
lxk(xo)+ xk_ 1 (xl) + · · · + x~(xk)l < lxk(xo)l + lxk_ 1(xl)l + · · · + lx~(xk)l

:S llx~ll + · · · + llxkll
:S llx~ll + · · · + llx~ll \:/0 :S k :S n,
and therefore llhn(x)ll :S llx~ll + · · · + llx~ll \:lx Eco(X) with llxll :S 1, that is, hn is linear
and continuous, with llhnll :S l x011 + · · · + llx~ll· Conversely, let Xo, x1, ... , Xn EX with
llxoll :S 1, ... , llxnll :S 1, and let .Ao = sgn (x~(xo)), ... , An = sgn (x~(xn)). The element
(.Aoxo, .\1x 1, ... , AnXn, 0, 0, ... ) is in c0 (X), from whence
llhn(AoXo, A1X1, ... , AnXn, 0, 0, ... ) I :S llhnllll (.Aoxo, A1X1, ... , AnXn, 0, 0, ... ) II ,
and then lx~(xo)l + lx~_ 1 (xi)I + · · · + lx~(xn)l :S llhnll· Passing to the supremum over
llxoll :S 1, ... , llxnll :S 1 we obtain that llx()ll + · · · + llx~ll :S llhnll, and then llhnll =
l x011 + · · · + llx~ll·
CXJ
'(b)=? (a)' Let (xnk::>o ~ X with llxnll ----+ 0.

From (b) the series ~ llx~ll is conver-
n=O
gent. Now by the the classical result proved above we have llx~llllxoll + .. ·+ llx~llllxnll ----+
0. From here using the inequality
we obtain (a).
ii) '(a)=? (b)' Let (xn)n:;;,o ~X with Xn----+ 0 in norm. Since A~ X is dense it follows
that for any n ~ 0 there is Yn E A such that llxn- Ynll :::; 1/2n. Hence Xn - Yn ----+ 0
and from Xn ----+ 0 it follows that Yn ----+ 0. Since (Yn)n:;;,o ~ A, by the hypothesis (a) it
follows that x;,(y0 ) + x~_ 1 (yi) + · · · + x~(Yn) ----+ 0. Now since by hypothesis llx~ll ----+ 0,
CXJ CXJ
and ~ llxn- Ynll :::; ~ 1/2n < oo, by the classical result proved above it follows that
n=O n=O
llx~llllxo- Yo II+···+ llx~llllxn- Ynll ----+ 0, hence by the inequality
lx~(xo -Yo) + x~-1 (x1 - Y1) + · · · + x~(xn- Yn) I :::; llx~ llllxo -Yo I
+ · · · + llx~llllxn- Ynll
we obtain that x~(x 0 - y0 ) + x~_ 1 (x 1- yl) + · · · + x~(xn- Yn)----+ 0 and hence x~(xo) +
x~_ 1 (xi)+···+ x~(xn) ----+ 0, since x~(Yo) + x~_ 1 (Yl) + · · · + x~(Yn) ----+ 0. Now we can
apply (i) to obtain (b).
'(b)=? (a)' It is proved in (i).
iii) Let x~ : C[O, 1] ----+ OC, x~(J) = bn J0an f(x)dx. Then the first condition from the
statement becomes: V(Jn)n>O ~ C[O, 1] with llfnll ----+ 0 it follows that x~(Jo) + x~_ 1 (!I)+
.. ·+x~ (Jn) ----+ 0. Using (i) this is equivalent with thefact that the series
CXJ
~ II x~ II converges.
n=O
Since llx~ll = lanbnl Vn ~ 0, we obtain the statement.
iv) Let x~: L2[0, 1]----+ lK be defined by x~(J) = bn f01xn f(x)dx = \J, bnxn). Then
By hypothesis we have llx~ll ----+ 0. Also, the first condition from the exercise is:
V(Jn)n:;;,o
~ C[O, 1] with llfnll 2 ----+ 0, it follows that x~(Jo) + x~_ 1 (!I)+···+ x~(Jn) ----+ 0.
Since C[O, 1] ~ £ 2 [0, 1] is dense, we can use the results from (ii) to obtain that this is
CXJ
equivalent with the fact that the series ~ llx~ll converges. Since
n=O
llx* II = Ibn I Vn ~ 0,
n }2n + 1
we obtain the statement.
v) Let Xn = (ano,an 1, ... ) Vn ~ 0. Then the fact that Xn E c0 is equivalent with the
fact that lim ank = 0, and since llxnll =sup lank I, the condition Xn----+ 0 in the space c0 is
k->oo k?:O
lim ank = 0 uniformly with respect to k ~ 0. Let now x~ : co ----+ JK:, x~ (yo, Y1, ... ) = bnYn,
n->oo
which are linear and continuous functionals with llx~ll = Ibn I· The first condition from the
6.2 Solutions 169
exercise is: Vxn ----r 0 in the space c0 it follows that x~(x 0 ) + x~_ 1 (xl) + · · · + x~(xn) ----r 0.
00
We apply (i) and we obtain that this is equivalent with the fact that the series 2:::: llx~ll
00
n=O
converges, i.e., the series 2:::: bn is absolutely convergent.
n=O
an infinite-dimensional Hilbert space, and (an)n>o ~ H\ {0} an orthogonal system such
00
that 2:::: llanll 2 < oo. Let (bn)n~o ~ H be a bounded sequence. We consider the rank 1
n=O
operators, Tn : H ----r H, Tn(x) = an (x, bn) Vx E H. We will show that V(xn)n>o ~ H
with llxnll ----r 0, it follows that IITn(xo) + Tn-I(xi) + · · · + To(xn)ll ----r 0. Indeed, from
the Pythagoras theorem and the Cauchy-Buniakowski-Schwarz inequality it follows that
IITn(xo) + Tn-I(xi) + · · · + To(xn)ll 2
= llanll 2 1(xo, bn) 12 + llan-111 2 1(xi, bn-I) 12 + · · · + Ilao 1 2 1(xn, bo) 12
:::; M 2 (llanll 2 llxoll 2 + llan-III 2 IIxiii 2 + · · · + llaoll 2 llxnln,
00
where M = sup llbnll < oo. Since the series 2:::: llanll 2 converges and llxnll 2 ----r 0, by
n~O n=O
the classical result proved in the beginning of the solution for exercise 14 it follows that
IITn(xo) + Tn-I(xl) + · · · + To(xn)ll ----t 0.
00
Suppose that the series 2:::: IITnll converges. Using that IITnll = llanllllbnll 'in 2: 0, we
n=O
00
obtain that the series 2:::: llanllllbnll converges. This is not always true: one can consider
n=O
Tn: h ----t l2, Tn(x) = (1/ (n + 1)) en+l (x, en+I) Vx E l2.
16. We will prove first that if b, c E [0, 1], b < c, and x* : X ----r lK is defined by
x*(f) = Jbc f(x)dx, then llx*ll = (c- Wfq. Indeed, from the Holder inequality we have
lx*(f)l < 1c lf(x)l dx:::; (1c IJ(x)IP dx) l/p (1c 1dx) l/q
< (c- b) 11q IIJIIP 'if E C[O, 1],
llx*ll :::; (c-Wfq. To prove the reverse inequality, we want to take f = X(b,c), in which
i.e.,
case we obtain that c- b = lx*(f)l :::; llx*IIIIJIIP = llx*ll (c- b) 11P and hence llx*ll 2:
(c- b) 1 fq. But the function f = X(b,c) is not continuous. However, we can approximate
this characteristic function by a sequence of continuous functions. Let f n : [0, 1] ----r ][( be
defined by
0 ifO:::; x:::; b- 1/n,

n(x-b+1/n) if b- 1/n < x < b,
fn(x) = 1 if b :::; X :::; C, 'in 2: n 0 ,
n(c+1/n-x) ifc < x:::; c+ 1/n,
0 if c + 1/n < x :::; 1,
where no is such that b > 1/no and c < 1 - 1/no. We have lx*(fn)l :::; llx*llllfniiP
'in 2: no. Now a simple calculation shows that x*(fn) = c - b and llfniiP =
(e- b + 2/ ((p + 1)n)) 1/P. Thus e- b s; llx*ll (e- b + 2/ ((p + 1)n)) 11P Yn 2 n 0 . For
n---+ oo we obtain that e- b s; llx*ll (c- b) 11P, i.e., llx*ll 2 (c- b) 1 fq.
Return now to the solution for our exercise. Using the above relations we have llx~ll =
ian I (en- bn) 1 fq Yn
E N, and this proves (iii). For (ii), if the sequence (x~)nEN ~ X* is
pointwise bounded then for the constant function f = 1 the sequence (x~ ( 1) )nEN ~ ][{ is
bounded, i.e., (an(en- bn))nEN is bounded. Conversely, if (an( en- bn))nEN is bounded,
then for any f E X we have
lx~(f)l s; lanifcn lf(x)l dx s; lanl (en- bn) sup lf(x)l s; M sup lf(x)l Yn EN,
bn xE[0,1] xE[O,l]
where M =sup Iani (en -bn) < oo, i.e., the sequence (x~)nEN ~X* is pointwise bounded.
nEN
For (iv), taking 1/q < o: s; 1, by (ii) and (iii) we have that the sequence x~ : X ---+ ][{
defined by x~(f) =no: J01/n f(x)dx Yf E C [0, 1] is pointwise bounded but not uniformly
bounded.
Remark. The norm II·IIP is not a complete one on C[O, 1] and therefore the Uniform
Boundedness Principle cannot be applied.
17. It is clear the fact that 11·11 1 is a seminorm on R[O, 1], hence the quotient space
R[O, 1] makes sense, and 11·11 1 is a norm R[O, 1].
i) a) The fact that x~ is well defined and linear is obvious. We observe that x~(l) =
bn f 01 9n (x) dx. If (x~)nEN is pointwise bounded, then in particular (x~ (l) )nEN is bounded,
that is, (bn J01 9n (x) dx) is bounded. Conversely, for any f E R[O, 1] and n EN since
nEN
the Riemann integrable functions are bounded we have
19n (x) dx
lbnl
Jorl l9n (x) f (x)l dx s; (sup lf(x)l) Ibn I
xE[0.1] Jo{
sup lf(x)l)
( xE[0,1] lx~(l)l.
Since (x~(i)) is bounded, from here it follows that the sequence (x~)nEN is pointwise
nEN
bounded.
b) We prove that if g : [0, 1] ---+ [0, oo) is a continuous function and x* : R[O, 1] ---+ lR is
J
defined by x*(J) = 01 g (x) f (x) dx, then llx*ll = sup g (x). Indeed, we have
xE[0,1]
lx*(J)I s;
Jot lg (x) f (x)l dx s; (sup g (x))
xE[0,1]
1If
o
1
(x)l dx,
hence llx*ll s; sup g (x). For any n E N we have lx* (gn) I s; llx*ll f 01 gn (x) dx,
xE[0,1]
i.e., denoting by O:n = f 01 gn (x) dx we obtain that O:n+1 s; llx*ll O:n, from whence
O:n s; 0:1 llx*lln- 1, and hence V
f01 gn (x) dx s; y'alllx*ll(n- 1)/n. Now passing to the
6.2 Solutions 171
limit for n ----> oo and using the well known property lim ,j
n~cxo V
J; gn (x) dx = sup g (x),
xE[0,1]
we deduce that sup g (x) ::; llx*ll·
xE[0,1]
We have therefore llx~ll = Ibn I sup g (x) Vn EN.
xE[0,1]
n
ii) We take 9n (x) = 2: akxk, bn = 1 Vn EN and we apply (i).
k=1
iii) We take 9n (x) = xn, bn =an Vn EN and we apply (i).
iv) It is easy to construct, using (i)-(iii), a sequence (x~)nEN s;;;; ('R[O, 1])*, pointwise
bounded, which is not uniformly bounded.
Remark. The norm 11·11 1 is not a complete one on R[O, 1] and therefore the Uniform
Boundedness Principle cannot be applied.
18. i) Let a = (an)nEN E c00 . Then there is k E N such that an = 0 Vn ~ k and

therefore Tn(a) = Tm (a) Vm,n ~ k.
ii) For every x* EX* and a= (ak)kEN Ec00 we have
n n
lx* (Tn(a))l::; L lakllx* (xk)l::; llall L lx* (xk)l,

k=1 k=1
n n
and then IITn(a)ll::; llall sup 2: lx* (xk)l, i.e., IITnll::; sup 2: lx* (xk)l. Let x* EX*
llx*II'Sl k=1 llx*II:Sl k=1
with llx*ll ::; 1. There are )...k E lK with l>..kl ::; 1 such that lx* (xk)l = >..kx* (xk) for
1::; k::; n. Then taking a= (>.. 1 , >.. 2 , ... ,An, 0, ... ) E c00 we have
n
Hence IITnll = sup 2: lx* (xk) 1. Now the sequence (Tn)nEN is uniformly bounded if and
llx*ll9 k=1
n cxo
only if sup IITnll < oo, that is, sup sup 2: lx* (xk)l < oo, i.e., sup 2: lx*(xn)l < oo.
nEN nEN llx*II:Sl k=1 llx*II:Sl n=1
iii) For any a= (ak)kEN E coo we have
n
IITn(a)ll::; L laklllxkll::; llall sup llxkll,

k= 1 1~k~n
i.e., IITnll ::;

sup llxkll· Let 1 ::; k ::; n. Then taking ek = (0, ... , 0, 1, 0, ... ) E Coo (1 on
1<k<n
the k1h positio~) ~e have
and then sup llxkll ::; IITnll· Therefore IITnll = sup llxkll. The statement follows now
1<k<n 1<k<n
in the same way as for (ii). - -
iv) For x* EX* and a= (ak)kEN E coo we have
n ) 1/q
and then IITn(a)ll :::; llall sup ( L lx* (xkW , i.e.,
llx* 11<:::1 k=1
Let x* EX* with llx*ll:::; 1. There are .>..k ElK such that lx* (xkW = .>..kx* (xk) \11:::; k:::;
n (we take .>..k = 0 if x* (xk) = 0). Observe that IA.kl :::; lx* (xkW~ 1 \11 :::; k :::; n. Then
taking a= (.>.. 1 , .>.. 2 , ... ,Am 0, ... ) E c00 we have
We have
n ) 1/q
and from here we deduce that ( '{;1 lx*(xkW :::; IITnll and therefore
Now we continue as in (ii).

v) If we take X= IK, then using (i)-(iv), one can easily construct a sequence of linear
and continuous functionals on c00 (on c00 we have, respectively, the norms from (i)-(iv))
which is pointwise bounded but not uniformly bounded. From the Uniform Boundedness
Principle we deduce that the above norms are not complete on c00 .
Remark. It is proved at exercise l O(iv) of chapter 9 that there is no complete norm on
coo·
19. First, we give a proof for the Cantor Lemma in the scalar case (see [48, 13.8.1,
chapter XIII]), i.e., we want to prove that if (an)nEN, (bn)nEN are two scalar sequences, and
an cos nt + bn sin nt ----+ 0 on a non-degenerate interval, then an ----+ 0 and bn ----+ 0. Suppose
that lanl 2 + lbnl 2 does not converge towards 0. Then there are c > 0 and a subsequence
6.2 Solutions 173
(kn)nEN of N such that jak,l + lbknl 2 2:: E \In E N. Without loss of generality we will
suppose that kn = n \In EN, and therefore lanl 2+ lbnl 2 2:: E \In EN. Let gn : lR--> [0, oo ),
2
(t) = ian cos nt + bn sin ntj
gn lanl 2 + lbnl 2
I:
Then gn(t) --> 0 on a non-degenerate interval (a, b) <:;;; R Also gn(t) ::; 1\/n EN, Vt E R
Using now the Lebesgue dominated convergence theorem it follows that gn(t)dt --> 0.
But as a simple calculation shows, if..\, f-L are complex numbers then
where IKnl ::; 1/2 and ILnl ::; 1. Using this fact we obtain that
1 a
b
gn
(t)dt _ b- a
- 2 +
lanl 2 -lbnl 2 K ?R(anbn) L
(lanl 2 + lbnn n n + (lanl 2 + lbnl 2) n n,
where IKnl ::; 1/2 and ILnl ::; 1. It follows that

obtain a contradiction!
I:
gn(t)dt --> (b- a) /2 i 0, and we
Let now x* E X*. Then x* (Xn) cos nt + x* (Yn) sin nt --> 0 on a non-degenerate inter-
val. Since the Cantor Lemma is true for the scalar case, it follows that x*(xn) --> 0 and
x*(yn) --> 0, that is, Xn--> 0 and Yn--> 0 weak. Using the Uniform Boundedness Principle,
it follows that the sequences (xn)nEN, (Yn)nEN are bounded, i.e., there is an M > 0 such that
llxnll ::; M and llYn II ::; M \In E N. Let now fn : lR--> X, fn(t) = Xn cos nt + Yn sin nt.
Then llfn(t) II ::; 2M \In E N, \It E JR, and by hypothesis, llfn(t) II --> 0 on a non-degenerate
interval (a, b) <:;;; R Again from the Lebesgue dominated convergence theorem it follows
I: llfn(t)ll 2 dt--> 0. But lx*(fn(t))l::; llfn(t)jj\/x* EX*, llx*ll::; 1, Vt E lR, and from
I: lx*(fn(t)) 2dt
that
here it follows that 1 --> 0 uniformly with respect to llx* II ::; 1. We have
1b jx*(fn(t))j2 dt = lx*(xn)l 2 ; lx*(yn)l 2(b _a)+ lx*(xn)l 2 : lx*(yn)l 2 Kn
?R(x* (xn)x* (yn)) L

+ n
n,
where IKnl::; 1/2 and ILnl::; 1. Since llxnll, llYn II ::; M \In EN, it follows that
lx*(xn)l 2 -lx*(yn)l 2 K 2R(x*(xn)x*(yn))L M2

n + n
n ::; 2 - --> 0,
n
n
i.e,
jx*(xn)l2- jx*(Yn)l2 Kn + ?R(x*(xn)x*(yn)) Ln--> 0,
n n
uniformly with respect to llx* II ::; 1. It follows that
uniformly with respect to llx*ll ~ 1, therefore x*(xn) ----> 0, x*(yn) ----> 0 uniformly
with respect to llx*ll ~ 1, i.e., sup lx*(xn)l ----> 0 and sup lx*(yn)l ----> 0. Since
llx*ll<;l llx*ll9
sup lx*(x)l = llxll 'ix EX it follows that llxnll----> 0 and llYn II----> 0.
llx* 119
20. i) See [ 16, theorem 1.2, chapter 1].

Suppose, for example, that Y is a Banach space. For any x E X, the operator
Bx : Y ----> Z defined by Bx(Y) = B(x, y) is linear and continuous, hence A =
{z* o Bx lllz*ll ~ 1, llxll ~ 1} <;;; Y*. We show that A is weak* bounded, i.e., \lyE Y the
set {(z* o Bx) (y) I liz* II~ 1, llxll ~ 1} <;;; lK is bounded. Indeed, for liz* II ~ 1, llxll ~ 1
since By : X ----> Z is linear and continuous we have
lz* o Bx(Y)I = lz*(B(x, y))l = lz* o By(x)l ~ llz*IIIIByllllxll ~II By II.
Since Y is a Banach space, from the Uniform Boundedness Principle it follows that
sup liz* o Bxll = M < oo. Then lz* o B(x, y)l ~ M IIYII \1 liz* II ~ 1,\1 llxll ~ 1,
llz*ll<;l, llxll9
\lyE Y. Passingtothesupremumoverllz*ll ~ 1itfollowsthatiiB(x,y)ll ~ MIIYII
\1 llxll ~ 1, \ly E Y, from whence using the homogeneity of B in the first variable,
IIB(x, y) II ~ M llxiiiiYII \lx EX, \lyE Y, i.e., B is continuous.
ii) See [ 16, exercise 1.11 (b), chapter I].
We will show that B is separately continuous, and then, using (i) it follows that B is
continuous as a bilinear operator. With the usual notations, for any y E Y we obtain that
(Bn)y (x)----> By (x) \lx EX. Since (Bn)y E L (X, Z) \In EN, by the Banach-Steinhaus
theorem (X is a Banach space) it follows that By : X ----> Z is linear and continuous for
any y E Y. Similarly, Bx : Y ----> Z defined by Bx (y) = B (x, y) 'iy E Y is linear and
continuous for any x EX (Y is a Banach space). Then we apply (i).
Chapter 7
The Hahn-Banach theorem
Theorem (Hahn-Banach, the case IK = JR). Let X be a real linear space, G ~ X a

linear subspace, p : X --+ lR a sublinear functional and f : G --+ lR a linear functional such
that f(x) ~ p(x) Vx E G. Then there is a linear functional 7: X --+ lR which extends f
(that is, 7(x) = f(x) Vx E G) such that 7(x) ~ p(x) Vx EX.
Theorem (Hahn-Banach, the case IK = lR or q. Let X be a linear space, G ~ X
a linear subspace, p : X --+ lR a seminorm and f : G --+ IK a linear functional such that
lf(x)l ~ p(x) Vx E G. Then there is 7: X--+ IK, a linear functional which extends f such
that 17(x)l ~ p(x) Vx EX.
Theorem (Hahn-Banach, the normed space case). Let X be a normed space, G ~ X
a linear subspace and f : G --+ IK a linear and continuous functional. Then there is
7 : X --+ IK, a linear and continuous functional which extends j, such that 11711 = I ill-
7
Such an is called a Hahn-Banach extension for f.
Theorem. Let X be a normed space, x E X, and G ~ X a linear subspace such that
8 = d(x, G) > 0. Then there is f : X --+ IK, a linear and continuous functional, such that
f = 0 on G, f(x) = 1 and 11!11 = 1/8.
7.1 Exercises
Extensions for a linear functional
1. Let X be a linear space and Y ~ X a linear subspace. Prove that each linear
functional f : Y --+ IK has a linear extensionJ:
X --+ K
176 The Hahn-Banach theorem
A surjectivity result
2. Let X be a normed space, n EN and {x 1 , ... ,xn} <;;;X a linearly independent

system. Prove that for any o: 1 , ... , O:n E lK there is x* E X* such that x* (xi) = o:i \7'1 ::;
i ::; n.
Riesz decomposition for a linear functional
3. i) Let X be a linear space, n E N, cp : X ----> lK a linear functional and p 1 , ... , Pn :

n
X ----> JR+ seminorms such that Icp( x) I ::; L Pk (x) \ix E X. Prove that there are cp 1 , ... , 'Pn :
k=l
n
X----> IK, linear functionals, such that cp = L CfJk.I'Pk (x)l::; Pk (x) \ix EX, \7'1::; k::; n.
k=l
ii) Let X be a real linear space, p : X ----> lR is a sublinear functional, A <;;; X is a
convex cone, and q : A ----> lR is a supra-linear functional such that q(x) ::; p(x) \ix E A.
Prove that there is a linear functional f : X ----> lR such that f(x) ::; p(x) \ix E X and
q(x) ::; f(x) \ix EA.
The structure for the closure of a linear subspace in a normed space
4. Let X be a normed space andY <;;;X a linear subspace.

i) For x 0 E X\Y, we define f : Sp{Y, x 0 } ----> IK, f (y + ..\x0 ) = ..\ \iy E Y, \7'..\ E IK.
Prove that f is well defined and linear.
ii) Prove that f is continuous if and only if x 0 t/: Y.
iii) Prove that y = n{ker x* I x* E X*' y <;;; ker x*}.
The Hahn-Banach theorem in separable normed spaces
5. i) Let X be a separable normed space, (xn)nEI\! <;;; X is a dense sequence, and

E <;;; X is a closed linear subspace.
a) Prove that \in EN ::Jx~ EX* such that x~ = 0 onE, llx~ll ::; 1, and x~(xn) =
d(.'En, E).
00
b) Prove that d(x, E) = sup I.'E;,(x)l \ix E X, and then deduce that E = n ker X~.
nEl\1 n=l
((x.;JnEl\1are given by (a).)
ii) Using (i) prove that there is a sequence (x~)nEN <;;; Bx* such that llxll =sup lx~(x)l
nEl\1
00
\ix EX and n ker X~ = {0}.

n=]
Riesz representation for the differentiation operator
6. i) Let n E N. Prove that there is a finite Borel regular measure fL on [0, 1] such that
P' (0) = J~1 Pdp. for any real polynomial P of degree at most n.
ii) Is there a finite Borel regular measure fL on [0, 1] such that P' (0) = 01 Pdp. for any J
real polynomial P?
7.1 Exercises 177
Effective calculation for the set of all the Hahn-Banach extensions

7. In the space lR 2 let us consider the linear subspace G = {(x, y) E lR 2 I 2x - y = 0}
and the functional f : G --+ lR defined by f(x, y) = x. Prove that g : JR2 --+ lR defined by
g(x, y) = x/5 + 2yj5 V'(x, y) E JR2 is the unique Hahn-Banach extension of f. (On JR2 we
consider the Euclidean norm.)
8. Let 1 :::; p :::; oo, a E lK be fixed and G = {(x 1 , 0) I x 1 E JK} ~ lK2 . Let us
consider the linear and continuous functional e : ( G, II·IIP) --+ lK defined bye (x) = ax1.
the norm 11·11 P being the usual one. Prove that the Hahn-Banach extensions for e E G* are
the following:
i) For p = 1, cp (xt, x2) = ax1 +vx2 V' (x1, x2) E lK 2, where lvl :::; Ia I, and so we have
an infinity of such extensions if a is not zero.
ii) For 1 < p:::; oo, cp (x1, x2) = ax 1 , V (x 1, x 2) E lK 2.
9. Let G = {(xn)nEN E it I X1 -3x2 = 0} and f: G--+ lR be defined by f((xn)nEN) =
x 1 . Prove that g : it --+ lR defined by
3 3
91(x) = 4x1 + 4x2 V'x = (xn)nEN E it
is the unique Hahn-Banach extension for f.
Examples when the Hahn-Banach extension is unique
10. Prove that any linear and continuous functional on Co has a unique Hahn-Banach
extension to l 00 •
11. Let X be a normed space. Prove that any linear and continuous functional on
c0 (X) has a unique Hahn-Banach extension to loo(X).
The Hahn-Banach extension in the Hilbert space case
12. Let H be a Hilbert space, and G ~ H a closed linear subspace. Prove that any
linear and continuous functional on G has a unique Hahn-Banach extension on H. More
precisely:
i) If f : G --+ lK is a linear and continuous functional, then f : H --+ lK defined by
f(x) = f(Prc(x)) V'x E His the unique Hahn-Banach extension for f. (Here Prc(x) is
the orthogonal projection of x onto G.)
ii) If b E Hand f : G --+ lK is defined by f(x) = (x, b) Vx E G, then the unique
Hahn-Banach extension for f is f: H--+ lK defined by f(x) = (x, Pre( b)) Vx E X, and
11!11 = 11711 = IIPrc(b)ll·
13. i) Let H be a Hilbert space, a E H, a -=1- 0, G = {x E HI (x, a)= 0}, and bE H.
Let f : G--+ lK be defined by f(x) = (x, b) V'x E G. Prove that the unique Hahn-Banach
extension for f is f : H --+ lK defined by
- (a b)
f(x) = (x, b)- ll~ll 2 (x, a) Vx E H.
ii) Let G = { f E £2 [0, 1JI f01 x f (x )dx = 0} and L : G --+ ][{be the linear and contin-
uous functional defined by L(f) = J01 x 2 f(x)dx. Prove that the unique Hahn-Banach ex-
tension for Lis x*: £ 2 [0, 1]--+ lKdefined by x*(f) = J0\x 2-3xj4)f(x)dx Vf E £ 2 [0, 1].
iii) Let Mn (q be the set of all the n x n complex matrices, which is a Hilbert space
with respect to the scalar product (A, B) = tr(AB*), where B* is the adjoint of the matrix
B. Let G = {A E Mn(C) I tr(A) = 0}, B E Mn(C) and f : G --> C be the linear
and continuous functional defined by f(A) = tr(AB*) VA E G. Prove that the unique
Hahn-Banach extension for f is 7 : Mn (q --> C defined by
7(A) = tr(AB*)- tr(B)tr(A) VA E Mn(C).

n
iv) Let Mn(C) be the Hilbert space given at (iii) and Mn(C) x Mn(C) be the Hilber-
tian product. Let G = {A E Mn(C) X Mn(C) I tr(A) = tr(B)}, C, D E Mn(C)
and f : G --> C be the linear and continuous functional defined by f(A, B) =
tr(AC*) + tr(BD*) V(A, B) E G. Prove that the unique Hahn-Banach extension for f
is 7: Mn(C)xMn(C)--> C defined by
_ ( tr( C) - tr(D)) (tr(B) - tr(A))

f(A, B) = tr(AC*) + tr(BD*) + 2n .
An example when we have an infinity of Hahn-Banach extensions
14. Let G ~h. G = { (xn)nE'N E h I XI= X3 = X5 =. = o}. Prove that any non-
0 0
null linear and continuous functional on G has an infinity of Hahn-Banach extensions.
The structure for the set of all the Hahn-Banach extensions
15. Let X be a normed space, G ~ X is a linear subspace, and f : G --> ][{ is a linear
and continuous functional for which there exist g, h : X --> OC, two distinct Hahn-Banach
extensions. Prove that f has an infinity of Hahn-Banach extensions.
More precisely, one can prove that the set of all the Hahn-Banach extensions is convex
in X*.
An algebraic result
16. Let X be a normed space and X* its dual, n E N, xi, ... ,x~, f E X*, G =
{x EX I xi(x) = o, ... ,x~(x) = 0}, and g: G--> ][{defined by g(x) = f(x) Vx E G.
If h : X --> ][{is a linear and continuous functional which extends g, prove that there are
a1, ... ,an E ][{such that h = f + a1xi + · · · + anx~.
Other examples for the effective calculation of all the Hahn-Banach extensions
17. Let G = {U E L(l2) I (Ue 1 , e 1 ) - 2 (Ue 1 , e2 ) = 0}, and f: G--> lR be the linear
and continuous functional defined by f (U) = ( U e 1 , e 1 ). Prove that 7 : L( l 2 ) --> lR defined
by
is the unique Hahn-Banach extension for f.

7.1 Exercises 179
18. Let (an)nEN E h withal -=1- 0, G = { (xn)nEN E eo I fl anXn = 0} and f: G----;

lR defined by f((xn)nEN) = x 1. Prove that the Hahn-Banach extensions h for fare the
following:
00
i) If la1l < I: Iani then h( (xn)nEN) = X1.

n=2
00 00
ii) Ifla1l = I: lanl then h((xn)nEN) = X1 +a I: anXn, where -1 :S o:a1 :S 0.

n=2 n=l
00 00
iii) If la1l > I: !ani then h((xn)nEN) =-I: (anfal) Xn.

n=2 n=2
19. Let a E lR, lal < 1, a-=/- 0, G = { (xn)nEN f 1 anxn =
E col
and f: G----> lR 0}
be the functional defined by f((xn)nEN) = x 1. Prove that the Hahn-Banach extensions h
for f are the following:
i) If 1/2 < lal < 1 then h(x1, Xz, ... ) = x1 \f(x1, Xz, ... ) E Co·
00
ii) If a = 1/2 then h(x 1, x 2, ... ) = x 1 +a I: anxn \f(x 1, x 2, ... ) E c0 , where -2 :S

n=l
0: :::; 0.
00
iii)Ifa = -1/2thenh(xl,Xz, ... ) = x1+o:L:anxn \f(xl,Xz, ... ) E eo, where

n=l
0 :::; 0: :::; 2.
00
iv)Iflal < 1/2thenh(xl,xz, ... ) =-I: anxn+l \f(xl,Xz, ... ) E co.

n=l
20. Let (an)nEN E Zoo with a1 # 0, G = { (xn)nEN E hI f 1anXn = 0} and f: G---->
lR be the functional defined by f((xn)nEN) = x 1. Prove that f has a unique Hahn-Banach
extension, namely
where>.= sup !ani·

n2':2
21. Let 1 lR be the functional defined by
f((xn)nEN) = x 1. Prove that the Hahn-Banach extensions for fare ofthe form
00
n=l
where a E lR is a solution for the equation
).P ) 1/p (~00 I lq)l/q
(1 1 + aa lq + >.q iaa lq)l/q = ( __ >. = L.m=2 an
1 1 ).P+1 ' !all
22. Let 0 < b < 1, G = {(xn)nEN E Col f= X: =

n=l 2
o} and f : G ----; lR be the
00
functional defined by f((xn)nEN) = I: bnxn. Prove that the Hahn-Banach extensions for
n=l
f are of the form
L bnXn +a L
00 00
h((xn)nEN) = ~: 'i(xn)nEl\1 E Co,

n=l n=l
where a E lR is a solution for the equation
~ Ibn + .::__I = b l2b - 11_

~ 2n 1- b
n=l
The Banach Limit
23. i) Let M = {(yn)nEN I 3(xn)nEN E Zoo, Yn = Xn- Xn+l 'in E N} and consider
e = (1, 1, 1, ... ) E Z00 • (The space Zoo is over JR.)
a) Prove that M ~ Zoo is a linear subspace and that d (e, M) = 1.
b) Deduce that there is x* E Z7x, such that llx*ll = x* (e)= 1, x*IM = 0.
c) Prove that Co ~ ker x* and x* ( (xn)nEN) = lim Xn if (xn)nEN is convergent. Deduce
n--->oo
from here that x* E Z7x, \Kh (h) and therefore that h is not a reflexive space.
d) Prove that x*(x 1 , x2, ... ) = x*(x2, X3, ... ) V(x 1, x2, ... ) E Zoo
ii) Let Zn = (0, ... , 0, 1, 1, ... ) E Zoo (n times 0) 'in EN. Prove that Zn---+ 0 weak* in
Z00 , and using (i) prove that (zn)nEN does not converge weak towards 0.
iii) For (x 1, x 2, ... ) E Zoo, we will denote by LIM {x 1, x 2, ... } := x*(x 1 , x 2, ... ),which
usually is called a Banach Limit for the bounded sequence (xn)nEN· The part (c) from (i)
affirms that the Banach Limit for a convergent sequence coincides with the usual limit.
What is a Banach Limit for the sequence a, b, a, b, ... ? I.e., calculate LIM {a, b, a, b, ... } .
What about the Banach Limit for a periodic sequence?
iv) Prove that we cannot find an additive, multiplicative, translation invariant function
f : Zoo ---+ JR, which coincides with the usual limit for convergent sequences, i.e., we cannot
find f with the properties f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y) 'ix, y E Zoo, f (xy) = f (x) f (y)
'ix, y E Z00 , f(xl, x2, ... ) = j(x2, X3, ... ) V(x1, x2, ... ) E Z00 , and f ( (xn)nEN) = lim Xn if
n--->oo
(xn)nEN is convergent. (For x = (xn)nEN, y = (Yn)nEN E Zoo we write xy = (XnYn)nEN .)
7.2 Solutions
1. Indeed, let { e;}iEr ~ Y be an algebraic basis ofY over K Then the system { e;}iE 1 ~
X is linearly ind~pendent, and h:nce we can extend it to a bas~ B ={ e;}iEJ U {IJ }JEJ of
X. Define then f : B---+ lK by f (e;) = f (e;) fori ~E I and f(JJ) = )..J E ~for j E J.
Since B ~ X is an algebraic basis we can extend f to a linear functional f : X ---+ K
Obviously ~Y = f.
2. See [14, corollary 6.6, chapter III].
Let Y = Sp{ x 1, ... , xn}. Since the system { x 1, ... , xn} ~ X is linearly independent, it
follows that { x 1, ... , Xn} ~ Y is an algebraic basis. Define then f : Y ---+ IK, linear, with
f (x;) =a; Vi= 1, n. Since Y is of finite dimension, f is continuous (on Y we have the
7.2 Solutions 181
norm from X). By the Hahn-Banach theorem there is an extension x* E X* for f. Then
x* (x;) = f (x;) = a; Vi = 1, n.
3. i) See [43, p. 313-358].

Let us consider the linear space xn, on which we define p xn -> IR+ by
n
p (x1, ... , Xn) = 2::: Pk(xk)· Then
k=l
n n
p(>.(xl, ... , Xn)) = :~:::>k(>.xk) = 1>-1 LPk(xk) = 1>-1 p(xl, ... , Xn)
k=l k=l
and
n n n
LPk(xk + Yk) ~ LPk(xk) + LPk(Yk)
k=l k=l k=l
p(xl, ... , Xn) + p(yl, ... , Yn),
i.e., p: xn - t IR+ is a seminorm. Let Dn = {(x, ... , x) E xn I X EX} be the diagonal of

the space xn. Then Dn <;;; xn is a linear subspace. We define cp 0 : Dn-> IK, cp 0 (x, ... , x) =
cp( x). Then 'Po is linear and by hypothesis and the definition of 'Po we also have I'Po (x) I ~
p(x) Vx E Dn·
From the Hahn-Banach theorem, there is a linear functional (j5 : Xn -> lK with V51Dn =
'Po and IV5(xl,····xn)l ~ p(xl,···,xn) V(xl,···,xn) E xn. For any 1 ~ k ~ n, define
'Pk :X -> IK, 'Pk (x) = (j5 (0, ... , 0, x, 0, ... , 0) Vx E X (x on the k1h position). These linear
functionals have all the required properties.
ii) See [7, p. 6-11].
Let r : X -> lR defined by r(x) = inf{p(x +a)- q(a) I a E A}. We observe that
for any x E X and any a E A we have p(a) ~ p(x +a) + p( -x) and then p (x +a) -
q(a) 2 -p( -x) + [p(a) - q(a)] 2 -p( -x), i.e., the set on which we take the infimum
is lower bounded. We will prove first that r is a sub linear functional. Indeed, let x, y E
X. Then for any a, b E A we have a + b E A, since A is a convex cone. We have
r(x + y) ~ p(x + y +a+ b) - q(a +b). Since pis subadditive and q supra-additive we
have p(x + y +a+ b) ~ p(x +a) + p(y +b) and -q(a +b) ~ -q(a) - q(b). This
implies p(x + y +a+ b) - q(a +b) ~ [p(x +a) - q(a)] + [p(y +b) - q(b)], hence
r(x + y) ~ [p(x +a)- q(a)] + [p(y +b)- q(b)]. Passing to the infimum over a E A and
b E A we obtain that r(x + y) ~ r(x) + r(y), i.e., r is subadditive. Let x E X. Since
p(a) 2 q(a) Va E A it follows that r(O) = inf{p(a)- q(a) I a E A} 2 0. Also, since
0 E A we deduce that r(O) = inf{p(a)- q(a) I a E A}~ p(O)- q(O) = 0, i.e., r(O) = 0,
and hence r(O · x) = 0 · r(x) = 0 Vx E X. If>. > 0 then since A is a convex cone for
any a E A we have >.a E A, hence r(>.x) ~ p(>.x +>.a)- q(>.a) = >.[p(x +a)- q(a)].
Passing to the infimum and using that>. > 0 we obtain that r(>.x) ~ >.r(x). Replacing in
this reasoning x-> >.x and>.-> 1/ >.we obtain that r(x) ~ r(>.x)j >.,i.e., >.r(x) ~ r(>.x).
Since 0 E A we obtain that r(x) = inf{p(x +a)- q(a) I a E A} ~ p(x)- q(O) = p(x)
Vx EX. Also if a E A, then r( -a) ~ p( -a+ a)- q(a) = -q(a).
Taking G = {0} and g : G -> lR the zero functional, we have that g(x) ~ r(x)
Vx E G. From the Hahn-Banach theorem, there is a linear functional f: X-> lR such that
f(x) :::; r(x) Vx E X. Then f(x) :::; p(x) Vx E X. If a E A then f( -a) :::; r( -a), i.e.,
since f is linear, -r( -a) :::; f(a), from whence q(a) :::; f(a).
4. i) Let us observe first that Sp{Y, x 0 } = {y + AXo I y E Y, A E IK}. We show that

if y, Yo E Y, A, X E 1K with y + AXo = y' + X Xo then A = X, y' = y. Indeed, if A i= A 1
then x 0 = (y'- y) j (A- X) would belong toY, because Y is a linear subspace, and this
contradicts our hypothesis. Thus A = X, from whence y = y'. Then f : Sp{Y, x 0 } ---> lK
given by f (y + AXo) = A Vy E Y, A E lK is well defined, and by the uniqueness of the
decomposition for the elements in Sp{Y, x 0 } it follows that f is also linear.
ii) Suppose that f : Sp{Y, x 0 } ---> lK is continuous. We will prove that x 0 tj_ Y.
Suppose, for a contradiction, that x 0 E Y. From the well known characterization of the
closure in metric spaces it follows that there is (Yn)nEN ~ Y such that Yn ---> x 0 . We
have (Yn)nEN ~ Sp{Y, xo}, xo E Sp{Y, xo}, and so by the continuity off it follows that
f (Yn) ---> f (xo). Since f (Yn) = 0 Vn E N it follows that f (Yn) ---> 0, from whence
f (x 0 ) = 0, which is false, since f (x 0 ) = 1.
Suppose now that x 0 tj_ Y, i.e., x 0 E Cy-, which is an open set. By the definition for
an open set in a normed space it follows that there is c > 0 such that B (x 0 , c) ~ Cy-, i.e.,
Y n B (x 0 , c) = 0. Let x E Sp{Y, x 0 }, x = y + AXo withy E YandA ElK. If A= 0, then
if (x)l = 0:::; llxll /c. If A i= 0, then yj (-A) E Y, from whence yj (-A) tj_ B (xo, c), i.e.,
11-y/A- xoll ~c. Then llxll = IAIII-y/A- xoll ~ IAI c = c If (x)l, and so If (x)l :::;
llxll /c Vx E Sp{Y, xo}, i.e., f: Sp{Y, xo} ---> lK is continuous.
iii) See [6, exercise 13, chapter 3].
If x* E X* and Y ~ ker x* then it follows that Y ~ ker x* and therefore Y C
n{ker x* I x* E x·' y ~ ker x*}. Conversely let Xo E n{ker x* I x* E x·' y ~
ker x*} and suppose that x 0 tj_ Y. Using (ii) there is f : Sp{Y, x 0 } ---> lK linear and
continuous such that fly = 0, f (x 0 ) = 1. Let x* E X* be a Hahn-Banach exten-
sion for f given by the Hahn-Banach theorem. Then x* = f on Sp{Y, x 0 }. In partic-
ular, x* = 0 on Y, i.e., Y ~ kerx*and x*(x 0 ) = f(x 0 ) = 1, i.e., x 0 tj_ kerx*, and so
Xo tj_ n{ker x* I x* E X*' y ~ ker x*}, which contradicts our supposition.
5. i) a) We prove first that Vx E X 3x* EX* such that x* = 0 onE, x*(x) = d(x, E)
and II x*ll :::; 1 (1 ). Indeed, if x tj_ E, then since E is a closed linear subspace, there is
f E X* such that f = 0 onE, f(x) = 1, and llfll = 1/J where J = d(x, E) > 0. Then
x* = Jf has the properties: x* = 0 onE, x*(x) = J = d(x, E) and llx*ll = 1. If x E E,
then the zero functional has the required properties.
Applying (1) to the elements (xn)nEN it follows that there is (x~)nEN ~ x· such that
x~ = 0 onE, x~(xn) = d(xn, E), and llx~ll :::; 1 Vn EN.
b) Let x E X. Then for y E E using that for any n E N we have x~ = 0 onE and
llx~ll :::; 1, it follows that
llx- Yll = sup lx*(x- y)l ~sup ix~(x- y)l =sup lx~(x)l,
llx'll$1 nEN nEl\1
from whence d(x, E)= inf llx- Yll ~sup lx~(x)l. Now let c > 0. Since (xn)nEN ~X is
yEE nEl\1
dense, there is n EN such that llx- Xnll :::; c/2. Using the relation id(x, E)- d(xn, E) I :::;
llx- xnll (see exercise l(ii) of chapter 4) it follows that id(x, E) - d(xn, E) I :::; c/2, hence
7.2 Solutions 183
by (a) ld(x, E)- x~(xn)l ~ c/2. Since
lx~(x)- x~(xn)l = lx~(x- Xn)l ~ llx~llllx- Xnll ~ c/2,

then
ld(x, E)- x~(x)l ~ ld(x, E)- x~(xn)l + lx~(xn)- x~(x)l ~ c/2 + c/2 = E,
and therefore d(x, E) ~ lx~(x)l +E. Then d(x, E) ~ sup lx~(x)l +E. Since E > 0 is
nEN
arbitrary we obtain that d(x, E)~ sup lx~(x)l. Hence d(x, E)= sup lx~(x)l.
nEN nEll!
If x E E then d(x, E) = 0, and therefore sup lx~(x)l = 0, i.e., x~(x) = 0 \:In E N,
nEN
XE n
00
n=l
kerx~, i.e., E ~ n
00
n=l
kerx~. If XE n
00
n=l
kerx~, i.e., x~(x) = 0 \:In E N, then
sup lx~(x)l = 0, i.e., d(x, E) = 0, hence by exercise l(i) of chapter 4 we have x E E =E.
nEll!
ii) Take E = {0} in (i).
6. i) See [14, exercise 6, chapter III, section 6].

Let P n be the linear space of all the real polynomials of degree ~ n, considered as
a linear subspace of C [0, 1]. Since Pn has finite dimension, it follows that any linear
functional from Pn to lR is continuous. Let f : Pn ~ lR be defined by f (P) = P' (0)
VP E Pn· Since f is continuous, it follows that there is M ~ 0 such that If (P)I ~
1
M IIPIIoo VP E Pn· By the Hahn-Banach theorem there is E (C [0, 1])* such that 11111 ~
M, and 11Pn
= f. Now from the Riesz representation theorem, there is a regular finite
Borel measure J.l on [0, 1] such that f- (g) = fo1 gdJ.l for any g E C [0, 1], and therefore
P' (0) = f01 PdJ.L VP E Pn·
ii) See [14, exercise 7, chapter III, section 6].
Let us suppose that there is a regular finite Borel measure J.l on [0, 1] such that P' (0) =
J0 PdJ.L, for any real polynomial P. Let x* E (C [0, 1])* given by f-l· Then x* (P) = P' (0),
1
VP E P, and since x* is continuous, there is an M ~ 0 such that IP' (0) I ~ M II P II 00

VP E P. For any kEN, let Pk be the polynomial Pk (x) = (x- 1)k. Then IP~ (O)I = k,
IIPklloo = 1 Vk EN, from whence M ~ k Vk EN, which is false!
7. If g : IR 2 ~ lR is a linear functional, then g(x, y) = xg(1, 0) + yg(O, 1) = ax+ by

V(x, y) E IR 2 , and as it is easy to see, llgll = Ja 2 + b2 • Let us observe that G = {(x, 2x) I
x E IR} = Sp{(1,2)}. In addition,lf(x,y)l = lxl = {1/J5) ll(x,y)ll V(x,y) E G, i.e.,
llfll = 1/J5. Let g : IR 2 ~ lR be a Hahn-Banach extension for f. A such extension
exists, by the Hahn-Banach theorem. Then there are a, bE lR such that g(x, y) =ax+ by
V(x, y) E IR2 and llgll = va
2 + b2 • Since g lc= fit follows that g(x, y) = x V(x, y) E G,
i.e., ax+by = x V(x, y) E G, that is, ax+2bx = x Vx E IR, a+2b = 1. Also g has the same
norm as f, i.e., llgll = llfll, that is, J a 2 + b2 = 1/ J5, and therefore { ~ 2++2~2 : 1J.; 5 .
Solving this system we obtain that b = 2/5 and a= 1/5, i.e., the Hahn-Banach extension
is unique and is given by the formula
X 2y
g(x, y) = S+ S V(x, y) E IR 2 .
8. It is easy to see that llell = lad for any 1 :S p :S oo. Let now ][{be a
Hahn-Banach extension for e. Then there are u, v E ][{such that <p (xi, x 2) = uxi + vx 2
V (xi, x 2) E OC 2. If on ][{2 we will consider the norm II·IIP' 1 :S p :S oo, then from the
max{iul, lvl} ifp = 1,
duality we obtain that II'PII = { (iulq + lvlq)I/q if 1 < p < oo, where 1/p + 1/q = 1.
lui+ lvl ifp = oo,
Since <p Ia= e then u =a. We have the following cases:
i) Ifp = 1 then
where lvl :S lal.

ii) If 1 < p < oo then v = 0, so <p (xi, x 2) = axi V (xi, x 2) E ][{2.
iii) Ifp = oo then again v = 0, so <p (xi, x 2) = axi V (xi, x 2) E ][{2.
9. We have
3 3
ll(x)l = lxii = 4 (ixii + lx2l) :S 4llxll Vx E G,
so IIIII :S 3/4. Also, 11(3,1,0, ... )1 = 3 :S 1111111(3,1,0, ... )11 = 411111, and therefore
IIIII = 3/4.
Let g : h ----> lR be a Hahn-Banach extension for I. Since li = lex, there is ~ =
00
(~n)nEN E loo such that g(x) = 2:: ~nXn Vx = (xn)nEN E hand llgll = 11~11 =sup l~nl·
~I n~
We have g Ia= I, hence g(x) =XI Vx = (xn)nEN E h with XI- 3x2 = 0, that is,
6xi +~xi +6x3 +···=XI Vlxii + lx31 + lx41 + · · · < oo.
From this we deduce that 6 + 6/3 = 1 and ~n = 0 Vn ~ 3, i.e., 36 + 6 = 3, ~n = 0

Vn ~ 3. So the Hahn-Banach extension g is given by
Since llgll = IIIII = 3/4, i.e., max(l61, 13- 361) = 3/4 we have 6 = 3/4, i.e., I has a
unique Hahn-Banach extension to h, namely
10. See [40, exercise 12.20].

00
Let I E c0. Since c0 = h, there is (an)nEN E h such that f (x) = 2:: anXn Vx =
n=I
00 00
(xn)nEN E co, and IIIII = 2:: ianl· Let g : loo ----> ][{be defined by g (x) = 2:: anXn
n=I n=I
Vx = (xn)nEN E loo. Then g is linear and
00 00
lg (x)l :S L ianllxnl :S llxll L ian I Vx E loo,

n=I n=I
7.2 Solutions 185
00
i.e., g is continuous. It is easy to see that llgll = I: lanl = 11!11, and therefore g is a
n=l
Hahn-Banach extension for f.
Now let 7 : Zoo --> IK be another Hahn-Banach extension for J, i.e., 7 lea= f and
11711 = 11!11- We prove that 7 = g. Let x E Zoo, x = (xn)nEN with llxll :::; 1. For n E N
we denote by Yn = (sgn (a1), ... , sgn (an), Xn+l, ... ) E Zoo. Obviously, llYn I :::; 1. Since
7
Yn - x = (sgn (ai)- x1, ... , sgn (an)- Xn, 0, ... ) E Co and = g = f on Co it follows
7
that (Yn- x) = g (Yn- x). Let us write h = 7-
g. Then the above relation shows that
h (Yn- x) = 0, that is, h (Yn) = h (x). We have
n oo
7(Yn) = h (Yn) + g (Yn) = h (x) + g (Yn) = h (x) + L lakl + L akXk,

k=l k=n+l
from whence
n
L lakl
00 00 00
7 (Yn)- h (x)- L akxk < L lakllxkl :::; L lakl--> 0

k=l k=n+l k=n+l k=n+l
oo n
for n --> oo, since the series I: lakl converges. Then 7 (Yn) - h (x) - I: lakl --> 0, and
k=l k=l
n oo
since I: lakl --> I: lanl = llfll, we obtain that 7 (Yn) --> h (x) + IIJII·
k=l k=l
We have proved that Vx E Zoo with llxll :::; 1 :l (Yn)nEN ~ Zoo with llYn I :::; 1 Vn E N
such that 7 (Yn)--> h (x)+llfll (1). Let now x E Zoo with llxll :::; 1. There is .X E IK, I.XI :::; 1
such that lh (x)l = .Xh (x) = h (.Xx). Since II.Xxll = 1-XIIIxll :::; 1 from the relation (1) it
follows that there is (Yn)nEN ~Zoo with llYn I :::; 1 Vn EN such that 7 (Yn) --> h (.Ax)+ IIJII,
that is, 7 (Yn)--> lh (x)l +II! II, and therefore 17 (Yn)l --> lh (x)l + 11!11 (2). We have
17 (Yn)l:::; 1171111Ynll:::; 11711 = IIJII \:In EN
from whence passing to the limit for n --> oo, from (2) we obtain lh (x)l + 11!11 :::; 11!11,
lh (x)l :::; 0, h (x) = 0 Vx E Zoo with llxll :::; 1, and therefore, by homogeneity, h = 0,
7- g = 0, =g. 7
00
11. Let f E (eo(X))*. Then there is (x~)nEN E h(X*) such that f (x) = I: x~ (xn)
n=l
00 00
Vx = (xn)nEN E co (X) and IIJII = I: llx~ll· Define g : l 00 (X) --> IK, g (x) = I: x~ (xn)
n=l n=l
Vx = (xn)nEN E Zoo (X). Obviously g is linear and
00
llxll L llx~ll = llxllllfll Vx E Zoo (X),

n=l
so llgll ~ 11!11· Let n E N and llx1ll ~ 1, ... , llxnll ~ 1. The sequence x

(a1x1, ... , anxn, 0, ... ) is in loo(X), where ak = sgn (xZ (xk)), and
n n
g (x) = L akxZ (xk) = L lxZ (xk)l ~ llgllllxll ~ llgll,
k=l k=l
n
i.e., I: lxk (xk)l llgll, and taking the supremumover llx1ll ~ 1, ... , llxnll ~ 1 it follows
~
k=l
n oo
that I: llxkll ~ llgll Vn E N, and passing to the limit for n ---+ oo, I: llx~ll ~ llgll, i.e.,
k=l n=l
00
11!11 ~ llgll· Therefore g is an extension off, with llgll = 11!11 = llx*ll· I:

n=l
Now let 7 : loo(X) ____, OC be a linear and continuous functional which extends f and
having the same norm as f, i.e., 7 lca(x)= f and 11711 = 11!11· We shall prove that 7 =g.
Denote h = 7- g and let us consider x E loo(X) with llxll ~ 1. There is >. E OC such
that 1>-1 ~ 1 and lh (x)l = h (>.x) = h (t), where t = >.x E loo(X), lltll = 1>-lllxll ~ 1.
Lett = (tk)kEN E loo(X), and consider a1, ... , an E X with llakll ~ 1, k = 1, n. We
consider y = (>. 1a 1, ... , Anan, tn+l, ... ) E loo(X), where Ak = sgn (xk(ak)), k = 1, n, and
then y- t = (>.1a1 - t1, ... , Anan - tn, 0, ... ) E eo(X). Since h lco(x)= 0 it follows that
h (y- t) = 0, hence by the linearity of h on loo(X) it follows that h(y) = h(t), i.e.,
n oo
lh(x)l=h(y)=7(y)-g(y)=7(y)-L>.kxk(ak)- L xZ(h),
k=l k=n+l
therefore,
n
+L
00 00
lh (x)l lxZ (ak)l 7 (y)- L xk (tk) = 7 (y)- L xk (tk)

k=l k=n+l k=n+l
00
< 17 (y)l + L lxk (tk)l

k=n+l
00 00
< 1171111YII + L llxkll ~ 11!11 + L llxZII·

k=n+l k=n+l
Hence
n oo
lh (x)l + L lxk (ak)l ~ IIlii + L llxkll V lla1ll ~ 1, ... , V llanll ~ 1,
k=l k=n+l
and passing to the supremum over a 1, ... , an we obtain that
n oo
lh (x)l + L
llxkll ~ 11!11 + llxkll Vn EN. L
k=l k=n+l
00
For n ----> oo this gives lh (x)l + I: llx~ll ~ 11!11, i.e., lh (x)l + 11!11 ~ 11!11, h (x) = 0
n=l
Vx E loo(X) with llxll ~ 1, and then by homogeneity, h (x) = 0 Vx E Zoo (X), i.e., h = 0,
that is, 7 = g.
7.2 Solutions 187
12. See [40, exercise 12.18] or [45, exercise 6, chapter 5].

Existence. Let f : G ----+ lK be linear and continuous. Since H is a Hilbert space by the
orthogonal projection theorem (see chapter 11) we have the decomposition H = G EB Gj_.
Define now f : H ----+ lK by f (x) = f (Pre(x)) Vx E H, where x = Pre(x) +Pre_!_ (x ).
Then f is linear and fie= f, so 11711 ~ II! II· However,
17 (x)l =If (Pre(x))l ~ IIJIIIIPre(x)ll ~ llfllllxll Vx E H
(we use the property llxll 2 = IIPre(x) 11 2 +II Pre_!_ (x) II ~ IIPre(x) 11 2 ). From here it follows
that 11711 ~ 11!11, and therefore 11711 = 11!11·
Uniqueness. Let 9 : H ----+ lK be a linear and continuous functional with 9 le= f
and 11911 = 11!11· By the Riesz representation theorem, there is b E H such that 9 (x) =
(x, b) Vx E H. Since b = Pre(b) + Pre_l_(b), then for any y E G we have f (y) =
9(y) = (y,Pre(b)) + (y,Pre_l_(b)) = (y,Pre(b)), from whence 11!11 = IIPre(b)ll· We
have 11!11 = 11911, hence 11911 = IIPre(b)ll, from whence llbll 2 = 11Pre(b)ll 2 . Since llbll 2 =
11Pre(b)ll 2 + 11Pre_l_(b)ll 2 , then Pre_l_(b) = 0, and then 9(x) = (x,b) = (x,Pre(b))
(Pre(x), b) = f(x) V.T EX, i.e., 9 =f.
We have proved (i), and (ii) follows from (i).
Remark. This exercise shows that in the Hilbert space case, the problem of the effec-
tive calculation for the Hahn-Banach extensions requires the calculation of an orthogonal
projection onto a closed linear subspace (see chapter 11 ).
13. i) We have
(b,a)
Pre(b) = b- - -2 a,
II all
and we can use exercise 12.
ii) We have
• 2 )
(X,X frl0 X 3dX , 3
Pr (x 2 ) = x2 --,-x = x 2 x = x2 -x
fol x2dx
- - -
e llxll2 4 '
and we apply (i).

iii) For the fact that (Mn(C)k ·)) is indeed a Hilbert space, see exercise 2 of chapter
10. Let us observe that if A= (aij)i.j E Mn(C), then
n
II All = y I tr(AA*) = 6 laijl 2 ,

""""
i,j=l
which is usually called the Frobenius norm for the matrix A.

Observe that G = {A E Mn(C) I tr(AI;,) = 0} = {A E Mn(C) I (A, In) = 0},
where In is the unit matrix. Since
(B, In) tr(B) tr(B)
Pre(B) = B- - -
2 In= B- -(-)In= B---In,
IIInll tr In n
and .f(A) =(A, B) VA E G, we obtain that f: Mn(C)----+ Cis defined by
f(A) =(A, Pre;( B)) = tr(AB*)- tr(B)tr(A) VA E Mn(C).

71
iv) Recall that if H 1, H 2 are two Hilbert space then the Cartesian product H 1 x H 2 is
a Hilbert space with respect to the inner product ( (x1, Yl), (x2, Y2)) = (x 1, x2) + (Yl, Y2).
Let us observe that
G ={A E Mn(C) X Mn(C) I ((A, B), (In, -In))= 0},
hence
Prc(C, D) (C D)_ ((C, D), (In, -In)) (I -I )

' II (In,- In) 11 2 n, n
tr(C) -tr(D)
(C, D)- (In, -In)= (C- >.In, D +>.In),
2n
where
>. = (tr(C)- tr(D)) / (2n).
Also, f(A, B) tr(AC*) + tr(BD*) = ((A, B), (C, D)) \f(A, B) E G. Therefore
f(A, B)= ((A, B), Prc(C, D)) \f(A, B) E Mn(C) x Mn(C), i.e., the statement.
14. Let f : G -+ lK be a linear and continuous functional with 11!11 -=1- 0. Using the
Hahn-Banach theorem there is a Hahn-Banach extension 9: h -+ lK for f. Since Z~ =Zoo,
00
there is~= (~n)nEN E Zoo such that 9 (x) = L Xn~n \fx = (xn)nEN E h, 11911 =sup l~nl =
n=l nEN
00
11!11 and 9 lc= f. So f (x) = I: x2k6k \fx E G and 11!11 = 11911 2: sup l6kl· However,
k=l kEN
00
from whence 11!11 ::; sup l6kl· We obtain that f (x) = I: x2k6k \fx E G and
nEN k=l
11!11 = sup l6kl· Since 11!11 -=1- 0, it follows that we can find an infinity of sequences
kEN
T = (T2k+dk>o E Zoo such that sup hk+ll =sup l6kl, and let us consider the sequence
- k::>O k::>l
a(T) = (T1,~2,T3,~4 , ... ) E l 00 • We have lla(T)IIoo = 11!11· Using a(T) we construct
9r : Z1 -+ lK defined by
L 6nX2n·
00 00
9r (x) = LT2n+lX2n+l +
n=O n=l
00
Then9r E l~ and ll9rll = lla(T)II = IIJII,andforanyx E Gwehave9r (x) =I: X2n6n =

n=l
f (x ), i.e., 9r lc= f. Since 9r1 -=1- 9r2 for T1 -=1- T2, the statement follows.

For any t E [0, 1] we define ft : X -+ lK by ft (x) = t9 (x) + (1- t) h (x). Clearly,
ft are linear and continuous functionals. Also, for x E G we have ft (x) = t9 (x) +
(1- t) h (x) = tf (x) + (1- t) f (x) = f (x), i.e., ft extends f. If we prove that lift II =
7.2 Solutions 189
11!11 Vt E [0, 1] then the exercise will be solved, since ft 1 #- ft 2 for t1 #- t2 (we have g #- h).
For any x EX we have
lft (x)l :S t lg (x)l + (1- t) lh (x)l :S (t llgll + (1- t) llhll) llxll = llfllllxll,
since llgll = llhll = 11!11, i.e., lift II :::; 11!11 Vt E [0, 1]. Since !t extends f we also have
lift II ~ 11!11, and therefore lift II = 11!11 Vt E [0, 1].
n ker xi <:;;; ker(h- f).

n
16. Since h extends g we have h(x) = f(x) Vx E G, i.e., G =
i=l
Using now exercise 16(i) of chapter 14 we obtain that there are o: 1, ... , O:n E ]!{such that
h - f = o:1xr + · · · + o:nx~.
Remark. This exercise shows that in reasonable situations, the problem of finding the
explicit form for the extensions for a linear and continuous functional is not so difficult. The
problem is much more complicated when we want to find the norm-preserving extensions.
17. For U E G we have
by the Bessel inequality. Hence,
i.e. 11!11 :::; y'475. Let U E L(l2) be defined by U(x1, x2, ... ) = (2xl, x1, 0, ... ) = x1 (2el +
e2). Then U E G, from whence lf(U)I :::; IIJIIIIUII· We have f(U) = (Ue1, e1) =
(2el + e2, e1) = 2, and IIU(x1, x2, ... )II= v'slx1l :S v'sllxll Vx E l2, and then IIUII :::; v's.
We obtain that 2 :::; v'sll!ll, and therefore 11!11 = y'475. Let now 7:
L(l2) --+ lR be a
Hahn-Banach extension for f. Using exercise 16 it follows that there is o: E lR such that
It is easy to see that if x, y E l2 and g : L(l 2) --+ lR is defined by g(U) = (U x, y) , then

11911 = llxiiiiYII· Hence
llhll = 11(1 + a)el- 2ae211 = v(l + o:) 2 + 4a 2.
Using the property llhll = 11!11 = J415, it follows that (1 + o:)2 + 4o: 2 = 4/5, o: = -1/5,
i.e., the statement.
Remark. This exercise cannot be solved using with the same technique as the one used
for exercises 7-14 since the structure for the dual space of L(l 2 ) is not known.
00
18. If I:: lanl = 0 then the assertion from the statement is clearly true. Suppose now
f (f
n=2
that 2
1anl > 0. We shall prove that 11!11 = min(1, >.),where>. = 2
1anl) / la11. We
00
have lf(x)l :::; llxll Vx E G, i.e., llfll :::; 1. For x E G we have -a 1x 1 = I; OnXn, from
n=2
whence
i.e., lx1l :::; A llxll, and then lf(x)l :::; A llxll Vx E G, hence llfll :::; min(1, A). Let n ~ 2
n
such that I; loki > 0. Choose a, (3 E IR\ {0} such that
k=2
(a, (Jsgn (a 2 ), (Jsgn (a 3), ... , (Jsgn (an), 0, ... ) E G.
Then aa1 + (3(a2sgn (a2) + · · · + Onsgn (an))= 0, and then -aa1 = fJ(Ia2l +···+!ani).
We have
Ia I = if(a, (Jsgn (a2), (Jsgn (a3), ... , (Jsgn (an), 0, ... )1 :; llfll max( Ia I, lfJI),
therefore min(1, Ia I I lf31) :::; llfll, that is, llfll ~ rnin(1, (la2l + · ··+I ani) I la1l). Passing
to the limit for n ----> oo we obtain that
II/II :> min ( 1, 1 ,~, I ~ Ia. I) ~min(!,>.).

Let now h : c0 ----> lR be a Hahn-Banach extension for f. Using exercise 16, there
00
is a E lR such that h(x1, ... , Xn, ... ) = X1 +a I; OnXn V(xJ, ... , Xn, ... ) E Co. We have
n=l
00 00
llhll= 11 + aa1l + Ia I I: ian I· Since llhll = llfll it follows that 11 + aa1l + Ia I I; ian I =
n=2 n=2
rnin(1, A), that is, 11 + aa 11+A iaa 11 = rnin(1, A), i.e., denoting by x = aa 1, we have that
11 +xi+ A lxl = rnin(1, A).
i) If A > 1, we obtain the equation 11 + xI + A IxI = 1, which has the real solution
x = 0, that is, aa 1 = 0, a = 0.
ii) If A = 1, we obtain the equation 11 +xi+ l:rl = 1, which has the real solutions
-1 :::; x :::; 0, that is, -1 :::; aa 1 :::; 0.
iii) If A < 1, we obtain the equation 11 +xi+ A lxl = A, which has the real solution
x = -1, that is, aa 1 = -1, a= -1la 1.
19. We have
f
n=2
lain = __EL__
1-lal'
and we use exercise 18.
20. We shall prove that llfll = AI (A+ la1!). If A= 0, this is clearly true. Suppose
00
now that A# 0. For x E G, we have -a 1x 1 = I; OnXn, so

n=2
00
la1llxll :SAL lxnl = A(llxll-lxll),

n=2
7.2 Solutions 191
i.e.,
hence
,\
11(x)l :::; ,\ + la 1lllxll Vx E G,
i.e., 11111 :::; ..\/ (..\ + la1l). Let n 2 2 such that an -=1- 0. Choose a E JR. such that
(1, 0, 0, ... , 0, asgn(an), 0, ... ) E G. Then a 1 +a lanl = 0, i.e., -a 1 = a lanl· We have
1 = 11(1, 0, 0, ... , 0, asgn (an), 0, ... )1 :::; 11111 (1 + lal), that is, lanl :::; 11111 (lanl + la11).
The last inequality is also true for an= 0, and then lanl :::; 11111 (lanl + la11) Vn 2 2. We
obtain that,\:::; 11111 (,\ + la1l), i.e., II! II 2 ..\/ (..\ + la1l).
Let h : l1 ----+ JR. be a Hahn-Banach extension for f. From exercise 16 we know that
00
there is a E JR. such that h(.1: 1, x2, ... ) = x 1 +a 2:: anXn V(x 1, x2, ... ) E h. Since llhll =
n=l
max(l1 + aa11, lal ..\)and llhll = 11!11, it follows that
that is,
max (11 + aa1l, laa1ll~l) = ,\ +,\la 1l,

i.e., denoting by x = aa 1 and M =A/ la 11we have max(l1 + xl, M lxl) = M/ (M + 1),
equation which has a unique real solution x = -1/ ( M + 1), and then
21. We shall prove that 11!11 = (MP / (MP + la 1 jP)) 11P, where M = (};
2
lanlq) lfq.
If M = 0, this is clearly true. Suppose now that M > 0. For x E G we have -a 1x 1 =
00
2:: anXn, hence

n=2
Le.,
and then
Let n:::: 2 such that la21+ · · · + lanl > 0. Choose o:n E lR such that
(O:n, la2lq-l sgn (a2) , la31q-l sgn (a3), ... , lanlq-l sgn (an), 0, ... ) E G.
Then
We have
lo:n I If( O:n, la2lq-l sgn (a2) , la3lq-l sgn (a3) , ... , lanlq-l sgn (an) , 0, ... ) I
< 11!11 (Ia. I'+ ~ la•l''-''' f'

Since (q- 1)p = III I ( 1 + 21aklq) / lo:niP) 1/P ::::
q, we have (f 1. Passing to the limit
for n ----> oo and using the fact that IO:n I ----> Mq / Ia11we obtain that
11!11 (1+ Mqlallp)l/p > 1.

Mqp -
Since q(p - 1) = p, we obtain that
llfll:::: (MP :~a 1 1P) l/p

If h : lP ----> lR is a Hahn-Banach extension for j, from exercise 16 we know that there
00
is o: E lR such that h(x1, x2, ... ) = x1 + o: L anXn 'v'(xn)nEN E lp. Since

n=l
llhll ~ (ll + aa,l' + lal'~ la.l'r·

and llhll = III I we obtain that
(11 + o:allq + lo:lq Mq)l/q = ( MP ) 1/p
MP + la11P '
i.e., denoting by.\ = M/ la 1 1 it follows that o: E lR is a solution for the equation
(11 + o:a1lq + Aq lo:a1lq)ljq = (.\PA: 1) I/p
00
22. Put 1/2 = a. For x E G, x 1 = - L an-lxn, from whence

n=2
00 00 00
n=2 n=2 n=2

00 00
< b llxll L lbn-l - an- 1 1 = b llxll L(bn-l - an- 1)

n=2 n=2
b llxlllb/ (1- b)- a/ (1- a) I,
7.2 Solutions 193
t.e.,
llfll :s; b lb/ (1- b)- a/ (1- a)l.
For a fixed n 2: 2, choose x, y E lR\ {0} such that (x, y, y, ... , y, 0, ... ) E G (n- 1 times y).
Then -x = y(a + · · · + an- 1) and
lxb + y(b 2 + · · · + bn)l = lf(x, y, y, ... , y, 0, ... )I :s; IIJII max(lxl, IYI),
that is,
I(xjy) b + (b 2 + · · · + bn) I < III II max (1, lxl / IYI),

l-b(a+···+an-I)+(b 2 +···+bn)l < llfllmax(1,a+···+an- 1).
Passing to the limit for n ____, oo we obtain that
Iba 1(1 - a) - b21(1 - b) I :s; II J I max ( 1, a 1(1 - all ,
i.e.,
IIJII 2: b lb/ (1- b)- aj (1- a)l min (1, (1- a) fa).
Since a = 1/2 we obtain that
11!11 =bi-b- -11 = bl2b -11_

1-b 1-b
Let h : c0 ____, lR be a Hahn-Banach extension for f. Using exercise 16 we know that

00 00
there is a E lR such that h((xn)nEN) = L bnxn +a L Xn/2n \i(xn)nEN E Co. Since

n=1 n=1
00
llhll = L Ibn+ a/2nl it follows that a E lR is a solution for the equation

n=1
~ Ibn + ~I = b l2b - 11_

~ 2n 1- b
n=1
23. See [20, exercise 22, chapter II] or [5, chapter 2, section 2].
i) a) Let S : Zoo ----t Zoo be defined by S ( (xn)nEl\1) = (x2, X3, ... ) \i (xn)nEN E Zoo.
Obviously S E L (Zoo) and observing that M = (I-S) (Zoo) it follows that M ~ Zoo is a
linear subspace. Since 0 E M, we obtain that d ( e, M) :s; lie II = 1. Let now x E Z00 • If there
is k E N such that xk- xk+1 :s; 0 then 11 - (xk - Xk+I) I = 1- (xk - xk+ 1) 2: 1, and so by
the definition for the norm on Z00 , II (1, 1, ... ) - (I- S) ( (xn)nEN) II 2: 11 - (xk - Xk+I) I 2:
1. If xk- xk+l 2: 0 \ik E N then the sequence (xn)nEN is decreasing. Since the sequence is
also bounded, there is lim Xn E JR, so lim (xn- Xn+ 1) = 0. Then, again by the definition
n----+cx:> n----+oo
for the norm in Zoo,
Hence d (e, M) 2: 1 and sod (e, M) = 1.

b) Using a corollary for the Hahn-Banach theorem, we obtain that there is x* E Z~

such that llx*ll = 1/d (e, M) = 1, x* (e)= 1, and x*IM = 0.
c) Let x E c0 • Define the sequence (x(k))kEN <;;;Zoo by x( 1) = S(x), x(k+ 1 ) = S(x(kl),
i.e., x(k) = (xk+ 1,xk+ 2 , ... ) Vk EN. Let us observe that x- x(ll =(I- S)(x) EM,
x(k- 1 ) - x(k) =(I- S)(x(k- 1)) EM Vk EN, from whence since M is a linear subspace,
x(k)- x = x(k)- x(k- 1) + x(k- 1 ) - x(k- 2 ) + · · · + x(ll- x EM Vk EN. As x*IM = 0,
it follows that x* (x(kl) = x* (x) Vk E N. Let now E > 0. Since x E c0 , we can find
nE E N such that lxnl ::; E Vn ?: mE, and so llx(n) II = sup lxnl ::; E Vn ?: mE. Since
p;>n+1
llx*ll = 1 it follows that lx* (x<nl) I ::; llx*lillx(n) II ::; E Vn?: m,. Since x* (x(k)) = x* (x)
Vk EN, it follows that lx* (x)l ::; E Vs?: 0 and sox* (x) = 0, i.e., x E kerx*. Hence
Co <;;; ker x*. If (xn)nEN E c, let Z = lim Xn. Then (xn)nEN - Ze = (xn - Z)nEN E Co, so
n->oo
(xn)nEN -Ze E kerx*. Since x* is linear, x* ((xn)nEN) = Zx* (e)= Z = lim Xn·
n->oo
Suppose now that there is y = (Yn)nEN E h such that x* = fj. Then it follows that
DO
x* ( (xn)nEN) = 2.:.:: XnYn v (xn)nEN E Zoo. Since x* (en) = 0 Vn E N we obtain that

n=1
Yn = 0 Vn EN, i.e., y = 0, sox* = 0, which is false, since x* (e)= 1.
d)Let(xn)nEN E Zoo. Then(xn-Xn+1)nEN E M,fromwhencex*((xn-Xn+1)n EN) = 0,
and from the linearity of x* we obtain the statement.
ii) (See also exercise 6(i) of chapter 14). If y = (Yn)nEN E Z1, then fi (Zn) =
DO DO
'2:.:: Yn ----+ 0, since the series '2:.:: Yn converges. Suppose that Zn

----+ 0 weak in Z00 • Then
k=n+1 k=1
x* (zn) ----+ 0, where x* is the element from Z~ given by (i). But for any n EN the sequence
(0, ... , 0, 1, 1, 1, ... )converges towards 1 and therefore x* (zn) = 1 Vn E N. We obtain a
contradiction!
iii) Let us denote Z = LIM {a, b, a, b, ... }. Then using the part (d) from (i) we have Z =
LIM {b, a, b, a, ... } , and therefore using the linearity of LIM, 2Z = LIM {a, b, a, b, ... } +
LIM {b, a, b, a, ... } = LIM {a + b, a + b, ... } = a + b, because for a convergent sequence
the Banach Limit coincides with the usual limit. Hence Z = (a+ b) /2. Using the same
idea one can prove that the Banach Limit for a periodic sequence { x1, ... , xP, x 1, ... , xP, ... }
is (x 1 + · · · + xP) /p.
iv) Using the additivity and the fact that f coincide with the usual limit for con-
vergent sequences, we have f (0, 1, 0, 1, ... ) + f (1, 0, 1, 0, ... ) = f (1, 1, 1, 1, ... ) = 1.
Since f is multiplicative and coincide with the usual limit for convergent sequences we
have f (0, 1, 0, 1, ... ) f (1, 0, 1, 0, ... ) = f (0, 0, ... ) = 0. Since f is translation invariant,
f (0, 1, 0, 1, ... ) = f (1, 0, 1, ... ) =a. Then 2a = 1 and a 2 = 0, and we obtain a contradic-
tion.
Chapter 8
Applications for the Hahn-Banach theorem
Definition. Let X be a normed space, or, more generally, a linear topological space. A
subset A ~ X is called fundamental if Sp (A) is dense in X.
Theorem. Let X be a normed space, or, more generally, a Hausdorff locally convex
space, and A ~ X. Then the following assertions are equivalent:
i) A is fundamental;
ii) For any x* E X* with the property that x* = 0 on A it follows that x* = 0 on X.
Theorem. Let X be a normed space, or, more generally, a linear topological space, and
0 0
A, B ~X two non-empty convex subsets such that A# 0. If A nB = 0 then we can find
x* E X*\{0} and t E lR such that
Rx*(x) :::; t:::; Rx*(y) Vx E A, Vy E B.
Theorem. i) Let X be a normed space, or, more generally, a linear topological space,
and A, B ~ X two non-empty convex subsets, such that A is open and A n B = 0. Then
we can find x* E X* and t E lR such that
Rx*(a) < t:::; Rx*(b) Va E A, Vb E B.
ii) Let X be a normed space, or, more generally, a linear topological space, and A,
B ~ X two non-empty open convex sets such that A n B = 0. Then we can find x* E X*
and t E lR such that
Rx*(a) < t < Rx*(b) Va E A, Vb E B.
Theorem. Let X be normed space, or, more generally, a Hausdorff locally convex
space, and A, B ~ X two non-empty convex subsets such that one is compact and the
other is closed. If A n B = 0 then A are B strictly separated, that is, we can find x* E X*
and t E lR such that
Rx*(a) < t < Rx*(b) Va E A, Vb E B.
196 Applications for the Hahn-Banach theorem
8.1 Exercises
Examples of dense linear subspaces in lP and LP
1. Let 1 < p < oo and G = { (xn)nEN E lpl f 1

Xn = 0 }·Prove that G ~ lp is a dense
linear subspace.
00
2. Let (an)nEN be a sequence of scalars such that L Iani op 0, and let 1 < p < oo.
n=1
Find a necessary and sufficient condition on the sequence (an)nEN for the linear subspace
G = { (xn)nEN E lpl f 1
anXn = 0} be dense in lp.
3. Let 1 < p < oo. Prove that G = {x E Lp(t-L) I JTR x(t)dt = 0} is a dense linear
subspace in Lp(t-L), where !Lis the Lebesgue measure on R
4. Let 1 <:::: p < oo. Consider an increasing function cp : [0, oo) ---+ [0, oo) such that
there are M > 0, o > 0 with the properties:
cp(t+u)<::;M(cp(t)+cp(u)) Vt,u2':0,
and
cp (tu) <:::: Mtacp(u) Vt > 0, Vu 2': 0.
Prove that for any (an)nEN ~ (0, oo) the set G = { (xn)nEN E lpl f 1
ancp(lxnl) < oo} is
a dense linear subspace in lp.
Deduce that if o E lR then G = { (xn)nEN E 12 1 f 1
na lxnl < oo} is a dense linear
subspace in 12 .
Fundamental sets in c0 , 1P and L 2
oo xk
5. i) Let fn : [0, 1] ---+ lR, n E N be defined by fn (.1:) = L ----;;:;;· Prove that the set
k=O 2
Un In EN} is fundamental in £ 2 [0, 1].
ii) Let (Jk)k?O ~ C [0, 1] be a fundamental set in £ 2 [0, 1] which is uniformly bounded,
i.e., sup sup lfk(x)l < oo, and let 9n : [0, 1] ---+ JR, n E N, be defined by 9n (x)
k?O xE[O,l]
f
k=O
fk~x).
2 n
Prove that the set {gn In EN} is fundamental in £2 [0, 1].
6. Let 1 p < oo. For every kEN let Xk = (1, 1/2k, 1/2 2 k, ... ) E lp. Prove that the
<::::
set { xk I k E N} is fundamental in lP"
7. Let Xn = (e-(1+ 1/nl,e- 2 (1+ 1/n), ... ) E 11 Vn EN. Prove that {xn In EN} is a
fundamental set in h.
8. Let Xn = (e- 1 , 2n- 1 e- 2 , 3n- 1 e- 3 , ... , k"- 1 e-k, ... ) E co Vn E N. Prove that
{Xn I n E N} is a fundamental set in c0 .
9. For every z E C with Rz > 0, let Xz = (e-z, e- 2z, e- 3z, ... , e-kz, ... ) E ea. Prove
that the set
is fundamental in c0 .
8.1 Exercises 197
A way to construct a fundamental set from a fundamental one

10. i) Let (akn)(k,n)ENxN <;;;: K\ {0} be a double-indexed sequence of scalars such that
1
L
n
lim - 1
-
1
laknl = 0 Vp EN.
n----j.oo apn k=p+l
n
Let X be a Banach space, (xn)nEN <;;;: X a bounded sequence, and define Yn = L aknXk
k=l
Vn E N. Prove that if x* E X* has the property that x*(yn) = 0 Vn E N then x*(xn) = 0
Vn E N, and then deduce that if (xn)nEN <;;;: X is in addition a fundamental set then
(Yn)nEN <;;;: X is also a fundamental set.
ii) Let X be a Banach space and (xn)nEN <;;;: X a bounded sequence which is a funda-
n
mental set, and define Yn = L xk/kn Vn EN. Prove that the set (Yn)nEN is fundamental.
k=l
Non-reflexivity
11. For any x =1- 0 in a normed space X, by the Hahn-Banach theorem there is x* E X*
ofnorm 1 such that lx* (x)l = llxll· Give an example of a normed space X and an element
x* E X* of norm 1 such that lx* (x)l < llxll, for any x EX\ {0}. (Obviously, X must be
taken to be a non-reflexive space.)
Extension of equivalent norms
12. Let (X, 11·11 1 ) be a normed space andY <;;;:X a linear subspace. Let 11·11 2 be a norm
on X which is equivalent with the norm 11·11 1 on Y. Prove that there is a norm 11·11 on X
which is equivalent with 11·11 1 on X and whose restriction to Y is 11·11 2 .
Separation in finite-dimensional normed spaces
13. Let X be a finite-dimensional real normed space, and A <;;;: X a convex subset. If
x 0 E X \A, prove that there is a non-null linear and continuous functional which separates
A and x 0 .
14. Let X be a finite-dimensional real normed space, and K <;;;: X 0 be a convex subset
with non-empty interior. Prove that for any y E K\ K
there is a hyperplane H <;;;: X such
that y E Hand K is on one side of H.
Examples of non-separation
t
15. Consider the real Hilbert space l 2 , and consider the set
A ~{ a,e, I n E N, a, E IR, i ~ I, n, "" > 0} <;; l,,

where (en)nEN is the standard basis from l2 . Let B = -A. Prove that A and Bare convex
disjoint sets, and that for any x* E l~ \ { 0} we have x* (A) = x* (B) = R What can we
deduce?
16. In ffi. 3 we consider the convex cone C given by the equations: x ~ 0, y ~ 0,
z 2 ::; xy. Let d <;;;: ffi. 3 be the line given by the equations: x = 0, z = 1. Prove that we
cannot find a plane in ffi. 3 which contains d, and which has the cone strictly on one of its
sides. However, the line and the cone are disjoint closed sets.
A characterization for the closed convex hull for a set in a normed space
17. Let X be a real normed space.

i) If A ~ X is non-empty, prove that
co (A)= { x E XI x* (x):::; :~~x* (a) Vx* EX*}.
ii) Let K ~ X be a closed convex set with non-empty interior. Prove that for any
x 0 E K\ Kthere is x* E X* such that x* (x 0) = sup x* (x).
xEK
iii) In the case X = lRn, n E N, with an arbitrary norm, prove that for any closed
convex set K ~ X and for any x 0 E K\ Kthere is an x* E X* such that x* (x 0 ) =
supx*(x).
xEK
A set in ccn for which the convex cone generated by it is the entire ccn
18. Prove that the convex cone generated by the set { (z, z 2 , ... , zn) E ccn I Iz I :::; 1} is
exactly ccn.
A concave function
19. Let X be a real normed space and A ~ X a closed convex non-empty subset,
different from X. Prove that the function x f----7 d(x, CA) is concave on A.
Convexity inequalities for functions
20. Let X be a non-empty set, P = {! : X ---> lR I i(x) 2 0 Vx E X} and

M : P ---> JR+ be a positive homogeneous subadditive and increasing functional. Let
n E Nand let cp : [0, oo t
---> JR+ be a continuous function with the properties:
a) tl > 0, ... , tn > 0::::} cp(tl, ... , tn) > 0;

b) cp is positive homogeneous;
c) the set A= {(t 1, ... , tn) E [0, oot I cp(t 1, ... , tn) 2 1} is convex.
Prove that M(cp(JI, h, ... ,in)) :::; cp(M(JI), ... , M(fn)), VJI, h ... , in E P.
The Phillips extension for an operator defined on a Hilbert space
21. i) Let H be a Hilbert space and G ~ H a closed linear subspace. Prove that for
any normed space X and for any linear and continuous operator T : G ---> X there is a
linear and continuous operator T : H ---> X such that Tic = T and IITII = The IITII·
operator T with the above properties is called a Phillips extension ofT.
More precisely, if T : G -+ X is a linear and continuous operator on G then T :
H-+ X defined by T(x) = T(Prc(x)) Vx E His a linear and continuous operator which
extends T, and has the same norm as T. (Prc(x) is the orthogonal projection of x onto G.)
ii) Let G = {x E l 2 I (x, e 1) = 0} and T : G -+ c0 be the canonical inclusion,
T (x) = x Vx E G. Prove that the Phillips extensions ofT are ofthe form Ta 1 : l2 ---> c0 ,
Ta 1 (x 1, x2, x 3, ... ) = (a 1x1, x2, x3, ... ),where la1l :::; 1.
8.2 Solutions 199
Extension for a seminorm
22. Let X be a linear space, G a linear subspace and p : X --* JR+ a seminorm.
~ X
Let q: G--* JR+ be a seminorm such that q (x) ::; p (x) Vx E G.
Prove that there is a seminorm q : X --* JR+ such that q Ia= q and q (x) ::; p (x)
Vx EX.
Strong separation in linear topological spaces
23. Let X be a linear topological space, and A ~ X a non-empty convex and compact
set. If x 0 is an element of X such that for each x E A there is a linear and continuous
functional strongly separating x 0 and x, then there is a linear and continuous functional on
X strongly separating x 0 and A.
Convex sets which cannot be separated
24. Let H = L2 ([-1, 1]; JR), where on [-1, 1] we consider the Lebesgue measure, and
on H we consider the usual norm. For any a, f3 E JR, a =f (3, we denote Eo: = {! E H I f
continuous, f(O) =a}, E 13 = {! E H I f continuous, f(O) = (3}. Prove that Eo: and E 13
are disjoint convex sets, which are dense in H, and that they cannot be separate by a linear
and continuous functional on H.
8.2 Solutions
1. Let f E z;
be such that f = 0 on G. We shall show that f = 0, and then it
will follow that G is dense in lp. Since f E
00
z;
= lq there is ~ = (~n)nEN E lq such
that f(x) = 2:: ~nXn Vx = (xn)nEN E lp and IIJII = ll~llq· Let n E N, n 2 2. Then
n=1
x = ( -1, 0, ... , 0, 1, 0, ... ) E G (n- 2 occurrences ofO) and by hypothesis f(x) = 0, i.e.,
00
~n- 6 = 0, ~n = ~1 Vn 2 2, i.e.,~ = (6, 6, ... ) E lq. We have 2:: l61q < oo, from
n=1
whence 6 = 0, i.e.,~= 0 and so f(x) = 0 Vx E lp, f = 0.
Remarks.
i) Using the fact that c0 = h the same reasoning as above assures that the linear sub-
space G = { (xn)nEN E col f 1
Xn = 0} is dense in Co.
ii) In the case of l 2 , which is a Hilbert space, the density can be also obtained using the
following assertion: if G is a linear subspace in h, and from x l_ G it follows that x = 0,
then G is dense in l 2 •
2. We prove that G ~ lp is dense if and only if (an)nEN tf- lq, 1/p + 1/q = 1. Suppose
that G is dense in lp· Let us suppose, for a contradiction, that (an)nEN E lq. Then f : lp --* ][{
00
defined by f(x) = 2:: anxn Vx = (xn)nEN E lp is a linear and continuous functional, and
n=1
G = ker f is a closed linear subspace. Since G is dense it follows that lp = G = ker f, i.e.,
f(x) = OVx = (xn)nEN E lp, i.e., an= OVn EN, a contradiction. Therefore (an)nEN tf- lq.
Conversely, suppose that (an)nEN t/: lq. Then A= {n EN I an /c 0} is infinite. Let

us write A as a subsequence (kn)nEN of N. Let f E z;
such that f = 0 on G. Since f
z; =
00
E lq, there is~ = (~n)nEN E lq such that f(x) = I: ~nXn Vx = (xn)nEN E lp and
n=l
11!11 = ll~llq· lfN /cA, let m E N\A. The element em belongs toG, and then f(em) = 0,
CXl
i.e., ~m = 0. Hence f(x) = I: ~knXkn Vx = (xn)nEN E lp. For any n E N, n ?: 2, consider

n=l
x = (0, ... , 0, -1 I ak 1 , 0, ... ,0, 1I akn, 0, ... ) E G ( -1 I ak on the kih position and 1I ak, on
1
the k~ position). Then f(x) = 0, i.e.,
However,~= (~n)nEN E lq, i.e.,
CXl
and since (an)nEN t/: lq, i.e., I: lanlq = oo, it follows that ~k 1 = 0, from whence ~kn = 0
n=l
co
Vn?: 2. Then f(x) = I: ~knXkn = 0 Vx = (xn)nEN E lp, and therefore G ~ lp is dense.
n=l
3. Let U E (Lp(J.L))* be such that U = 0 on G. We shall show that U = 0 and this will
ensure that G is dense in Lp(J.L). Since U E (Lp(J.L))* = Lq(J.L), 1lp + 1lq = 1, there is
g E Lq(J.L) such that U(a) = JJRg(t)a(t)dt Va E Lp(J.L) and IIUII = llgllq· Let 0 < h < oo
and x, y E R The element f = X[y,y+h] - X[x,x+h] belongs toG, and then by hypothesis
U(f) = 0, i.e., J:+h g(t)dt = J;+h g(t)dt. Then
1 jy+h 11x+h
h Y (g(t)-g(y))dt=h x (g(t)-g(x))dt+g(x)-g(y) Vx,yER
From the Holder inequality it follows that
lg(t)- g(xW dt )1/q

11x+h I (11x+h
1 h x (g(t)- g(x)) dt ::; h x
and since g E Lq(J.L), using the Lebesgue differentiation theorem it follows that
11x+h
lim -
h->D,h>O h X
lg(t)- g(xW dt = 0
J.L-a.e. with respect to x E R Then
11x+h
lim - (g(t)- g(x)) dt = 0
h->D,h>O h X
8.2 Solutions 201
{L-a.e. with respect to x E R Choosing y such that
1 !y+h
lim -h (g(t)- g(y)) dt = 0,
h~O,h>O y
it follows that g(x) - g(y) = 0 {L-a.e. with respect to x E JR, i.e., g is constant a.e .. But
g E Lq(fL), therefore g = 0, and then U = 0.
4. From zp (tu) :s; Mt"'zp(u) Vt > 0, Vu 2 0 it follows that zp (0) :s; Mt"'zp(O) Vt > 0,
hence fort--> 0, zp(O) :s; 0, i.e., zp(O) = 0. From the inequality zp (t + u) :s; M(zp(t)+zp(u))
and that zp is increasing we obtain that x + y E G for x, y E G. From the inequality
zp (tu) :s; Mtazp(u) Vt > 0, Vu 2 0 we obtain that Vx E G, \/)..ElK it follows that>.x E G,
thus G is a linear subspace in lr Since zp(O) = 0 it follows that {en I n E N} c:;;; G and since
G is a linear subspace then Sp {en In EN} c:;;; G, and then lp = Sp {en I n EN} c:;;; G, i.e.,
G is dense in lp.
5. i) Let X= Sp {fn I n EN}. To show that X is dense in L 2 [0, 1], we will prove that
if g E L 2 [0, 1] has the property that g j_ X, then it follows that g = 0. Let g E L 2 [0, 1] be
J
such that g j_ X. Then (g, fn/ = 0 Vn EN, i.e., 01 g (x) fn (x) dx = 0 Vn EN. Let pEN
P xk
and lets; (x) = 2:: -,;:;;· Then
k=O 2
1
2Pn (2n- 1) Vp, n EN, Vx E [0, 1],
from whence is; (x) g (x)- fn (x) g (x) I :s; lg (x)l /2n- 1 Vp, n E N, Vx E [0, 1], and
then ls;g- fngl 2 :s; lgl 2 /2n-l Vp, n E N. Since s;g --> fng pointwise for p --> oo,
from the Lebesgue dominated convergence theorem it follows that lim lls;g- fngll 2 = p~oo
0. But 11·11 1 :s;

on L2 [0, 1], by the Holder inequality, from whence we deduce that
11·11 2
=
lim lls;g- fngll 1 0, and therefore
p--->00
1
lim ( { s;(x)g(x)dx- ( fn(x)g(x)dx) =0,
p->oo Jo Jo
i.e.,
L 21kn 11 xkg (x) dx

00
k=O 0
= 11 0
fn (x) g (x) dx = 0,
ak
J01 xkg (x) dx
1
L -- =
oo
L
oo
so (1/2kn) = 0 Vn E N. Let ak = fo xkg (x) dx. Then 0
k=O k=02~
Vn EN (1). Using now the Cauchy-Buniakowsk i-Schwarz inequality we obtain that
1 ) 1/2 ( 1 ) 1/2 1 ( 1 ) 1/2
lakl :s; ( 1 x 2 kdx 11g (x)l 2 dx = v'2k+1 1lg (x)l 2 dx --> 0,
i.e., ak --> 0. In particular, the sequence (ak)kEN is bounded. Let zp : ]]]) --> C be the
00
function defined by zp (z) = 2:: akzk, where ]]]) c:;;; C is the open unit disc. Then we have
k=O
~ lakilzlk :o::; (~~~ iakl) ~ lzlk < oo on[]), and therefore r.p is a well defined analytic
function. The relation (1) implies that r.p (1/2n) = 0 Vn E Nand since 1/2n ----> 0 from
the identity theorem for analytic functions it follows that r.p (z) = 0 Vz E []),i.e., ak = 0
Vk 2': 0, that is, J01 xkg (x) dx = 0 Vk 2': 0, i.e., g l_ xk Vk 2': 0, from whence g l_ P for
all polynomial P. Since the set of all the polynomials is dense in L2 [0, 1] it follows that
g = 0.
ii) Exercise! One can use the same technique as above.

z;
Let f E be such that f = 0 on G. We shall prove that f = 0 on lP. Since f E z; = lq
00
there is~ = (~n)nEN E lq such that f(x) = ~ ~nXn Vx = (xn)nEN E lp. Since f = 0
n=1
on G it follows that f(xk) = 0 Vk E N, i.e., f
n=1 2
k~~ 1 ) = 0 Vk E N (1). Consider
00
'P : []) <:;; C ----> C defined by cp( z) = ~ ~nzn- 1 , where []) is the open unit disc in the
n=1
complex plane. Since (~n)nEN is bounded ((~n)nEN E lq, 1 < q :o::; oo), we obtain that 'Pis
a well defined analytic function on[]). The relation (1) implies that cp(l/2k) = 0 Vk E N.
Since 1/2k ----> 0, from the identity theorem for analytic functions it follows that cp(z) = 0
00
Vz E []),i.e., ~ ~nzn- 1 = 0 V lzl < 1, from whence it follows that ~n = 0 Vn E N, and

n=1
from here f(x) = 0 Vx E lP"
7. See [47, p. 58].

Let f E li such that f (xn) = 0 Vn E N. Let y = (Yn)nEN E Zoo such that
00
j(a1, a2, ... ) = ~ akYk V(a1, a 2, ... ) E l1. Since f (xn) = 0 Vn E N, it follows that
00
k=1
00
~ e-( 1+1/n)kYk = 0 Vn EN. Let 'P (z) = ~ yke-zk, where z E C, ~z > 0. We have
k=1 k=1
and therefore 'P : H <:;; C ----> C, where H = { z E C I ~z > 0}, is a well defined and
analytic function. But from our hypothesis cp(1 + 1/n) = 0 Vn EN and since 1 + 1/n----> 1
from the identity theorem for analytic functions it follows that cp(z) = 0 Vz E H, therefore
00 00
~ yke-zk = 0 Vz E H, and then~ ykwk = 0 Vz E [])\ {O},from whence Yk = 0 Vk EN,

k=1 k=1
i.e., f = 0.
8. See [21, exercise 2.1, chapter 2].

00
Let~= (6,~2 , ... ,~k, ... ) El 1 such that ~~kkn- 1 e-k = OVn EN (1). Then
k=1
00
let 'P : []) ----> C be the function defined by cp( z) = ~ ~kzk, where []) <:;; C is the open
k=1
unit disc in the complex plane. Clearly, 'P : []) ----> C is an analytic function. Define
8.2 Solutions 203
cp 1(z) = zcp'(z) and 'Pn+1(z) = zcp~(z) ifn;::: 1. We have cp 2(z) = z(cp'(z) + zcp"(z)) =
zcp'(z) + z 2cp"(z), and using induction one can easily deduce that 'Pn(z) = a1nzcp'(z) +
· · · + an-l,nZn-lcp(n-l)(z) + zncp(n)(z), Vn E N (2). From the relation (1) we have
00
2.:::: ~kke-k = 0, i.e., cp 1 (1/e) = 0, and by induction, using (1) we easily deduce that
k=l
'Pn(1/e) = 0 Vn EN. Using the relation (2), we obtain that cp(n)(1/e) = 0 Vn EN. Since
cp is analytic and cp(n)(1/e) = 0 Vn ;::: 0, it follows that cp(z) = 0 Vz E lDl, i.e., ~k = 0
Vk E N, and therefore if x* = ~ E 11 has the property that x* = 0 on A = { Xn I n E N},
then x* = 0. This implies that Sp(A) is dense in c0 .

00
Let~= (6, 6, ... , ~k, ... ) E h such that 2.:::: ~ke-kz = 0 Vz E C, ~z > 0. Consider the
k=l ()()
2.:::: ~kwk Vw E lDl. Then cp(e-z) = 0

analytic function cp: lDl <;;; C----+ C defined by cp(w) =
k=l
Vz E H = {z E C I ~z > 0}, and then it follows that cp = 0. Then ~k = 0 Vk;::: 1, that is,
~ = 0. Therefore if x* = ~ E h has the property that x* = 0 on A, then x* = 0, and this
implies that Sp(A) is dense in c0 .
10. i) From x*(yn) = 0 Vn E N, using the formula for Yn and the linearity of
n n
x* we obtain that 2.:::: aknx*(xk) = 0 Vn E N. Then a 1nx*(xl) = - 2.:::: aknx* (xk),
k=l k=2
n
lalnllx* (x1)l :S: M llx*ll 2.:::: laknl, from whence
k=2
by our hypothesis (hereM = sup llxnll < oo). Hence x* (xl) = 0. Then a 2nx* (x 2) =
nEN
n
- 2.:::: aknx* (xk), from whence
k=3
n
la2nllx* (x2)l :S: M llx*ll L laknl,

k=3
that is,
lx* (x2)l :S: M llx*ll 2.:.::~= 3 l~knl ----+ 0,
a2n
by our hypothesis. Hence x* (x 2 ) = 0. In this way, by induction, we obtain that x* (xn) = 0
Vn EN.
If, in addition, (xn)nEN is fundamental, then if x* EX*, x*(yn) = 0 Vn EN, we obtain
that x*(xn) = 0 Vn E N, and since (xn)nEN is a fundamental set it follows that x* = 0.
Therefore the set (Yn)nEN is fundamental.
ii) See [47, p. 59].
For akn = 1/kn we have
n 1 n 1 n-p
k~l kn :S; k~l (p + 1)n (p+1)n'
from whence, denoting
we have
O<ct < (n-p)pn = n-p ---+0
- pn- (p+ 1)n (1 + 1/p)n '
since if a> 1 then lim (x- p) fax = 0. Now we apply (i).
X--+00
11. For concrete examples see exercises 8-12 from chapter 3.
12. Since the norms 11·11 1 and 11·11 2 are equivalent on Y it follows that there are m, M > 0
such that m IIYII 1 ::; IIYII 2 ::; M IIYII 1 \fy E Y. For any f : (Y, 11·11 2 ) ---+ lK linear and
continuous, it follows that f : (Y, 11·11 1 ) ---+ 1K is linear and continuous. Let (X, 11·11 1 ) ---+ 1:
lK be a Hahn-Banach extension for f (therefore, with the same norm as f : (Y, 11·11 1 ) ---+
IK). Since IIYII 2 ::; M IIYII 1 Vy E Y, we have llfii(Y,II·IIt)* ::; M llfii(Y,II·II 2 )*, and then
II J1jI (X,II·IIt)* ::; M

I
llfii(YIIII )*.For x EX, define llxll to be the maximum between m llxll 1
,.2
and sup { li(x) I}, where the supremum is taken over all f and 1, where 1: (X, 11·11 )---+ 1
lK is a Hahn-Banach extension for fi(Y,II·IIt) , and f E (Y, 11·11 2 )*, IIIII ::; 1. Let us observe
that llxll ::; M llxll 1 Vx EX. Indeed, if llfii(YII·II )* ::; 1 then

, 2
jjJ1j
I I (X,II·IIt)
• ::; M, and then
11(x) I::; M llxll 1 - So llxll E IR+ \fx EX.
If llxll = 0 then llxll 1 = 0, sox= 0. Obviously, ll>.xll = l>.lllxll \f). E IK, \fx EX and
llx + Yll ::; llxll + IIYII Vx, y EX. So, (X, 11·11) is a normed space. For any y E Y we have
IIYII 2 = sup If (y)l = sup 11 (y) I,

!E(Y,II·Ib)* ,11!119 !E(Y,II·II 2 )*, 11!119
and since m IIYII 1 ::; IIYII 2 \fy E Y, we obtain that IIYII 2 = IIYII \fy E Y. Since m llxll 1 ::;
llxll ::; M llxll 1 Vx EX it follows that the norms 11·11 and 11·11 1 are equivalent on X.
13. See [20, exercise 24, chapter V, section 7].

Let n = dimJR X and suppose that A does not contain n linearly independent ele-
ments. Let k = max { m I there are m linearly independent elements in A}. Then k<n
and if we consider { e 1, ... , ek} ~ A linearly independent, then for any x E A the system
{ e 1 , ... , ek, x} will be linearly dependent, i.e., there are a 1 , ... , ak, a E lR not all zero such
k
that 2::: ctiei + ax = 0. If a = 0, since { e 1 , ... , ek} are linearly independent it follows
i=1
k
that ct 1 = · · · = ak = 0, which is false! So ct -I 0, and then x = - 2::: ctiei/a, i.e.,
i=1
A ~ Sp { e 1 , ... , ek}. Complete now the linearly independent system { e 1, ... , ek} to a ba-
sis { e 1, ... ,en} of X. Consider then the dual basis { ei, ... , e~} in X*. Then e~ (ei) = 0,
i = 1,k, so e~ = 0 on Sp{e1, ... ,ek}, from whence it follows that e~IA = 0. For
x 0 E X\A, e~ (x 0) E IR, and so e~ (x 0) > 0, or e~ (xo) = 0, or e~ (x 0) < 0. Then
8.2 Solutions 205
e~ (x) :=:: 0 > e~ (x 0 ) Vx E A, ore~ (x) :::; 0 :::; e~ (x 0 ) Vx E A, ore~ (x) :::; 0 < e~ (x 0 )
Vx E A, so e~ separates A and x 0 .
Suppose now that A contains n linearly independent elements. Using exercise 43(i) of
chapter I it follows that A# 0 and since A and { x 0 } are convex disjoint and non-empty
sets we obtain that there is x* E X*\ {0} which separates A and x 0 .
14. See [44, exercise I, chapter 2].

Without loss of generality, we can suppose that 0 EK. Since K# 0, using exercise
12(iii) of chapter I3 we obtain that K = k Denoting by A = K,we have A # 0, A is

convex and open, and y E A, y tf A. Since 0 E A, which is convex and open, and y tf A,
there is x* E X* such that x* (x) < 1 Vx E A and x* (y) = 1. Let now H = [x* = 1]. It
follows that y E Hand A<;;;; [x* < 1], from whence A<;;;; [x* :::; 1]. Since A= Kit follows
that K <;;;; [x*:::; 1], i.e., K is on one side of H = [x* = 1].
15. Obviously, A and Bare convex disjoint sets in l 2 . Let x* E (l 2)* \{0}. We will
show that x* (A) = R Since x* is not zero, there is k E N such that x* (ek) # 0. But
for >. E ~ the element >.ek + ek+l E A (the coefficient for ek+l is 1 > 0) and then
x* (>.ek + ek+I) Ex* (A). So, .Ax* (ek) + x* (ek+l) Ex* (A) V>. E R Since A is convex,
it follows that x*(A) <;;;; ~is convex, i.e., an interval. Since x* (ek) # 0 for>. __, ±oo
it follows that x* (A) is unbounded on both sides of~. i.e., x* (A) = R We also have
.T* (B) = -x* (A) = R
We deduce that in order to have a separation theorem for two disjoint convex sets, we
must also have a topological condition on one of the sets.
16. See [9, exercise 5, chapter II, section 3], or [35, section 3, chapter I].
We prove first that A is a cone. The conditions x :=:: 0, y :=:: 0, z 2 :::; xy are equivalent
withxt 2+2zt+y :=:: OVt E R Thus, if(x 1, y1, zl), (x 2, Y2, z 2) E A thenx 1t 2+2z1t+y 1 :=:: 0
and x2t 2 + 2z2t + Y2 :=:: 0 Vt E ~.from whence (x 1 + x 2)t 2 + 2(z1 + z 2 )t + (y 1 + y2) :=:: 0
Vt E ~. and then x1 + x2 :=:: 0, Y1 + Y2 :=:: 0, (z1 + z2) 2 :::; (x1 + x2)(y1 + Y2) so
(x 1 + x2, Y1 + Y2, z1 + z2) EA. Clearly, if>.:=:: 0 and (x, y, z) E A, then (.Ax, >.y, >.z) EA.
Suppose, for a contradiction, that there is a plane P in ~ 3 with equation ax + by + cz = a
such that d <;;;; P and ax+ by+ cz < a V (x, y, z) E C. From d <;;;; P it follows that
by + c = a Vy E ~' and so b = 0, a = c. Hence the plane P has equation ax + cz = c. It
follows that ax+ cz < c V (x, y, z) E C. For any z E ~the element (1, z 2, z) belongs to C
and so a+ cz < c Vz E R For z > 0, a/ z + c < cj z, from whence passing to the limit for
z __, oo, c :::; 0. Analogously, for z < 0, a/ z + c > cj z, from whence passing to the limit
for z __, -oo, c :=:: 0. Then c = 0 and the plane P has equation x = 0. But (0, 1, 0) E C
and since C is strictly on one side of P we obtain a contradiction.
i)LetB = co(A) andC = {xEXIx*(x):S~~~x*(a) Vx* EX*}· ThenC =
n
x*EX*
[x* :::; sup x* (a)] ' so
aEA
c is an intersection of closed and convex sets (in the case
when the supremum is infinite, the set [x* :::; sup x* (a)] is the whole space X). It then
aEA
follows that C is a closed convex set which contains A, and then B ~ C. Suppose, for a
contradiction, that there is x 0 E C\B. Using a separation theorem it follows that there are
x* E X* and t E lR such that x* (b) :::; t < x* (x 0 ) Vb E B. Then from x* (b) :::; t Vb E B
and A ~ B, it follows that x* (a) :::; tVa E A, i.e., supx* (a) :::; t < x* (x 0 ), that is,
aEA
sup x* (a) < x* (x 0 ), so, using the definition for the set C, xo tt C, a contradiction.
aEA
ii) Since K is convex with non-empty interior using exercise 12 of chapter 13 it follows
0 0 - 0
that K is convex and that K = K = K, since K is closed. As x 0 E K\ K, there are
x* EX* and c E lR such that x* (x) < c:::; x* (x 0 ) Vx EK and so supx* (x):::; x* (x 0 ).
0
xEK
Since K= K from the continuity of x* E X* it follows that sup x* (x) = sup x* (x) .
xEK xEK
Then sup x* (x) :::; x* (x 0 ). The reverse inequality follows from the fact that x 0 E K.
xEK
iii) If the set K contains n linearly independent elements, then by exercise 43(i) of
0
chapter 1 it follows that K =1- 0 and we can apply (ii). If K contains at most n - !linearly
independent elements, then there is a linear subspace Y with dim Y :::; n - 1 such that
K ~ Y. Since Y =1- JRn, there is x* E X*\{0} such that x* = 0 on Y. Since K ~ Y it
followsthatx* (x 0 ) = supx* (x) = 0.
xEK

If X is a linear space and A ~ X is a non-empty subset, then the convex cone generated
by A is the set of all the linear combinations of the form 2:: .A; a;, where (a;)iEI is a finite
iEJ
non-empty family of elements from A and .A; > 0 for every i E J.
Let X be the convex cone from the statement. We will show first that X is dense in en,
i.e., X = en. Suppose, for a contradiction, that X =1- en' i.e., we can find Zo E en' Zo X tt
and r > 0 such that X n B(zo,r) = 0, where B(zo,r) ={wE en lllw- zoll 2 < r}.
Since X is convex and B (z 0 , r) is convex and open, we can find x* E (en)* = en, not
n
zero, x* (x 1 , ... , Xn) = 2:: c;x;, and t E lR such that ~x* (x) :::; t:::; ~x* (y) Vx E B (z0 , r),
i=1
Vy E X. Since X is a convex cone we have that ~x* (>.y) ~ t '1/y E X,'</).. ~ 0, hence
~x* (y) ~ t /).. Vy E X, V).. > 0 and passing to the limit for >. ---> oo, it follows that
~x* (y) ~ 0 Vy E X. Now ~x* (y) ~ 0 Vy = (z, z 2 , ... , zn) E en, lzl :::; 1 implies
that~(t 1
ckzk) ~ 0 Vz E e, lzl :::; 1. For any() E [0, 27r] we have iei0 l = 1, and
so~ (t 1
ckeikO) ~ 0 for() E [0, 21r]. But J02"' eikOd() = 0 for every k E Z\ {0} and so
J02"' (~ ckeikO) d() = 0, from whence it follows that ~ ( J02"' (~1 ckeikO) d()) = 0, i.e.,
J02"' ~ (t 1
ckeikO) d() = 0. Since~ (t 1
ckeikO) ~ 0 W E [0, 21r], from a well known
property of the Riemann integral it follows that ~ (~1 ckeikO) = 0 W E [0, 21r]. Let
8.2 Solutions 207
n
P (z) = I: ckzk, Vz E <C and f (z) = eP(z) Vz E <C. We have proved that RP (z) = 0
k=l
Vz E <C with lzl = 1 and then If (z)l = e~P(z) = 1 Vz E <C with lzl = 1. By the maximum
modulus principle it follows that If (z) I ~ 1 Vz E <C with Iz I ~ 1. Since f (z) -=1- 0 on
lD> applying the minimum modulus principle it follows that If (z) I 2 1 Vz E <C, Iz I ~ 1
and then If (z)l = 1 Vz E <C, lzl ~ 1. It follows that RP (z) = 0 Vz E <C, lzl ~ 1. Now
from the Cauchy-Riemann equations it follows that CSP (z) is constant on the closed unit
disc in the complex plane and since P is a polynomial it follows that P is constant on <C,
n
which contradicts the form of P, P(z) = I: ckzk, with c1 , ... ,en E <C not all zero. So
k=l
Vz0 E <Cn\X, Vr > 0 we have X n B (z 0 , r) -=/:- 0, i.e., X ~en is dense.
LetT : en ---> IR. 2n, T (zl, ... , Zn) = (Rzl, CSzl, ... , Rzn, CSzn). If we consider en and
IR. 2n as linear spaces over JR., then T : en ---> IR.2n is IR.-linear. Since X ~ <Cn is convex,
this implies that T (X) ~ IR. 2n is convex. Also, Tis clearly a homeomorphism, and since
X ~ en is dense then T (X) ~ JR2n is dense. We apply then exercise 43 (i) of chapter 1 to
deduce that T (X) = JR2n, and then X = en.
19. See [13, exercise 18 (a), chapter II, section 6].

Since A -=1- X it follows that CA -=1- 0, hence d (x, CA) has a meaning. Using exercise
17 we have that
A= { x E XI x* (x) ~ ~~~x* (a) Vx* E}, E
where
E = { x* E X* I ~~~ x* (a) < oo} .
Let us denote Mx· = sup x* (a) Vx* E E. Then
aEA
A={xEXI x*(x)~Mx.Vx*EE}= n
x*EE
[x*~Mx•].
We obtain that CA = U [x* > Mx·]

x*EE
Let us observe now that if X is a normed space, (B;\E 1 ~ X, andY = U B;, then
iEJ
Vy E X\ Y, d (y, Y) = inf d (y, B;). Let us also observe that if (f;)iEJ is family of concave
iEJ
functions on A, then the function g : A ---> lR defined by g (x) = inf f; (x) is also concave.
iEJ
Indeed, let c > 0, t E [0, 1], x, yEA. Then g (tx + (1- t) y) = inf f; (tx + (1- t) y), so
iEJ
there is i 0 E I such that f; 0 (tx + (1- t) y) ~ g (tx + (1- t) y) + c, from whence, since
f; 0 is concave,
g (tx + (1- t) y) + c 2 tfio (x) + (1- t) f; 0 (y) 2 tg (x) + (1- t) g (y).

Since c > 0 is arbitrary we obtain that
g(tx+ (1- t)y) 2 tg(x) + (1- t)g(y) Vx,y E A, Vt E [0, 1],
i.e., the above claimed relation.

For g: A ----7 ffi. defined by g (x) = d (x, CA), we have
g(x) = d (x, U [x* > Mx·]),

x*EE
and then g (x) = inf d (x, [x* > Mx* ]). But
x*EE
* Mx* -x*(x)
d(x, [x > Mx•D = llx*ll Vx E A
(see, for example, exercises 5 and 6 of chapter 4 ), and then we obtain that g (x)
inf (Mx*- x* (x)) I llx*ll· Since the function (Mx*- x* (·))I llx*ll : A ----7 ffi. is con-
x*EX*
cave we obtain that g : A ----7 lR is also concave.
20. See [ 10, proposition 1, chapter I].

Let us suppose first that M(cp(fi, h, ... , fn)) = 1. In this case we must prove that
cp(M(JI), ... , M(fn)) 2 1, i.e., (M(JI), ... , M(fn)) E A. If (M(JI), ... , M(fn)) rt A,
since A is convex and closed, by a separation theorem it follows that there are (a 1 , ... , an) E
ffi.n and t E lR such that
Let (t 1 , ... , tn) E (0, oot.

From (i) we have ..\0 = 1lcp(t 1 , ... , tn) > 0 and then for..\ 2 ..\ 0 ,
since cp is positive homogeneous,
i.e., (.At 1 , ... , .Atn) E A, and from (I) we have t:::; a 1 ..\t 1 +···+anAtn, that is, ti.A:::; a 1 t 1 +
oo
· · · + antn \1,\ 2 ..\ 0 . Passing to the limit for,\ ----7 we obtain that 0:::; a 1 t 1 + · · · + antn
V(tl, ... , tn) E (0, oor and for t2 ----7 0, ... , tn ----7 0, IX]t] 2 0 Vtl > 0, from whence 00] 2 0.
Analogously we obtain that a 2 2 0, ... , !Xn 2 0. Since M(f1 ) 2 0, ... , M(fn) 2 0, from
(1) it follows that t > 0. Let x E X. If,\ = cp(fi (.1:), ... , f,(x)) # 0, i.e.,,\ > 0, then
cp (!1 (x) I..\, ... , fn(x)l ..\) = 1, that is, (!I (x) I A, ... , fn(x )I..\) E A, from whence using (1),
o:rf1(x) anfn(x)
t :::; ..\ + ... + _____:_. \__:______:_'
that is, .At:::; arJ1(x) + · · · + anfn(x), tcp(f1(x), ... , fn(x)):::; ad1(x) + · · · + anfn(x).
If,\ = 0 this inequality is clearly satisfied, since ai 2 0, J;(x) 2 0, i = 1, n. Hence
tcp(JI(x), ... , fn(x)) :::; ~:t1.fr (x) + · · · + anfn(x) Vx E X, and therefore tcp(fl, ... , fn) :::;
a 1 j 1 + ···+ anfn· Since M is increasing, positive homogeneous, and subadditive we obtain
that
that is,
which contradicts the relation (1 ). Hence the inequality from the statement is proved.
8.2 Solutions 209
For the general case, if M(I{J(f1 , ... , fn)) 0 then obviously M(!fJ(!l, ... ,Jn)) :::;
!fJ(M(!l), ... ,M(fn)). If M(!fJ(!l, ... ,fn)) =f. 0, then A= M(I{J(JJ, ... ,fn)) > 0. For
91 = fdA, ... , 9n = fn/ A we have M( I{J(gl, ... , 9n)) = M( lfJ(!l, ... , fn))/ A = 1, because
M and ifJ are positive homogeneous. From the first case 1 :::; !fJ(M(gl), ... , M(gn)), and
using again the properties forM and ifJ we obtain that A :::; !fJ(M(f1), ... , M(fn)), that is,
M(!fJ(h ... , fn)):::; !fJ(M(!l), ... , M(fn)).
21. i) Define T : H ____, X by T (x) = T (Pr c (x)). It is clear that T is linear, continuous,
and that T extends T. We have
IIT(xlll = IIT(Prc(x))ll:::; IITIIIIPrc(x)ll:::; IITIIIIxll Vx E H,
from whence 117'11 :::; IITIJ. Since T extends T, 117'11 2 IITII, and then 117'11 = IITJJ.
ii) We have IIT(x)JI :::; llxll Vx E l 2 , and then IITII :::; 1. From IIT(e2)11 :::; 11TIIIIe 2 JI it
follows that II Til 2 1, and therefore IITII = 1.
LetT : 12 ____, c0 be a Phillips extension ofT. Let.T E 12. Then Prc(x) = x- (x, e1) e1 E
G. Since T extends Tit follows that T(Prc(x)) = T(Prc(x)), that is, T(x- (x, e1) e1) =
x- (x, e1) e1 and since Tis linear it follows that
T(x) = x- (x, e1) e1 + (x, e1) T(e 1) Vx E l2.
Let us denote by a= T( e1) E l 2. Then
T(x) = x- (x,e 1) e1 + (x,e 1)a Vx E l2
and we must find a E 12 such that 117'11 = IITIJ.

Let a = (a 1, a 2, ... ). A simple calculation shows that
T(x1, x 2, ... ) = x- (x, e1) e1 + (x, e1) a= (x1, x2, ... )- (x1, 0, ... ) + x1(a1, a2, ... )
= (a1x1, X2 + a2x1, X3 + a3x1, ... ).
To calculate the norm ofT, we have Ja1x1l :::; Ja1Jix11 :::; Jallllxll, and for n 2 2,
lxn + anx1l:::; Vlanl 2 + 1VJxll 2 + lxnl 2 :::; Vlanl 2 + 1JJxJJ,

from whence, using the definition for the norm in the space c0 we deduce that
IIT(x) II :::; max (1a1J, ~~~ Vlanl 2

+ 1) llxll Vx E l2,
that is, 117'11 :::; max (la 1 J,sup Vlanl 2 + 1). Conversely, we have 117'(1,0,0, .. )II <
n2;2
117'1111(1, 0, 0, .. )JJ, therefore sup Jan I :::; 117'11, and then Ja1l :::; 117'11· For n 2 2, we
n2;1
have
IIT(an,0,0, ... ,0,1,0, ... )11:::; ll'fiiJJ(an,0,0, ... ,0,1,0, ... )JJ
(1 on the n h position) and using again the definition for the norm in the space c0 we have
1
that Janl 2 + 1:::; 117'11 Vlanl 2 + 1, i.e., Vlanl 2 + 1:::; 117'11· Hence
117'11 =max (1a1J ,~~~ Vlanl 2

+ 1).
Since IIT'll = IITII it follows that

max (1a1l, sup Vlanl 2 +
n?:2
1) = 1.
If la1l >sup }1anl 2 + 1 then la 11= 1, and then sup }1anl 2 + 1 < 1, which is impossible.
n?:2 n?:2 , - - - - -
Then la1l }1anl 2 + 1. It follows that sup }1anl 2 +

:S; sup 1 = 1, and therefore an = 0
n?:2 n?:2
'in 2: 2. We also have la 1 1::::; 1, i.e. the statement.

Let V = {x E G I q(x) ::::; 1} and U = {x EX I p(x):::; 1}. Since q(x)::::; p(x)
'ix E G it follows that u n G ~ v. Indeed, if X E u n G then X E G and p (x) :::; 1. But
q (x) ::::; p (x) on G, from whence q (x) ::::; 1, x E G, i.e., x E V. Let W = co (U U V).
Since U, V ~X are convex (p and q are seminorms, and therefore U ~X and V ~ G are
convex and balanced), it follows that co ( U U V) = {AX + ( 1 - A) y I x E U, y E V, 0 ::::;
A ::::; 1}. Since U ~ W and U is absorbing (p is a seminorm on X), it follows that W is
absorbing. Also, since U, V are balanced it follows that W is balanced (see exercise 7(i) of
chapter 13). In addition, W n G = V. Indeed, we have V ~Wand V ~ G, from whence
V ~ W n G. Conversely, if z E W n G then there are x E U, y E V, 0 ::::; A::::; 1 such that
z =Ax+ (1- A) y. If A-=/- 0 then z/A E G. But
z 1- A
>: = x+ -A-y
and since y E V it follows that y E G, from whence since G is a linear subspace, it follows
that (1- A) yj A E G and then
z 1- A
x=-- --yEG.
A A
But x E U, i.e., x E G n U ~ V, i.e., x E V. Since y E V and V is a convex set,
z = AX+ (1- A) y E V. If A= 0, then z =Ax+ (1- A) y = y E V. Hence in both cases
z E V, i.e., W n G ~ V.
Let now q = Pw : X -+ IR+ be the Minkowski seminorm associated with W. We will
prove that q has all the required properties. Let x E G and c > 0. Then
_
q( x ) =
q (x) < 1
q(:r)+c q(x)+c '
so using the definition for the Minkowski seminorm, there is 0 < IL < 1 such that
1:/ (q (x) +c) E ILW. Since .rEG and G is a linear subspace, xj (!L (q (x) +c)) E G, i.e.,
x/ (!L (q (x) +c)) E W n G = V, and then q (x/ (!L (q (x) +c))) ::::; 1. Since q is a semi-
norm we obtain that q (x) ::::; IL (q (x) +c) and since /L < 1 we have q (x) ::::; q (x) + c
Vc > 0 from whence for c -+ 0, q (x) :::; q (x). Let .T E G and c > 0. Then
1:/ (q (1:) +c) E V = W n G, i.e., x/ (q (x) +c) E W, :r E (q (x) +c) W, from whence
using again the definition for the Minkowski seminorm, q (x) :::; q (.r) + c 'ic > 0, i.e.,
q(:r)::::; q(:r). Henceq(:r) = q(x) 'i.r E G.
8.2 Solutions 211
Let now x E X and c > 0. Then xj (p (x) +c) E U <;;;: W, i.e., x E (p (x) +c) W,
from whence q (x) 5: p (x) + c \ic > 0, that is, q (x) 5: p (x).
23. See [35, exercise A, chapter 4].

By hypothesis \ix E A .:lx* E X* such that ~x*(x 0 ) < ~x*(x) (1). This suggests
considering for each x* E X* the set Ex* = { x E X I ~x* (x 0 ) < ~x* (x)}, which is
open, since x* is continuous. With this notation, the relation ( 1) is: A <;;;: U Ex*. Since
x*EX*
n
A is compact there are x-;, ... , x~ E X* such that A <;;;: U Ex*, i.e., \ix E A 31 5: i 5:
i=l t
n such that ~x7(x 0 - x) < 0 (2). This suggests considering the closed convex cone
P = {(A 1 , ... ,An) E lRn I A1 ?: 0, ... ,An ?: 0} and the linear and continuous operator
h : X ----) lRn, h(x) = (~xi(x), ... , ~.T~(x)). Then (2) implies that h(x0 - A) n P = 0
(3). Since A is a compact convex and non-empty set and h is linear and continuous, then
h(x 0 -A) is a compact convex and non-empty set, and then, by (3), it follows that we can
strongly separate the sets h(x 0 - A) and Pin JRn, i.e., we can find (a 1 , ... ,an) E lRn\{0}
n n
and t E lR such that L ai~i < t \1'(6, ... , ~n) E P (4), and t < I: ai~x7(x 0 - x) \ix E A
i=l i=l
n
(5). Taking in (4) 6 = 0, ... , ~n = 0 we obtain that t > 0. From (5), I: a.;~x:(x 0 ) - t >
i=l
n n
I: a;~x7(x) \ix E A, i.e., if we denote by x* = I: aix7 E X* we have, since t > 0, that
i=l i=l
~x*(x 0 ) > ~x*(x 0 )- t > ~x*(x) \ix E A, i.e., ~x* strongly separates x 0 and A.

If j, 9 E Ec, then j, 9 E C[-1, 1], j(O) = 9(0) = a. If A E [0, 1] we obtain that
(Aj + (1- A)9) (0) =a, thus Eo:<;;; His a convex set. Analogously E13 <;;;:His a convex
set. Iff E H then we can find 9 E C[-1, 1] such that II!- 911£2 < c/2. For 9 E C[-1, 1]
we can find hE C[-1, 1], with h(O) =a, such that 119- hllu < c/2. Indeed, let n EN,
n ?: 2, such that
Y{2~ (2 sup l9(x)l + lal) <

xE[-1,1]
~.2
Consider h: [-1, 1] ----) lR given by
9 (x) X E [-1, -1/n],

h(x)= { -m;9(-1/n)+(1+nx)a x E (-1/n,O],
· nx9 (1/n) + (1- nx) a X E (0, 1/n],
9 (x) X E (1/n, 1].
Then
119- hlli2 1 1/n

19 (x)- h (x)l 2 dx 5:
11/n (lg (x)l + lh (x)l) 2 dx
1
-1/n -1/n
1/n 2
< (2IIYII()() + lal) 2 dx 5: - (211YIIoc + lal) 2 ,
-1/n n
thus 119- hllu < c/2. Then hE E"' and llf- hllu 5: II!- 9llu + 119- hllu < c, thus
Ea <;;;: His dense. Analogously E 13 <;;; His a dense set. Evidently, Ea n E 1j = 0. Suppose
now that we can find x* E H*\{0} and t 0 E lR such that x*(x) st0 sx*(v) Vx E Ea.,
Vv E Ef3. Since Ea. ~ His dense we obtain that x*(Ea.) ~ x*(H) = lR is dense. But
Ea. ~ His convex, and since x* is linear we obtain that x*(Ea.) ~ lR is a convex set, thus
an interval. We obtain that x*(Ea.) = IR, and then t 0 ~ sup x* (x) = oo, a contradiction.
xEEa
Let us observe that in the solution for exercise 5 of chapter 3 the density is proved in a
different way.
Chapter 9
Baire's category. The open mapping and closed

graph theorems
Definition. Let X be a topological space. A subset A s;;; X is called:

0
i) nowhere dense if A= 0;
ii) of the .first Baire category ifthere is a sequence of nowhere dense sets (A,)nEN such
that A= U An;
nEN
iii) of the second Baire category if is not of the first Baire category.
The Baire category theorem. Any complete metric space is of the second Baire cate-
gory. In particular, any Banach space is of the second Baire category.
The open mapping theorem. Let X be a Banach space, Y a normed space and U :
X ____, Y a linear and continuous operator. Then either U (X) is of the first Baire category
in Y, or U is surjective, and in this second case U is an open map andY is a Banach space.
The inverse mapping theorem. If X and Y are Banach spaces, and U : X ____, Y is a
bijective linear and continuous operator, then u- 1 : Y ____, X is also a linear and continuous
operator.
The closed graph theorem. Let X and Y be two Banach spaces, and U : X ____, Y a
linear operator with its graph closed. Then U is continuous.
Theorem. Let X and Y be two norrned space, and U : X ____, Y a linear operator. Then
the following assertions are equivalent:
i) U has its graph closed;
ii) Ifxn----> x in X, and U (xn)----> yin Y, then U (x) = y.
214 Haire's category. The open mapping and closed graph theorems
9.1 Exercises
Nowhere dense sets
1. i) Prove that c0 ~ cis a closed linear subspace, and also a nowhere dense set.
ii) Prove that c ~ lao is a closed linear subspace, and also a nowhere dense set.
iii) Let X be a normed space and A ~ X a convex set with non-empty interior. Prove
A
that Fr (A) = A\ is nowhere dense in X.
2. Let X =1- {0} be a normed space, and A ~ X a set which is not nowhere dense.
Prove that there are x E X and E > 0 such that B (x, E) ~ A', where A' is the derivative
set of A, i.e., the set of all the accumulation points of A.
Examples of first Baire category sets which are not nowhere dense
3. Prove that the set {Eo anxnl Eo lanl < oo} ~ C [0, 1] is of the firstBaire category,
that it is not nowhere dense, and it is not open.
4. i) Let X be a Banach space, Y a normed space, and U E L (X, Y) such that U is
not surjective, but U (X) is dense in Y. Prove that U (X) is a first Baire category set in Y,
and that it is not nowhere dense in Y.
ii) Using (i) prove that the following sets are of the first Baire category, but not nowhere
dense sets in the indicated spaces:
a) for 0 <a:::; 1, Lipa [0, 1] in the space C [0, 1];
b) for 1 :::; p < oo, lp in the space eo;
c) for 1 :::; p < q < oo, Lq [0, 1] in the space Lp [0, 1];
d) fork EN U {oo }, Ck [0, 1] in the space C [0, 1];
e) for 1 :::; p < q < oo, lp in the space lq;
f) h in
endowed with the norm ll(xn)nENII =sup I't Xkl;

nEN k=l
5. Let us consider the spaces £ 1 [0, 1] and £ 2 [0, 1], given by the Lebesgue measure on
the unit interval [0, 1]. Prove that £ 2[0, 1] ~ £ 1 [0, 1] is of the first Baire category, in the
following three ways:
i) Proving that { f E £1 [0, 1] I f01 IJ(x)l 2 dx :::; 1} is closed in Lr[O, 1], but with empty
interior;
ii) Considering the functions 9n : [0, 1] ----+ lK defined by 9n = nx[o, 1;nal, and proving
that f01 f(x)gn(x)dx----+ 0 for any f E L2[0, 1], but not for any f E £ 1 [0, 1];
iii) Proving that the inclusion operator from £ 2 [0, 1] into Lr[O, 1] is continuous, but not
surjective.
6. Let r.p E C [0, 1] and A = {fr.p I f E C [0, 1]}. Give a necessary and sufficient
condition on the function r.p for A to be a first Baire category set (respectively, a second
Baire category set inC [0, 1]).
9.1 Exercises 215
The algebraic sum of two first Baire category sets
7. i) Prove that the sets A = {f E C [-1, 1]1 f is an even function} and B =

{f E C [-1, 1] I f is an odd function} are nowhere dense in the space C [-1, 1]. Then de-
duce that if A and B are two first Baire category sets in a Banach space then their algebraic
sum A + B can be a second Baire category set.
ii) Let X be a normed space. P : X -+ X is a linear and continuous projector, that
is, P 2 = P, and suppose that P -:/- 0 and P -:/- I. Prove that ker P and P (X) are nowhere
dense sets in the space X and that their algebraic sum ker P + P (X) is of the second Baire
category in X if and only if X is of the second Baire category.
Subsets which contain a ball
8. Let X be a Banach space. F ~ X is a subset with the property that for any x E X
there is f > 0 such that tx E F "i/t E [0, c:]. Prove that we can find x 0 E X and c: > 0 such
that B(x 0 , c:) ~ F'. If, in addition, F is closed then F contains an open ball.
A characterization for infinite-dimensional Banach spaces
9. Let X be a Banach space. Prove that X is infinite-dimensional if and only if any

totally bounded set is nowhere dense.
The algebraic dimension for an infinite-dimensional Banach space
10. i) If X is a normed space prove that any proper closed linear subspace of X is a
nowhere dense set.
ii) If X is an infinite-dimensional normed space which can be written as a countable
union of finite-dimensional linear subspaces, prove that X is of the first Baire category.
iii) Using (ii) prove that an infinite-dimensional Banach space cannot have a countable
algebraic basis.
iv) Using (iii) prove that on c00 there is no complete norm.
Pointwise convergent sequences of continuous functions
11. Let X be a complete metric space, and fn : X -+ IK, n E N, be a sequence of

continuous functions for which there is a function f: X -+ lK such that lim fn (x) = f (x)
n-->CXJ
"i/x E X, i.e., fn -+ f pointwise on X.
i) Prove that there are V s:;: X open and non-empty and M > 0 such that Ifn ( x) I ~ M
"i/x E V, "i/n EN.
ii) Prove that for any f > 0 there are V ~ X open and non empty and p E N such that
lf(x)- fn(x)l ~ c:"i/x E V, "i/n 2p.
Continuous functions with null limit at infinity
12. Let f: [1,oo)-+ IR be a continuous function. (an)nEI\! ~ [1,oo) is a strictly

increasing sequence with lim (an+ dan) = 1, lim an = oo, and such that for any x E
n------+oo n------+oo
[1, oo), lim f (anx) = 0. Prove that lim f (x) = 0.
n------+oo x---+oo
Nowhere differentiable functions
13. i)Forn E NletXn = {f E C[O, 1]1 :::lt E [0, 1] such that If (s)- f (t)l :S n Is- tl
'<Is E [0, 1]}. Prove that for each n EN, Xn ~ C[O, 1] is a closed and nowhere dense set.
ii) Prove that from (i) it follows the existence of a dense G 0 subset in C[O, 1], which
contains only functions which are not differentiable at any point of [0, 1].
A common root for a sequence of functions
14. Let fn : lR ---+ JR, n E N, be a sequence of functions with the property that
Vx E JR, '<In E N, lim fn (t) = 0, and let A ~ lR be a set of the first Baire category. Prove
t-->x
that there is x E lR\A such that fn (x) = 0 '<In EN.
Dense sets and vertical asymptotes
15. i) Let X be a Banach space and A ~ X a dense set. Can we find a function
f: X---+ lR such that Vx E A, lim If (t)l = oo?
t-->x
ii) Establish ifthere is a function f : lR---+ lR which has every rational line x = q as a
vertical asymptote, i.e., 'r:/q E Q, lim If (t)l = oo.
t-->q
Pointwise unbounded sequences of continuous functions
16. i) Let X be a complete metric space and A ~ X be a first Baire category set in X
which is also dense in X. Does there exist a sequence of continuous functions f n : X ___,
lR such that the sequence (fn ( x)) nEN is unbounded if and only if x E A?
ii) Establish if there is a sequence of continuous functions fn : lR ---+ lR such that the
sequence (fn ( x)) nEN is unbounded if and only if x is rational.
iii) Establish if there is a sequence of continuous functions fn : Co ---+ lR such that
DO
the sequence Un (x 1 , x 2 , ... ))nEN is unbounded if and only if the series I; xk is absolutely
k=l
convergent.
iv) Establish ifthere is a sequence of continuous functions Un: C [0, 1]---+ lR such that
the sequence (Un (f) )nEN is unbounded if and only iff is a Lipschitz function.
A property for sequences, with respect to a first Baire category set
17. i) Let X be a complete metric space and f : X x X ---+ X be a function with

the property that for any y E X, the function f (·, y) : X ___, X is a homeomorphism. Let
A~ X be a first Baire category set in X and (xn)nEN ~X. Prove that there is x EX such
that '<In E N, f(x, Xn) t/:. A.
ii) Using (i) prove that if H is a Hilbert space and (Tn)nEN ~ L(H) then there is
T E L(H) such that for any n EN, the operator T + Tn is not self-adjoint.
iii) Using (i) prove that for any sequence of continuous functions fn : [0, 1] ---+ JR, there
is a continuous function f : [0, 1] ---+ lR such that for any n E N the function f + fn is not
Lipschitz.
iv) Using (i) prove that for any sequence of continuous functions fn : [-1, 1] ---+ lR
there is a continuous function f : [-1, 1] ---+ lR such that for any n E N, f + f n is not an
odd function.
9.1 Exercises 217
v) Using (i) prove that for any sequence ofLebesgue integrable functions fn : [0, 1] ---->
IR there is a Lebesgue measurable function f : [0, 1] ----> 1R such that f01 If (x) Idx < oo, but
f01 lf(x) + fn(x)l 2 dx = oo for any n EN.
vi) Using (i) prove that for any sequence of continuous functions fn : [0, 1] ----> IR there
is a continuous function f : [0, 1] ----> ~ such that for any n E N the function f + fn is not
differentiable at any point of the interval [0, 1].
A non-integrable function
18. Let (S, 2:, J-L) be a measure space and let fn : S ----> IR, n E N, be a sequence of
J-L-integrable functions such that: sup lfn(s)l < oo, J-L-a.e., and sup fs lfn(s)l dJ-L(s) = oo.
nEN nEN
00
Prove that there is a scalar sequence (an)nEN such that 2: lanl < oo and the function
n=1
00
2: anfn is not J-L-integrable.

n=1
The Baire category for the range of a linear and continuous operator
19. i) Let X be a Banach space, Y is a normed space, U : X ----> Y is a linear and

continuous operator, and G <:.:;; X a closed linear subspace. Prove that U (G) is either of the
first Baire category, or U (G) = Y.
ii) Let X, Y be Banach spaces, Z a normed space, and T : X ----> Z, U : Y ----> Z two
linear and continuous operators. Prove that ifT- 1 (U (Y)) is of the second Baire category
and u- 1 (T (X)) is of the second Baire category, then U (Y) = T (X).
20. i) Let (Xn)nEN be a sequence of Banach spaces, X a Banach space, and Un :
Xn----> X a sequence oflinear and continuous operators such that X= U Un (Xn). Prove
nEN
that there is n E N such that Un (Xn) =X, i.e., there is n E N such that Un is surjective.
ii) Let (Xn)nEN be a sequence of Banach spaces, X is a Banach space, Y is a normed
space, and Un : Xn ----> Y is a sequence oflinear and continuous operators. Let U : X ----> Y
be a linear and continuous operator. Using (i) prove that ifU (X) <:.:;; U Un (Xn) then there
nEN
is n E N such that U (X) <:.:;; Un (Xn)·
iii) Prove that if S <:.:;; £ 1 [0, 1] is a closed linear subspace with the property that Vf E S,
there is p > 1 such that f E Lp [0, 1] then there is p > 1 such that S <:.:;; Lp [0, 1].
21. Let X be a Banach space, and let (Xn)nEN be a sequence oflinear subspaces of X
such that X = U Xn. Prove that there is n E N such that Xn = X.
nEN
In particular, if X is a Banach space and (Xn)nEN is a sequence of closed linear sub-
spaces such that X= U Xn, prove that there is n EN such that Xn =X.
nEN
The Baire category for the space of all finite rank operators
22. Let X be an infinite-dimensional Banach space.

i) For n E N we denote by :Fn the set of all linear operators from X into X of rank at
most n. Prove that :Fn <:.:;; L (X) is a closed linear subspace. (The rank forT E L (X) is the
dimension for the range ofT.)
218 Baire's category. The open mapping and closed graph theorems
ii) Prove that there is T E L (X) with dimoc (T (X)) = oo such that T can be uni-
formly approximated (that is, with respect to the operator norm) by a sequence of finite
rank operators.
In particular, deduce that if X is an infinite-dimensional Banach space, then the space
of all finite rank operators is strictly contained in the space K (X) of all compact operators
from X into X.
A characterization for one-dimensional normed spaces
23. Let X, Y be two normed spaces, X -=1- {0}, Y -=1- {0}. Prove that the following
i) Any non-null linear and continuous operator U : X ----+ Y is open;
ii) Any non-null linear and continuous operator U : X ----+ Y is sutjective;
iii) dimoc Y = 1.
Multiplication operators between lp-spaces
24. i) Let 1 :::; p < oo, 1 :::; q < oo, and let a = (an)nEN be a sequence of scalars
with the property that: \f (xn)nEN E lp it follows that (anxn)nEN E lq. Prove that the
multiplication operator Ma : lp ----+ lq defined by Ma((xn)nEN) = (anxn)nEN is linear and
continuous.
ii) Let 1 :::; q < p < oo and let a = (an)nEN be a sequence of scalars with the
property that: \f (xn)nEN E lp it follows that (anxn)nEN E lq. Let Ma : lp ----+ lq be the
multiplication operator defined at (i). Prove that Ma is linear and continuous, that a E ln
and that I Mall = llallr' where 1/p + 1/r = 1/q.
iii) Let 1 :::; p :::; q < oo, and let a = (an)nEN be a sequence of scalars with the
property that: \fx = (xn)nEN E ZP it follows that (anxn)nEN E lq. Let Ma : lp----+ lq be the
multiplication operator given at (i). Prove that Ma is linear and continuous, that a E [ 00 ,
and that liMa I = llalloo =sup ian I·
nEN
25. Prove that we cannot find a scalar sequence (cn)nEN with the property that a scalar
00
series I: an converges absolutely if and only ifthe scalar sequence (ancn)nEN is bounded.
n=l
00
26. i) Find the scalar sequences (cn)nEN with the property that a scalar series I: an is
n=l
00
absolutely convergent if and only if the scalar series I: an en is absolutely convergent.

n=l
ii) Let 1 :::; p, q < oo with p -=1- q. Does there exist a scalar sequence (cn)nEN with the
00
property that a scalar series I: an is p-absolutely convergent if and only if the scalar series
n=l
00
I: ancn is q-absolutely convergent?

n=l
iii) Let 1 :::; p < oo. Find all the scalar sequences (cn)nEN with the property that a
00 00
scalar series I: an is p-absolutely convergent if and only if the scalar series I: an en is

n=l n=l
p-absolutely convergent.
9.1 Exercises 219
A finite-dimensional linear subspace in C [0, 1]
27. Let E C [0, 1] be a closed linear subspace consisting only of C 1 functions. Prove
<;;;;
that E is finite-dimensional.
Finite-dimensional linear subspaces in LP
28. Let p, be the Lebesgue measure on the unit interval [0, 1], 1 ~ p < oo, and X <;;;;
LP (p,) a closed linear subspace such that X <;;;; Loo (p,).
i) Prove that the inclusion operator i : X ----+ L 00 (p,) is continuous.
ii) Deduce from (i) that there is a real constant M > 0 such that llflloo ~ M 11!11 2
\/jEX.
iii) Prove that any orthonormal subset of X, considered as a linear subspace of L 2 (p,) ,
is finite, and then deduce that X is finite-dimensional.
29. i) Let w = (wn)nEN <;;;; (0, oo ), and 1 ~ p < oo. Define
Prove that (zP(w), II·IIP) is a Banach space.

ii) Let (X, 2:, p,) be a nontrivial measure space, p, being a finite positive measure, and
suppose that there is a sequence of pairwise disjoint sets (En)nEN <;;;; L such that Wn :=
p,(En) > 0 \In E N. Prove that for r, s E [1, oo ), r < s, we cannot have Lr (p,) = Ls (p,),
since then the inclusion operator I : lr (w) ----+ ls (w) would be a well defined, linear, and
using the closed graph theorem, continuous operator!
iii) Deduce that if r, 8 E [1, oo ), r =1- 8 and Lr (p,) = L., (p,) for a positive finite measure
p,, then Lr (p,) is finite-dimensional.
The direct sum of two closed linear subspaces
30. i) Let X be a Banach space. Suppose that there are two closed linear subspaces
Y and Z of X such that any x E X has a unique representation x = y + z, withy E Y,
z E Z. Prove that there is k;:::: 0 such that IIYII ~ k llxll, liz I ~ k llxll \/x = y + z EX.
ii) Let X be a Banach space and T : X ----+ X a linear projector, such that ker T and
T (X) <;;;; X are closed linear subspaces. Using (i) prove that Tis continuous.
A closed graph non-continuous linear operator
31. Let us consider the space C 1 [0, 1] of all C 1 functions on [0, 1], endowed with
the uniform norm from the space C [0, 1], and consider the differentiation operator D :
(C 1 [0, 1], ll·lloo) ----+ (C [0, 1], ll·ll,xJ defined by Df = j'. Prove that Dis linear, with
closed graph, but not continuous. What can we deduce?
A closed linear subspace which yields a measure of non-graph closedness

for an operator
32. Let X, Y be Banach spaces, and T: X ----t Y a linear operator. Then define
N = n{T(V) I vis a neighborhood ofO}.

Prove that:
i) N <;;;; Y is a closed linear subspace;
ii) T is continuous if and only if N = { 0};
iii) The composition p o T : X ____, YIN is continuous, where p : Y ____, YIN is the
quotient map;
iv) If M is a closed linear subspace ofY with the property that the composition q o T :
X ____, Y I M is continuous, where q : Y ____, Y I M is the quotient map, then N <;;;; M, that
is, N is the smallest closed linear subspace M of Y with the property that the composition
q o T : X ____, Y I M is continuous, where q : Y ____, Y I M is the quotient map.
9.2 Solutions
1. i) In exercise 23 of chapter 1 it is proved that c0 is a closed linear subspace in c. Since
c0 is obviously a proper subspace in c, we can use exercise 15 of chapter 1 or exercise 1O(i)
below to obtain that c0 is nowhere dense in c.
ii) We shall prove that cis a closed linear subspace in Z00 • Let (xn)nEN <;;;; c and x E Zoo
be such that Xn ----t x in Z00 • Let Xn = (a~hEN <;;;; c and an E lK such that lim a~ =
k->oo
an Vn E N. Let X = (~khEN E Zoo. Since Xn ----t X in Zoo, Vc > 0 ::Jnc E N such
that llxn- xll < c Vn 2: nc. Using the definition for the norm in the space Zoo, we have
ia~ - ~ki < c Vn 2: no:, Vk E N. Since (xn)nEN converges in Z00 , it is a Cauchy sequence
in Zoo, i.e., Vc > 0 ::lmc 2: nE such that llxn- xmll < c Vn,m 2: mE. Using again the
definition for the norm in the space Z00 , we have Ia~ - a~i < c Vn 2: mE, Vm 2: mE
and Vk E N. Since lim a~ = an Vn E N, it follows fork ---> oo that ian -ami :<::; c
k---+oo
Vn, m 2: mE. Since lim a~E =am., there is kE 2: mE such that Ia~.- amc I < c Vk 2: kE.
k->oo
Then, fork 2: kE, iak- ~ki :<::; iak- am. I+ lam. I I
-a~. + Ia~.- ~k < 3c, and therefore
ak - ~k ____, 0. The sequence ( ak)kEN is Cauchy, hence convergent, i.e., there is a E lK such
that ak ____, a. Since ~k - ak ____, 0, it follows that ~k ____, a, i.e., x = (~k)kEN E c.
We apply now exercise 15 of chapter 1 or exercise 1O(i) below to obtain that c <;;;; Zoo is
a nowhere dense set.
iii) See [9, exercise 20, chapter II, section 1].
0
Since Fr (A) is closed, we must prove that Fr (A)= 0. From the properties for the
0 ~ 0 0 -
interior for a set and from exercise 12 of chapter 13, we have Fr (A)=A \A =A \A= 0.
0
2. Since if;i 0 it follows that there are x E X and c > 0 such that B (x, c) <;;;;A. We
will prove that B (x, c) <;;;; A'. Let y E B (x, c). If y ~ A' then there is r > 0 such that
B (y, r)n(A\ {y}) = 0. Let 6 =min (r, (c- IIY- xll) 12) > 0. Then B (y, 6) <;;;; B (x, c).
9.2 Solutions 221
Indeed, if z E B (y, 8) then
liz- xll < liz- Yll + IIY- xll < 8 + IIY- xll ::; E- II~- xll + IIY- xll
E + IIY- xll
2 < E,
i.e., z E B(x,c). Obviously, B(y,8) ~ B(y,r). So B(y,8) n (A\{y}) ~ B(y,r) n

(A\{y}) = 0, i.e., B(y,8)nA ~ {y}. Sincey E B(x,E) ~A, yEA, from whence
B (y, 8) n A -=1- 0, and therefore B (y, 8) n A = {y}. A well known topological result,
which will be proved at the end of our solution, says that D n A ~ D n A, VD open.
Using this result we obtain that B (y, 8) n A~ B (y, 8) n A. But B (y, 8) ~ B (x, c) ~A,
i.e., B (y, 8) n A= B (y, 8), hence B (y, 8) = {y }, which is false, since X -=1- {0} (there is
a EX, a -=1- 0 and b =a/ llall EX with llbll = 1, and then y + (8/2) bE B (y, 8) = {y},
i.e., y + (8/2) b = y, b = 0, contradiction).
Let us justify the remaining claim. Let x E D n A. Let also V be a neighborhood of
x. Since x E D and Dis open, Dis a neighborhood of x. It follows that V n D is a
neighborhood of x and as x E A it follows that D n V n A -=1- 0, and therefore x E D n A.
3. In exercise 7 of chapter 2 it is proved that the operator U : h ----t C [0, 1] defined by

00
(Ua) (x) = I: anxn Va = (an) n>o E h is linear and continuous. The set from the exercise
n=O -
is U (h). If we suppose that U is surjective, then for the function g (x) = 1/ (x + 1)
00
we can find a = (an)n>o E h such that Ua = g, i.e., I: anxn = 1/ (x + 1), that is,
- n=O
ao + (ao + a1) x + (a1 + a2) x 2 + · · · = 1 Vx E [0, 1], and then ao = 1, ao + a 1 = 0,
a 1 + a2 = 0, ... ,i.e., a= (1, -1, 1, -1, ... ) 1. h. Thus U is not surjective, and since his
a Banach space, from the open mapping theorem it follows that U (h) is of the first Baire
category. Since the set of all polynomial functions on the interval [0, 1] is contained in A,
by the well known Bernstein theorem it follows that A is dense in C[O, 1] and hence A
is not nowhere dense. If A were open, then since A is a linear subspace, by exercise 15
chapter 1 we must have A = C [0, 1], and this is not true. Hence U (l 1) is not an open set
inC [0, 1].
4. i) See [9, exercise 3, chapter I, section 3].

Since U is not surjective, from the open mapping theorem it follows that U (X) is of
0
the first Baire category. Since U (X)= Y, then U (X)= Y -=1- 0, i.e., U (X) is not nowhere
dense.
ii) a) Recall that, given 0 < a ::; 1, a function f : [0, 1] ----t lR (or <C) is called a-
Lipschitz if there is L > 0, such that If (x)- f (y)l ::; L lx- Yla VO::; x, y::; 1. Let
II fila:= If (O)I +sup If (x)- f5y)l,

xf-y lx- Yl
and then the space Lipa [0, 1] = {f: [0, 1] ----t lR (C) I f is a-Lipschitz} endowed with the
norm ll·lla is a Banach space. Let now J : Lip a [0, 1] ----t C [0, 1] be the inclusion operator,
i.e., J (f)= f Vf E Lipa [0, 1]. For f E Lipa [0, 1], we have
If (x)- f < (lift -If (O)I) lxla::::: lift- If (O)I,

(O)I
If (x)l < If (x)- f (O)I +If (O)I :S: llfll, VO :S: x :S: 1,
so sup If (x)l :S: II fila , i.e., llfll :S: llfll, Vf E C [0, 1], i.e., J is continu-
xE[0,1]
ous. Also, J is not surjective. For example, the function f : [0, 1] ____, JR. defined by
< 1, 1s
f (x ) = { 01/ log x 0x <= xO,- . . b . L' h. fi
contmuous, ut 1s not a- tpsc 1tz, or 0 < a :::; 1.
Now for 0 <a :S: 1, n EN, the functions fn: [0, 1] ____,JR. defined by fn (x) = xna are
a-Lipschitz, since, as is easy to see, for a, b E [0, 1], (a+ b)" :S: a"+ ba, and hence for
0 :S: X < y :S: 1,
i.e, yn<> - xna ::::: n"' (y- x)", that is, IYna- xn"l ::::: n<> IY- xl"· Let Pa =
Sp{1, xa, x 2 a, ... } ~ Lip, [0, 1]. From the Bernstein theorem, if g E C [0, 1], then for
the Bernstein polynomials
we have Bn ____, g uniformly. Let f E C [0, 1], and consider g (x)

Pn (x) := Bn (x") ____, g (x") = f (x) uniformly on [0, 1]. Since
it follows that P, is dense in C[O, 1]. Since Pa ~ Lipa [0, 1] ~ C[O, 1], it follows that
Lip a [0, 1] is dense in the space C[O, 1]. From (i) it follows that Lip, [0, 1] is of the first
Baire category inC [0, 1] , and not nowhere dense.
b) Let j : lP ____, c0 be again the inclusion operator, which is linear and continuous, and
j (lp) = lP ~ c0 is dense (see exercise 23 of chapter 1). Also, lP f c0 V1 :S: p < oo, i.e.,
j is not surjective. From (i) we obtain that lP is of the first Baire category in c0 , and not
nowhere dense.
1/p
c) From the Holder inequality it follows that if p < q we have ( J01 lfiP df.L ) :S:
1/q
( ] 1 lflq df.L ) , i.e., II fliP :S: llfllq, and therefore the canonical inclusion J : Lq [0, 1] ____,
0
LP [0, 1] is continuous. Let us denote by£ the linear subspace of all measurable step func-
tions. We have£ ~ J (Lq [0, 1]) ~ LP [0, 1] and£ is dense in LP [0, 1], so it follows that
00
J (Lq [0, 1]) is dense in Lp [0, 1]. Now if a E lE. then f = L naX(l/(n+ 1), 1/n) E Lp [0, 1] if
n=1
and only if
11 0
lfiP df.L =
11 (I:
0
oc
n"'PX(_l
n+l 'n
l)
)
df.L = I: n (nn + 1) < oo,
oo ap
n=1 n=1
9.2 Solutions 223
that is, if and only if a < 1I p. (We have

nap 1
n (n + 1) "' n 2 -ap
and we use the comparison test with the generalized harmonic series). Hence for 1I q ::;
a < 1lp, the function f is in Lp [0, 1], but not in Lq [0, 1], i.e., J is not surjective. Using
(i) it follows that Lq [0, 1] is of the first Baire category and not nowhere dense in LP [0, 1].
d) Let J : Ck [0, 1] --+ C [0, 1] be the inclusion operator. As above, one can prove that
J ( Ck [0, 1]) = Ck [0, 1] is of the first Baire category and not nowhere dense in C [0, 1].
e) Let j : lp --+ lq be the inclusion operator, which is well defined, since p < q implies
llxllq ::; llxiiP Vx E lP. Then J is continuous. Since c00 <;;;; lp <;;;; lq and c00 is dense in lq it
follows that lp is dense in lq. We also have
x = ( -1)
ncx nEN
E lP {o} L -ncxp1 < oo
n=l
00
{o} ap 1
> 1 {o} a > -,
p
and we obtain that x E lq and x ¢:. lP if 1lq < a ::; 1lp, i.e., j is not surjective. Then (i)
implies that lP is of the first Baire category in lq and not nowhere dense.
f) It is proved at exercise 27(ii) of chapter 1 that h is dense in the space Sc. For the
inclusion operator j: h--+ Sc, which is clearly linear and continuous, we have j (l 1 ) = h,
and we apply (i).

i) We shall prove that the set B = {1 E LI[O, 1]1 J01 lf(x)l 2 dx::; 1} is closed in
(LI[O, 1], 11·11 1 ). Indeed, let f E Lt[O, 1] for which there is Un)nEN <;;;; LI[O, 1] with
f01 lfn(x)l 2 dx ::; 1 Vn E Nand llfn- !11 1 --+ 0 (we denote with II·IIP the usual norm
in Lp[O, 1], for 1 ::; p::; oo). Since llfn- !11 1 --+ 0, i.e., J01 lfn(x)- f(x)l dx --+ 0, then
2 --+ If 1
there is a subsequence (nk hEN such that f nk --+ f, JL-a.e. on [0, 1]. So Ifnk 1 2 , JL-a.e ..
Also f 01 link (x) 2 dx ::; 1 Vk E N. Now, from the well known Fatou lemma it follows that
1
f01 lf(x)l 2 dx::; 1, i.e., fEB.

0
Let us suppose that B=/:- 0, i.e., B=l-

0 in ( L1 [0, 1], 11·11 1). Then there are fo E B, r >0
such that BL![O,lJ (f0 ,r) <;;;;B. Let f E LI[O, 1], f =1- 0. Ifwe consider
f r
g= ~2+fo,
it follows that g E BL![o, 1J (fo, r), so g E B, i.e., g E L 2 [0, 1], and then f E L 2 [0, 1]. In
this way we obtain that £ 2 [0, 1] = L 1 [0, 1], which is not true (see exercise 4(ii)).
So B is closed with empty interior, and therefore B is nowhere dense. Then nB is
nowhere dense, Vn E N. Since L 2 [0, 1] = U nB it follows that £ 2 [0, 1] is of the first
nEN
Baire category in LI[O, 1].
ii) Let us observe that 9n E Loo[O, 1] Vn E N. So the functional 'Pn : LI[O, 1] --+ JK,
'Pn(f) = j 01 f(x)gn(x)dx is linear and continuous, with II'Pnll = ll9nlloo = n Vn EN. For
f E L2[0, 1] we have:
1 I ( 1 ) 1/2 ( 1 ) 1/2
llfll2 Vn E N,
I1 f(x)gn(x)dx :S 11f(x)l 2 dx 119n(x)l 2 dx
Vn
and then lim 'Pn (f)= 0 Vf E L 2[0, 1] ~ Li[O, 1].
n--->oo
If L2[0,1] were of the second Baire category in L 1 [0,1], since 'PnU)-+ 0 Vf E
L 2[0, 1] ~ L 1 [0, 1] then the Uniform Roundedness Principle (see the prooffor the Uniform
Roundedness Principle) implies that 'Pn (f) -+ 0 Vf E L 1 [0, 1]. Then the same theorem
implies that there is an M > 0 such that II'Pnll :::; M Vn E N, i.e., n = ll9nlloo :::; M
Vn E N, which is impossible.
iii) See the part (c) from exercise 4(ii).
6. Let U : C [0, 1] -+ C [0, 1] be the multiplication operator given by c.p : U f = fc.p

Vf E C [0, 1]. Then U is linear and continuous. If U is surjective then for the constant
function g (x) = 1 E C [0, 1] there is f E C [0, 1] such that U (f) = g {::} fc.p = g {::}
f (x) c.p (x) = g (x) = 1 Vx E [0, 1] => c.p (x) =I 0 Vx E [0, 1]. Conversely, if c.p (x) =I 0
Vx E [0, 1], then Vf E C [0, 1] 3f jc.p E C [0, 1] such that U (f jc.p) = f. Hence U is
surjective{::} c.p (x) =I 0 Vx E [0, 1].
Since C [0, 1] is a Banach space and U linear and continuous, from the open mapping
theorem it follows that U (C [0, 1]) is either of the first Baire category, or U is surjective.
As A= U (C [0, 1]), it follows that:
1) A is of the first Baire category{::} -::Jx E [0, 1] such that c.p (x) = 0.
2) A is of the second Baire category{::} c.p (x)=I 0 Vx E [0, 1].
Let us observe that in the first case, A ~ {! E C[O, 1]1 f(x) = 0}, and the last set is a
proper closed subspace inC [0, 1], hence by exercise 15 of chapter 1 or by exercise 10(i),
A is nowhere dense.
7. i) Let U : C [-1, 1] -+ C [-1, 1] be defined by (U f) (x) = (f (x)- f (-x)) /2

Vf E C [-1, 1]. At exercise 16 of chapter 5 is proved that U is a linear and continuous
operator. We have ker (U) =A. Then A~ C [-1, 1] is a closed linear subspace. In fact,
it is easy to see that A ~ C [-1, 1] is a proper closed linear subspace. Now, exercise 15 of
chapter 1 shows that A is a nowhere dense set.
Let V: C [-1, 1] -+ C [-1, 1] be defined by (V f) (x) = (f (x) + f (-x)) /2. Then as
above we obtain that B is a nowhere dense set.
Since for f E C [-1, 1] we have f = Uf + Vf E A+ B, it follows that A+ B =
C [-1, 1] , and C [-1, 1] being a Banach space, is of the second Baire category, i.e., A + B
is of the second Baire category. However, A and B are nowhere dense sets, in particular of
the first Baire category.
ii) For x E X we have x = Px + (x- Px) with Px E P(X). Since Pis a linear
projector we have (x- Px) E ker P, i.e., X= ker P+P (X). Also, ifx E ker PnP (X)
then Px = 0 and there is y EX such that Py = x. Then P 2 y = Px, Py = 0, sox= 0.
Since Pis linear and P 2 = P, it follows that P (X) = ker(I- P). By the continuity
of Pit follows that ker P and P (X) are closed. We have ker P =I X, P (X) =I X, and
using exercise 15 of chapter 1 or exercise lO(i) below we obtain that ker P and P (X) are
nowhere dense sets.
9.2 Solutions 225
8. We will prove that X = U nF. Indeed, let x E X. By our hypothesis, there is

nEN
E > 0 such that tx E F Vt E [0, c]. Since 1/n --+ 0 and E > 0 we can find n 6 E N such
that 1/ns < E. Then xjn 6 E F, i.e., x E nEF, hence x E U nF. Since X is Banach
nEN
0
space from the Baire category theorem we obtain that there is n 0 E N such that n 0 P=/= 0,
0
from whence it follows that F=/= 0 (we use the fact that for A =/= 0 the operator x --+ AX
from X to X is a homeomorphism). From exercise 2 there are x 0 E X and r > 0 such that
B ( x 0 , r) ~ F'. In the case when F is closed we have F' ~ F, hence there is an open ball
with centre at x 0 E X and radius r > 0 included in F.
9. Suppose that X is an infinite-dimensional Banach space. Let A ~ X be a totally

0
bounded set, i.e., B := A ~ X is compact. If A is not a nowhere dense set, then A=/= 0,
i.e., B-:1 0, from whence it follows that there are x EX and E > 0 such that B(x, c) ~ B,
and then Bx ~ (1/E) ( -x +B). Since B is compact, (1/c) ( -x +B) is also compact.
Hence, the closed unit ball Bx is compact, which by the Riesz theorem (see exercise 23 of
chapter 4) implies that X is finite-dimensional, and this contradicts our hypothesis.
Conversely, suppose that any totally bounded set is nowhere dense. If X is finite-
dimensional, then the closed unit ball B x is compact. Then by hypothesis B x is nowhere
0 0
dense, i.e., Bx= 0. But Bx= {x E Xlllxll < 1}, which is a non-empty set, and we
obtain a contradiction.
10. See [35, exercise F, chapter 3, section 9] or [20, exercise 30, chapter II].
i) Let Y ~ X be a proper closed linear subspace. If Y is not nowhere dense, we have
0
that Y -:1 0. Since Y is closed, Y-:1 0, i.e., Y contains an open ball. Now exercise 15 of
chapter 1 shows that X = Y, a contradiction.
ii) Let X = U Yn, with Yn finite-dimensional for any n E N. Every finite-dimensional
nEN
space is closed. Since X is infinite-dimensional, X -:1 Yn Vn E N. By (i) it follows that Yn
is nowhere dense Vn E N, and hence X is of the first Baire category.
iii) Let X be a Banach space which has a countable algebraic basis, denoted by
{en I n E N}. For n E N, i1, ... ,in E N distinct, we denote by Y; 1 , ... ,in = Sp { e;j) ... , e;,J.
Then we have that X = U U Y; 1 .i2, ... ,in· Now if we observe that the above union
nEN i1 , ... ,inEN
is countable we can apply (ii) and we obtain that X is of the first Baire category, which
contradicts the fact that X is a Banach space.
iv) Let en = (0, ... , 0, 1, 0, ... ) E c00 (1 on the n 1h position). If x = (xn)nEN E c00 , then
k
there is k E N such that Xn = 0 Vn 2: k + 1, and this shows that x = I: x;e;. Also, it is
i=l
obvious that the system {en I n E N} is linearly independent and hence {en I n E N} is an
algebraic basis. Now we can apply (iii).

i)Forn,k E NletAnk = {x EX llfn(x)l:::; k}. LetAk =
nEN
n AnkVk EN
and A = U Ak. We observe that since the functions fn are continuous, the sets Ank are
kEN
closed, and then the sets Ak are closed. Now, if x E X then the sequence (fn ( x) )nEN is by
hypothesis convergent, hence bounded, i.e., there is k E N such that lfn (x) I :::; k Vn E N,
i.e., x E Ak, hence x E A. It follows that A= X, that is, X= U Ak. Since X is complete
kEN
and the sets Ak are closed, from the Baire category theorem it follows that there is k E N
0
such that Ak# 0, i.e., there is an open and non-empty set V ~ X such that V ~ Ak, i.e.,
lfn (x)l :::; k Vx E V, Vn EN.
ii) Fork EN, let Ak = {x E X I lfn (x)- fm (x)l :::; c Vm,n ?: k}, Ak being a
closed set. Since the sequence Un (x))nEN converges it is Cauchy, and then it follows that
X = U Ak. Applying again the Baire category theorem, we can find an open and non-
kEN
empty set V ~ X and p E N such that lfn (x)- fm (x)l :::; c Vx E V, Vn, m ?: p. For
m----> oo it follows that If (x)- fn (x)l :::; E Vx E V, Vn?: p.
12. Let E E (0, 1). For n E N let An ~ [1, oo), An = n Fm, where Fm = {x E
[1, oo) I If (amx) I :::; E}. Since f is continuous, Fm is closed Vm E N, hence An is closed.
Let x E [1, oo). Since by our hypothesis lim f (anx) = 0, there is k E N such that
U An.
n~oo
lf(amx)l:::; E Vm?: k, i.e., x E Ak. It follows that [1,oo) = From the Baire
nEN
0
category theorem it follows that there is ns E N such that An,# 0, hence we can find
1:::; aE < b6 such that [as, bs] ~ Anc· Then If (amx)l :::; E Vm?: nE, Vx E [as, bs]·
Since lim ap+llaP = 1 and as < bE, there is Ps ?: ns such that ap+daP < bEiaE
p~oo
Vp ?: Ps, i.e., ap+laE < apbs Vp ?: Ps . We prove now that from this it follows that
(asap£, oo) ~ U (apas, apbs). Indeed, if x > asap, then xI as > ap,. Since the sequence
p?_pE
(aP )pEN is strictly increasing with limit oo, there is p E N such that aP < xI aE :::; ap+l· So
ap+l > aPe' and since (ap)pEN is strictly increasing we have p + 1 > p6 , i.e., p ?: pE, and
then aP < xlaE:::; ap+l < apbEia 6 , i.e., apas < x < apb 6 •
Let ME = aEaPc. Then by the above proved relation, Vx > ME :3k ?: p6 such that
x = aky, withy E (as, bs)· Hence k ?: ns andy E (a 6 , bs)- We have If (aky)l :::; E, i.e ..
If (x)l :::; E. In conclusion Vc > 0 :3M6 > 0 such that If (x)l :::; E Vx > Ms, that is,
limf(x)=O.
X-->00

i) We prove first that Xn is closed, for every n. Let (fk)kEN ~ Xn such that fk ---->
f E C [0, 1]. We can find then (tk)kEN ~ [0, 1] such that for every k, lfk (s)- fk (tk)l :::;
n Is- tkl Vs E [0, 1]. Using Cesaro's lemma, without loss of generality we can sup-
pose that tk ----> t E [0, 1] . Then for k ----> oo in the above inequality we obtain that
If (s)- f (t)l :::; n Is- tl Vs E [0, 1], i.e., f E Xn. (We use the fact that fk ----> f uni-
formly on [0, 1] to obtain that fk (tk)----> f (t) .)
Let n E Nand D ~ C[O, 1] be an open and non-empty set. Let f E D and r > 0 be
such that B (f, 2r) ~ D. The idea is that we can uniformly approximate the function f
with zig-zag functions, the zig-zags being of arbitrarily large slope. Since f is continuous
on the compact [0, 1], it is uniformly continuous, hence for rl8 > 0 there is o > 0 such
that: lf(t+h)-f(t)l < ri8VIhl < o,
Vt E [0,1]witht+h E [0,1]. Thenforany
9.2 Solutions 227
t E [0, 1] and any Ihi < 6 with t +hE [0, 1] it follows that
If (t +h) + ~ - f (t) 1:::: I~ - If (t +h) - f (t) 11:::: i

and hence there is c E (0, 6) such that
lf(t+h)+r/ 4 -f(t)l >n+4 'v'lhl <6, \itE [0,1] witht+hE [0,1].

c
Then \it E [0, 1] and \ih with Ihi E (0, c] and t +hE [0, 1] we have that
lf(t+h)+r/4-f(t)l
lhl > n + 4.
Let now t E [0, 1) and let s = t +c. Let us suppose that s E [0, 1]. Define then
g : [t, s] ---+ lR by
(t) + (x _ t) f((t+s)/2)+r/4-f(t) X E [t, (t + S) 12],

_ { fj (t+s) +:c.+ ( _ s+t)(s-t)/2
g (x)- f(s)-r/4-f((t+s)/2)
xE((t+s)l2,s].
2 4 X 2 (s-t)/2
Then g is a continuous zig-zag function and f (t) = g ( t) , f (s) = g ( s) . The modulus for
the slope of g on [t, (t + s) 12] is
f ((t + s) /2) + rl4- f (t) I >n+4

I I c 2
and, in the same way, the modulus for the slope of g on ( (t + s) I 2, s] is strictly bigger than
n + 4. For any x E [t, (t + s) 12] we have
lg (x)- f (x)l < lg (x)- f (t)l +If (t)- f (x)l

2lx- til f ((t + s) /2)c+ r I 4- f (t) I + i
< 2 ~~f((t+s)l2)+rl4-f(t)l+~
2 c 8
< I~C~s)-f(t)l+~+i~r.
Analogously, lg (x)- f (x)l ~ r \ix E ((t + s) /2, s].
The construction we will make is now clear. We begin with t = 0 and construct the
function g from 0 to c. After that we continue with t = c and construct the function g from
c to the 2c, etc. (we consider, if necessary, f (t) = f (1) fort 2:: 1). We obtain a function
g E C[O, 1] with II!- gil ~ r, g being a zig-zag function, and the modulus for the slopes
of g being always strictly bigger than n + 4. LetT > 0 with T < min(r, cl2) and let
us consider B (g, T) <;;; C[O, 1]. Obviously B (g, T) <;;; B (f, 2r) <;;; D. We will prove that
B (g, T)nXn = 0. Let us suppose that there ish E B (g, T)nXn- Since hE Xn there is t E
[0, 1] such that lh (s)- h (t)l ~ n Is- tl \is E [0, 1]. From llh- gil ~ cl2 it follows that
lh (t)- g (t)l ~ cl2, lh (s)- g (s)l ~ c/2\is E [0, 1] and so: lg (t)- g (s)l ~ c+n Is- tl
\Is E [0, 1] (1). Fort E [0, 1] there is k :::0: 0 such that t E [kc:, (k + 1) c:). Dividing the
interval [kc:, (k + 1) c:) into two parts let us suppose, for example, that t E [kc:, (k + 1I 2) c: ].
Then It- kc:l > c:l4 or It- (k + 112) c:l > c:l4, and suppose, for example, that It- kc:l >
c: I 4. For s = kc: in the relation (1) we obtain that
lg (kc:)- g (t)l :S c: + n Ike:- tl < 4lkc:- tl + n Ike:- tl = (n + 4) Ike:- tl,

which contradicts the choice of g.
We have proved that \!D s;:: C[0,1] open and \In EN, 3B(g,T) s;:: D such that
B (g, T) n Xn = 0. Since Xn is closed \In E N this easily implies that Xn is a nowhere
dense set, \In E N.
ii) Since C[O, 1] is separable, we can find Un)nEN, a dense sequence in C[O, 1]. For
m, n, k E N, applying to the set BUn, 1lk) the results form (i), we obtain that there is
an open set D':k S:: B (in, 1lk) with D';:j, n Xm = 0. Let Am = U D';J, \!m E N
and G = n Am. Obviously, G is a Gs set. We will prove that An n,k::0:1

m::O:l
s;:: C[O, 1] is dense
\!m E N, and then by Baire's category theorem it follows that G s;:: C[O, 1] is dense. Let
f E C [0, 1], mEN and c: > 0. There is n EN such that II!- fnll < c:l2. Let kEN with
1lk < c:l2. Since D';:k S:: B (in, 1lk), choosing g E D~t, we have that llg- fnll < 1lk.
Then II!- gil < c: and g E D':k S:: Am.
Let us suppose that we can find f E G and t 0 E [0, 1] such that f is differentiable at t 0 .
Then
lim f (t) - f (to) = f' (to)'
t-.to t - to
so there are c: > 0 and M > 0 such that If (t)- f (to) I < MIt- t 0 \It E [0, 1] with
1
It- t 0 < c:. If we consider

1
K = sup
tE[O,l], it-toi::O:c
If (t) - tof (to) I
t -
and m E N with m > max(K, M), then If (t)- f (to) I :S mIt- t 0 \It E [0, 1], so
n
1
f E Xm. But f E G = Ap, hence f E Xm n Am· It follows that there are nand k such
p::O:l
that f i.e., D':k n Xm # 0, which is not true, by our construction.
E D~k,
Remark. This exercise, known as the Banach theorem, shows that the set of all the
continuous functions on [0, 1] which are not differentiable at any point of [0, 1] is a very
large one. However, when we try to construct explicitly such a function, this is a difficult
thing to do.
14. Let us suppose that the conclusion from the exercise is not true, i.e., \!x E lR\A
3n EN such that fn (x) # 0. Let En = {x E lR\A I fn (x) # 0}. Then lR\A= U En.
nEN
Since
En= {x E lR\A llfn (x)l > 0} = U {x E lR\A llfn (x)l 2': 1lk},
it follows that lR\A = U An,k. where An,k = {x E lR\A llfn (x) I :::0: 1lk }. Since A S:: lR
n,kEN
is a set of first Baire category, there is a sequence of nowhere dense sets (Bp)pEN such that
9.2 Solutions 229
A = U Bp. Then lR = U Bp U U An,k· Since lR is of the second Baire category, it

pEN pEN n,kEN
0
follows that there are n 0 , k 0 E N such that Ano,ko# 0. Using now exercise 2, there are
x E lR and c > 0 such that (x- c, x +c) ~ A~o,ko· In particular, x E A~o,ko' i.e., there is
(tp) E"' ~ Ano ,ko with tP # x Vp E N and tP ----t x. However, by hypothesis, lim f no (t) = 0,
P " t->x
and it follows that lim fno (tp) = 0, which is contradictory, since lfno (tp)l:;::: 1/ko Vp EN.
p--->00
15. i) Let us suppose that such a function exists. Since f takes finite values, Vx E X
:Jk E N such that If (t)l :S k, i.e., X = U Ak. where Ak = {x E lR I If (t)l :S k}.
kEN
0
Since X is of the second Baire category, :Jk E N such that Ak# 0, and using exercise 2 it
follows that there are x EX and c > 0 such that B (x, c) ~A~. Since A is dense, we have
B (x, c) n A# 0, so 0 # B (x, c) n A~ A~ n A, i.e., there is a E A such that a E A~.
Using now the characterization for the accumulation points in metric spaces, :3 (xn)nEN ~
Ak. Xn #a Vn EN such that Xn ----t a. Since a E A and by hypothesis lim If (t)l = oo,
t->a
we obtain that lim
n->oo
If (xn)l = oo, which is not possible, since (xn)nEN ~ Ak, If (xn)l :S k
Vn EN, i.e., the sequence(! (xn))nEN is bounded.
ii) See [45, exercise 21 (c), chapter 5].
Since Q ~ lR is dense, from (i) it follows that we cannot find such a function.
16. i) Let us suppose, for a contradiction, that such a sequence of functions exists.
The hypothesis is that A = {x EX I Un (x))nEN is unbounded}. Then X\A = {x E
X I Un (x))nEN is bounded} = U {x E X I lfn (x)l :S k Vn E N}. Let Ak = {x E
kEN
X I lfn (x)l :S k Vn E N}. Since the functions fn are continuous, the set {x E X I
lfn (x)l :::; k} is closed, and then Ak =
nEN
n
{x E X I lin (x)l :::; k} is also closed.
We have X = AU (X\A) = AU U Ak. Since A is of the first Baire category, then
kEN
A = U Bk. Bk nowhere dense Vk E N, and so X = U Bk U U Ak. Since X is a
kEN kEN kEN
complete metric space from the Baire category theorem we know that there is a k E N such
0
that Ak# 0. The set Ak being closed it follows that there are x E X and c > 0 such that
B (x, c) ~ Ak. Since A is dense in X it follows that B (x, c) n A# 0. This is false, since
B (X' c) ~ Ak ~ X \ A.
ii) See [45, exercise 21 (a), chapter 5].
Q is dense and of the first Baire category in JR, hence by (i) we cannot find such a
sequence.
iii) h ~ c0 is of the first Baire category (see exercise 4(ii)) and h is dense in c0 • Hence,
we cannot find such a sequence.
iv) Lip [0, 1] ~ C [0, 1] is of the first Baire category (see exercise 4(ii)), and dense.
Hence, by (i), we cannot find such a sequence.
17. i) Let us observe that if h : X ----t Y is a homeomorphism of topological spaces

0
- -- 0 ,........__
then h(A) = h(A) and h(A) =h(A), so if A is nowhere dense (respectively, of the first
Baire category), then h(A) is nowhere dense (respectively, of the first Baire category).
Let En = {x E X I f(x, xn) E A} = h;; 1 (A), where hn : X ----t X is defined by

hn (x) = f (x, Xn), which by hypothesis is a homeomorphism of topological spaces. Hence,
En is of the first Baire category. Let us suppose, for a contradiction, that the conclusion
from the exercise is not true, i.e., Vx E X 3n E N such that f(x, xn) E A. Then X =
U En. It follows that X is of the first Baire category, which contradicts the Baire theorem,
nEN
X being a complete metric space.
If X is a normed space and f : X x X ----t X is defined by f(x, y) = x + y, then
for any a E X, the translation f(-, a) = Ta : X ----t X defined by Ta(x) = x +a is a
homeomorphism, so in this case we can apply (i) obtaining the following fact:
(i') Let X be a Banach space, A ~ X a first Baire category set, and (xn)nEN ~ X.
Then there is x EX such that \In EN, x + Xn tJ_ A.
ii) From exercise 9(iii) of chapter 12 the set A( H) = {U E L(H) I U self-adjoint} is
nowhere dense in L(H), so by (i') we obtain the statement.
iii) From exercise 4(ii), Lip[O, 1] ~ C[O, 1] is of the first Baire category, and we can use
again (i') to obtain the statement.
iv) From exercise 7(i), A={! E C[-1, 1]1 f odd}~ C[-1, 1] is nowhere dense, and
we use (i').
v) From exercise 5, £ 2 [0, 1] ~ £ 1[0, 1] is of the first Baire category, hence by (i') it
follows that there is f E £ 1[0, 1] such that f + fn tJ_ £ 2 [0, 1] Vn EN, i.e.,
1 1
lf(x)l dx < oo,
1
but
1
lf(x) + fn(x)l 2 dx = oo Vn EN.
vi) It follows from exercise 13 and (i').
18. See [ 10, exercise 26, chapter VI, section 1].

Let us suppose, for a contradiction, that the conclusion is not true, i.e., V(an)nEN C
00 00 00
lK such that l: lanl < oo, the function l: anfn is {L-integrable (the series l: anfn (s)
n=1 n=1 n=1
00
converges for {L-almost every s since l: lanl < oo, and for {L-almost every s E S we
n=1
00
have sup lfn(s)l < oo, and then, if we denote f (s) = l: anfn (s), we have that f is
nEN n=1
defined almost everywhere, is measurable, and fs If (s) IdfL ( s) < oo ). Let us consider
00
the operator U : l1 ----t L 1(tL) defined by U((an)nEN) l: anfn-

From the above, U
=
n=1
is well defined. Obviously, U is linear. We will prove that U has its graph closed. Let
(a~)nEN ----t (an)nEN in hand U((a~)nEN) ----t gin L 1(f.l). From measure theory we know
that there is a subsequence (kp)pEN ofN such that U((a~v)nEN) ----t g, {L-a.e., i.e., using the
definition for U, f: a~v fn(s)
n=1
----t g(s), {L-a.e .. However, if(~n)nEN E Zoo then
00 00 00
n=1 n=1 n=1

9.2 Solutions 231
(X) (X)
i.e., ~ a~~n- ~ an~n----> 0. Since by hypothesis for 11-almost all s E S, Un(s))nEN E lcxn
n=1 n=1
00 00 00 k
it follows that ~ a~fn(s)- ~ anfn(s)----> 0, 11-a.e .. But ~ anP fn(s) ----> g(s), 11-a.e., so
n=1 n=1 n=1
(X)
g(s) = ~ anfn(s), !1-a.e., that is, g = U((an)nEN). Now from the closed graph theorem it
n=1
follows that U is continuous, i.e.,
For the canonical basis in l 1 , we obtain that IIU(en)ll::::; IIUII Vn EN. U(en) = fn, and
therefore Is Is
lfn(s)l dfL(s) ::::; IIUII Vn E N, i.e., sup lfn(s)l dfL(s) ::::; IIUII < oo, which
nEN
contradicts our hypothesis.
19. i) Let V : G ----> Y be the restriction of U. Then Vis linear and continuous. Since
G is a closed linear subspace and X is a Banach space, it follows that G is a Banach space.
From the open mapping theorem, it follows that V (G) = U (G) is either of the first Baire
category, or U (G)= V (G)= Y.
ii) Let us calculate T- 1 (U (Y) ). We have x E r- 1 (U (Y)) {::} Tx E U (Y) {::} :Jy E Y
such that Tx = Uy. Let H = {(x,y) EX x Y I Tx = Uy} c:;;; X x Y. Since U and T
are continuous operators, it follows that His closed in X x Y. Now the linearity of U and
T implies that H is a linear subspace. Hence H c:;;; X x Y is a closed linear subspace.
Since X and Y are Banach spaces, X x Y is a Banach space, and since H is a closed
set it follows that H is complete, i.e., H is a Banach space. Let p : X x Y ----> X be the
canonical projection, p (x, y) = x, which is linear and continuous, hence the restriction
p : H ----> X is also linear and continuous. From the open mapping theorem, or using (i),
it follows that we have: either p (H) is of the first Baire category, or p (H) = X (i.e., p
is surjective). Now, x E p (H) {::} :J (a, y) E H such that p (a, y) = x {::} :Jy E Y such
that (x, y) E H {::} :ly E Y such that Tx = Uy {::} x E r- 1 (U (Y)), i.e., p (H) =
r- 1 (U (Y)). So, either r- 1 (U (Y)) is of the first Baire category, or r- 1 (U (Y)) = X.
We have: X= r- 1 (U (Y)) {::} T (X) c:;;; U (Y). Indeed, suppose that X= r- 1 (U (Y)),
and let yET (X). Then there is x EX such that y = Tx. But X = r- 1 (U (Y)), from
whence x E r- 1 (U (Y)), i.e., Tx E U (Y), y E U (Y). The converse can be proved in
the same way.
Changing the role of U and T we obtain that either u- 1 (T (X)) is of the first Baire
category, or U (Y) c:;;; T (X). Now if r- 1 (U (Y)) is of the second Baire category, and
u- 1 (T (X)) is of the second Baire category, we must have T (X) c:;;; U (Y) and U (Y) c:;;;
T (X), i.e., U (Y) = T (X).
20. i) See [9, exercise 6, chapter I, section 3].

If for every n E N, Un (Xn) is of the first Baire category, in this case it follows that
U Un (Xn) is of the first Baire category. Since by hypothesis X = U Un (Xn), we
nEN nEN
contradict the Baire category theorem, X being a Banach space. Therefore we can find n 0 E
N such that Uno (Xn 0 ) is of the second Baire category. Since Uno : Xno ----> X is a linear
and continuous operator between two Banach spaces, from the open mapping theorem it
follows that Uno is surjective.
ii) See [9, exercise 13 (a), chapter III, section 3].

From U (X) <:;; U Un (Xn) it follows that X <:;; U u- 1 (Un (Xn)), i.e., X =
nEN nEN
U u- 1 (Un (Xn)). But it is proved at exercise 19 that if Pn : X x Xn ____, X is the
nEN
canonical projection, Pn (x, y) = x, and Hn = {(x, y) EX x Xn Ux = Uny}, then J
Pn (Hn) = U- 1 (Un (Xn)). We have the following situation: {Hn}nEN are Banach spaces,
and Pn : Hn ____, X, n E N, are linear and continuous operators, with X = U Pn (Hn).
nEN
From (i), it follows that there is n E N such that Pn is surjective, i.e., Pn (Hn) = X,
u- 1 (Un (Xn)) =X, that is, U (X) <:;; Un (Xn)·
iii) See [42, exercise 32, chapter III].
First solution. The hypothesis is that S <:;; U LP [0, 1]. Since LP [0, 1] <:;; Lq [0, 1] if
p>1
q ::; p, it follows that S <:;; U LP [0, 1]. Let U : S ____, L 1 [0, 1] and UP : LP [0, 1] ____,
p>1,pEr(J!
L 1 [0, 1] be the inclusion maps. We have
p>1, pEr()! p>1,pEr(J!

From (ii) it follows that there is p > 1, p E Q, such that S <:;; Lp [0, 1].
Second solution. From the hypothesis we have \If E S :lp > 1 such that f E LP [0, 1],
so \If E S:lp > 1 andq E Qwithp > q > 1 suchthatf E Lp[0,1]. SinceLP[0,1] <:;;
Lq [0, 1] we obtain that \If E S :lq E Q, q > 1, such that f E Lq [0, 1]. Since there is
n E N with n 2: llfllq we obtain that \If E S :lq E Q, q > 1, and n E N such that
f = n (f jn) E nBLq[o, 1]· Therefore
S <:;; uu
p>1,pEr(J!nEN
nBLp[0,1j,
so
p>1,pEr(J!nEN
Since Sis a closed subspace in L 1 [0, 1], Sis a Banach space. From the Baire category
0
theorem there are p E Q with p > 1 and n E N such that S n nBLp[o, 1]# 0, i.e.,
0
S n BLp[o, 1]# 0. But using the Fatou lemma and standard results from measure theory
it follows that BLp[o, 1] is closed in L 1 [0, 1] (see also the solution for exercise 5). Hence
S n BLv[o, 1J is closed in L 1 [0, 1], and therefore we can find g E S n B Lp[D,1] and E > 0 such
s
that Bs (g, E) <:;; n BLp[D,1]· Let f E S, f # 0. Then
E
~f+g E Bs(g,E) <:;; SnBLp[O,l]l
and therefore (Ej (2llfll 1 )) f +g E BLv[D,1]· Since g E Lp [0, 1] it follows that f E Lp.
Hence S <:;; Lp.
21. Suppose first that Xn are all closed. From X = U Xn, since X is a Banach space,
nEN
0
hence of the second Baire category, we obtain that there is n E N such that Xn # 0, that is,
9.2 Solutions 233
Xn-=1- 0, i.e., Xn is a subspace and contains a ball. From exercise 15 of chapter 1 it follows
that Xn =X.
For the general case, when the Xn are not supposed to be closed, we have X =
U Xn ~ U Xn ~ X, that is, X = U Xn- We obtain that there is n E N such that
nEN nEN nEN
Xn=X.
22. See [3, theorem 2.2.2].

i) Obviously, Fn ~ L (X) is a linear subspace. Let (Tk)keN ~ Fn be such that Tk ----+ T
in L (X), butT ¢:. Fn. Then there are x 1, ... , Xn+l E X such that {Tx 1 , ... , Txn+l} ~ X
is linearly independent. Using now the stability property for finite linearly independent
systems (see exercise 35 of chapter I), there is c > 0 such that if y1, ... , Yn+ 1 E X are such
that IIYI!i, ... , IIYn+lll < E, then {Tx1 +y1, ... , Txn+l +Yn+d ~X is linearly independent.
Since Tk ----+Tin L (X), there is k E N such that
Then I (Tk- T) xjll < c, j = 1, n + 1, and hence for yj = Tkxj -Txj in the above relation
it follows that the system {Tkx 1 , ... , Tkxn+d ~ X is linearly independent, so Tk ¢:. Fn, a
contradiction.
ii) Let F(X) be the set of all finite rank operators from X into X, and A(X) the
closure of F(X) in the space L(X). We have that A(X) ~ K(X). Since A(X) is a
closed linear subspace in L(X), A(X) is a Banach space. Now, by (i), for any n E N,
CXJ
Fn is a closed linear subspace in A(X). If A(X) = U Fn then by exercise 21 there is

n=l
n E N such that Fn = A( X). Then F(X) = Fn· Since dimoc X = oo, we can find n + 1
linearly independent elements x 1, ... , Xn+l E X, and, considering x;', ... , x~+l E X* such
that xj (xi) = 6ij, i, j = 1, ... , n + 1 (see exercise 2 of chapter 7) then for the operator T E
n+l
L (X), T (x) = I: x'k (x) xk Vx E X, we have that {x 1, ... , Xn+d ~ T (X), therefore
k=l
CXJ
dimoc(T (X)) > n, a contradiction, since F(X) = Fn· So A(X) -=1- U Fn, i.e., there
n=l
is T E A(X) such that Vn E N, T ¢:. Fn, i.e., T can be uniformly approximated by a
sequence of finite rank operators and dimoc(T (X))> n Vn EN, i.e., dimoc(T (X))= oo.
00
The last assertion is now clear since we have U Fn ~ A(X) ~ K(X), and also
n=l
00
U Fn -=1- A(X).
n=l
23. '(i) =? (ii)' If a non-null linear and continuous operator U : X ----+ Y is open, then
the set {U(x) I llxll < 1} is open, hence there is 6 > 0 such that {y E Y I IIYII < 6} ~
{U(x) I llxll < 1}. Now ify E Y andy -=1- 0, then ll6yj (2IIYII)II = 6/2 < 6, hence by
the above there is llxll < 1 such that U(x) = 6yj (2IIYII), so by the homogeneity of U,
U ((2x IIYII) /6) = y, i.e., U is surjective.
'(ii) =?(iii)' Since Y -=1- {0}, there is y0 E Y with y0 -=1- 0. Also, X -=1- {0} and by the
Hahn-Banach theorem there is x* E X*, x* -=1- 0. By hypothesis any non-null linear and
continuous operator is surjective, in particular the rank one operator U : X ----+ Y defined
by U(x) = x*(x)y0 is surjective, that is, 'Vy E Y :Jx E X such that U(x) = y, that is,
x*(x)y0 = y, and therefore dimoc Y = 1.
'(iii) ::::} (i)' First we prove that any non-null linear and continuous functional x* :
X ----+ lK is open (we cannot use the open mapping theorem since X is just normed, and not
necessarily complete).
Since x* -=1- 0, there is x 0 EX such that x* (x 0 ) -=1- 0, and let a= x 0 jx* (x 0 ) EX. Then
x* (a) = 1. Since x* is linear it follows that 'VA E lK :J>.a E X such that x* (>.a) = .\x* (a) =
>.,i.e., x* is surjective. Let us observe that 'Vx EX we have x- ax*(x) E kerx* and
x = (x- ax* (x)) + ax*(x) E kerx* EB lKa, i.e., X = kerx* EB lKa (direct sum). Let
D ~X be an open set such that 0 E D. Then Dis a neighborhood ofO. Since the mapping
p : lK x X ----+ X defined by p(.\, x) = Ax is continuous at (0, a), it follows that there are
c > 0 and Van open neighborhood for a such that '<I( A, x) E lK x X with 1>-1 < c and
x E V, it follows that p (>., x) = >.x E D. In particular, for IAI <cit follows that >.a E D,
from whence>.= h*(a) = x*(.\a) E x*(D), i.e., :lc > 0 such that D(O, c) ~ x*(D), and
therefore x*(D) is a neighborhood ofO. Let now D ~X be an arbitrary open set. Let also
x E D. Then 0 E D- x and D- xis open, hence x*(D- x) ~ lK is a neighborhood of
0 in JK, i.e., :lc > 0 such that D(O, c) ~ x*(D- x), that is, D(x*(x), c) ~ x*(D). Hence
'<!>. E x*(D) :lc > 0 such that D(>., c)~ x*(D), i.e., x* (D)~ lK is an open set in lK.
Consider now a non-null linear and continuous operator U : X ----+ Y. Since by hy-
pothesis dimoc Y = 1, let y0 E Y with y0 -=1- 0. Then for any x E X there is a unique
Ax ElK with the property that U(x) = AxYO· From this it follows easily that the functional
x* : X ----+ lK defined by x* (x) = Ax is linear, continuous, and non-null, hence by the above
an open operator. Now the mapping h : lK ----+ Y defined by h(A) = .\y0 is a homeomor-
phism, so h is open. If we observe that U = h o x*, U is open, since as is easy to see the
composition of two open maps is an open map.
24. i) The hypothesis assures that Ma is well defined. Obviously, Ma is linear. We will
prove that Ma has its graph closed, and since lP and lq are Banach spaces, we will obtain
that Ma is continuous. Let (xkhEN ~ lP be such that xk ----+ x E lp and Ma (xk) ----+ y E lq.
Letxk = (x7,x~, ... ) E lp,x = (x 1,x2, ... ) E lP,y = (y 1,y2, ... ) E lq. Fromxk----+ xinlP
it follows that x7----+ Xi 'ViE N. Since Ma (xk) = (a 1 x1, a 2 x~, ... ) ----+ y = (y 1 , y2 , ... )in lq
it follows that aix7 ----+ Yi 'Vi E N. Since aix7 ----+ aixi we obtain that aixi = Yi 'Vi E N, i.e.,
y = Ma (x). Hence Ma is linear and continuous.
ii) By (i), Ma is linear and continuous. Let Xn ElK such that lxnl = lanl(r-q)/q. Then
lxnlq lanlq = lanr, and then
We have
and
9.2 Solutions 235
(t Ia,I') 'i' <;liM, II (t, Ia,I') 'I'.

Hence
(t, la,l')
thus
'i' <; liM, II Vk E l\1
SO (
f00
1
lanlr
) 1/r
::=; IIMall, i.e., a E Zr and llallr ::=; IIMall·
Conversely, if a E Zr then since 1/p + 1/r = 1/ q, from the Holder inequality we have
\\(anxn)nENiiq:::; \\(xn)nENIIP \\(an)nENIIr,
that is, liMa (x)llq ::=; llxiiP llallr Vx E ZP, i.e., IIMall ::=; llallr·
iii) By (i), Ma is linear and continuous. Consider en E Zp· Then lanl = liMa (en) II :::;
IIMallllenll = IIMall, i.e., a = (an)nEN E Zoo and llalloo = sup lanl ::=; IIMall· On the
r r
nEN
another hand, since p :::; q we have
~ @Ia.I' lx, I' (t, lx,l'

r'
II M, (xl I s llall oo
< llalloo (t, lx,l' ~ llalloo llxll.

and then I Mall :::; llalloo·
25. See [29, exercise 14.28, chapter IV, section 14].

Suppose, for a contradiction, that we can find such a sequence (en) nEN. This implies that
the set { n E N I en = 0} is finite, and then, without loss of generality, we may suppose that
Cn #- 0 Vn E N. Consider then the operator T : Zoo --+ h' T ( (an)nEN) = (an/ Cn)nEN. By
our hypothesis Tis a well defined operator. Indeed, if(an)nEN E Zoo, i.e., ((an/en) cn)nEN E
00
Zoo, then by hypothesis 2::= lan/cnl < oo. Tis clearly linear, and we will use the closed
n=1
graph theorem in order to prove that T is continuous. Suppose that xk = ( x~) nEN --+ 0 in
Zoo, and that T (xk) = (x~fcn)nEN--+ yin l1. Ify = (Yn)nEN, then x~fcn--+ Yn Vn EN.
But x~--+ 0 Vn EN. Therefore Yn = 0 Vn EN, andy= 0. We obtain that Tis a bounded
linear operator. Clearly, Tis injective: ifT ((an)nEN) = 0, then an/en= 0 Vn EN, and
then an = 0 Vn E N. By our hypothesis, T is also surjective. Indeed, let (bn)nEN E l 1 .
00
Then 2::= lbnl < oo, and therefore (bncn)nEN E Zoo. Also T ((bncn)nEN) = (cn)nEN. Thus,
n=1
T is a bijective linear and bounded operator. Since loo and l 1 are Banach spaces, we obtain
that r- 1 : 11 --+ loo is also a bounded linear operator. Therefore, we can find 5 > 0 such
that IITxll ~ 5llxll Vx E 100 . Ifwe consider, for each subset A ofN, eA (n) = 1 ifn E A
and eA (n) = 0 ifn rf_ A, we obtain (eA)AEP(N) <:;;; loo such that IleA- eBII = 1 VA#- B.
Therefore liT (eA)- T (eB)II ~ 15, YA of- B. Using that P (N) is not countable, as in the
solution for exercise 22 of chapter 2 we obtain that l 1 is not separable, a contradiction!
26. i) Let A = { n E N I en of- 0}. If A is finite, then there is k E N such that en = 0

Yn ~ k + 1. Then for the sequence ( -1)n we have ( -1)ncn = 0 Yn ~ k + 1, and therefore
00 00
the series I: (-1 )ncn converges absolutely. Hence, by our hypothesis, the series I: (-1 )n
n=l n=l
must be absolutely convergent, which is false. Hence A is infinite, and then suppose that
en of- 0 Yn EN. Then our hypothesis are:
00 00
a) for each absolutely convergent series I: an it follows that the series I: an en is ab-
n=l n=l
solutely convergent. Using exercise 24(iii) this is equivalent with the fact that the sequence
(Cn)nEN is bounded, i.e., sup len I < oo
nEN
00 00
b) for each absolutely convergent series I: an = I: Cn (an/en) it follows that the

00
n=l n=l
series I: an/en is absolutely convergent. Using the same exercise, this is equivalent with
n=l
the fact that the sequence (1/cn)nEN is bounded, i.e. sup (1/ len I) < oo, that is, in£ len I >
nEN nEN
0.
Hence the sequences which satisfy the conditions from the statement are those for
which B = {n EN I en= 0} is finite and 0 < in£ lenl :::; sup lcnl < oo.
nrfcB nEN
ii) Suppose that we can find such a sequence. Let us say, for example, that p < q.
Suppose (see (i)) that en of- 0 Yn E N. Let Me : lp ---+ lq be the multiplication operator
Me((xn)nEN) = (cnXn)nEN· From our hypothesis it follows that Me is well defined, and
using exercise 24(iii) we obtain that c = (cn)nEN E l00 •
Also, let us consider the multiplication operator associated with the sequence 1/c =
(1/cn)nEN• Ml/e : lq ---+ lp, Ml;e((xn)nEN) = (xn/cn)nEN" From our hypothesis it follows
that M1;e is well defined and then by exercise 24(ii) we have 1/c = (1/cn)nEN E lr, where
1/q + 1/r = 1/p. In particular, (1/cn)nEN E co, which is false, since the sequence (cn)nEN
is bounded.
iii) We obtain as in (i) that the sequences which satisfy the conditions from the statement
are those for which B = { n E N I en = 0} is finite and 0 < in£ len I :::; sup len I < oo.
nf/cB nEN
27. See [35, exercise F, chapter 3].

Let us consider the differentiation operator D : E ---+ C [0, 1] defined by D (f) = J'
Yf E E. From our hypothesis on E, the operator D is well defined. The properties for the
derivative show that Dis linear. Since Eisa closed linear subspace inC [0, 1], it follows
that (E, ll·lloo) is a Banach space. Since C [0, 1] is also a Banach space, if we prove that D
has its graph closed it will follow from the closed graph theorem that D is continuous. Let
Un)nEN ~ E, fn ~ f and Dfn ~ g E C [0, 1], i.e., fn---+ f uniformly on [0, 1] and
f~ ---+ g uniformly on [0, 1]. But we know that if there is x 0 E [0, 1] such that Un (x 0 ))nEN
is Cauchy and f~ ---+ g uniformly on [0, 1], then there is J:
[0, 1] ---+ lR such that fn ---+ J
pointwise and 1
= g. Under our hypothesis, we have f = 1, and then = g, that is, J'
D(f) = g, i.e., D has its graph closed. Then Dis continuous and it follows that there is
9.2 Solutions 237
M > 0 such that liD (f) lloo :::; M llflloo \/ f E E, i.e., IIJ'
lloo :::; M \/f E BE. Then Vc > 0
::lbe: = c:/M such that \/x, y E [0, 1] with lx- Yl :::; Oe: it follows that If (x)- f (y)l :::; c:
\If E BE (we use the well known Lagrange formula for real functions). Since BE is
clearly uniformly bounded, the Arzela-Ascoli theorem assures that BE s;;; (C [0, 1], ll·lloo)
is relatively compact. Since BE is closed we obtain that BE is compact in (E, 11·11 00 ) . The
Riesz theorem (see exercise 23 of chapter 4) implies now that E is finite-dimensional.
28. See [44, theorem 5.2].

i) Since X s;;; LP (!1) is a closed linear space and LP (!1) is a Banach space, it follows
that (X, 11·11 P) is a Banach space. Since also ( Loo (!1) , 11·11 oo) is a Banach space and the
inclusion operator i : X ----+ L 00 (p) is linear, in order to prove that i is continuous it is
sufficient to prove that i has its graph closed. Let (fn)nEN s;;; X be such that fn ----+ fo
in Lp (/1) and fn ----+ g in L 00 (!1). Then by the Holder inequality and that the Lebesgue
measure 11 is finite it follows that fn ----+ g in LP (!1 ), hence fo = g, 11-a.e., i.e., fo = g in X.
ii) From (i) there is k > 0 such that llflloo :::; k IIJIIP \If E X. If 1 :::; p :::; 2, then
I fliP :::; 11111 2 , and so llflloo :::; k 11!11 2 \/f E X. Suppose now that p E (2, oo). Then we
have
11111~ = 1If 1
(tW dt = 1If (t)l lf (t)lp-
1 2 2 dt:::; 11111: 2 1If (t)1
1 2
dt = 11111: 2 11111;.
Combining this with llflloo :::; k IIJIIP we obtain that 11111~ :::; kP- 2 IIfll~- 2 llfll;, from
whence IIJIIP :::; k(p- 2 )/ 2 11111 2 and llflloo :::; k · k(p- 2 )/ 2 11111 2 . In conclusion, llflloo :::;
M 11111 2 \If EX, where M =max (k, kPi 2 ).
iii) Let {h, ... , fn} s;;; X be an orthonormal set in X, X being considered as a linear
subspace in £ 2 (!1) . Let r = Qn n Ben, where Ben is the closed unit ball of en in the
Euclidean norm. For z = (z 1 , ... ,zn) EBen, let fz : [0, 1] ----+ e be defined by fz (-) =
2 n 2
n
2::: zd; (-). Then from the orthonormality we have llfzll 2 = L lz;l , hence llfzll 2 :::; 1
i=1 i=1
\/z E Ben.
From (ii) it follows that llfzlloo :::; M, \/z E Ben, i.e., \/z E Ben we have lfzl :::; M
11-a.e.. Since r is countable it follows that there is A s;;; [0, 1], 11-measurable, such that
!J(CA) = 0 and lfz (t)l :::; M \It E A, \/z E f. For a fixed t E A, we have lfz (t)l :::; M
l;j z E r and since r s;;; Ben is dense, it follows that I fz (t) I :::; M l;j z E Ben. Hence
z~~~n ~~ zd; (t)l :::; M and then using the duality (Cn, 11·11 2 )* =(en, 11·11 2 ) it follows that
n n
2::: If; (t)l 2 :::; M 2 \It E A, i.e., 2::: l/;1 2 :::; M 2 , 11-a.e .. Integrating and using again the
~1 ~1
orthonormality it follows that n ::; M 2 •

Suppose that X is infinite-dimensional. Then we have an infinite linearly independent
system in X. Then the Gram-Schmidt procedure shows that we have an infinite orthonor-
mal system in X, which contradicts the facts proved above. Hence X is finite-dimensional,
and the dimension of X is less than M 2 .
29. i) Let us verity the axioms for a norm. If llxiiP = 0, then lxniP Wn = 0 \In EN and
so Xn = 0 \In EN, since Wn # 0 \In EN. Also, if a E C and x = (xn)nEN E lp (w), then
<
Hence (zP(w), II·IIP) is a normed space. That it is a Banach space follows from lP being
a Banach space. Indeed, if (xk)kEN <:;;; lp (w) is a Cauchy sequence, xk = (x~)nEN, then
considering the sequence (zk)kEN <:;;; lP, where zk = (x~w~1P)nEN, we obtain a Cauchy
sequence in lp. Hence there is z = (zn)nEN E lP such that zk ~ z in lp, and so xk ~ x in
lp(w), where x = (znw;; 11P) E lp (w).
nEN
ii) Let us suppose that there are r, s E [1, oo) with r < s such that Lr (tL) = Ls (tL)
(equality of sets). Consider the inclusion operator I : lr ( w) ~ ls ( w). I is well defined,
00
since if x = (xn)nEN E lr (w) then for the function f = L XnXEn we have f E Lr (fL),
hence by hypothesis f E Ls (tL), i.e., (

f
CXJ
1xnl 8 Wn
)1/s < oo, and sox
n=1
E ls (w). Obvi-
1
ously, I is linear. Since ( lr ( w) , 11·11 r) and (ls (w) , 11·1 Is) are Banach spaces, in order to prove
that I is continuous it is sufficient to show that I has its graph closed. Let ( xk) kEN <:;;; lr (w)
with xk ~ x E lr (w) such that I (xk) ~ y E ls (w). Hence xk ~yin ls (w). Then for
all n E N, the nth component of xk converges to the nth component of y. Since xk ~ x in
lr ( w) , then for any n E N, the nth component of xk converges to the nth component of x.
Hence x = y, i.e., I(x) = y. The closed graph theorem shows that I is continuous, hence
there isM > 0 such that llxlls :S M llxllr Vx E lr (w). For en = (0, 0, ... ,0, 1, 0, ... ) (1
on the nth position), we obtain that: w~fs ::::; Mw~/r Vn EN, i.e., w~/s- 1 /r ::::; M Vn EN,
which is impossible since Wn ~ 0 (the sets En are pairwise disjoint and fL is countably
additive and finite).
Hence ifr, s E [1, oo) with r -=1- sand Lr (tL) = Ls (fL), then we cannot find a sequence
of pairwise disjoint sets (En)nEN <:;;;~such that tL(En) > 0 Vn EN.
iii) Let us suppose that Lr (tL) is not finite-dimensional. Let £ <:;;; Lr (tL) be the space
of all measurable step functions. As is well known, £ <:;;; Lr (tL) is a dense linear subspace.
If £ is finite-dimensional then £ is closed, and hence Lr (tL) will be finite-dimensional,
contradiction. So £ is not finite-dimensional, and in this case there are A, B <:;;; X disjoint
measurable sets with AU B = X, fL (A) > 0, fL (B) > 0, since in the contrary case we
would have dim£ = 1. Hence E = (xAE) EB (xs£), direct sum. Since E is infinite-
dimensional, it follows that either dim (xAE) = oo, or dim (xsE) = oo. If, for example,
dim (xsE) = oo, then we can apply the same reasoning as above and construct C, D <:;;; B
disjoint measurable sets with CUD= B, fL (C) > 0, fL (D) > 0. We have E = (XA£) EEl
(xc£) EB (XDE), with A, C, D <:;;; X measurable and pairwise disjoint, AU CUD = X,
fL (A) > 0, fL (C) > 0, fL (D) > 0. In this way we can construct a sequence of disjoint sets
9.2 Solutions 239
(En)nEN ~ E such that f-t (En) > 0, Vn E N. This contradicts what is proved at (ii).
30. See [20, exercise 3, chapter II].

i) Using that every element x E X has a unique representation as a summation of
two elements y E Y and z E Z, we can consider the operators P : X --t Y and Q :
X --t Z defined by P (x) = y and Q (x) = z, if x = y + z. Using the uniqueness
for the representation and the fact that Y and Z are linear subspaces of X, it follows that
P : X --t Y and Q : X --t Z are linear operators. Since Y and Z are closed linear
subspaces and X is a Banach space, it follows that Y and Z are Banach spaces (with
respect to the norm from X). In order to prove that P and Q are continuous we will use
the closed graph theorem. Let (xn)nEN ~ X be such that Xn --t x E X and Pxn --t y E Y.
For Xn we have a unique decomposition of the form Xn = Yn + Zn with Yn E Y and Zn E Z.
Then Pxn = Yn Vn E N and passing to the limit for n --t oo in Xn = Yn + Zn it follows
that Zn --t x- y. Since Z ~X is closed it follows that x- y = z E Z and then x = y + z,
y E Y, z E Z. Thus Px = y, i.e., P has its graph closed, so P E L (X, Y). In the same
way, Q E L(X, Z). Let k = max{IIPII, IIQII}. For x EX, x = y + z, y E Y, z E Z, we
have IIYII = IIPxll :S: IIPIIIIxll :S: k llxll, liz II = IIQxll :S: IIQIIIIxll :S: k llxll·
ii) It is proved in the solution of exercise 7(ii) that if T is a linear projector, then we
have the decomposition X = ker T EB T (X). Hence any x E X has a unique representation
of the form x =a+ b with a E T (X) and bE ker (T). Since by our hypothesis ker T and
T (X) ~ X are closed linear subspaces, from (i) it follows that there is k 2 0 such that
llall :S: k llxll, llbll :S: k llxll Vx EX where a= T(x) E T (X) and b = x- T(x) E kerT,
and therefore IITxll :S: k llxll Vx EX, i.e., Tis continuous.
31. See [14, exercise 2, chapter III, section 12].

It is proved in the solution of exercise 27 that D has its graph closed. For any n E N
let fn : [0, 1] --t ffi. be defined by fn (t) = tn Vt E [0, 1]. We have llfnii,XJ = 1 and
Dfn(t) = ntn-l Vt E [0, 1], and then IIDfnlloo = n Vn EN, which shows that Dis not
continuous.
Since (C [0, 1], ll·lloo) is a Banach space from the closed graph theorem it follows that
(C 1 [0, 1], ll·lloo) is a normed space which is not a Banach space.
32. See [9, exercise 7, chapter I, section 3].
i) We observe that N is a closed set, being an intersection of closed sets. Let y, z E N.
Let V be a neighborhood ofO. Then there is U, a neighborhood ofO, such that U + U ~ V,
hence, by the linearity ofT, T(U) + T(U) ~ T(V), and, by usual properties for the
adherence, T(U) + T(U) ~ T(U) + T (U) ~ T(V). Since y, z E N it follows that
y, z E T(U), soy+ z E T(V). Since Vis an arbitrary neighborhood for 0, it follows that
y +zEN. It the same way, ify EN and.>. ElK then >.yEN.
ii) Suppose that N = {0}. In order to prove that T is continuous, since X and Y are
Banach spaces, by the closed graph theorem it is sufficient to prove that T has its graph
closed. Let Xn --t x and T(xn) ---+ y. Let also V be an arbitrary neighborhood ofO. Then
there is k such that Xn - x E V Vn 2 k. Then T(xn) - T (x) E T(V) Vn 2 k, hence
passing to the limit for n --too we obtain that y- T (x) E T(V), i.e., by the definition of
N, y- T (x) EN= {0}, i.e., y = T (x).
Conversely, suppose that Tis continuous. Let y E N. Then, from the definition of
N, for any n E N, we have y E T(B(O, 1/n)), hence there is llxnll < 1/n such that
IIT(xn)- Yll < 1ln, i.e., Xn ____, 0 and T(xn) ____, y. Since Tis linear and continuous, it
follows that T(xn) ____, T (0) = 0, and then y = 0, i.e., N = {0}.
iii) In order to prove that the composition p o T : X ____, YIN is continuous, where
p : Y ____, YIN is the quotient map, since X and YIN are Banach spaces, it is sufficient to
prove that p o T has its graph closed. We will denote by p(y) = fj E YIN the equivalence
class for an element y E Y.
Let Xn ____, 0 and T{;J _ _ , fj. This means that d(T(xn) -
y, N) = IIT{;J- fil ___,
0.
For any n E N there is an E N such that liT (xn)- y- an II < 1ln + d(T(xn)- y, N).
We have an E N, and, by the definition of N, an E T(B(O, 1ln)), hence by the definition
of a closure point B (an, 1ln) n T(B(O, 1ln)) -=/- 0, therefore there is bn E X, llbnll <
1ln, such that liT (bn) -ani I < 1ln. Then liT (xn- bn)- Yll :S liT (xn) -an- Yll +
II an-T (bn) II ----t 0, and we have T (xn- bn) ----t y, Xn - bn ----t 0. Then for any V,
neighborhood of 0, it exists n 0 E N such that Xn - bn E V Vn ~ n 0 , from whence
T (xn - bn) E T (V) Vn ~ n 0 , hence passing to the limit for n ____, oo and using that
T (xn- bn) ____, y it follows that yET (V), VV a neighborhood ofO, i.e., by the definition
of N, yEN, i.e., fi= 0.
iv) Let M be a closed linear subspace of Y with the property that the composition
q o T : X ____, Y I M is continuous, where q : Y ____, Y I M is the quotient map. Let y E N.
From the definition of N, for any n EN we have y E T(B(O, 1ln)). Since B(y, 1ln) is a
neighborhood of y, from the definition for the closure of a set we have that T ( B (0, 1 In)) n
B(y, 1ln) -=1- 0, i.e., there is Xn E X with llxnll < 1ln and IIT(xn)- Yll < 1ln. Then
Xn ____, 0 and T( xn) ____, y. Since the quotient map q : Y ____, Y I M is continuous it follows that
q(T(xn)) ____, q(y). Also, by hypothesis, the composition q o T : X ____, Y I M is continuous,
and then since Xn ____, 0 it follows that (q o T)(xn) ____, (q o T)(O) = 0. Hence q(y) = 0, i.e.,
yE M.
Part II
Hilbert spaces
Chapter 10
Hilbert spaces, general theory
Definition. Let H be a linear space. A map ( ·, ·) : H x H ---) ][{ is called an inner

product on H if and only if the following conditions are satisfied:
i) (x, x) 2 0 Vx E H;
ii) (x, x) = 0 if and only if x = 0;
iii) (o:x + (Jy, z) = o: (x, z) + (3 (y, z) Vo:, (3 E ][{, Vx, y, z E H;
iv) (y, x) = (x, y) Vx, y E H.
Then ( H, ( ·, ·)) is called an inner product space.
The Cauchy-Buniakowski-Schwarz inequality. Let (H, (·, ·)) be an inner product
space. Then
l(x,y)l 2 :::; (x,x) (y,y) Vx,y E H.
Theorem. Let (H, (·,·))be an inner product space. The map 11·11 :H---) IR defined by
llxll = /f.X:X) is a norm called the norm generated by the inner product (or associated to
the inner product).
The von Neumann Theorem. Let (X, 11·11) be a normed space. Then there is an inner
product(-,·) : X x X ---) ][{such that the norm associated to the inner product is 11·11 if and
only if the parallelogram law is true:
Definition. An inner product space ( H, ( ·, ·)) is called a Hilbert space if and only if the
norm generated by the inner product is complete, i.e., (H, 11·11) is a Banach space.
Definition. Let ( H 1 , ( ·, ·)) and (H 2 , ( ·, ·)) be two inner product spaces. On the Carte-
sian product H 1 x H 2 the map ((x1, Y1), (x 2, Y2)) = (x 1, x 2) + (y1, Y2) is an inner product.
If (H1 , (·,·))and (H2 , (·,·))are Hilbert spaces then (H1 x H 2 , (-,·))is a Hilbert space
called the Hilbertian product of H 1 and H 2 .
244 Hilbert spaces, general theory
The Riesz Representation Theorem. Let (H, (·, ·)) be a Hilbert space. Then for any
linear and continuous functional x* : H ----+ lK there is a unique element y E H such that
x*(x) = (x, y) 'Vx E X, and conversely, if y E H then x* : H ----+ JK, x*(x) = (x, y)
'Vx E H, is linear and continuous, with llx* I = IIYII·
Definition. Let (H, ( ·, ·)) be an inner product space, A ~ H and x E H. We say that
x _l A if and only if (x, a) = 0 \Ia E A. The set A_j_ = {x E H I x _l A} is called the
orthogonal complement of the set A.
Definition. Let (H, ( ·, ·)) be an inner product space. A subset A ~ H is called:
i) an orthogonal set if and only if (a, b) = 0 \Ia, b E A with a =1- b;
ii) an orthonormal set if and only if (a, b) = 0 \Ia, b E A with a =1- b, and (a, a) = 1
\Ia E A;
iii) an orthonormal basis if and only if A is an orthonormal set and for any orthonormal
set B ~ H with the property that A ~ B it follows that A = B.
The Pythagoras Theorem. i) Let (H, (·, ·)) be an inner product space. If n E N and
{ x1 , ... , Tn} ~ H is an orthogonal system, then
ii) Let ( H, (·, ·)) be a Hilbert space. If ( Xn) nEN is a countable orthogonal system, then
00
Tn is convergent if and only ifthe series n=l

the series 2.::.::
n=l
2.::.:: llxnll
00
2 is convergent, and in this
case
00
2 00
LTn
n=l
= L llxnll
n=l
2
·
Theorem. Let (H, ( ·, ·)) be a Hilbert space, and A ~ H an orthonormal set. Then A is
an orthonormal basis if and only if is total, i.e., if x E H is an element with the property
that x _l A then it follows that x = 0.
The Bessel inequality. Let (H, (-, ·)) be an inner product space, and (en)nEN ~ Han
orthonormal family. Then
L
00
l(x, en)l 2 :::; llxll 2 Vx E H.

n=l
Theorem. Let (H, (·, ·)) be a Hilbert space, and (en)nEN ~ Han orthonormal family.
The following assertions are equivalent:
i) The family (en)nEN is an orthonormal basis in H;
ii) The Fourier formula. For any .1: E H we have the equality
L
00
.1: = (x,en) en;

n=l
iii) The Parseval formula (for the norm). For any x E H we have the equality
L
00
ll.1:ll 2
= I (x, en) 2
1 ;
n=l
10.1 Exercises 245
iv) The Parseval formula (for the inner product). For any x, y E H we have the
equality
L
00
(x, y) = (x, en) (y, en)·

n=l
Theorem. i) The map ( ·, ·) : l2 x l2 ----+ IK,
L XnYn "'x = (xn)nEN E l2, Y = (Yn)nEN E l2

00
(x, y) =
n=l
is an inner product and (l2 , ( ·, ·)) is a Hilbert space.

ii) If (S, E, Jt) is a measure space, then the map (-, ·) : L2 (Jt) x L 2 (Jt) ----+ IK,
(!,g)= fs!(s)g(s)dJL(s) Vj,g E L2(J,t)
is an inner product and (L 2 (Jt) , (·, ·)) is a Hilbert space.
10.1 Exercises
lp (or Lp) is a Hilbert spaces if and only if p = 2
1. i) Let 1 :::; p < oo. Prove that (zP, II·IIP) is a Hilbert space if and only if p = 2.
ii) Let 1 :::; p < oo and A ~ lRn be a Lebesgue measurable set, .X (A) > 0 (.X is the
Lebesgue measure on JRn). Prove that ( Lp(A), II·IIP) is a Hilbert space if and only ifp = 2.
Mn (q as a Hilbert space
2. Let Mn(C) be the set of all n x n complex matrices, and we define the map(·,·) :
Mn(C) x Mn(q ----+ C given by (A, B) = tr(AB*), where B* is the adjoint of the matrix
B and tr is the trace. Prove that (Mn (q, (·, ·)) is a Hilbert space, and deduce then that for
two complex matrices A and B of order n we have
ltr (AB*) 1
2 :S tr (AA*) tr (BE*).
A weighted inner product for the space of all polynomials of degree :::; n
3. Let w : [0, 1] ----+ (0, oo) be a continuous function. Let n EN and consider Pn, the
real linear space of all polynomials of degree :::; n, on which we consider the following
1
inner product:
1
(p, q) = p (t) q (t) w (t) dt.
i) Prove that Pn has an orthonormal basis {p 0 ,p1 , ... ,pn} such that degpk = k, k =
0, ... ,n.
ii) Prove that (Pk,PU = 0, k = 0, ... ,n.
An inner product space which is not a Hilbert space
4. We denote by Z6 = {(xn)nEN ~ C I Xn -=1- 0 only for a finite number ofn}, and

00
define(-,·) : Z6 X Z6---+ C by ((xn)nEN, (Yn)nEN) = 2::: XnYn· Prove that (l6, (-,·))is an
n=l
inner product space but not a Hilbert space.
A non separable Hilbert space

n
5. Let X be the linear space of all functions of the form: f : lR ---+ C, f (t) = 2::: ckeiakt,
k=l
n E N, ck E C, ak E IR, k = 1, n.
i) Prove that the map ( ·, ·) : X x X ---+ C defined by
(f, g) = lim -A
A->oo 2
-
11A f(t)g(t)dt
-A
is an inner product on X.
ii) Prove that if 11·11 is the norm generated by(·,·), then IIJII = (f 1
lckl 2 )
112
iff E X,
n
f = 2::: ckeiakt, with ak -=1- O:J Vk -=1- j.
k=l
iii) If we consider the Hilbert space H obtained as the completion of X with respect to
11·11, prove that His not separable.
The inversion and the Ptolemaic inequality in an inner product space
6. Let H be an inner product space and T : H\ { 0} ---+ H\ { 0} be the inversion operator,

defined by T (x) = xj llxll 2 Vx E H\{0}.
i)Leta E H\{0} and V = {x E H llR(x,a) = 1}. Prove that
T (V) = {y E H\ {0} lilY- a/211 = llall/2} ·
ii) Let a E H\{0} and C = {x E H lllx- all= llall}. Prove that
T(C\{0}) = {y E H llR(y,a) = 1/2}.
iii) Let a E H\ {0}, 0 < r, r 2 -=1- llall 2 , and C = { x E H lllx- all = r }. Prove that
T(C) = {y E H lilY- a/>-11 = rj 1>-1},

where>.= llall 2 - r 2 .
7. Let H be an inner product space.
i) Prove that if a, bE H\{0}, and if a'= a/ llall 2 and b' = b/llbll 2 , then
II a, - b'II lla- bll

= llallllbll.
ii) Using (i) prove the Ptolemaic inequality:
I a- ell lib- dll :S I a- billie- dll + lib- ell I a- dll Va, b, c, dE H.

10.1 Exercises 247
Averages in inner product spaces
8. Let H be an inner product space, n EN, and {x 1 , ... , xn} ~H. Prove that:
n 2 n
L LEiXi = 2n L llxill 2 ·
(e:,, ... ,cn)E{±l}n i=l i=l
An orthonormal set in L 2 (~)
9. Consider the sequence of functions fn : ~---+ C given by
f (x) = 7!"-1/2 (x- it .

n (x + it+l
1:
Prove that the family {!I, h, ... }is orthonormal in L 2 (~), that is,
fm (x) fn (x)dx = { ~: m=n,

m i= n.
The topological structure for an orthonormal family
10. i) Let H be a Hilbert space and Han infinite orthonormal family. Prove that
A~
A ~ H is closed and bounded, but not totally bounded.
ii) If (en)nEN ~ H is an orthonormal system and (an)nEN ~ JK, prove that the set
{an en I n E N} ~ His totally bounded if and only if an ---+ 0. In particular, if (xn)nEN ~
H\ {0} is an orthogonal system then the set {Xn I n E N} is totally bounded if and only if
llxnll ---+ 0.
Weak convergence for an orthonormal sequence
11. i) Let H be a Hilbert space and (xn)nEN ~ Han orthonormal system. Prove that
Xn ---+ 0 weak.
ii) Let A ~ [0, 27r] be a Lebesgue measurable set. Prove that
lim
n---~-oo }
r sin (nt) dt
A
= lim
n--+oo } A
r cos (nt) dt = 0.
The explicit form for the element given by the Riesz representation theorem
12. Let H be a Hilbert space, (en)nEN is an orthonormal basis, and x* : H---+ lK is a

00
linear and continuous functional. Prove that y = 2:.: x* (en) en is the unique element in H
n=l
with the property that x*(x) = (x, y) Vx E H.
Hardy spaces on the open unit disc
13. Let lDJ = { z E C I lzl < 1} be the open unit disc in the complex plane and 1 :S p <
oo. Define HP(lDJ) = {! : lDJ----+ C I f analytic, Np(f) < oo }, where
Prove that:
i) \iz0 E lDJ, \if E HP(lDJ), we have
1
lf(zo)l :S (d(zo, olDJ) 2 )l/pNP(f),
where olDJ = {z E C liz I = 1};

ii) (HP(lDJ), NP) is a normed space;
iii) (HP(lDJ), NP) is a Banach space;
iv) (HP(lDJ), NP) is a Hilbert space if and only if p = 2;
00
v) In the case of H 2 (lDJ), prove that if f(z) = 2::: anzn, then f

E H 2 (lDJ) if and only if
n=O
(an)n>O E hand that the map h : H 2 (lDJ) ----+ l2 defined by h(f) = (an)n::o:o is an isometric
isomorphism ofHilbert spaces;
vi) Prove that the sequence fn (z) = zn, n = 0, 1, 2, ... , is an orthonormal basis for
H2 (lDJ).
Riesz's representation theorem for the Hardy space
14. Let x* : H 2 (lDJ) ----+ C be a linear and continuous functional. H 2 (lDJ) being a Hilbert
space, using Riesz's theorem we obtain that there is a unique function g E H 2 (lDJ) such that
x*(f) = {!,g) H2(1JJ!) \if E H 2 (lDJ). Calculate the expression of gin terms of x*.
15. Let~ E lDJ and x* : H 2 (lDJ) ----+ C be defined by x*(f) = f(O. Prove that x*
is a linear and continuous functional and find g E H 2 (lDJ) such that x*(f) = (!,g) H 2 ('JJ!)
\if E H 2 (lDJ).
An extremal result in the Hardy space
16. Let~ E lDJ. How large can be lf'(~)l, iff E H 2 (lDJ) and N 2 (f) :S 1? Calculate the
extremal functions.
The Bergman space
17. Let n c:;;: C be an open non-empty set, 1 :S p < oo, and let
A' (!1) ~ { f ' !l ~ C f is holomm-phk, Qlf(x, y) I' dxdy < oo} .
With respect to the usual operations for addition and scalar multiplication, the space AP (Sl)
is a complex linear space, called the Bergman space.
10.1 Exercises 249
i) Prove that for any z E 0 and for any r > 0 such that D (z, r) s:;; 0 we have
f(z)= 1r~ 2 JJ f(x,y)dxdy VjEAP(O).

D(z,r)
ii) Prove that Ap : AP (0) --> IR+ defined by
is a norm and that (AP (0), Ap) is a Banach space.

iii) Define(-,·) : A 2 (0) x A 2 (rl)--> C by
(!,g)= jj f(x,y)g(x,y)dxdy.
0
Prove that (A2 (n), (-,·))is a Hilbert space.

iv) Let 0 = ][J) be the open unit disc in the complex plane. Prove that the sequence
en (z) = (v'n'+l/ V1f) zn, n = 0, 1, 2, ... , is an orthonormal basis for A 2 (][))).
v) Let h: A 2 (][J))--> l2 defined by h(f) = ((V1f/v'n+1)an)n~o {:} f(z)
00
2: anzn. Prove that his an isometric isomorphism of Hilbert spaces.

n=O
Riesz's representation theorem for the Bergman space
18. Let n S:: C be an open non-empty set, A2 (0) is the Bergman space, and Un)n>o
is an orthonormal basis for A 2 ( 0). -
i) Let x* : A 2 (fl) --> C be a linear and continuous functional. A 2 (0) being a Hilbert
space, using Riesz's theorem we obtain that there is a unique function g E A 2 (0) such
that x*(f) = (!,g) A2(0) Vf E A 2 (n). Calculate the expression of gin terms of x* and the
orthonormal basis Un)n>O·
ii) Let~ E 0 and x1 : A 2 (0) --> C be defined by x~(f) = f(~). Prove that x* is a
linear continuous functional, and that there is a unique function z f-----t K(z, ~) in A~ (0)
such that x~ (f)= II
f (z) K (z, (,)dxdy Vf E A 2 (rl). The function (z, ~) f-----t K(z, 0 is
0
called the Bergman kernel for 0.
iii) Prove that the Bergman kernel is given by the formula
L fn(z)fn(~),
00
K(z, ~) =
n=O
and that
jj IK(z,OI
0
2
dxdy = f
n=O
lfn(01 2 = K(~,(,) v~ Eo.
iv) Prove that the Bergman kernel for the open unit disc in the complex plane is given
by K(z, ~) = 1/ (n(1 - z~) 2 ).
An extremal result in the Bergman space
19.
Let~ E Jill. How large can be lf'(~)l, iff E A 2 (lDl) and 11!11 :S 1? Calculate the
extremal functions.
Two functions associated to a weak convergent sequence in a Hilbert space
20. Let H be a Hilbert space, (xn)nEN ~ Hand a E H such that Xn ~ a weak.

We define the functions d,D : H ~ IR+ by d(x) = liminfllxn- xll and D(x) =
n--->oo
lim sup llxn- xll·
n--->oo
i) Prove that d (x) = Jd 2 (a)+ llx- all 2 and that D (x) = JD 2 (a)+ llx- all 2
't/xEH.
ii) Let 0 :S a :S (3. Give an example of a Hilbert space H, a sequence (xn)nEN ~ H,
and an element a E H such that d (a) =a and D (a) = (3.
10.2 Solutions
1. i) Evidently, ifp = 2 then (l2, 11·11 2) is a Hilbert space. Consider now 1 :S p < oo
such that (zP, II·IIP) is a Hilbert space. Fork, t E N with k -=1- t, we consider ek, et E lw
Since ( lp, II·IIP) is a Hilbert space, by the parallelogram law we have
llek + etll~ + llek- etll~ = 2 (llekll~ + lletll~),

that is, 22 /P + 22 /P = 22 , 21+ 2 /P = 22 , i.e., p = 2.
ii) From the properties for the Lebesgue measure, we can find B, C ~ A, giving a
partition for A with Lebesgue measurable sets, such that >.(B) =>.(C) = >.(A)/2. If Lp(A)
is a Hilbert space, then by the parallelogram law we have IIXB + xcll~ + IIXB- xcll~ =
2 (llxBII~ + llxcll~). that is,
(>.(A)) 2!P + (>.(A)) 2 !P = 2 ((>.(A)/2) 2/P + (>.(A)/2) 2/P).
Since >.(A) > 0 we obtain that 2 = 22 /P, i.e., p = 2. Evidently, ifp = 2 then ( LP(A), II·IIP)
is a Hilbert space.

If A= (aij) then A*= (aii). Also, if A= (aij) and B = (bij) then AB = (cij), where
n n n n
cik = L aijbjk, and thus tr (AB) = 2::: cii = 2::: aijbji· Then tr(AB*) = L aijbij· We
j=l i=l i,j=l i,j=l
have
n n
(A, A) = tr (AA*) = L aijaij = L laii ~ 0,
i,j=l i,j=l
and
(A, A)= 0 <=? laiil = 0 't/i,j <=? aii = 0 <=?A= 0.
10.2 Solutions 251
Also,
tr ((.\A 1 + fLA 2) B*) = tr (.\A1B* + 1LA2B*)

.\tr (A 1B*) + tLtr (A2B*) = .\ (A1, B) + 1L (A2, B) ,
and
n
(B, A) = tr (BA*) = L b;jaij = tr (AB*) = (A, B).

i,j=l
Thus (·, ·) is an inner product on Mn (q. The fact that Mn (q is a Hilbert space follows
from the fact that Mn (C) can be identified in a natural way with <Cn 2 , and <Cn 2 is complete,
if we consider an arbitrary norm on it.
The Cauchy-Buniakowski-Schwartz inequality implies I(A, B) 12 ::; (A, A) (B, B),
I.e.,
ltr (AB*)I ::; tr (AA*) tr (BE*) \/A, BE Mn (C).

If (p,p) = 0 then J01 p2 (t) w (t) dt = 0, so since the function under the integral is
continuous and 2: 0, it follows that p 2 ( t) w (t) = 0 \It E [0, 1]. Since w (t) > 0 \It E [0, 1]
it follows that p (t) = 0 Vt E [0, 1]. The other axioms for an inner product are easy to
verify.
i) Consider the polynomials q0 (x) = 1, q1 (x) = x+ 1, q2 (x) = x 2+x+ 1, ... , qn (x) =
xn + xn-l + ... +X+ 1. We will prove that { qo, ql, ... , qn} is a basis for Pn. Suppose that
n n n-l
2::= a;q; = 0. The coefficient for xn in 2::= a;q; is an, thus an = 0, and then 2::= a;q; = 0,
i=O i=O i=O
and from here we obtain that an-l = O, ... ,a0 = 0. Thus {q 0 ,q1, ... ,qn} is a linearly
independent system. Let f E Pn. Then
n
f (x) =La; xi<=? f = anqn +(an-1 -an) qn-1 + .. ·+(a2- a!) q2+(a1 - ao) ql +2aoqo,
i=O
and therefore {q 0 ,q1, ... ,qn} generates Pn. We apply the Gram-Schmidt procedure to
{q0 , q1, ... , qn}, and we obtain an orthonormal basis {p 0 , p 1 , ... , Pn} in (Pn, ( ·, ·)) such that
Po= qo/ llqoll(·,·) and
qo ql qk
(qo, qo) (ql,qo) (qk. qo)
1
Pk = (qo,ql) (ql' ql) (qk, ql) \fk = 1,n,
vDkDk-1
(qo, qk-1) (q1, qk-1) (qk, qk-1)
where Dk = det ( (q;. q1 ) ) 0 SciSc]Sck \lk 2: 0. Then, fork 2: 0, the polynomial Pk has degree k,
since the coefficient of qk in the expression for Pk as a linear combination of { q0 , q1 , ... , qk}
is Dk-1 cl 0.
ii) Fork 2: 0, we have (IlPkin' = 0, ((Pk,Pk))' = 0, that is, 2 (Pk,P~) = 0. i.e.,
(P~n PU = 0.
4. We observe that\ (xn)nEN, (yn)nEN) is well defined for any (xn)nEN, (Yn)nEN E Z6,
since the summation has only a finite number of terms. ( ·, ·) being an inner product is
analogous with the case l 2 • We prove now that the norm generated by (·, ·) is not a complete
one. For any (xn)nEN E Z6 we have II (xn)nENII = (

f DO
1
lxnl 2
) 1/2
• Let us consider the
sequence (Yn)nEN ~ Z6 defined by Yn = (1, 112, ... , 1ln, 0, 0, ... ) \:In E N. Then for any
rn > n we have
DO
From this, using the convergence of the series L 11 k 2 it follows that the sequence (Yn)nEN
k=l
is Cauchy. Suppose that there is y 0 E Z6 such that Yn ---+ y0 in norm. Then for any k E N
we have y~ ---+ y~, with the usual notations. But y~ = 1I k \:In ~ k and therefore y~ = 1I k
\:lk EN and hence y0 = (1, 112,113, ... ),which contradicts the fact that y0 E Z6.

We prove first that the limit in the definition of (·, ·) exists. It is sufficient to prove that
lim _L fA eio:te-ifitdt exists for any a (3 E lR If a = (3 then fA eio:te-ifitdt = 2A and
A->DO 2A -A ' ' · -A '
the limit is 1. If a -=1- (3, then
_2_ JA eio:te-if3tdt = 1 (ei(a-fi)A _ e-i(o:-fi)A) =sin ((a- f3)A)

2A -A 2iA(a- (3) A(a- (3) '
and therefore the limit is 0. Thus the map (·, ·) : X x X ---+ C is well defined. Evidently,
(af+bg,h) = a(f,h) +b(g,h) \:lf,g,h E X,a,b E Cand (f,g) = (g,f) \:lf,g EX.
n
For f(t) = L ckeio:kt with the ak different two by two, we have
k=l
n n
k=l k=l
Thus(!, f) ~ 0 \:If EX, and if(!, f) = 0 then £: icki 2 = 0, hence ck = 0\:/1 :::; k:::; n,
k=l
n
i.e., f = L ckeio:kt = 0. We obtain that (X, ( ·, ·)) is an inner product space.
k=l
It is not a complete space, since if (ck)kEN ~ l 2, ck -=1- 0 \:lk EN then for the sequence
n m
(fn)nEN ~ X, fn (t) = L ~
eke' t, we have llfn- fmll =
2
L jcki 2 , and from the conver-
k=l k=n
DO
gence of the series L ick 1

2 it follows that Un)nEN ~ X is a Cauchy sequence. Suppose
k=l
m
that there is f(t) = L bkeio:kt such that llfn- fll ---+ 0. Let ME N such that ak < M,
k=l
k = 1,m. Forn ~ Mwehave
Un- f) (t) = L akeifht + C!vJCiMt,

k#M
10.2 Solutions 253
with the Pk different two by two, and Pk # M Vk E N (only a finite number of ak are
different from zero). Then //fn- f// 2 = L /ak/ 2 + /cM/ 2 ~ /cM/ 2 , i.e., //fn- fll ~ icM/
kf-M
Vn ~ M, and since eM # 0 we obtain a contradiction. Thus (X,(-,·)) is an inner product
space, which is not a Hilbert space.
iii) Let (H, (·,·))be the Hilbert space obtained by completing X. For any s E lR we
consider the function fs E X, fs(t) = eist Vt E R For s E JR, llfsll = 1, and for
s, u E JR, s # u, (!81 fu/ = 0. Thus Us)sER <:;; His orthonormal and uncountable. Since
II fs - fu II = J2 for s # u, using exercise 21 of chapter 2 it follows that H is not separable.
6. See [2, chapter II, section 11].

i) Let x E V, i.e., R (x, a) = 1. Then y = Tx E H\ {0} has the property that
lly- ~ 112 = IIYII2 + lldl2 - R (y, a) = 11:112 + lldl2 - R (Tx, a)
-1+//a// R (x, a) //a// 2

2
-- =-
llxl/2 4 llx// 2 4
Conversely, let y E H\ {0} with IIY- a/2// = /I all /2, i.e., //y// 2 - R (y, a) = 0. Then
x = Ty E H\ {0} has the property that R (x, a) = R (Ty, a) = R (y, a)/ IIY// 2 = 1. We
havex E Vand Tx = T(Ty) = y.
ii) Let x E C\ {0}. Then llx- a// = //a// and therefore /lx// 2 = 2R (x, a). Then
R (Tx, a) = R (x, a)/ /lx// 2 = 1/2. Conversely, let y E H with R (y, a) = 1/2. Then
y # 0 and let x = Ty. Then
2 2 2 1 R (y, a) 2 2
//x- a// = //x// - 2R (x, a)+ //a// = //y// 2 - 2 //y// 2 +//a// = //a// '
i.e., //x- a// = //a//, x E C\ {0}. Then y = Tx with x E C\ {0}.

iii) Let C(a, r) = {x E H /1/x- a// = r }. We must prove that T (C(a, r)) = {y E
H ///y- a/A//= r/ /A/}= C(ajA, r/ /A/), where A= //a// 2 - r 2 • Let x E C(a, r). Then
//x- a// 2 = r 2 , i.e., //x// 2 - 2R (x, a)= -A. Using this property we have
//T(x)//2- 2R/T(x) ~\ + ~ = ~1~- 2R(x,~) + 1/a/12

\ 'A/ A2 //xl/2 A //x//2 A2
A- 2R (x, a) //a// 2 1 //a// 2 r2
A//x// 2 +Y = -:\ + Y = A2 '
hence T(x) E C (a/ A, r //A/), i.e.,
For the reverse inclusion, we have
T CaAr A ajA r//A/ )

(( ( / ' / I I)) CC
- ( II a/ A// 2 - T 2 /A 2 ' Ill a/ A// 2 - ( r / IAI) 2 =Car 1 ( ' ) .
Since 0 ¢:. C(a,r) and T 2 (x) = x Vx E H\{0}, it follows that C(a/A,r/1>-1) C

T(C(a,r)).

i) We have
lla'- b'll 2 l a'll2 llb'll2- 2~ (a' b') = _1_ + _1_- 2~ (a, b)

+ ' llall 2 llbll 2 llall 2 llbll 2
llall 2 + llbll 2 - 2~ (a, b) I a- bll 2
llall 2llbll 2 llall 2 llbll 2.
ii) Let a, b, e E H\{0} and a', b', e' E Has in (i). Then lla'- e'll < lla'- b'll +
lib'- e'll· Using (i) we obtain that
I a- ell I a- bll lib- ell
llallllell :::; llallllbll + llblllicll'
that is, lla- eilllbll :::; lla- bllllell + lib- eilllall (1), i.e.,
the Ptolemaic theorem for
d = 0. If one of a, b, e is zero, for example a = 0, then (1) becomes I ell I bll :::; llbllllell·
Therefore, (1) is true for any a, b, e E H.
Let now a, b, e, dE H. We apply (1) for a-d, b- d, e- d and we obtain that
I a- ell lib- dll :::; I a- billie- dll + lib- ell IIa- dll·

We have
n 2 n
LE;X; L E;Ej (x;, xj)

(e:,, ... ,En)E{±l}n i=l (£1 ,... ,cn)E{±l }" i,j=l
n
L (x;, Xj) L E;Ej·

i,j=l (£1, .,En)E{±l}n
Fori = j, I: E;Ej = 2n. Fori f j, I: E;Ej = 0, since in our

(e:,, ... ,En)E{±l}n (e:,, ... ,En)E{±l}n
summation we have 2n~l elements equal to 1 and 2n~l elements equal to -1. We obtain
that 2 n n n
LE;X; = 2n L (x;, x;) = 2n L llx;\1 2 .

(£,, ... ,£n)E{±l}n i=l i=l i=l

We have
oo -- 1 1CXJ (x- i)m (x +if 11oo (x- i)(m~n)~l

1 fm (x ) fn (x ) dx = -7r ~oo
(
X
+ Z.)m+l (·X _ .)n+l
Z
dx = -7r ( .)(m~n)+l dx.
~oo X +Z
~oo
10.2 Solutions 255
For m and n we have the following cases:

a) m - n 2 1. We consider then the function f : C\ { -i} ---+ C given by f (z) =
(z- i)(m-n)- 1 / (z + i)(m-n)+l and the domain in the complex plane delimited by Ox and
the upper half of the circle of center 0 and radius R (denoted by r (R) ). On this domain f
is a holomorphic function, and therefore
1
-
7r
1R (x- i)(m-n)-1
·(m-n) 1 dx+
-R(x+z) +
1I'(R)
f(z)dz=O,
for any R > 0. But lim lzf (z)l = 0 and therefore lim fr(R) f (z) dz = 0. We obtain
lzl--+oo R--+oo
1
that
oo (x _ i)(m-n)-1
-'-(-+---'.)- :-m---nc:-)
( +--:-1 dx = 0.
-co X Z
b) m- n::; -1. We obtain that
1 oo (x _ i)(m-n)-1
-'-(-+-.'--,)(,-m---en):-+71 dx =
rXJ
(x + i)(n-m)-1 dx = roo (-t + i)(n-m)-1 dt
}_oo (x- i)(n-m)+ 1 J-oo ( -t- i)(n-m)+ 1
1
-oo X Z
oo (t _ i)(n-m)-1
..:.___.:_-,-----.,----,-dt = 0
-oo (t + i)(n-m)+1 '
by (a), since n- m 2 1.
c) m - n = 0. Then
1 00
_ 00
fm (x) fm (x)dx = 1
7r
1
_
00
00
-1-2dx =-arctan
1+ X
1
7r
xi 00 = 1.
-oo
10. i) Let x E A and suppose that x ~ A. Then there is a sequence (an)nEN ~ A such
that an ---+ x in H. Since x ~ A we have an -=f. x Vn EN. Let n 1 = 1. Then Jlan 1 - xll > 0
and from an ---+ x, there is n2 > 1 such that Jlan 2 - xll < Jlan 1 - xJI /2. Then an 2 -=/- an 1 •
Let now r2 = min{Jian 2 - xJJ /2, Jlx- an 1 ll /2}. From an -=f. x Vn EN it follows that
r 2 > 0 and since an ---+ x there is n 3 > max (n 1, n2) such that Jlan 3 - xll < r 2. From
the definition of r 2 it follows that an 3 -=f. an 2 and an 3 -=f. an 1 • In this way, by induction, we
construct a subsequence (nkhEN ~ N such that ank -=1- ans fork -=I- s. Evidently ank ---+
x and therefore (ank) kEN is a Cauchy sequence, which is false, since by orthonormality,
Ilank - ans II = J2 Vk -=1- s. Thus X E A, that is, A~ A, and therefore A~ His closed.
Since Jib- all = J2 Va, bE A, a -=f. b, it is easy to see that A is not totally bounded (A
cannot contain Cauchy sequences).
ii) Suppose that (an)nEN does not converge towards zero, and then we can find an c: > 0
and a subsequence (nk)kEN off::! such that lankl 2 c: Vk EN. The set {ankenk IkE N}
is totally bounded, and then we can find a subsequence (nkP)pEN of (nk)kEN such that the
sequence (ank enk ) converges. Then the sequence (ank enk ) is Cauchy, and this
P P pEN P P pEN
contradicts the fact that
Conversely, we have llanenll ----t 0, so the set {anen In EN} U {0} is compact, hence
{an en I n E N} is totally bounded.
For the second assertion we can apply what we have proved above, observing that
Xn = llxnll en 'In EN, where en= Xn/ llxnll 'In EN.
11. i) Consider x* E H*. By Riesz's representation theorem there is a unique element

x E H such that x* (y) = (y, x) Vy E H. For x E H, using Bessel's inequality we have
00
2: I(xn, x) 12 :S llxll 2 and therefore n------too

lim (xn, x) = 0, that is, lim x* (xn) = 0.
n->oo
n=l
Consider the space L 2 ([0, 27T]; CC) with the usual inner product. For any n E N, let
fn : [0, 27T] ----t C defined by
eint 1
fn(t)= !iL.= !iL.(cosnt+isinnt) VtE[0,27T].
v 27T v 27T
Then the sequence Un)nEN has the properties from (i) and we obtain that
lim { fn (t) f (t)dt = 0 'If E L2([0, 2JT]; CC).

n-+oo J[0,21r]
Since A <;:; [0, 27T] is a Lebesgue measurable set we obtain that XA E L 2 ([0, 2JT]; CC),
and therefore 1~~ f[o, 21r] fn (t) XA (t)dt = 0, that is, 1~~ fA fn (t) dt = 0, and then
lim fA cos (nt) dt = 0, lim fA sin (nt) dt = 0.
n------too n-oo
12. Indeed, by the Riesz representation theorem there is a unique element y E H such
that x*(x) = (x, y) Vx E H. In particular, x*(en) = (en, y) \In E N. Since (en)nEN is
2: (y, en) en,
00 00 ----
an orthonormal basis we have y = so by the above y = 2: x*(en)en, i.e.,
n=l n=l
the statement. Since llx*ll = IIYII and (en)nEN is an orthonormal basis, we have llx*ll =
2
2: lx*(en)l ·
00
n=l
13. We begin with the following remark. For any f : []) ---+ C and any 0 :::; r < 1,
let fr : [0, 27T] ____, C be defined by fr(()) = f(rei 8 ). Also let JL be the measure defined
by JL(E) = (1/(2IT)) m(E) 'IE<;:; [0, 27T] Lebesgue measurable, where m is the Lebesgue
measure on [0, 2JT]. Then
From here it follows that f E HP(]]J)) if and only if NP(f) = sup llfrll < oo.
OS:r<l p
i) We will prove that iff : []) ____, C is an analytic function, then
jj lf(zW dxdy = 1R (1
r
2
7r lf(zo + reieW d()) dr (1)
lz-zoi<:::R
10.2 Solutions 257
for z0 E ][)) and 0 < R < 1 - Izo I ,
jj lf(z)jP dxdy :S 1rp2 [NP(f)]P (2)

]z]Sp
for 0 < p < 1,

jj lf(zo + z)jP dxdy = jj lf(z)jP dxdy (3)
]z-zo]Sp
for z0 E ][)) and 0 < p < 1 - Izo I ,
~2 lf(O)jP :S 2~ jj lf(z)jP dxdy (4)

lziSP
for 0 :S p < 1, and then we will obtain the relation from the statement.
For (1), let z = x+ iy and z0 = x 0 + iy0 , f = u + iv, that is, f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y),
lf(z) 2 = lu(x, y) 2 + lv(x, y) 2 , and then for the left side in (1) we have
1 1 1
jj lf(z)jP dxdy =
!!
]z-zo]SR
Using polar coordinates, x Xo + 'r COS B and y Yo + r cos B with r E [0, R] and
B E [0, 27r], we obtain that
JJ lf(z)jP dxdy = !! (( +
[O,R] X [0,27r]
u2 v2 ) (x 0 + r cos B, y0 + r sin B) Y12 rdrdB.
]z-zo]SR
From the Fubini theorem the right side is equal to
1R r (1 2
1f lf(xo + r cos B + iyo + ri sin B)jP dB) dr,
(J
and therefore equal to foR r 021f I f(z 0 + rewW dB) dr, and (1) is proved.
For (2), we will use (1) for z 0 = 0 to deduce that
j j lf(z)jP dxdy 1P r (1 2
1f IJ(re;eW dB) dr :S 21r (Np(f)Y 1P rdr
]z]Sp
1rp 2 (Np(f)Y VO < p < 1.
For (3) we have that
jj lf(zo + z)jP dxdy jj = lf(xo + x, Yo+ y)jP dxdy.

lziSP x2+y2Sp2
If x = u - x 0 and y = v - Yo, then
jjlf(zo+z)!Pdxdy= JJ lf(u,v)!Pdudv= JJ lf(z)!Pdxdy.

lzi:'OP (u-xo) 2 +(v-yo) 2 :'0p2 lz-zoi:'OP
To prove (4), let us consider 0::; r < 1. Then D(O,r) = {z E C I lzl::; r} ~ IIJ).
Using Cauchy's formula, we obtain that f(O) = (1/ (21ri)) ~wl=r (f( w)jw) dw. If we write
w = rei 0 , e[0, 21r], dw = riei 0 de, we deduce that f(O) = (1/ (21r)) f02 f(rei 0 )de, from
E 7r
whence lf(O)I::; (1/ (27r)) f02 lf(rei0 )l de. Ifp > 1, then
7r
by Holder's inequality (here 1/p + 1/q = 1). Hence for all p 2: 1 we have proved that
lf(O)IP::; (1/27r) f02 7r IJ(re;eW de, and therefore
lf(O)IP 1P rdr::; 2~ 1P r (1 2
71: IJ(re;eW de) dr.
Using (1) for the right side of the inequality we obtain that
~2 lf(O)IP::; 2~ JJ lf(z)IP dxdy.

lzi:'OP
(We observe that for (1), (3) and (4) it is not necessary for f to be defined on all the unit
disc.)
Now let f E HP(IIJ)), z0 E IlJ) and 0 < r < d(z0, 81IJ)). We consider g : D(O, r) ----+ C
defined by g(z) = f(z + z0 ). Using (4) we obtain that for any 0::; p < r we have
2lg(O)IP::;
p2 1
27f
!! lg(z)IP dxdy,
lzi:'OP
!!
that is,
p2
21f(zo)IP :S 217f lf(z + zo)IP dxdy.
lzi:'OP
Using (3) we obtain that
p2
21f(zo)IP :S 217f !! lf(z)IP dxdy.
lz-zoi:'OP
But
2~ JJ lf(z)IP dxdy::; 2~ JJ lf(z)IP dxdy.
10.2 Solutions 259
Since p::; T < d(zo, o!DJ) it follows that p + lzol < 1, and using (2) we obtain that
Then
~2 lf(zoW :S n (N;;nY,
and for p -+ r we obtain that lf(zoW :S (NP(J)Y /r 2, that is, lf(zo)l :S NP(f)/r 2 1P
for any 0 < T < d(zo, o!DJ). Now passing to the limit forT -+ d(zo, o!DJ) we obtain that
lf(zo)l :S NP(J)/(d(zo, o!DJ)) 21P, and (i) is proved.
ii) If j, g E flP(!DJ), then obviously(!+ g)r = fr + 9r and since fn 9r E Lp(J-L) and
Lp(J-L) is a linear space, we obtain that fr + 9r E Lp(J-L). Using Minkowski's inequality
we have II(!+ g)riiP :S llfriiP + ll9riiP :S Np(J) + Np(g) 'v'O :S T < 1 and therefore
Np(J+g) = sup II(!+ g)riiP :S Np(J)+NP(g) < oo, f+g E flP(!DJ). Iff E flP(!DJ) and
OS:r<l
A E C then (.AJ)r = .Afn 11(-AJ)riiP = 1-AIIIfriiP 'v'O :S T < 1, and therefore .\f E flP(!DJ),
Np(.AJ) = I-AI NP(J) < oo. If NP(J) = 0, then using (i) we have lf(z)l :S 0 'v'z E IIJJ, i.e.,
f = 0.
Thus ( flP (!DJ), NP) is a normed space.
iii) Consider a Cauchy sequence Un)nEN ~ HP(!DJ). Let K ~ IlJJ be a compact, non-
empty set. Then d(K, o!DJ) > 0 and d(z, o!DJ) ~ d(K, o!DJ) 'v'z E K. Using (i) we obtain
that
Since the sequence (Jn)nEN ~ flP(!DJ) is Cauchy from this last inequality we deduce that
Un)nEN is uniformly Cauchy on K. Using the Weierstrass theorem we obtain that there is
f : IlJJ -+ C analytic such that fn -+ f uniformly on every compact set K ~ IIJJ. Since
Un)nEN ~ flP(!DJ) is Cauchy it is bounded, i.e., sup Np(Jn) = M < oo. Let 0 :S r < 1.
nEN
Since fn -+ f uniformly on every compact set in IlJJ we obtain that fn -+ f uniformly
on D(O, r), i.e., fn(z) -+ f(z) uniformly with respect to lzl :S r, hence fn(reiiJ) -+
f(reiiJ) uniformly with respect to 8 E [0, 2n]. Then Un)r -+ fr uniformly on [0, 2n], from
whence II(Jn)r- frllp -+ 0 and II(Jn)riiP -+ llfrllp· Therefore llfrllp = l~~ II(Jn)riiP :S
sup Np(Jn) = M 'v'O :S T < 1, thus NP(J) = sup llfriiP :S M < oo, i.e., f E flP(!DJ). The
nEN OS:r<l
sequence Un)nEN is Cauchy, i.e., "'E > 0 3n£ E N such that Np(Jn- fm) < E 'v'n, m ~ no,
that is, II Un)r- Um)riiP < E 'v'n, m ~ n 0 VO :S r < 1. Since we have proved above that
Um)r -+ fr in II·IIP' passing to the limit form-+ oo in the last inequality, we obtain that
that II(Jn)r- friiP :S E 'v'n ~ n£, VO :S T < 1, from whence Np(Jn- f) :S E 'v'n ~ n£, i.e.,
fn -+ fin flP(!DJ).
iv) We observe first that iff : [-1, 1] -+ lR is a continuous function, then we have
J 02rr f(cos8)d8 = 2J0rr 12 [f(cos8)+J(-cos8)]d8. For j(t) = (1- 2rt+r 2) 5 , s > 0, it
follows that
2~
r27r
lo (1- 2r cos e + r 2 ) 8 d8 ~ lo
r/2 [(1- 2rcose + r 2 )' + (1 + 2rcose + r 2 )']dB
r27r
2~ lo (1 + 2r cos e + r 2 ) 5
de.
Suppose that 8 > 0 is such that
sup -
1 17r/2 [(1- 2rcosB + r 2 )s + (1 + 2rcosB + r 2 )']dB = 28 •
O:Sr<l 1f 0
We will show that 8 = 1. Let h : [0, 1] ----> JR. be defined by
h(r) =-
1 17r/2 [(1- 2rcosB + r ' )s + (1 + 2rcose + r
2 2 )']dB.
7r 0
Using the Lebesgue dominated convergence theorem, it is easy to see that his continuous.
Our hypothesis is that sup h(r) = 25 • We can have two cases:
O:Sr<l
Case 1: 0 < 1. Since the function x
8 :::; ~-----+ x"' is concave, we have (as+ b8 ) /2 :::;
((a+ b)/2)" Va, b;::: 0, hence
and by integration, h( r) :::; ( 1 + r 2 )"' VO :::; r :::; 1. Since our hypothesis is that sup h (r) =
O:Sr<l
25 , there is a sequence (rk)kEN ~ (0, 1) such that h(rk)----> 25 • By the Cesaro lemma there
is a convergent subsequence rkn ----> p E [0, 1]. By the continuity of h on [0, 1] it follows
that h(p) = 28 • Since h(p) :::; (1 + p2 ) 5 we obtain that 2s :::; (1 + p2 )"', hence p = 1, thus
h(1) = 25 , i.e.,
-
1 17r/2 [(2- 2cosB)' + (2 + 2cosB) ]dB = 5
2'.
7r 0
Again, since 0 < 8 :::; 1, we have (2 - 2 cos e)s + (2 + 2 cos B)"' :::; 2 · 2s VO :::; e :::; 1r /2.
Also,
1
-
17r/2 [(2- 2 cos B)"'+ (2 + 2 cos e)s]de = -1 17r/2 2 · 2sde.
7r 0 7r 0
Since both functions under the integrals are continuous, we must have (2- 2 cos B)"'+ (2 +
2cose)s = 2 · 2s VO:::; e:::; 1rj2. Denoting with cp(B) = (2- 2cose)s + (2 + 2cose)s,
we have cp( B) = 2"'+ 1 VO :::; e :::;
1r /2, from whence cp' (B) = 0 VO :::; 1r /2. But e :::;
cp' (e) = 28 sin B[ (2 - 2 cos e)s-l - (2 + 2 cos e)s-l] and since cp' (7r I 4) = 0 we obtain that
(2 - J2)s-l - (2 + J2)s-l = 0, and therefore 8 = 1.
Case II: 1 < 8 < oo. Our hypothesis is that sup h(r) = 25 , and therefore h(r) :::; 2"'
O:Sr<l
VO :::; r < 1. Passing to the limit and using the fact that h is continuous we obtain that
7r
h(1) :::; 2', i.e., (1/Jr) J0 12 [(2- 2cose)s + (2 + 2cos8) 5 ]dB :::; 2s (1). Since 8 >
10.2 Solutions 261
1, the function x f---+ X 8 is convex. Then (as+ b8 ) /2 2: ((a+ b) /2) 8 Va, b > 0, so
(2 - 2 cos 0) 8 + (2 + 2 cos 0) 8 2: 2 . 28 vo ::; e ::;
7r /2, hence by integration
11rr/2
- [(2- 2cosey + (2 + 2cosBY]dB 2:-11rr/2 2 · 2 d0 8 = 28 ,
7r 0 7r 0
and combining this with (1), we have that
1 1rr/2 11rr/2
- [(2- 2cose)s + (2 + 2cos0) 8 ]dB =- 2. 28 d0.
7r 0 7r 0
Since both functions under the integrals are continuous, we must have (2- 2 cos e)s + (2 +
2 cos B)s = 2 · 28 VO :S: e :S: 1r /2. From here we obtain that 8 = 1 tJ_ (1, oo ).
Return now to the solution for our exercise. If HP(][J)) is a Hilbert space then we must
have II!+ 911 2 + II!- gll 2 = 2(11!11 2 + 11911 2) Vf, g E HP(][J)) (to simplify the notations,
we write here 11·11 instead of Np). Take f(z) = 1, g(z) = z (these functions are the
analogous for e1 and e2, elements which can be used in the solution for exercise 1 to show
that if lv is Hilbert then p = 2). We have IIIII = 11911 = 1,
llf+gll = sup
o~r<1
( 2~ Jof 27rl(f+g)(rei Wde) 11
11
v =sup (irr
O~r<1
f 27rl1+rei11 ivde) 11v
Jo
sup (2~ 2
{ 7r (1 + 2r cos e+ r 2)PI2de) /p
1
O~r<1 Jo
and
27r ) 127r )
IU-g)(rei 11 Wde
1/p ( 1/p
II!- gil sup ( 2~ 1 =sup 2~ 11-reiiiiPde
O~r<1 0 O~r<1 0
27r ) 1/p
sup ( 2~ 1 (1 - 2r cos e+ r 2 )PI 2 dB
O~r<1 0
Then II!+ gil = II!- gil , hence we must have II!+ gll 2 = 2, i.e.,
1 127r ) 2/P
sup ( - (1 - 2r cos e+ r 2)PI2de = 2,
O~r<1 27r 0
that is,
sup - 1 127r (1- 2rcose + r 2 )PI 2 de = 2vl 2,
O~r<1 27r 0
i.e., if we denote 8 = p/2 > 0, we have
It is proved above that this implies 8 = 1, i.e., p = 2.

See (v) for the fact that H 2(][))) is indeed a Hilbert space.
v) See [45, theorem 17.10].

CXl
Let f : IDl ----> C be an analytic function, f (z) = I:: anzn. Consider 0 ::; r < 1. Then
n=O
L akrkeiOk
n
L
oo
fr(()) - ::; lakl rk----> 0
k=O k=n+l
uniformly with respect to() E [0, 21r] , and therefore
00
2
I::
CXl
i.e., llfrll2 = Ian I r 2n for 0 ::; r < 1. Hence
n=O
L lanl 2 r L
CXl n n
sup 2n = sup sup lakl 2 r 2k =sup sup
O<:r<l n=O O<:r<lnEN k=O nEN O<:r<l
CX)
sup
nEN
00
Thus, iff: IDl----> Cis defined by f(z) = I:: anzn 'V lzl < 1 then f E H 2(1Dl) {::? (an)n>o E
n=O
CXl
l2, and N2(f) = ll(an)n~oll 12 . From this we obtain that if j,g E H 2(1Dl), f(z) = I:: anzn
00
n=O
and g(z) = I:: bnzn, then
n=O
II (an + bn) n~O II ~2 + II (an - bn) n~O II ~2

2 (ll(an)n~oiiZ2 + ll(bn)n~oiiZJ
2 ((N2(f)) 2 + (N2(g)) 2 ),
i.e., N 2 : H 2 (1Dl) ----> JR+ satisfies the parallelogram law. Since by (iii) H 2 (1Dl) is a Banach
space, using von Neumann's theorem we obtain that H 2 (1Dl) is a Hilbert space.
CXl
The map h : H 2 (1Dl) ----> l2 defined by h(f) = (an)n>o {::? f(z) = I:: anzn is obviously
n=O
linear. We have already proved that llh(f)ll 12 = IIJIIH2(IIJl) 'Vf E H 2 (1Dl), i.e., his an
10.2 Solutions 263
00
isometry. If (an)n>o E 12, we consider f:]]])----+ C defined by f(z) = I: anzn. We have

- n=O
L L
00 00
lanllzln :s; lanl 2 ·

n=O n=O
00
i.e., the series I: anzn is absolutely convergent on ]]]), thus f is a well defined analytic
n=O
function. SinceN2(f) = ll(an)n:>:oll 12 < ooweobtainthatf E H 2(]]J)) andh(f) = (an)n?:O,
i.e., h is surjective.
vi) The fact that the sequence fn (z) = zn, n = 0, 1, 2, ... ,is an orthonormal basis for
H 2 (]]]))follows easily from the fact that h(fn) = en \In ~ 0, his an isometric isomorphism
ofHilbert spaces, and (en)n>o is an orthonormal basis in 12.
Remark. We have
L anzn, g(z) = 2::= bnzn, then(!, g)

=n=O =(h(f), h(g)) =n=O
00 00 00
Indeed, if f(z) H2(][]J) L anbn. 12

n=O
But f(rei 0)g(rei0) = (fo anrneine) g(rei 0) uniformly with respect toe E [0, 27r]. Thus
Analogously,
and therefore (1/27r) J02 7r f(rei 0 )g(rei0 )dB = f: anbnr n.

n=O
2 Since by the Cauchy-
00
Buniakowski-Schwarz inequality the series 2::= anbn converges absolutely we deduce

n=O
that
I: anbnr n =I: anbn.
00 00
lim 2
r-d, r<l
n=O n=O
14. First solution. It is proved in exercise 13(vi) that the set of functions fn(z)
zn, n ~ 0, is an orthonormal basis in H 2 (]]J)), hence by the result from exercise 12,
00 00
n=O n=O
is the only function which has the property that x*(f) = (!,g) H 2(][]J) \:/ f E H 2 (]]J)).
Second solution. Let h : H 2 (][J)) ---> l 2 be the isometric isomorphism given by exercise
00
13(v): h(f) (an)n>O E l2 {::} f(z) = L anzn 'Vz E ][J), We observe that h(zn) = en
=
- n=O
and then h- 1 (en) = zn 'Vn :::: 0 (by zn we understand the function z f------+ zn). Since
x* : H 2(][J)) ---> C is a linear and continuous functional, then x* h - 1 : l2 ---> C is a linear
continuous functional. Since l 2 is a Hilbert space, using Riesz's representation theorem
00
there is a= (an)n;:::o E l2 such that x*h- 1 (b) = (b,a) 12 = L

bnan 'Vb E l2 (1). We
n=O
have x*(h- 1 (en)) = (en, a)z, = an. But h- 1 (en) = zn and therefore an = x*(zn), i.e.,
00 00
an = x*(zn) 'Vn :::: 0. Let g = h- 1 (a), i.e., g(z) = L anzn
x*(zn)zn 'Vz E = L
n=O n=O
][J), Then for every f E H 2 (][J)), denoting b = h(f), from (1) we obtain that x*(f) =
00 __
(b, a) 12 = (h(f), h(g)) 12 = (!,g) H2(!DJ)· Thus the function g(z) = L x*(zn)zn belongs to
n=O
H 2 (][J)), and has the property that x*(f) = (f,g)H2(!DJ) 'Vf E H 2 (][J)). Also llx*ll = llgll =
00
L lx*(zn)l2.
n=O
15. See [45, exercise I 0, chapter 17].
Obviously x* is linear. Using exercise 13(i), we have
lx*(f)l = 1!(01.,:: d(/o][J))N2(f) 'Vf E H 2 (][J)),
i.e., x* is also continuous. Then exercise 14 gives us a unique function g E H 2 (lDl), g(z) =
oo _ _
L x*(zn)zn 'Vz E lDl, such that x*(f) = (f,g)H2(!DJ) 'Vf E H 2 (l1Jl). But x*(zn) = ~n, and
n=O
therefore g (z) = L f zn = 1I (1 - ~ z) . Thus g : ]]]) ----+ c defined by g ( z) = 1I (1 - ~ z)
00
n=O
is the only function g E H 2 (][J)) such that x*(f) = (!,g) H2(!DJ) 'I/ f E H 2 (l1Jl).
We prove first the following remark. Let H be a Hilbert space, x* : H ---> lK is a non-null
linear and continuous functional, and y E H the element given by the Riesz representation
theorem, applied to x*. Then lx*(x)l, with llxll .,; 1, can be at most IIYII, and if z E H
has the property that llzll .,; 1 and lx*(z)l = IIYII then there is A E lK with IAI = 11 IIYII
such that z = Ay. Indeed, if llxll .,; 1, then lx*(x)l .,:: llx*llllxll .,:: llx*ll = IIYII where the
last equality follows from the Riesz representation theorem. If z E H, llzll .,:: 1, has the
propertythat lx*(z)l = IIYII then we have l(z,y)l = IIYII· FromtheCauchy-Buniakowski-
Schwarz inequality we have l(z, y)l .,; IIYIIIIzll .,:: IIYII· Therefore l(z, y)l = IIYIIIIzll, i.e.,
we have equality in the Cauchy-Buniakowski-Schwarz inequality and therefore there is
A ElK such z = Ay. Since lx*(z)l = IIYII, then IAIIIYII 2 = IIYII, i.e., IAI = 11 IIYII·
Return now to the solution for our exercise. Let x* : H 2 (lDl) ----+ C defined by x*(f) =
00 00
f'(O. If f(z) = L anzn then .T*(j) = L nan~n- 1 and

n=O n=1
00 co 00
n=1 n=1 n=1

10.2 Solutions 265
00
where M = I; n 2 1~1 2 (n- 1 ). We obtain that x* : H 2(lDl) --->Cis a linear and continuous
n=1 oo _ _
functional. Using exercise 14, there is a unique function g E H 2(lDl), g(z) = I: x*(zn)zn,
n=O
suchthatx*(f) = (f,g)H2('illJ) \If E H 2(lDl). Sincex*(1) = O,x*(zn) = (zn)' lz=~= n~n- 1 ,
we have that 00 00
g(z) = l:=n"f- 1 zn = z Ln(~zt- 1 = 1 z 2-

n=1 n=1 ( - ~z)
From the above remark we deduce that If' (0 I , if N 2(f) :::; 1, can be at most
L lx*(zn)l L n21~12(n-1) = M.
00 00
2 =
n=O n=1
00 00
But for 0 :::; r < 1, I; nrn- 1 = 11(1- r) 2 , I; nrn = rl(1- r) 2 , and by deriva-
n=1 n=1
00
I: n 2 1~1 2 (n- 1 )
00
tion, I: n 2 rn- 1 = (1 + r) 1(1- r) 3 . Taking r = 1~1 2 , we obtain that =

n=1 n=1
(1 + l~n I (1-l~n 3 ' i.e., IIYIIH2(llJl) = V(1 + l~n I (1-1~1 2 )1 (1-1~1 2 ) 'and there-
fore 1!'(01 can be at most j(l + 1~1 2 ) I (1-1~n1 (1-1~1 2 ). Now let fa E H 2(lDl)
with N 2 (!0 ) :::; 1 such that lf~WI = IIYIIH2(D)· Then, again by the above remark,
we deduce that there is A E C such that fo = .Xg, and 1>-1 = 11 IIYIIH2(1IJJ) =
(1 -1~1 2 ) J (1- 1~n I (1 + 1~1 2 ). Hence the extremal functions are fo(z) = .Xg(z) =
.Xzl (1- ~z/, with 1>-1 = (1 -1~1 2 ) V(1-l~l 2 ) I (1 + 1~1 2 ).
17. See [51, chapter 1] or [52, chapter 4, section 4.1].

i) Let f E AP (n). For x = ~z + s cost andy= "-Sz + s sin t we have
c
J-v(z,r)
f (x, y) dxdy = r r"
Jo Jo
f (z + seit) sdsdt =
Jo
r r" 8 (
Jo
f (z + seit) dt) ds.
Using the mean value property for holomorphic functions, we obtain that
J027r f (z + seit) dt = 27r f (z) \Is E [0, r]. Thus
c
J-v(z,r)
f (x, y) dxdy = 27rf (z) r sds =
Jo
7fT' 2 f (z).
ii) Since n <;:::Cis open, for any z E n there is T'z > 0 such that D (z, rz) <;::: n. Then,
for any f E AP (n), by (i) and the Holder inequality we have
If (z)l C f (x, y) dxdyl

I~ J-v(z,rz)
1fT' z
< 1
7fT' 2
(~_ If (x, y)jP dxdy ) 1/p (~_ 1dxdy ) 1/q
z D(z,rz) D(z,rz)
< ~(1rr 2 ) 1 ;q llfll = llfiiLr(n;q,

7fT'; z Lp(O;C) ( 7fT';)l/P
thus If (z)l :S llfiiLp(n;q /(1rr;) 1 /P \:If E AP (0) (if p = 1, this relation follows directly
from (i)).
It is easy to see that AP is a norm on AP (0). Let us prove that this norm is a complete
one. Let K ~ 0 be a compact set, and let r = d(K, C\0) > 0. If z E C with d (z, K) :::; r,
then z E 0. We deduce that for any f E AP (0) and for any z E K we have
Let Un)nEN ~ AP (0) be a Cauchy sequence, i.e., Ap(fn- fm) = llfn- fmi1Lp(!1;C) ----+ 0.
Then we have
Ifn ( Z ) _ f ( )I < llfn- fmiiLp(n;q w K
rn Z _ (1rr 2 )1/P vZ E ,
and it follows that Un)nEN is a uniformly Cauchy sequence on any compact set K ~ 0.
From the Weierstrass theorem we obtain that there is f : 0 ----+ C holomorphic such that
fn----+ f uniformly on every compact set K ~ 0. Since LP (0) is a Banach space we know
that there is g E LP (0) such that fn ----+ g in LP (0). Then f = g a.e. on 0, and therefore
f E AP (0), AP Un -f) ----+ 0. Thus, (AP (0), AP) is a Banach space.
(iii) The axioms for an inner product are easy to verify. The completeness is proved
above.
iv) For any n ?: 0 we have
Also, form, n ?: 0, m > n, we have that
i.e., the family {en In?: 0} ~ A 2 (][]))is an orthonormal one. We will prove that llfll 2 =
2
I: I(!, en) I Vf E
OQ
A 2 (][])), and then we deduce that {en I n ?: 0} ~ A 2 (lDl) is an

n=O
orthonormal basis.
00
We prove first that iff:][])----+ cis holomorphic, f (z) = L anZn Vz E lDl, then
n=O
OQ
In particular, iff E A 2 (lDl), f (z) = L anzn, then

n=O
10.2 Solutions 267
Indeed, using Parseval's identity, for any 0 < r < 1 we have
00
If we consider R E (0, 1) then the series I: lanl 2 R 2n converges, and therefore the series
n=O
00
I: lanl 2 r 2n converges uniformly for r E [0, R]. Then

n=O
l:.:lanl 2 -2R2n+22 =2-

00
n=O n +
1
7r
1R
0
s (12" lf(seil')l 2 d0 ) ds=-
0
1 ~
2 _
7r D(O,R)
lf(x,y)l 2 dxdy.
If we take now Rk / ' 1, then XI5(o,Rk) lfl 2 /' lfl 2 , hence by the Beppo-Levi theorem it
follows that
21~_
7r D(O,Rk)
If (x, Y)l 2 dxdy /' -2 11 7r liJ)
If (x, y)l 2 dxdy,
and then
hm .
R---+1, R<1 27r
- 1~
D(O,R)
If (x, y)l 2 dxdy = - 11 27r liJ)
If (x, y)l 2 dxdy.
00
Since the function R ~-------+ L lanl 2 R 2n+ 2/ (2n + 2) is increasing, we have

n=O
. Loo R2n+2
R2n+2
L L
00 n R2k+2
2
hm
R---+1,R<1
n=O
Ian--=
I 2n + 2 sup
O<R<1 n=O
lanl 2 - - = sup sup
2n + 2 0<R<1 nEN k=O
lakl 2 - -
2k + 2
n 2 R2k+2 oo lanl2
sup sup Llakl --=2:.:--,
nEN O<R<1 k=O 2k + 2 n=O 2n + 2
and therefore
f
n=O
Iani: =
n+
~ f
7r }l!J)
If (x, y)l2 dxdy.
I 12
L I: 7r
00 00
Hence, iff= anzn E A 2 (]])),then an = llfll 2. If we observe now that
n=O n=O n +1
and that
we obtain that
(f, en ) = 2nvln+T
r;;; an
11 2n+l
r dr =
ft
~an.
vn o vn + 1
n=O
00
v) Let h: A2 (11}) --t h defined by h(f) = (J?fanfvn+"T)n>O {o} f(z) = 2: anzn.

- n=O
It is proved at (iv) that llh(f)ll =III II Vf E A 2 (11}), i.e., his an isometry. It remains to be
proved that his surjective. Let~ = (~n)n;:c:o E l2. Then, for any lzl < 1, we have
00
hence the series 2: (v'n"+l/ J?f) ~nzn converges absolutely, i.e., the function f : 11} __, C
n=O
00
defined by f (z) = 2: anzn where an = (vn+T/ J?f) ~n is well defined and holomor-
n=O
phic. From (iv) we have
I 12
L L
oo oo
fmif (x, Y)l 2 dxdy = an
7r = l~nl 2 < oo,
lil> n=On+l n=O
i.e., f E A 2 (11}). Obviously, h(f) = ~-
18. See [21, exercises 1.9 and 1.11, chapter 1] or [52, chapter 4, section 4.1].
i) Since A 2 (0) is a Hilbert space (see exercise 17(iii)) and Un)n;:c:o is an orthonormal
00
basis we can apply exercise 12 to obtain that 9 E A 2 (0) given by 9(z) = 2: anfn(z)
n=O
where an= x*(fn) is the only function which satisfies x*(f) = (!, 9)A2(0.) Vf E A 2 (0).
We also have llx*ll =

n=O
f= lx*(fn)l 2.
ii) It is proved in the solution for exercise 17 that x~ : A 2 (0) __, C is a linear and
continuous functional. Applying now (i) we obtain that 9~ E A 2 (0) given by 9~(z) =
oo _ _
2: x~(fn)fn(z) is the only function which satisfies x~(f) = (f, 9~) A2(0.) Vf E A 2 (0) and,
n=O
moreover,
00
llxell = 119~11 = L lx~(fn)l 2 ·

n=O
If we denote by K(z, ~) = 9~(z), then f(~) = JJ f(z)K(z, ~)dxdy Vf E A 2 (0).
0.
iii) With the same notations as in (ii) we have K(z, 0 = 9~(z) = 2:

00 --
fn(z)fn(~)
n=O
and, in addition, by the definition of the norm in the Hilbert space A 2 (0),
119~11 2 = JJ
[l
IK(z, ~)1 2 dxdy. By the definition for x~,
n=O
lx~(fn)l 2 =
n=O
lfn(~)l 2 , so f= f=
JJ IK(z, ~W dxdy = 2:
00
lfn(~)l 2 • Also, we observe that

0. n=O
00 00
K(~, ~) = L fn(~)Jn(~) = L lfn(01 2 '

n=O n=O
10.2 Solutions 269
and (iii) is proved.

iv) It is proved at exercise 17(iv) that fn(z) = (VnTII ji) zn, n 2: 0, is an orthonor-
mal basis for A 2 (IDJ), hence by (iii), the Bergman kernel for the open unit disc is
1 1
L fn(z)fn(O L(n + 1)(z~t
00 00
K(z, 0 = =- = ,
7f 7r( 1 - zC)2
~
n=O n=O
00
since if lzl < 1 then 2::: zn+ 1 = zl (1- z), and by differentiation,
n=O
L(n + 1)zn
00
= 11(1- z) 2 .
n=O
00
19. Let x* : A 2 (1DJ) ---+ C defined by x*(f) = f'(O. If f(z) = 2::: anzn, then :r*(f) =
n=O
L
00
nan~n- 1 , and
n=1
lx*(f)l:::; f
n=1
n2(n1f+ 1) 1~12(n-1) f
n=1
n: 11anl2:::; M IIJII \If E A2(1DJ),
where
M = f n2(n + 1) 1~12(n-1).
7f
n=1
We obtain that x* : A 2 (IDJ) ---+ C is a linear and continuous functional. Using exercise 18(i)
there is a unique function g E A 2 (IDJ),
g z = ~
() ~x* (Jn+T zn
n=O j7r
)yn+In
j7r
z '
such that x*(f) = (!,g) A2(JJJ;) Vf E A 2 (1DJ), and
But x* ( ( Jn+T I ji) zn) = ( Jn+TI ji) (zn )'I z=t; = ( nvn+I I ji) ~n- 1 for n 2: 1
and x* (11 ji) = 0, and therefore
z~ - 1 2z
g(z) = - ~ n(n + l)(z0n- = . ,
7f
n=l
7r(1 - zC)3
'-,
00 00
L = 1/(1-z) 2 , L nzn+ 1 = z2 /(1-z) 2 ,andbyderivation, L n(n+1)zn =

00
since nzn- 1
n=1 n=1 n=1
2z/(1- z) 3 , and then L n(n + 1)zn-1= 2/(1- z) 3 . We also have
00
n=1
~ 2( ) n-1_2(1-z) 3 +6z(1-z)2- 2+4z
~n n + 1z - (1- z)6 - (1- z)4'
and then
llgll =lvf=
Now, ifwe use the remark from the beginning of the solution for exercise 16, we obtain
that 1!'(01, for 11!11 ~ 1, can be at most llgll = J2!if)1 + 21~1 2 / (1 -1~1 2 ) 2 , and that
if fo E A 2 (1Dl) with llfoll ~ 1 is such that lfb(~)l = llgiiA2(1iJJ)' then there is,\ E C with
1>-1 = 1/ llgll such that fo =,\g.
i) We shall use the relation llx- Yll 2 = llxll 2 + IIYII 2- 2~ (x, y) Vx, y E H. We have
llxn- xll2 =II (xn- a)+ (a-x) 112 = llxn- aW + lla- xll2- 2~(xn- a, a-x).
That Xn --+ a weak means that (xn, y) --+ (a, y) Vy E H, that is, (xn -a, y) --+ 0
Vy E H, and therefore (xn -a, a-x) --+ 0. Using that if (bn)nEN converges then
lim inf (an + bn) = lim inf an + lim bn and lim sup (an + bn) = lim sup an + lim bn,
n-+oo n--+oo n--+oo n-+oo n--+oo n--+oo
we obtain that liminf llxn- xll = liminf llxn- all + llx- aW, i.e., (x) = d2 (a)+
2 2 d2
n-+oo n---+oo
llx- all 2 , and, also, D 2 (x) = D 2 (a)+ llx- all 2 .
ii) For (an)nEN E lXJ we consider Xn = anen E [2 Vn EN. Then (xn, y) = (anen, y) =
anYn Vy = (y1, Y2, ... ) E [z. Since (an)nEN is bounded, lanYnl ~ (sup lanl) IYnl Vn EN,
nEN
and since IYnl --+ 0, we obtain that anYn --+ 0, i.e., Xn ---+ 0 weak. Then
d (0) = lim inf llxnll = lim inf lanlllenll = lim inf Iani
n-+oo n-+oo n-+oo
and D (0) = lim sup lanl· (an)nEN E Zoo such that

This shows that if we choose
n-+oo
lim inf Ian I = a and lim sup Ian I = (3 then the sequence Xn = an en E [2 is a solution
n->oo n-+oo
of our exercise. One can take (an)nEN as being the sequence a, (3, o:, (3, ... ,i.e., a2n- 1= o:,
a2n = f3 Vn EN.
Chapter 11
The projection in Hilbert spaces
Theorem (the projection onto a closed convex non-empty set). Let H be a Hilbert
space, A ~ H a closed convex non-empty set, and x E H. Then there is a unique element
y E A such that d(x, A) = llx- Yll- The element y E A with this property is denoted by
Pr A ( x) and is called the projection of x on A.
Equivalently, an element y E H is the projection of x on A if and only if y E A and
~ (x - y, y - a) ;:::= 0 \Ia E A.
Theorem (the projection onto closed linear subspaces). Let H be a Hilbert space,
G ~ H a closed linear subspace, and x E H. Then there is a unique element y E G such
that x - y E Gj_. The element y E G with the property that x - y E Gj_ is called the
orthogonal projection of x onto G, and is denoted by Pre (x).
We have H = G + Gl_ and G n Gj_ = {0}, i.e., H = G EB Gj_. The operator Pre :
H ----t H defined by x ~-----> Pre (x) is called the orthogonal projection onto G.
Definition. Let H be a Hilbert space. A linear and continuous operator T : H ----t H is
called an orthogonal projection if and only if there is a closed linear subspace G <::::; H such
that T =Pre.
11.1 Exercises
The orthogonal projection is a non-expansive map
1. Let H be a Hilbert space, and A ~ H a closed convex and non-empty set. Prove
that PrA: H ----tHis non-expansive, i.e., IIPrA(x)- PrA(Y)II S llx- Yll Vx, y E H.
A geometrical result
2. Let H be a Hilbert space, and A ~ H a closed, convex and non-empty set.

272 The projection in Hilbert spaces
i) Prove that if:r; rj_ A then PrA(x) E Fr(A) and d(x, A)= d(x, Fr(A)).
ii) Then deduce that if x rj_ A and, in addition, Fr(A) is convex and non-empty, then
PrA (x) = PrFr(A)(x).
(Here Fr (A) is the boundary of A, Fr (A) =A\ A.)
The orthogonal projection onto the subgraph of a convex function
3. i) Let cp : lR lR be a C 1 convex function and A = {(x, y) E JR 2 I cp(x) s;; y}.

---+
Prove that if (a, b) rj_ A then PrA(a, b) = (x, cp(x)), where x E lR is a solution for the
equation (b- cp(x))cp' (x) +a-x= 0.
ii) Let A= {(x,y) E lR 2 I x 2 s;; y} and (a, b) rj_ A. Prove that PrA(a,b) = (x,x 2 )
where x E lR is a solution of the equation 2x 3 - (2b- 1)x - a = 0. In particular, if
a E (-oo,-1/v'2) U (1/v'2,oo) and A= {(x,y) E lR 2 x 2 :S y},thenPrA(a,1/2) = 1
( (a/ 2 )1/3, (a 2 / 4 )1/3).

4. i) Let cp: JRn ---+ lR be a C 1 convex function, A= {(x, y) E JRn x lR I cp(x) :S y}
and a= (a 1 , a 2 , ... ,an) E JRn, bE JR. Prove that if (a, b) rj_ A then PrA(a, b) = (x, cp(x))
where x = (x 1 , x 2 , ... , Xn) E IR.n is a solution of the system
3cp
a1 - x1 + (b- cp(x))-,::;-(x) = 0
UX]
3cp
a2 - x2 + (b- cp(x))-,::;-(x) = 0
UX2
3cp
an- Xn + (b- cp(x))~(x) = 0.
UXn
ii) Let A = {(x, y, z) E JR 3 I x2 + y 2 :S z }. Prove that PrA(1, J3, 1/2)

(1/2, J3/2, 1).
Orthogonal projections in a Hilbertian product
5. i) Let a, bE JR., as;; b. Prove that
x <a, x s;; a,
{a,
r
Pf[a,oo) (X) Pr(-oo,aj(x) = { ::
.T, x 2': a, x >a,
x <a,
Pr[a,bJ(x) = x, a s;; :r; :S b, VxER
b, X> b,
ii) Let D =[a, b] X [c, d] ~ IR 2 . Prove that PrD(x, y) = (Pf[a,bJ(x), Pf[c,dJ(Y)).

iii) Let H 1 , H 2 be Hilbert spaces, and H 1 x H 2 their Hilbertian product. Suppose that
A ~ H 1 and B ~ H 2 are closed, convex, and non-empty sets. Prove that
11.1 Exercises 273
Orthogonal projections in l 2
6. i) Let A= {(xn)nEN E l2 I 0 :=:; Xn :=:; 1/n 'in EN}<;;: l2. Calculate PrA(x), x E l2.
In particular, calculate PrA(ek), kEN, and lim d(ek, A).
k-;oo
ii) Let (an)nEN <;;: [0, oo) and A= {(xn)nEN E l2 llxnl :=:; an 'in EN} <;;: l2. Calculate
PrA(x), x E l2.
iii) Let A = {(xn)nEN E l2 I lxnl :=:; 1 'in E N} <;;: l2. Calculate PrA(aek), where
a E lR, and calculate lim d ( ( ( k + 1) j k) ek, A) .
k-;oo
iv) Let mEN, a1 2': 0, ... ,am 2': 0 and A= {(xn)nEN E l2 I 0 :=:; x1 :=:; a1, 0 :=:; x2 :=:;
a2, ... , 0 :=:; Xm :=:;am}<;;: l2. Calculate PrA(x), x E l2.
7. Let (an)nEN and (bn)nEN be two sequences of real numbers with an:::; bn 'in EN and
A= {(xn)nEN E l2 I an :=:; Xn :=:; bn 'in E N} <;;: l2. Suppose that A is not empty. Calculate
PrA(x), where x E l 2 •
8. Consider the following linear subspaces in l 2:
G1 { (~1, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, ... )I (~n)nEN E l2}'

G2 {(6,c6,c 2 6,6,E6,E 2 6, ... )I (~n)nEN E l2},
G3 { (6, c26, c6, 6, E26, c6, ... )I (~n)nEN E l2}'
where E = -1/2 + iv'3/2. Find the orthogonal projection Prc1 (x), j = 1, 2, 3, where
X E l2.
Properties for projections
9. i) Let H 1, H 2 be Hilbert spaces and T E L(H1, H 2) such that TT* =I. Prove that if
B <;;: H 2 is a closed convex and non-empty set then T*(Prs y) = Prr*(B)(T*y) 'Vy E H 2.
ii) Let H be a Hilbert space, A<;;: His a closed convex and non-empty set, and x E H.
Prove that Prx+A(Y) = x + PrA(Y- x) 'Vy E H.
iii) Let H be a Hilbert space, A <;;: H is a closed convex and non-empty set, and
.X E IK. Prove that Pr>.A(.Xy) = .XPrA(Y) 'Vy E H. Then deduce that if, in addition, A is
symmetric, then PrA ( -x) = - PrA (x) 'Vx E H.
A continuity property for a sequence of orthogonal projections
10. i) Let X be a normed space, G 1 <;;: G 2 <;;: · · · <;;: Gn <;;: Gn+l <;;:···is a sequence of
closed linear subspaces of X, and G = U Gn)·
Sp(
nEN
a) Prove that d(x, G) = lim d(x, Gn) 'Vx E X.
n->oo
b) If X is a Hilbert space prove that Prc(x) = lim Pre" (x) 'Vx E X.
n->oo
ii) Let X be a Hilbert space, G 1 :2 G 2 :2 · · · :2 Gn :2 Gn+l :2 · · · is a sequence of
closed linear subspaces, and G = n
Gn. Prove that Pr 0 (x) = lim Pr 0 Jx) 'Vx EX.
nEN n-H)O
The Gram determinant
11. i) Let H be an inner product space, n EN, and {.r 1, ... ,xn} C H\{0}. The
determinant
(x1, x1) (x1, x2)
(x2, x1) (x2, x2)
is called the Gram determinant of the system {x 1, ... , Xn}. Prove that:
a) r(x1, ... , Xn) 2 0;
b) f(x1, ... , xn) = f(y1, ... , Yn), where {yl, ... , Yn} is the system obtained by applying
the Gram-Schmidt procedure to the system { x 1, ... , Xn};
c) f(x1, ... , Xn) = 0 if and only if the system {x1, ... , Xn} is linearly dependent.
ii) Let a, b, e E lR with lal < 1, lbl < 1, lei < 1. Using (i) prove that
1/ (1- lal 2) 1/ (1- ab) 1/ (1- ae)

1/ (1- ab) 1/ (1 -lbl2) 1/(1-be) 2 0.
1/ (1 - ae) 1/ (1- be) 1/ (1 -lel 2)
Orthogonal projections onto finite-dimensional linear subspaces
and the Gram determinant
12. i) Let H be a Hilbert space, n E N, x 1, ... , Xn E H are n linearly independent

elements, and G = Sp{x 1, ... , xn}. Prove that for any x E H,
where 6 = r(x 1 , .r 2, ... , .Tn) is the Gram determinant and 6; are obtained by replacing in
6 the column i with the column
(xJ,.r))
( (.r2,x)
(.rn, x)
ii) Using (i) calculate the orthogonal projection of .r = (4, -1, -3, 4) onto the linear
subspace generated by .r 1 = (1, 1, 1, 1), .r 2 = (1, 2, 2, -1) and .r 3 = (1, 0, 0, 3).
Orthogonal projections onto cofinite-dimensionallinear subspaces

13. i) Let H be a Hilbert space, n E N, .r 1, ... , .Tn E H are n linearly independent

elements, and L = {.r E HI (.r,x 1) = 0, ... , (x,.rn) = 0}. Calculate PrL(x), .T E H.
More precisely, prove that
11.1 Exercises 275
where 6 and Lk are obtained as in exercise 12.

ii) Calculate the orthogonal projection of x = (7, -4, -1, 2) onto the linear space L
given by the system of equations
Orthogonal projections onto closed linear manifolds and the Gram determinant
14. i) Let H be a Hilbert space, n E N, xi, ... , Xn E Haren linearly independent

elements, ci, ... ,en E K, and V = {x E HI (x,xi) = ci, ... , (x,xn) =en} is a closed
linear manifold. Prove that
Prv(x) =X- (~I XI+ .. ·+ ~n Xn) ,
where 6 r (xi, ... , xn), and 6; is obtained by replacing in 6 the column i with the
column
(
(xi,~:.-ci).
(xn, X) - Cn
ii) Using (i) find the orthogonal projection of x = (4, 2, -5, 1) onto the linear manifold
given by
{ 2yi - Yz + Y3 + 2y4 = 9
2yi- 4yz + 2y3 + 3y4 = 12 ·
The distance from a point to a finite-dimensional linear subspace

15. Let H be a Hilbert space, n EN, {xi, ... ,xn} CHis a linearly independent
system, and G = Sp{xi, ... , Xn}· Prove that
f(xi, ... ,Xn,X)

d(x,G) =
r(xl, ... ,xn) .
E N. Prove that if {xi, ... , Xn} s;; H is a linearly

16. i) Let H be a Hilbert space and n
independent system, and V = x 0 + G, G = Sp{ xi, ... , .Tn}, .To E H, then
f(.Tl, ... , .Tn, .T- .To)

d(.T, V) =
f(.Tl, ... , .Tn)
ii) Using (i) find the distance from the point .1: to the linear manifold :r: 0 + .A 1:r: 1 +
.A 2:r2, .AI, Az E JK, where :r = (1, 2, -1, 1), .To = (0, -1, 1, 1), :r 1 = (0, -3, -1, 5), and
:r 2 = (4,-1,-3,3).
iii) Using (i) find the distance from the origin to the linear manifold defined by the set
of all polynomials of the form t 2 + a 1 t + a 2 in the Hilbert space £ 2 [0, 1].
17. Let H be a Hilbert space. A system (xn)nEN C His called topologically linearly
independent if and only if \In E N, Xn t/: Sp{ XI, x2, ... , Xn-I, Xn+I, ... }. Prove that (xn)nEN
is a topologically linearly independent if and only ifVp 2:: 1 we have
The distance between two closed linear manifolds and the Gram determinant
18. i) Let H be a Hilbert space and VI, V2 ~ H two closed linear manifolds, Vi =
xi +GI, V2 = x 2+G2, where GI, G 2 ~Hare two closed linearsubspaces and xi, x2 E H.
Prove that d (VI, V2) = II Prc_j_nc_j_ (xi- x2) 11.
ii) Let H be a Hilbert spa~e, {a I, ... , an, an+ I, ... , an+m} ~ H is a linearly independent
system, GI = Sp{ ai, ... ,an}, G2 = Sp{ an+ I, ... , an+m}, and Vi, V2 ~ Hare the closed
linear manifolds defined by VI =XI + GI and v2 = X2 + G2. Prove that
where .6. = r(ai, ... ,an, an+l> ... , an+m) and .6.; are obtained by replacing in .6. the column
i with the column
( ~~~:~~ =~~~ )
(an+m: ~~ - x2)
iii) Using (ii) calculate the distance between the planes x = aiti + a2t2 +xi and
x = a 3 ti + a4t 2 + x 2 , where ai = (1, 2, 2, 2), a2 = (2, -2, 1, 2), a3 = (2, 0, 2, 1), a4 =
(1, -2, 0, -1), XI= (4, 5, 3, 2) and X2 = (1, -2, 1, -3).
Orthogonal projections in £ 2
19. i) Let (S, L,, J-l) be a measure space, I~ lR is a closed interval which contains 0,
and A={! E L 2(J-L) I f(s) E I a.e.}. Find the orthogonal projection PrA(f), f E L2(J-l).
ii) Let A = {! E £ 2 [-1, 1] I f(x) E [0, 1] a.e.}. Using (i) find the orthogonal
projection Pr A (ex) and the distance d (ex, A).
iii) Let (S, L,, J-L) be a finite measure space and A= {! E L2(1-l) I f(s) E [a, b] a.e.}.
Find the orthogonal projection PrA(f), f E £2(/1,).
iv) If (S, L,, J-L) is a measure space with J-l (S) = oo and a > 0, prove that the set
A={! E £2(1-l) I f(s) E [a, oo) a.e.} is empty.
v) Let (S, L,, J-L) be a finite measure space, a> 0 and A={! E L 2 (J-L) I f(s) E [a, oo)
a.e. }. Find the orthogonal projection PrA(f), f E L 2 (f.1,).
vi) If (S, L,, J-L) is a measure space with J-l (S) = oo and a < 0, then the set A = {! E
L2(1-l) I f(s) E ( -oo, a] a.e.} is empty.
vii) Let (S, L,, J-L) be a finite measure space, a < 0 and A = {! E £2(/-l) I f(s) E
( -oo, a] a.e.}. Find the orthogonal projection PrA(f), f E L 2 (J-L).
viii) Let g : [0, 1] ---+ [0, oo) be a Lebesgue integrable function and let A = {! E
£2[0, 1JIIf(x)l ::; g(x) a.e.}. Find the orthogonal projection PrA(f), f E L2[0, 1].
11.1 Exercises 277
ix) Let A = {f E L 2 [0, 1] I lf(x)l ::; x a.e.}. Using (viii) find the orthogonal
projection PrA(x- 1/2) and the distance d(x- 1/2, A).
20. Let L = {! E L [0, 1]1 J
2 0
112f(x)dx = 0, f1~ 2 f(x)dx = 0 }·Find the orthogonal
projection PrL(f), where f E L 2 [0, 1].
21. Let A = { f E L2 [0, 1] I f01 If (x) Idx :S 1} s;;= L2 [0, 1].
i) Prove that A is closed, convex, and non-empty.
ii) ForgE L 2 [0, 1] find the orthogonal projection PrA(g).
iii) Find the orthogonal projection PrA(8x).
22. Let G = {! E L2 (0, oo) I fan f (x) dx = 0 \In EN}. Find the orthogonal projec-
tion Pre (f), f E L2 (0, oo).
Projections in Banach spaces
23. Let X be a Banach space and L, M s;;= X two linear subspaces such that L nM =
{0}. Let the operator PLIIM: L+M--+ Lbedefinedby PLIIM (x + y) = x\/x E L, y EM.
Prove that:
i) PLIIM is linear, Pz 1 M = PL 1 M, PLIIMIL =I, PLIIMIM = o.
ii) Prove that PLIIM is continuous if and only ifL n M = {0} and PLIIM is continuous.
iii) If Land Mare closed linear subspaces, prove that PLIIM is continuous if and only
if L + M s;;= X is a closed linear subspace.
In the case in which it is well defined the operator PLIIM is called the oblique projection
on L, parallel with M.
Angles in Hilbert spaces
24. i) Let H be a real Hilbert space, and x, y E H, x # 0, y # 0. Prove that there is a

unique a E [0, 7r] such that
(x,y)
cos a = llxiiiiYII.
[0, 7r] with this property is called the angle between x and y and we will denote
a E .....--._
a= (x,y).
ii) Let H be a real or a complex Hilbert space, G s;;= His a linear subspace, G # {0},
and x E H, x # 0. Prove that
I(x. g) I I }
sup { llxll ilgll g E G, g #0 E [O, 1]
and that there is a unique a E [0, 7T /2] such that
l(x,g)l I g E G, g # 0 }
cos a = sup { llxllllgll
a E [0, 7T /2] with this property is called the angle between x and the subspace G and we
------ ------ ------
will denote a= (x, G). Prove also that (x, G) = (x, G).
iii) Let H be a real or a complex Hilbert space, G s;;: H is a closed linear subspace,
------
G # {0}, and x E H, x # 0. Prove that if a = (x, G), then it is true the well known
formula from the analytic geometry, cos o: = II Pr c (x) II / II x II , and therefore the supremum
from (ii) is attained at Prc(x).
iv) Let H be a real Hilbert space, G ~ His a closed linear subspace, G -=1- {0}, and
.T E H, x -=1- 0. Prove that
l(x,g)l I } { (x,g) I }
sup { llxllllgll g E G, g -=1- 0 =sup llxllllgll g E G, g -=1- 0 '
-
i.e., if o: = (x, G) then
(x, g)
coso:= sup { llxllllgll
I g E G, g -=1- 0 } .
Hence, in the real case, we can eliminate the modulus in the definition for coso:.
v) Let H be a real Hilbert space, x, y E H, x -=1- 0, y -=1- 0, and G = Sp{y} = { >.y I ).. E
lR}. With the notations from (i) and (ii) prove that
__.......__
~= { (x:Y)----
n-(x,y)
if(x,y)
__.......__ E [O,n/2],
if(x,y) E (n/2,71-].
vi) Let H be a real or a complex Hilbert space, and L, M two linear subspaces of H.
Prove that
l(x, y)l E [0 1]
xEL\{O~~~M\{0} llxiiiiYII '
and that there is a unique o: E [0, 1r /2] such that
l(x, YJ I
coso:= sup
xEL\{0}, yEM\{0} llxiiiiYII
-
o: E [0, 1r /2] with this property is called the angle between the linear subspaces Land M
and we will denote o: = (L, M).
vii) Let H be a real or a complex Hilbert space, and L, M two linear subspaces of H,
with L n M = {0}. Prove that:
-
cos (L, M) -
(I, M) IIPMP-Lll '
-
cos =
sin (L, M) sin (I;M) = I PLIIM

1 II,
where PM and Py; are respectively the orthogonal projections on M, Land PLIIM is the
oblique projection on L, parallel with M.
25. i) Calculate the angle between x and the linear subspace generated by x 1 and x 2 ,
where x = (1, 3, -1, 3), x 1 = (1, -1, 1, 1), x 2 = (5, 1, -3, 3).
ii) Let m, n E N with m < n, x = ( 1, 1, ... , 1) E lRn, and G = {(x 1 , ... , Xm, 0, ... , 0) I
x 1 , ... , Xm E lR}. Calculate the angle between x and G.
iii) Calculate the angle between the line d : x 1 = x 2 = · · · = Xn and the coordinate
axis ofthe space JRn, where n EN.
iv) Calculate the angle between the lined given by the equations x 0 = 2x 1 = 22 x 2 =
. · · = 2nxn =···,and the coordinate axis ofthe space l 2 , i.e., calculate (en, d), n 2:: 0. --------
11.1 Exercises 279
The orthogonal projection onto a closed ball, a hyperplane, or a half-plane
26. i) Let H be a Hilbert space, a E H, r > 0, and B(a, r) be the closed ball with
center a and radius r in H. Find the orthogonal projection Prs(a.r) (x), where x E H.
ii) Let H be a Hilbert space, a E H\ {0}, c E IK, and consider the closed hyperplane
V = {x E HI (x, a)= c}. Find the orthogonal projection Prv (x), where x E H. In
particular, prove that if a E H, a -=1- 0 and A = { x E H I (x, a) = 1}, then PrA(O) =
al llall 2 •
iii) Let H be a real Hilbert space, a E H\ {0}, c E JR., and let A = { x E H I (x, a) :::;
c}. Find the orthogonal projection PrA (x), where x E H.
iv) Let H be a real Hilbert space, a E H\{0}, m, ME JR., m < M, and let A= {x E
HI m:::; (x, a) :::; M}. Find the orthogonal projection PrA (x), where x E H.
v) Let H be a Hilbert space, a E H\{0}, and let A= {x E HI~ (x, a)= 1}, B =
{x E H II~ (x, a) I:::; 1}. Find the orthogonal projections PrA (x), PrB(x), where x E H.
vi) Consider the Hilbert space Mn(IK) with the usual inner product (A, B) = tr(AB*),
and consider E ={A E Mn(IK) I ~(tr(A)) = 1}, F ={A E Mn(IK) ll~(tr(A))I:::; 1}.
Using (v) find the orthogonal projections PrE (B), Prp(B), where B E Mn(IK). In partic-
ular, find the orthogonal projections PrE (ain), Prp(ain), where In E Mn(IK) is the unit
matrix and a E IK.
Projections in the Hardy space
2 7. Let ~ E IDl and let A = {! E H 2 (!Dl) I f( 0 = 1}. Find the minimal norm element
and the norm for the minimal norm element for the set A.
28. Let ~ E IDl and let A = {! E H 2 (!Dl) I f' (0 = 1}. Find the minimal norm element
and the norm for the minimal norm element for the set A.
Projections in the Bergman space
29. Let 0 C be an open non-empty set. Let A 2 (0) be the Bergman space (see
<:;;:
exercise 17 of chapter 10) and Un)n>o be an orthonormal basis in A 2 (0).
i) Let x* : A 2 (0) ~ C be a lin~ar and continuous functional and H = {! E A 2 (0) I
x* (f) = 1}. Find the minimal norm element and the norm for the minimal norm element
for the setH in terms of x* and the orthonormal basis Un)n>O·
ii) Let~ E 0 and H = {! E A 2 (0) I f(O = 1}. Prove that the minimal norm
element of the set H is the function f~, where f~ (z) = K ( z, ~)I K ( ~, 0, and that the norm
J
for the minimal norm element is 1I K (~, 0, where K is the Bergman kernel for 0.
iii) Let IDl be the open unit disc in the complex plane,~ E IDl and H = {! E A 2 (!Dl) I
f (0 = 1}. Prove that the minimal element for the set H is the function f~, where f~ (z) =
( ( 1 - 1~ n1(1 - z~)) 2
, and that the norm for the minimal element is vn (1 - 1~ 12 ).
A minimum problem
30. i) Let H be a real Hilbert space and f : H ~ lR a linear and continuous functional
on H. Prove that the function JR. be defined by <p (f) = j 01 If (x)l 2 dx- 16 j 01 xf (x) dx,
and A= { f E L2 [0, 1]1 J01 If (x) ldx:::; 1}. Using (i) find the function fo E A such that
<p (!0 ) = inf <p (f).
/EA
A Cantor type of theorem in Hilbert spaces
31. Prove that in a Hilbert space any decreasing sequence of closed, convex, bounded,
and non-empty sets has non-empty intersection.
The Riesz representation theorem and the projection theorem are not true
in general inner product spaces
32. We consider l 2 with the usual inner product and c00 C:::: l 2 , the linear subspace of all
finite rank sequences. We consider on c00 the inner product from l 2 and the norm generated
by this inner product. Let
i) Prove that there is a unique x* E c6 0 such that M = ker x* and deduce that M C:::: c00
is a closed linear subspace.
ii) Prove that we cannot find yin c00 such that x* (.cz;) = (x, y) 'ix E c00 .
iii) Calculate M .L. Prove that c00 i M EB M .L, and that M i M u.
What can we deduce?
A projector that is not an orthogonal projection
33. Let H = (ffi. 2 , (-, ·) 2 ) and M = {(x,O) I x E JR}, N = {(x,:rtanB) I x E JR},

where BE (0, 1r /2). Find Te E L (H) such that Tl = Te, Te (H)= M, ker Te = N. Prove
that II Tell = 1/ sin Band that Te is not an orthogonal projection.
Characterizations for orthogonal projections
34. Let H be a Hilbert space and T E L (H), T i 0 such that T 2 = T. Prove that the
i) Tis an orthogonal projection;
ii)kerT= (T(H))l_;
iii) IITII = 1;
iv) T = T*;
v) Tis normal, i.e., T*T = TT*;
iv) (Tx, x) 2: 0 'ix E H.
35. LetHa Hilbert space and A C:::: H a non-empty set. LetT : H ---+ H be a linear
operator such that T (H) C:::: A and (I - T) (H) C:::: A .L. Prove that A C:::: H is a closed linear
subspace and that Tis the orthogonal projection onto A.
11.2 Solutions 281
Algebraic operations with orthogonal projections
36. Let H be a Hilbert space and P, Q two orthogonal projections onto two closed
linear subspaces of H. Then:
i) P + Q is an orthogonal projection if and only if P (H) l_ Q (H) . If P +Q is an
orthogonal projection then
(P + Q) (H) P(H) + Q(H),

ker (P + Q) ker p n kerQ.
ii) PQ is an orthogonal projection if and only if PQ = QP. If PQ is an orthogonal

projection then
(PQ) (H) P(H) nQ(H),

ker (PQ) + kerQ.
ker P
iii) The following assertions are equivalent:

a) P- Q is an orthogonal projection;
b)Q(H)~P(H);
c) PQ = Q;
d) QP = Q.
If P - Q is an orthogonal projection, then
(P- Q)(H) P(H) 8Q(H),

ker (P- Q) Q (H) EB ker P.
(If L and M are two closed linear sub spaces of a Hilbert space H and L ~ M, then M 8 L
is the closed subspace of M such that L EB (M 8 L) = M.)
iv) PQ = QP if and only if P + Q- PQ is an orthogonal projection.
The distance between two orthogonal projections
37. i) Let X be a normed space and T, S E L (X) such that T 2 = T, S 2 = S, and

TS =ST. Prove that either T = S, or liT- Sll ~ 1.
ii) Let us consider two closed linear subspaces £ 1 and £ 2 in a Hilbert H space and
denote by P1 and P2 the orthogonal projections respectively onto £ 1 and £ 2 . Prove that
II pl - P211 ~ 1.
iii) Let H be a Hilbert space. If P and Q are two orthogonal projections on H such
that PQ is also an orthogonal projection prove that either P = Q, or liP- Qll = 1.
11.2 Solutions
1. From the projection theorem, we have~ (x- PrA(x), PrA(x)- a) ~ 0 Va EA. In
particular, replacing a with Pr A (y) we obtain that
(1)
Analogously,~ (y- PrA(y), PrA(Y)- PrA(x)) ::0: 0, and therefore
~ (PrA(Y)- y, PrA(x)- PrA(y)) ::0: 0. (2)
Adding (1) and (2) we get~ (x- y- (PrA(x)- PrA(Y)), PrA(x)- PrA(Y)) ::0: 0, i.e.,
~ (x- y, PrA(x)- PrA(Y)) ::0: IIPrA(x)- PrA(Y)II 2 (3)
From the Cauchy-Buniakowski-Schwarz inequality, we have
~ (x- y, PrA(x)- PrA(Y)) :S I(x- y, PrA(x)- PrA(Y)) I

< llx- YIIIIPrA(x)- PrA(Y) II
and from here, replacing in (3), we obtain that
IIPrA(x)- PrA(Y)II 2 :S llx- YIIIIPrA(x)- PrA(Y)II,
and therefore IIPrA(x)- PrA(Y)II :S llx- Yll·
2. i) Let y = PrA(x) E A. Let h : ffi. ---+ H be defined by h (t) = tx + (1- t) y.

Then h is continuous and h (0) = y. If, for a contradiction, y EA, then h (0) EA and
since h is continuous and A
open, there is 0 < o
< 1 such that Vt E [ -15, 15] it follows
that h (t) E A. In particular h (o) E A, i.e., ox+ (1 - o)y E A. Then d(x, A) :S
llx-(15x+(1-o)y)ll = (1-o)llx-yll- Buty = PrA(x) so d(x, A)= llx-yll, from whence
llx- Yll :S (1- o)llx- Yll, and since llx- Yll > 0 we obtain that 1 :S 1- i.e., :S 0,o, o
which is false. Hence y \t'A
and since yEA it follows that yEA\ A=
A\ A=
Fr(A).
ii) Since Fr(A) -=f. 0 and Fr(A) ~ A it follows that d(x, A) :::; d(x, Fr(A)). But, from
(i), y = PrA(x) E Fr(A), so d(x, Fr(A)) :::; llx- Yll- Now from the projection theo-
rem, llx- Yll = d(x, A), and then d(x, A) = llx- Yll = d(.'E, Fr(A)). Since by hypoth-
esis Fr( A) is convex, non-empty, and always closed, there exists PrFr(A) (x) E Fr( A) and
this is the unique element with the property that d(x,Fr(A)) = llx- PrFr(A)(x)ll· Since
llx- Yll = d(x, Fr(A)) andy E Fr(A) it follows that y = PrFr(A)(x).
3. i) Using the convexity of ip, it is easy to see that A is a convex set. Also from the con-
tinuity of 'P it follows that A is closed and that A= {(
x, y) E JR 2 I 'P( x) < y}. From exer-
cise 2, PrA(a, b) E Fr(A) = {(x, y) E ffi- 2 I 1p(x) = y}, i.e., ::Jx E ffi. such that PrA(a, b)=
(x, 1p(x) ). Now, the projection condition is ( (a, b) - (x, 1p(x)), (x, 1p(x)) - (t, y)) ::0: 0
Vt, y E ffi. with 'P (t) :::; y. In particular, (a- x)(x- t) + (b- cp(x))('P(x)- 1p(t)) ::0: 0
Vt < x, and therefore
'P(x)- 1p(t)
a-x+ (b- 'P(x)) ::0: 0 Vt < x.
:c- t
Fort---+ .r, t < :r it follows that a-x+ (b- 1p(x))cp' (x) ::0: 0. Analogously, fort---+ x,
t > x it follows that a-x+ (b- 'P(x))'P' (.r) :::; 0, and so a- .r + (b- 'P(x))'P' (x) = 0.
ii) We apply (i).
4. i) From exercise 2, PrA(a, b) E Fr(A), i.e., 3x E ffi.n such that PrA(a, b)= (x, 'f?(.T)).
The projection condition implies (a- .T, x- t) + (b- cp(:c))('P(x)- cp(t)) ::0: 0 Vt E lRn.
11.2 Solutions 283
Let 1 s; is; n. Fort= x + Ae;, with A E ffi., we have (a-x, -Ae;) + (b- lf?(x))(lf?(x)-
lf?(X + Ae;)) ~ 0 VA E ffi., that is, A (a-x, e;) + (b- lf?(x))(lf?(X + Ae;) - lf?(x)) s; 0
VA E R For A> 0 we have
(a-x, e;) + (b -lp(x)) lf?(X + Ae;)- lf?(x) s; 0,
hence passing to the limit for A ---> 0, A > 0 it follows that a; - x; + (b -

lf?(x)) (8lf?/Ox;) (x) s; 0. Analogously, working with A < 0 we obtain that a; -X;+
(b -lp(x)) (8lf?/Ox;) (x) ~ 0, i.e., the statement.
ii) Let lf? : ffi. 2 ---> ffi. be defined by lf?(x, y) = x 2 + y 2 • Obviously lf? is C 1, convex, and
Olf?/8x = 2x, Olf?/Oy = 2y. From (i), PrA(1, J3, 1/2) = (x, y, z), where z = x 2 + y 2 and
( x, y) is a solution for the system
{
+ 2x (1/2- (x 2 + y2 ))
1- x = 0
J3- y + 2y (1/2- (x 2 + y2 )) = 0 ·
We obtain that x = 1/2, y = v'3/2, z = 1.
5. i) On ffi. the inner product is given by (x, y) = xy. Let z = Pr[a,bJ(x). Then
(x- z,z- y) ~ 0 Vy E [a,b], that is, (x- z)(z- y) ~ 0 Vy E [a,b]. We have 3
cases:
1. x < a. Since z E [a, b] then x - z < 0, and it follows that z - y s; 0 Vy E [a, b],
i.e., z s; y Vy E [a, b]. In particular z s; a. But z E [a, b], z ~ a, and then z =a.
2. x E [a,b]. ThenPr[a,bJ(x) =x.
3. x >b. Since z E [a, b] then x- z > 0, and we obtain that z- y ~ 0 Vy E [a, b], so
z ~ y Vy E [a, b]. In particular z ~b. But z E [a, b], z s; b, i.e., z =b.
Analogously for the other projections.
ii) Let x 1 = Pr[a,b] (x) and y 1 = Pf[c,d] (y). Then (.T 1, yi) E D. In order to prove that
(x 1, yl) = Prv(x, y), we must show that
((x, y)- (x1, yi), (x1, Yl)- (u, v)) ~ 0 V(u, v) ED,
that is, (x-x 1 )(:r: 1-u)+(y-y 1 )(y1 -v) ~ 0, which is true, since by (i) (x-x 1 ) (x 1 -u) ~ 0
VuE [a, b] and (y- yi)(y 1 - v) ~ 0 Vv E [c, d].
iii) Recall that the inner product on H 1 x H 2 is defined by the formula
((x 1,x 2),(y1,y2 )) = (x 1 ,y1) + (x 2 ,y2). Let x1 = PrA(x) and Y1 = PrB(y). Then
(x 1 , y 1 ) E D = A x B. To prove that (x 1 , y 1 ) = Pr 0 (x, y), we must prove that
that is,
R(x- x1,x1- u) + R(y- Yl,Yl- v) ~ 0,
which is true, since R (x- x 1 • x 1 - u) ~ 0 Vu E A and R (y- y 1, y 1 - v) ~ 0 Vv E B.
0. :r:n < 0,
6. i) Let Yn = Pf[o, 1;nJ(:r 71 ), that is, Yn { x,,
= 0 s; X 77 s; 1/n, (see exercise 5(i)).
1/n, :r:n > 1/n.
We will prove that y = (Yn)nEN = PrA(x), i.e., equivalently, yEA and R (x- y. y- z) ~
0 Vz E A. But obviously (Yn)nEN E l2, Yn E [0, 1/n] \:In E N, and (x- y, y- z)

()()
L (xn - YnHYn - Zn) 2 0 (since z = (zn)nEN E A, Zn E [0, 1/n], and from Yn

n=l
Pr[o,ljnj(Xn) we have (xn- YnHYn- Zn) 2 0 \:In EN). Then
PrA(ek) = (Pf[o, 1J(O), ... , Pf[o,l/kJ(1), ... ) = (0, ... , 0, 1/k, 0, ... ) = ek/k Vk 2 2,
PrA(e 1) = e 1, since e 1 E A. Now from the projection theorem, d(ek, A)

llek- PrA(ek)ll = (k- 1) /k, and so lim d(ek, A)= 1.
k->oo
ii) WehaveA = {(xn)nEN E l2l Xn E [-an,an] \:In EN}. Letyn = Pr[-an,an](Xn),
Xn < -an,
-an,
i.e., Yn = { Xn, -an::; Xn::; an, and take y = (Yn)nEN· The proof for the fact that
an, Xn >an,
y = PrA(x) is the same as above, and we will omit it.
-ek, a<-1,
iii) Using (ii) we obtain that PrA(aek) = { aek, a E [-1, 1], Also,
ek. a> 1.
d(((k + 1) /k) ek. A)= ll((k + 1) /k) ek- PrA(((k + 1) /k) ek)ll·
Since (k + 1) /k > 1 we have PrA(((k + 1) /k) ek) = ek, from whence
d(((k + 1) /k) ek, A)= ll((k + 1) /k) ek- ekll = 1/k,
and then lim d(((k

k->oo
+ 1) /k) ek, A)= 0.
iv) Let x = (x1, x2, ... ) E l2. Define Y1 = Pf[o,at](xJ), Y2 = Pf[o,a 2 J(x2), ... , Ym =
Pf[o,am](Xm), and consider y = (y1, Y2, ... , Ym, Xm+l• ... ) EA. Then y = PrA (x). Indeed,
the projection condition is (x- y, y- z) 2 0 Vz E A, that is, (x 1 - y1)(y1 - z1 ) + · · · +
(xm- YmHYm- Zm) 2 0\:/0::; Z1 ::; a1, ... , 0::; Zm::; am, which is clearly true.
7. Letx = (xn)nEN E l2. Foranyn E NwedenoteAn = {(zk)kEN E l2 I a1::;

Zl ::; bl, ... , an::; Zn::; bn}, Yn = Pr[an,bn](xn), and let y = (yl, Y2, ... ).Then A=
nEN
An, n
An+l ~ An, and obviously An is closed, convex, and non-empty, \:In E N. Since by
hypothesis A i- 0 then d(x, A) has a meaning, and belongs to IP!.+. Since A ~ An \:In EN
it follows d(x, An) ::; d(x, A) \:In E N, i.e., { d(x, An) I n E N} is bounded. Thus 3M > 0
such that d(x, An) ::; M \:In E N, that is, llx- PrAn (x) II ::; M \:In E N. From exercise
6(iv), for any n EN we have PrAJx) = (y1 , ... , Yn, Xn+l, ... ).Then
()()
from whence L lxn -Ynl 2 ::; M 2, i.e., (xn -yn)nEN E l2, and since (xn)nEN E l2 it follows
n=l
that y = (Yn)nEN E l2. We will prove now that y = PrA(x). Obviously, an ::; Yn ::; bn
\:In E N, i.e., y E A, and we must verify the projection condition, i.e., (x- y, y- z) 2 0
00
Vz E A, or L (xn- Yn)(Yn- Zn) 2 0 Vz = (zn)nEN E A. But this is an easy consequence

n=l
of the fact that (xn- YnHYn- Zn) 2 0 \:In EN.
11.2 Solutions 285

Let a 1 = (1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, ... ), a2 = (0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0, ... ), etc .. For x = (xn)nEN ,
(6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, ... ) = Pre, (x) is given by the conditions: Pre, (x) E G1 and x-
Pre, (x)..lG1. From x- Pre, (x)..lG1 it follows that x - Pre, (x)..la1, i.e., x1 - 6 +
x2 - 6 + X3 - 6 = 0, 6 = (x 1 + x 2 + x 3 ) /3. From x -Pre, (x)..la2 it follows that
~2 = (x 4 + X5 + x6) /3, etc .. Analogously one can calculate the projections onto G 2 and
G3.
9. i) Let us observe first that T* (B) ~ H 1 is a closed convex set. The fact that T*
is linear implies T* (B) convex, and that T* is an isometry implies that T* (B) is closed.
Let y1 = PrB(Y) E B. What we must prove is that T*(yl) = Prr•(B)(T*y), that is,
T*(yl) E T*(B) (this is obviously true) and 3? (T*y- T*y 1 , T*yl -a) ~ 0 \fa E T*(B).
Let a E T*(B). Then there is b E B such that a = T*(b). Since Y1 = PrB(Y) we have
3? (y- Y1, Y1- b) ~ 0. From TT* = I it follows that 3? (y- Y1, TT*(yl- b)) ~ 0, or
3? (T*y- T*y 1 , T*y 1 - T*b) ~ 0, that is, 3? (T*y- T*y 1 , T*y 1 - a) ~ 0, which is exactly
what we wanted to prove.
ii) Let us observe that under the hypothesis from the statement all the projections have a
meaning. We will use the existence and uniqueness property from the projection theorem,
i.e., PrA(u) is the only element in A with the property that d(u, A) = llu- PrA(u)ll· We
have d(y, x +A) = inf IIY- x- all = d(y- x, A). Also there exists Prx+A(Y) Ex+ A
aEA
and this is the only element in x+ A with the property that d(y, x +A) = IIY- Prx+A(Y)II·
Analogously PrA(Y- x) E A and this is the only element with the property that d(y-
x, A) = IIY- x- PrA(Y- x)ll· The element x + PrA(Y- x) is in x +A, and by the
above it has the property that d(y,x +A) = IIY- (x + PrA(Y- x))ll· It follows that
Prx+A(Y) = x + PrA(Y- x).
iii) First solution. We remark first that under our hypothesis all the projections have
a meaning. We will proceed as in (ii). We have d(>.x, >.A) = 1>.1 d(x, A). PrA(x) E A
is the only element with the property that d(x, A) = llx- PrA(x) II, so d(>.x, >.A) =
l>.lllx- PrA(x)ll = ll>.x- >.PrA(x)ll, i.e., the element >.PrA(x) E >.A and has the prop-
erty that d(>.x, >.A) = II >.x - )... PrA(x) II . Therefore )... PrA (x) = PrM ( >.x).
Second solution. If)...= 0, the property >.PrA (x) = PrM (>.x) is obvious. Suppose
now that)... # 0. Let x 1 = PrM (>.x) E >.A. Then 3? (>.x- x 1, x 1 - z) ~ 0 Vz E >.A, or
R(>.x-x 1 ,x 1 ->.a) ~OVa E A,orR(>.":X(x-xd>.,xd>.-a)) ~OVa EA. Since
>."X = 1>.1 2 > 0, it follows that 3? (x- xd >., xd)...- a) ~ 0 \fa E A. Since x1 E >.A then
xd)... E A, so xd>. = PrA (x), i.e., x1 =)... PrA (x).
A is symmetric if and only if- A = A, and we can apply what is proved above, taking
)... = -1.
10. i) a) Let A = Sp ( U Gn). Then using exercise l(i) chapter 4, d(x, G) =

nEN
d(x, A) = d(x, A). Let c: > 0. Then d(x, G) + c: = d(x, A)+ c: > d(x, A) = inf llx- all,
aEA
from whence we deduce that there is aE E A such that d(x, G) + c: > llx- acll·
Since aE E Sp ( u
nEN
en) we can find )...1, ... , Ak E ][{, Xl, ... , Xk E u
nEN
Gn such that
aE = >. 1x 1 + · · · + AkXk. There are n1, ... ,nk EN such that x1 E Gn,, ... ,xk E Gnk·
Let n = max(n1, ... , nk). Then Gn,, Gn 2 , ••• , Gnk ~ Gn, from whence x1, ... , Xk E Gn,
and since Gn is a linear subspace, ac: .A 1x 1 + · · · + akxk E Gn. Hence Vc > 0

::ln EN, ac: E Gn such that d(x, G)+ E > llx- ac:ll 2: d(x, Gn)· From Gn ~ G it follows
that d(x, G) :::; d(x, Gn) Vn E N. Hence d(x, G) = inf d(x, Gn)· From Gn ~ Gn+l
nEN
it follows that d(x, Gn+l) :::; d(x, Gn), so from the Weierstrass theorem in lR we have
inf d(x, Gn) = lim d(x, Gn) = d (x, G).
nEN n--->oo
b) See [9, proposition 7, chapter V, section 1].
From (a) we have d(x, G) = lim d(x, Gn). Let an = PrcJx) and a = Prc(x).
n--->oo
Then we have lim llx- an II = n----+oo
lim d(x, Gn) = d(x, G). Since Gn ~ G Vn E N, then
n----+oo
(an)nEN ~ G, and then from the proof for the projection theorem (or see the solution for
the part (ii) below) it follows that an----> Prc(x) in norm, i.e., Prc(x) = lim Prcn (x).
n--->oo
ii) See [9, proposition 6, chapter V, section 1].
Sinceforanyn E NwehaveGn :2 Gn+landG ~ Gn,thend(x,Gn):::; d(x,Gn+ 1)and
d(x, Gn) :::; d(x, G), hence sup d(x, Gn) = lim d(x, Gn) :::; d(x, G). Let an = PrcJx).
nEN n--->oo
Then for any n,p EN we have an E Gn and an+p E Gn+p ~ Gn, i.e., an,an+p E Gn,
hence (an+ an+p) /2 E Gn, so llx- (an+ an+p) /211 2: d(x, Gn)· By the parallelogram
law we have
i.e.,
llan+p- anll 2 2 (llx- anll 2 +llx- an+pln - 4llx- (an+ an+p) /211 2
< 2(d(x, Gn) 2 + d(x, Gn+p?)- 4d(x, Gn) 2.
Since the sequence (d(x, Gn))nEN converges, from this inequality it follows that these-
quence (an)nEN ~ X is Cauchy, hence convergent to an element a E X, i.e., an ----> a.
Let n E N. Since an+p E Gn+p ~ Gn, i.e., an+p E Gn Vp E N, passing to the limit
for p ----> oo we obtain that a E Gn = Gn, since Gn is closed, hence a E Gn = G, n
nEN
and d(x, G) :::; llx- all = lim llx- ani I = lim d(x, Gn) :::; d(x, G), i.e., d(x, G)
n--+oo n---+oo
lim d(x, Gn)
n--+oo
= llx- all· It follows that a= Prc(x) and Prc(x) = n---+oo
lim Prcn (x).

i) Let Y1 = x1 and Y2 = a1Y1 + x2, where a1 E lK is such that Y2 l_ Yl· Multiplying the
first column by a 1 and adding it to the second column, we have that
(yl, Yl) (Yl, a1Y1 + x2) (yl, XnJ

(x2, Yl) (x2, a1Y1 + x2) (x2, Xn)
f(x1, ... , Xn)
(xn, Yl) (xn, D1Y1 + x2) (xn, XnJ

(Yl, Yl) (yl, Y2) (yl, Xn)
(x2, Y1J (x2, Y2) (x2, Xn)
(xn, Yll (xn, Y2) (xn, Xn)

11.2 Solutions 287
Now we multiply the first line by a 1 and we add it to the second line and we obtain that
(y1, Y1) (Y1, Y2) (y1, Xn)

(a1Y1 + x2, Y1) (a1Y1 + X2, Y2) (a1Y1 + X2, Xn)
r(x1, ... ,xn)
(xn, Y1) (xn, Y2) (xn, Xn)
(y1,Y1) (y1, Y2) (y1, Xn)
(y2, Y1) (y2, Y2) (y2, Xn)
(xn, Y1) (xn, Y2) (xn, Xn)
Hence r(x1,x2,X3,···,xn) = f(y1,Y2,X3,···)Xn)· Let Y3 = f31Y1 + f32Y2 + x3, where

(31, (32 E IK are such that Y3 _1_ Y1 and Y3 _1_ Y2· We add to the third column the first column
multiplied by (31 and the second column multiplied by (32, and the same operations are made
for the lines (we multiply with (31 and (32, respectively). We obtain a determinant in which
x3 is replaced by Y3, i.e., r(y1, Y2, X3, ... , Xn) = r(y1, Y2, Y3, X4, ... , Xn)· In this way we
obtain that r(x1, X2, x3, ... , Xn) = r(y1, Y2, Y3, ... , Yn)· Since the system {y1, Y2, Y3, ... , Yn}
is an orthogonal one, we obtain that
and that r(x1, X2, X3, ... , Xn) = 0 if and only ifr(y1, Y2, Y3, ... , Yn) = 0, that is, if and only
if there is 1 ::; i ::; n such that y; = 0, i.e., if and only if the system { x 1, x 2, x 3, ... , Xn} is
linearly dependent.
ii) Let X1 = (an)n;:::o, X2 = (bn)n;:::o, X3 = (cn)n;:::o· Then x1,x2,X3 E l2 since, for
00
instance, 2: ial 2n = 1/ (1-lan. From (i) we have f(x1,x2,x3) ~ 0. But (x1,x1) =

n=O
00
llx1ll 2 = 1/(1-lan, (x1,x2) = 2:(ab)n = 1/(1-ab), (x1,x3) = 1/(1-ac),etc..

n=O
Writing the Gram determinant we obtain the inequality from the statement.
12. i) Let y = Pr 0 (x) E G = Sp{x 1, x 2 , •.• , xn}, since G is closed. Then we can find
n unique scalars A1, ... ,An E IK such that y = A1x 1 + · · · + AnXn. But y- x E Gl_, i.e.,
y - x l_ G, (x;, y- x) = 0, i = 1, n, that is, A1 (x;, x1) + · · · + An (x;, Xn) = (x;, x) ,
i = 1, n, i.e., "X1, ... ,"Xn is a solution for the linear system
{
A1 (x1, x1) + · · · +. ~~ (x1, Xn) = (x1, x) .
A1 (xn, x1) + ... + An (xn, Xn) - (xn, x)
The determinant for this system is 6 = r(x 1, x 2 , •.• , xn), and 6 # 0 by exercise 11,
since x 1, x 2 , ... , Xn are linearly independent. Now the well known Cramer law shows that
this system has a unique solution, and that A; = 6;/ 6, where 6; is obtained as in the
statement. ( 1 1
ii) Let A= 1 2 1 1 ) . It is easy to see that rank (A) = 2 and that 1111
~ -;1 1 2 #
1 0
0, i.e., X3 E Sp{ x1, x2} and Sp{ x1, x2,x3} = Sp{ x1, x2}. From (i),
r(xl, x2) (x1,x1) (x1,x2) 1-- 24

(x2,x1) (x2,x2) '
61 (x1, x) (x1, x2) I= 72
(x2, x) (x2, x2) '
62 (x1, x1) (x1, x) I= _ 48
(x2,x1) (x2,x) '
so Pra(x) = (.6.1/ .6.) x1 + (.6.2/ .6.) x2 = 3xi - 2x2 = (1, -1, -1, 5).
13. i) Let us observe that L = (Sp{x 1, ... ,xn})_!_ and that£_!_= Sp{x 1, ... ,xn} =G.
Since x = PrL(x) + Pra(x), it follows that PrL(x) = x- Pra(x) and from exercise 12
ii) Let x 1 = (2, 1, 1, 3), x 2 = (3, 2, 2, 1), x 3 = (1, 2, 2, -9). Then
L = {y E lR4 I (y, x1) = 0, (y, x2) = 0, (y, x3) = 0} .
The matr1x . A= ( 2 31 2 12 3 1 ) has rank 2 and 1211 .

3 2 -:/:- 0, 1.e., x 3 E Sp{x 1,x 2},
1 2 2 -9
that is, L = {y I (y, XIJ = 0, (y, x2) = 0}. Let G = Sp{xl, x2}· We have r(xl, x2) = 101,
.6. 1 = 101 and .6. 2 = 0. Then PrL(x) = x- x 1 = (5, -5, -2, -1).
14. i) Since x 1, ... , Xn E H are linearly independent, then by exercise 2 of chapter 7

there is x* E H* such that x*(x 1 ) = c1, ... , x*(xn) =en. By Riesz representation theorem
it follows that there is x 0 E H such that x*(x) = (x,x 0 ) Vx E H. Then (x 0 ,x 1)
c1, ... , (x 0 , XnJ =en, i.e., Xo E V. Then V = Xo + G, where
G = {x E HI (x,x1) = 0, ... , (x,xn) = 0} = (Sp{x1, ... ,xn})_!_.
From exercise 9(ii) we have that Prv (x) = x 0 + Pra(x- x 0 ), and since G = L_j_ we have
that Pra(x-x 0 ) +PrL(x-x0 ) = x-x0 , from whence Prv (x) = x-PrL (x- x 0 ). Since
L = Sp { x1, ... , xn}, we can apply the results from exercise 12 to obtain the statement, i.e.,
D.= r (x 1, ... , xn) and D.; is obtained by replacing in D. the column i with the column
(x1, ~.~ xo) ) = ( (x1, ~: .-:1 ) '

(
(xn, X - XoJ (xn, x) - Cn
since x 0 E V, i.e., (x 0 , x;) = c;, 1 :::::; i :::::; n.
ii) We have x = (4, 2, -5, 1), x 1 = (2, -1, 1, 2), x 2 = (2, -4, 2, 3). Then D. =
f(x 1, x 2) = 74, D- 1 = 106, D- 2 = -94, so Prv (x) = (136/37, -61/37,-144/37, 72/37).
15. See [9, exercise 5 (b), chapter V, section 2].

Let y = Pra(x) = A1X1 + · · · + AnXn. For x E H we have that
(xi, x1) (x1, x2) (x1, XnJ (xi, x)
(xn, XIJ (xn, X2J (xn, XnJ (xn, XJ

(x, x1) (x, x2) (x, XnJ (x, x)
11.2 Solutions 289
We add to the last column the first column multiplied by ->.1, the second column mul-
tiplied by ->. 2, ... ,the n 1h column multiplied by -"Xn. On the last column we have now
(xj, X- Alxl - ... - AnXn) = (xj, X- y) = 0, since X- y = Prc(x) E cj_ and Xj E C.
Also (x, x- .\ 1x 1 - · · · - Anxn) = (x, x- y). But x- y E Cj_, y = Prc(x) E C, hence
(y, x- y) = 0, from whence (x- y, x- y) = (x, x- y), i.e.,
(x, x- A1X1 - · · · - AnXn) = llx- Yll 2 = llx- Prc(x) 11 2 .
But from the orthogonal projection theorem, llx- Prc(x) II = d(x, G) =d. Hence
(xn, x1) (xn, x2) (xn,Xn) 0

(x,x1) (x,x2) (x, Xn) d2
16. i) We have
d(x, V) = inf llx- vii = inf llx- Xo -gil = d(x- Xo, G)

vEV gEG
and we can use the result from exercise 15.

ii) We have
f(x1, X2, X - Xo)
d(x, V) =
r(xl,x2)
where r(xl' x2) = 72 . 16, r(xl, x2, X - Xo) = 73 . 16, so d(x, V) = -/7.
iii) We have V = t 2 + Sp{ 1, t}, hence
r(1, t, -t 2 ) 1
d=
f(1, t) 6V5'
since r(1, t) = 1/12 and f(1, t, -t 2 ) = 1/ (240 · 9).
17. See [9, exercise 5 (c), chapter V, section 2].

(xn)nEN is a topologically linearly independent system if and only if
Let p ::=: 1. Let Gn = Sp{x1, x2, ... , Xp-1, Xp+l' ... , Xn}, n ::=: p + 1. We have Gn ~ Gn+l,
and
GP := Sp{x1,x2, ... ,Xp-l,Xp+l' ... } = U Gn.
n~p+l
From exercise 1O(i),

Now using exercise 15,
so
d(xp, GP) = inf (r(x1, ... , Xp-1, Xp+1, ... , Xn)) - 1/ 2
n:;>p+1 r(x1, ... ,xn)
Then xP tf:. GP if and only if
sup
n:;>p+1
18. i) We have, by definition,
inf llx- Yll = inf llx1 + g1- Xz- gzll

xEV,, yEV2 91 EG,, 92EG2
inf llx1- Xz- gil = d (x1- Xz, G)= d (x1- x2, G),
gEG1+G2
where G = G1 +G 2. Now from the orthogonal projection theorem we have that d (x, G) =
llx-Prc;(x)ll = 11Prc;_j_(x)ll,andthend(V1,V2) = 11Pr(G,+G 2 )_j_(x1-xz)ll· Since
( G 1 + G 2) _l = Gf n Gt we obtain the statement.

ii) We have Gf n Gt = {X E H I (x, a1) = 0, ... , (x, an+m) = 0}, and then by exercise
13(i),
~1
( LS:a1 Kn+m )
Prcfnct (x1 - Xz ) = x1 - Xz - + · · · + ~an+m ,
thus the statement follows from (i).

iii) Use (ii)!
19. See [4, example 1.4.2, chapter I, section 1.4].

i) The same proof as in the solution for exercise 20 of chapter 1 shows that A is closed
convex and non-empty, hence the projection PrA(f) = g has a meaning. We will prove
that g(s) = Pr1 (f(s)) \Is E S, i.e., g = Pr 1 of.
From exercise 1 we have that Pr I is non-expansive, thus continuous, and then since
f is measurable, g(s) = Pr 1 (f(s)) is measurable. We have Prr(f(s)) E I \Is E Sand
since Prr is non-expansive we have IPrr(f(s))- Pri(O) I ::; lf(s)- Ol, \Is E S. Using
that 0 E I, we have Pri(O) = 0, hence IPri(f(s))l ::; lf(s)l \Is E I, i.e., lg(s)l ::; lf(s)l
2 2
\Is E Sand then fs lgl df.L ::; fs If I df.L < oo, and therefore g E L2(f.L). In order to prove
that g( s) = Pr I (f (s)) is the projection off on A, we must verify that (f - g, g - h) ?: 0
f
\:/h E A, i.e., 5 (f(s) - g(s))(g(s) - h(s))df.L(s) ?: 0 \:/h E A. Since for any s E S,
g(s) = Pri(f(s)), we have (f(s)- Pri(f(s)))(Pri(f(s))- h(s))?: 0 a.e., on S (if hE A,
h( s) E I a.e.), hence by integration we obtain the relation which we wanted to prove.
ii) By (i),
11.2 Solutions 291
I.e.,
ex - 1 :S X :S 0,
g(x) = { 1,'
O<x:Sl.
Also,
d(ex, A)= II ex- PrA(ex)ll = J(e 2 - 4e + 5) /2.
iii) We will prove that for 1 E L 2 (J1) we have PrA(f) = g, where g(s) = Pf[a,bJ(f(s)).
Indeed, in the same way as in (i) we obtain that g is measurable. Also, g( s) E [a, b] Vs E S,
from whence lg(s)l :s; M = max(lbl, lal). Since J1(S) < oo then Is
lgl 2 df-L :s; MJ1(S) <
oo. It follows that g E L 2 (J1), and we continue as in (i). If we use exercise 5(i) we obtain
that
a, 1(s) <a,
g(s) = { 1 (s), a :s; 1(s) :s; b,
b, 1(s) >b.
a a
iv) If 1 E A then 1 2 a.e., and then 111 2 = j2 2 2 a.e., from whence Is 111 2 df-L 2
a2 11( S) = oo, which is false.
v) Let I = [a,oo) and g(s) = Pr 1 (f(s)) Vs E S. As in (i) it follows that
g is measurable, and by exercise 1 we have IPr1(f(s))- Pr1(a)l :s; 11(s)- al, i.e.,
lg(s)- al :s; 11(s)- al Vs E S. Since the measure space is finite it follows that the
constant functions belong to L 2 (J1), from whence 1 - a E L 2 (J1), hence by the above
inequality g- a E L 2 (J1), so g E L 2 (J1). Now we continue as in (iii).
vi) If 1 E A then 1(s) :s; a < 0 a.e., from whence 11(s)l = - 1(s) 2 -a= lal a.e.,
Is 111 2 df-L 2 lal 2 f-t(S) = oo, contradiction.
vii) As above we obtain that if g = PrA(f) then g(s) = Pr(-oo,aJ(f(s)) a.e ..
viii) Again, we will prove that if h = PrA(f), then h(x) = Pf[-g(x),g(x)J(f(x))
Vx E [0, 1]. We first prove that his measurable. For this, we will use that the projection map
is non-expansive. Since 1 is measurable there is a sequence of step functions ( sn)nEN such
that sn(x) ----> 1(x) Vx E [0, 1]. We have IPr[-g(x),g(x)J(f(x))- Pf[-g(x),g(x)J(sn(x))l :S
11(x)- sn(x)l ----> 0. Now it is easy to see that if s is a step function then x ---->
Pr[-g(x),g(x)J(s(x)) is measurable. Since the pointwise convergence preserves the mea-
surability, it follows that h is measurable. From exercise 1 we also have Ih( x) I =
IPf[-g(x),g(x)J(f(x))- Pr[-g(x),g(x)J(O)I :S 11(x)l, that is, lh(x)l 2 :S l1(x)l 2 , and since his
measurable and 111 2 E LI[O, 1], it follows that lhl 2 E LI[O, 1], i.e., h E £ 2 [0, 1]. In order to
prove that his the projection of 1 on A we must show that (f - h, h - u) 2 0 Vu E A, i.e.,
I01 (f(x)- h(x))(h(x)- u(x))dx 2 0 VuE A. Indeed, from h(x) = Pr[-g(x),g(x)J(f(x))
Vx E [0, 1] it follows that (f -h)(h-u) 2 0 a.e., VuE A (ifu E A, u(x) E [-g (x), g (x)]
a.e. x E [0, 1]), so by integration we obtain the relation we wanted to prove.
ix) From (viii) it follows that PrA(x- 1/2) = g, where g(x) = Pf[-x,xJ(x- 1/2), that
is,
_ { -x 0 :s; x < 1/4,
g(x)- X -1/2 1/4 :s; X :s; 1.
Also d(x- 1/2, A)= llx- 1/2- g(x)ll = 1/ (4J3).
20. Let r 1 and r 2 be the first two Rademacher functions, i.e., r 1 , r 2 : [0, 1] ----> !R,
r 1 (t) = 1 fortE [0, 1], r 2 (t) = 1 ift E [0, 1/2] and r 2 (t) = -1 ift E (1/2, 1]. Then L =
{! E L2 [0, 1]1 (!, r 1)

where
=0, (!, =0}, PrL(j) =f- (L::,If L::,)
r 2) and so r1- (62/ 6) r2,
=I h,
r(rl, r2) I= (rl, rl)
r1)
(rl, r2)
(r2, r2)
1,
I f) I= ( f)
(r1,j)
(r2,
(r1,r2)
(r2, r2) rl, '
(r1,r1) (r1,J) I ( f)
I (r2, r1) (r2, f) = r 2, ·
Hence PrL(f) = f- (r1, j)r1- (r2, j)r2.

21. See [4, example 1.4.3, chapter I, section 1.4].
i) If j,9 E A andO:::; A:::; 1 then f01 lf(x)l dx:::; 1, f01l9(x)l dx:::; 1 and
1 1
I.Af (x) + (1 - A) 9 (x) I dx 1
:::; A
1
If (x) I dx + (1 - ,\) 1 1
19 (x) I dx :::; 1,
thus ,\f + (1 - .A) 9 E A, i.e., A is convex.

Let Un)nEN <;;;; A and f E L2 [0, 1] such that fn ____, f in L2 [0, 1], 1.e.,
fo1 lfn (x)- f (x)l 2 dx ____, 0. But
1 1
If (x)l dx :::; 1 1
lfn (x)- f (x)l dx + 1 1
lfn (x)l dx
:::; llfn- fll1 + 1:::; llfn- Jll2 + 1 \In EN,

and passing to the limit for n ____, oo we obtain that f 01 If (x)l dx :::; 1, i.e., f E A, and
therefore A is closed.
ii) Let 9 E £ 2 [0, 1] be such that 9 tf- A, i.e., J01 19 (x)l dx > 1, and let 6 > 0 be such
that f 01 19 (x)l dx = 1 + 6. For any t 2: 0 we define At = {x E [0, 1] I 19 (x)l > t}
and cp (t) = JA,
19 (x)l dx- tt-L (At). Since 9 is Lebesgue measurable it follows that At
is a Lebesgue measurable set (JL is the Lebesgue measure on [0, 1]). We will prove that
cp: [0, oo) ____, lR is continuous, that cp (0) = 1 + 6, and that lim cp (t) = 0.
n Atn
t~oo
Let tn / t. Then Atn+l <;;;; Atn and = [191 2: t]. Now since the Lebesgue
nEN
measure is countably additive and the measure A f------+ JA l9(x)l dx is countably additive, it
follows that
r
J[lgl?'t]
191 dJL- tt-L (191 2: t)
f 19 (x)l dx + f 19 (x)l dx- tt-L (At)- tt-L (191 = t) = cp (t),

}A, J[lgl=t]
since 1
=
Jr gl=t]l9 (x)l dx J[lgl=t] tdJL =tJL(I91 =t). Thus cp is left continuous. Let now
tn ~ t. Then Atn <;;;; Atn+l and At = U Atn. Again, using the properties for the Lebesgue
nEN
measure, lim cp (tn) = cp (t) , i.e., cp is right continuous. Also
n~oo
'P (0) = r
j[lgi>O]
19 (x)l dx- 0. JL ([191 > 0]) = r
j[lgi>OI
19 (x)l dx.
11.2 Solutions 293
Since [0, 1] = [lgl ?: 0] = [lgl > 0] U [lgl = 0] we obtain that
1
'f?(O)= { lg(x)ldx- { lg(x)ldx= tlg(x)ldx=1+6.
Jo J[lgi=O] Jo
We have lgl 2 XA, ?: t 2 XA,, and by integration f01 t 2 XA,dfL ::; f01 lg (x)l 2 dx, t 2 {L (At) ::;
f 1 2 1 2 f
0 lg (x)l dx, i.e., 0 ::; t{L (At) ::; (lit) 0 lg (x)l dx---+ 0 fort---+ oo. Also, iftn / oo
then Atn ""' 0, and therefore lim t.p (t) = 0.
t->oo
Using now the Darboux property for t.p we deduce that there is k E [0, oo) such that
ip (k) = 1, i.e., JAk lg (x)l dx- kfL (Ak) = 1. We will prove now that PrA(g) = g, where
g(x) = { g (x)- kg (x) I lg (x)l, x E Ak,

0, X'/:. Ak.
For this, we will prove that g E A and that~ (g - g, g) ?: ~ (g - g, f) Vf E A. We have
}Ak
r lg(x)-kg(x)llg(x)lldx= }Akr llg(x)l-kldx
{ (lg (x)l- k) dx = { lg (x)l dx- kfL (Ak) = t.p (k) = 1.
}Ak }Ak
Since
g(x) _ g(x) = { kg(x) I lg(x)l, x E Ak,
g (x), x '/:. Ak,
it follows that lg (x)- g(x)l::; k Vx E [0, 1]. From this we obtain that
~(g-g,f) ~(1 1 (g(x)-g(x))f(x)dx)::; 11 1

(g(x)-g(x))f(x)dxl
< 1 1
lg (x)- g(x)IIJ (x)l dx::; k 1 1
1! (x)l dx::; k,
for f E A. So~ (g- g, f) ::; k. If we will prove that k = ~ (g- g, g) , we will obtain the
statement. But this is equivalent with the fact that
k ~(1 1 (g(x)-g(x))g(x)dx)
~ (ik (g (x)- g(x)) g (x) (1- kl lg (x)l) dx)
~ ( r kg (x)g~x) (lg(x)l- k) dx) = ~ ( r
k lg (x)r (lg (x)l- k) dx)
}Ak lg(x)l }Ak lg(x)l
k { (lg(x)l-k)dx=k { lg(x)ldx-k 2 tL(Ak)=kt.p(k),

}Ak }Ak
which is true.
iii) We shall use the results from (ii). We have
At= {x E [0, 1]18x > t} = { ~~ 8 ' 1], 0 ~ t ~ 8,

t > 8,
and
<p(t) { 8xdx- tp,(At) = { h~s 8xdx- t(1- tj8), o:::;t~8

}A, 0, t>8
16t + 64) /16, 0 ~ t:::; 8,
{ (t
2 -
0, t > 8.
We calculate k 2 0 such that <p(k) = 1 and we obtain that k = 4. If g (x) = 8x, then
PrA(g) = g, where
g(x)={ g(x)-kg(x)Jig(x)l, xEAk ={ 8x-4, xE(1/2,1],

0, Ak
X tf:_ 0, X E [0, 1/2].
22. We observe first that if H is a Hilbert space and (en)nEN <;;; H is a sequence, then
{x E HI (x,e1+e2+···+en) = 0\t'n EN}= {x E HI (x,en) = 0\t'n EN}.
Applying this result to our exercise (take en = X[n,n+l)), it follows that
Let now
Gn = { f E Lz (0, oo) 11k+l f (x) dx = 0, k = 0, 1, ... , n}.

Then
Gn = {! E Lz (0, oo) I (!, ek) = 0, k = 0, 1, ... , n},
where ek X[k,k+l)· We have Gn+l <;;; Gn and G = n Gn.
nEN
Using exercise IO(ii),
Pr c (f) = lim Pr Gn (f) \1'f E £ 2 ( 0, oo). To calculate Pr Gn (f) we use the result from
n->oo
n
exercise 13(i) to obtain that Prcn (f) = f- ~ (!, ek) ek, because (ei, ej) = O;j \t'i #- j.
k=l
L X[n,n+l) ln+l f (x) dx.

Hence
Pre (f)= f- Loo
(!,en) en= f-
oo
n=l n=l n
23. i) The condition L n M = {0} implies that the operator PLIIM is well defined. The
other relations are obvious.
ii) Let us suppose that PLIIM : L + M _____, Lis continuous (the norm on L + M and
Lis the norm from the space X). Then there is k 2 0 such that IIPLIIM (x)ll ~ k llxll
\t'x E L + }\1. Let x E L n M. It follows that there are two sequences (xn)nEN <;;; Land
(Yn)nEN <;;; M such that Xn _____,X and Yn _____,X. Then Xn- Yn----+ 0 and so PLIIM (xn- Yn) ----+
11.2 Solutions 295
0. Hencexn __, 0, sox= 0, i.e., LnM = {0}. Hence Pr; 1 M is well defined. Letz E L+M,
z = x + y with x E Landy E M. Then there are (xn)nEN ~ Land (Yn)nEN ~ M such
that Xn __, x and Yn __, y. We obtain
lim IIPLIIM (xn

lim llxnll = n--+oo
llxll = n------+oo + Yn)ll
< IIPLIIMIIlimsup
n--->oo
llxn + Ynll = IIPLIIMIIIIzll'
hence Pr; 11 M is continuous. Let us observe that II Pr;IIM II = II PLIIM II .

The converse is clear.
iii) Suppose now that L and M are closed and that PLIIM : L + M __, L is continuous.
Let (xn)nEN ~ Land (Yn)nEN ~ M be such that Xn + Yn __, z E X. Then (xn + Yn)nEN ~
L + M is a Cauchy sequence and so (PLIIM (xn + Yn))nEN ~ Lis a Cauchy sequence.
Hence there is x E L such that Xn ---+ x. Then Yn __, y = z- x, y E M, i.e., z E L + M,
and so L + M ~ X is a closed linear subspace.
Conversely, suppose that L, M, L + M ~ X are closed linear subspaces. Then L + M
and L are Banach spaces with respect to the norm from X. We will prove that PLIIM : L +
M __,Lis continuous using the closed graph theorem. Let (xn)nEN ~ Land (Yn)nEN ~ M
such that Xn + Yn __, z E L + M and Xn __, x E L. Then Yn __, z- x, hence z- x E M.
We obtain that z = x + (z- x) with x E L, z- x EM, hence PLIIM(z) = x.
24. i) From the Cauchy-Buniakowsk i-Schwarz inequality, we have

l(x, y) I
llxiiiiYII ~ 1'
and since the Hilbert space is over JR, we have -1 ~ (x, y) I (llxiiiiYII) ~ 1. Now since
the function cos : [0, 1r] __, [-1, 1] is bijective, the statement follows.
ii) Let g E G, g -=/=- 0. Again from the Cauchy-Buniakowsk i-Schwarz inequality we
have I(x, g) I I (llxllll9ll) ~ 1, i.e., the set for which we take the supremum is bounded, and
l(x,g)ll }
sup { llxllll9ll g E G, g-=/=- 0 E [O, 1].
------ --
We use now the fact that the function cos : [0, 1r 12] __, [0, 1] is bijective to obtain the
statement. The fact that (x, G) = (x, G) is obvious.
iii) From the orthogonal projection theorem, x = Prc(x) + Prcj_(x), Prcj_(x) E Gj_,
i.e., (Prc_l_(x),g) = 0 Vg E G, and then (x,g) = (Prc(x),g) Vg E G. ForgE G, g-=/=- 0
we have
l(x,g)l _ I(Prc(x),g)l < 11Prc(x)llll9ll _ IIPrc(x)ll
llxllllgll - llxllll9ll - llxllllgll - llxll
Hence
} IIPrc(x)ll
{ l(x,g)ll
sup llxllllgll g E G, g-=/=- 0 ~ llxll .
IfPrc(x) = 0 we have equality. If not, for Prc(x) E G we obtain that
l(x,g)ll G ....t } l(x,Prc(x))l (Prc(x),Prc(x)) IIPrc(x)ll
sup { gE , gr 0 > = = ,
llxllll9ll · - llxiiiiPrc(x)ll llxiiiiPrc(x)ll llxll
and (iii) is proved.

iv) It follows easily from (iii).
v) We have G = Sp{y} = {Ay I A E IR}. Then from (iv) if a= rx::Jj), then
--
cos (x, G) (x,Ay) I }
sup { llxlli!AYII A E IR, A =1- 0 =sup
{A (x,y) I
f\T
llxiiiiYII A E IR, A =1- 0
}
max
{ (x, y) - (x, y)}
llxiiiiYII' llxiiiiYII =max( cos a,- cos a).
--
If a E [0, 1r /2] then cos a 2': 0, thus cos (x, G) = cos a, and since cos on the interval
-- --
[O,n/2] is injective it follows that {;,G)= a. If a E (n/2,rr], then cosa < 0, from
whence cos(x,G) =-coso:= cos(n- a), and since cos on the interval [O,n/2] is
injective it follows that (x, G) = 1r - a, i.e., the statement.
vi) See the part (ii) above.
vii) We have
--
cos (L, M) sup
xEL\{o}, yEM\{o}
l(x,y)l
llxiiiiYII
= sup
xEL\{o}, yEM\{o}
l(x,y)l
llxiiiiYII
sup sup l(x,y)l = sup IIPx;rxll
xEL\{o} yEM\{o} llxiiiiYII xEL\{o} llxll
sup
I P-P-xll
M L = sup
IIP-P-xll
M L = IIPMPrll ·
xEL\{0} llxll xEH\{0} llxll
Also,
1- cos2 (-r--,
M) = 1- IIPx;rxll2 . f llxll 2 - IIP-Mxll 2
sup llxll 2 m 2
xEL\{0} xEL\{0} llxll
1 1
sup llxll 2 2
xEL\{0} 11(!-P-xr-)xll
1 1
sup sup ~
xEL\{0} yEM\{0} llx+yii
Let us observe that the operator PLIIM is continuous if and only if the angle between Land
M is strictly positive.
Remark. We observe that (i), (ii), (v) and (vi) are true in any inner product space.
---
25. It is proved at exercise 24(iii) that if a= (x, G) then cos a= IIPrc(x) II/ llxll·
i) We will use exercise 12(i). We have Pr 0 (x) = (~d ~) x 1 + (~ 2 / ~) x 2, where
~ = r(x 1 , x 2) = 160, ~ 1 = -80, ~ 2 = 80. So Prc(x) = 1/2(x2 - x 1 ) = (2, 1, -2, 1),
and then coso:= 1/v'2, i.e., a= n/4.
ii) We have Prc(x) = (e 1 ,x)e 1 + · · · + (em,x)em and we obtain that coso:
1/2
(1/ fo) (~I (e;, x) 1 2) = ~·
11.2 Solutions 297
iii) Let us observe that
G {(x1,x2, ... ,xn) I X1 = X2 = · · · = Xn} = {(x1,x1, ... ,xi) I X1 E IR}

Sp {e},
where e = (1, 1, ... , 1). Taking ei = (0, ... , 0, 1, 0, ... 0) we have that cos {;,G) = 1/ y'n.
iv) Let q = 1/2. Then d = {(x 0 ,qx0 , ... ,qnx0 , ... ) I x 0 E IR} = Sp{e}, where e =
(1, q, ... , qn, ... ).We have II ell =vhf (1- q2). If Dn =~then
_ (en, e) _ n 1"1-::2. [ ]
cos an- llenllllell - q V 1 - q- E O, 1 '
and so cos (;,:G) = y'3 /2n+l.
26. i) We prove first that
x ifx E BH,
{
PrBH(x) = xj llxll ifx t/: BH.
If x t/: BH, then llxll > 1 and d(x, BH) :S llx- xj llxllll = llxll - 1. Also if y E BH then
IIYII :S 1, and then llxll > 1 ?: IIYII , so llx- Yll ?: lllxll - IIYIII = llxll - IIYII ?: llxll - 1,
i.e., d(x, BH) = llx- xj llxllll = llxll - 1. From the projection theorem it follows that
PrBH(x) = xj llxll ifx f/: BH, and, obviously, PrBH(x) = x ifx E BH. Since B(a,r) =
a + r B H, using exercise 9 (i) and (iii) we have successively
PrB(a,r) (x) a+ PrrBH(x- a)= a+ rPrBH((x- a) /r)
{ x ifxEB(a,r)
a+r(x-a)/llx-all ifxf/:B(a,r).
ii) Let xo = caj llall 2 E V. Then V = xo + G, where G = {x E HI (x, a)= 0} =

{ a}.L. From exercise 9(ii) we know that Prv (x) = x 0 + Prc(x- x 0 ). But if L = Sp {a}
then PrL(x) =a (x, a)/ llall 2 , and since L.L = G it follows that Prc(x) = x- PrL(x) =
x- a (x, a)/ llall 2 Vx E H. We deduce that
(x - xo, a) (x - x 0 , a) c- (x, a)
Prv(x) = Xo + (x- xo)- llall2 a= x- llall2 a= x + llall2 a,
since (x 0 , a)= c. In particular, ifx = 0 we obtain that Prv(O) = caj llall 2.

iii) We have Fr(A) = {x E H I (x, a) = c} = V. If x E A then PrA(x) = x.
If x f/: A then using exercise 2(ii) we have PrA(x) = PrFr(A)(x), and by (ii) Prv(x) =
x + (c- (x, a)) aj llall 2 , and then PrA(x) = x + (c- (x, a)) a/ llall 2 •
iv) Ifx f/: A then from exercise 2(ii), y = PrA(x) E Fr(A) = E U F, where E = {x E
H I (x, a) = m} and F = { x E H I (x, a) = M}, and the sets E, Fare closed, convex,
and non-empty. If y E E then since E ~ Fr(A) ~ A we have d(x, A) :S d(x, E) ::;
llx- Yll = d(x, A), i.e., d(x, E) = llx- Yll, and since y E E from uniqueness reasons
in the projection theorem it follows that y = PrE(x). Using (iii) we have PrE(x)
x + (m- (x, a)) aj llaf In the same way, if y E F it follows that y = PrF(x) =
PrA(x) = x + (M- (x, a)) a/ llall 2. Let us remark that if x tf: A then PrA(x) = x +
(m- (x, a)) a/ llall 2 = Y1 or PrA(x) = x + (M- (x, a)) a/ llall 2 = Y2· Since x t/: A it
follows that either (x, a) < m, or (x, a) > M. If (x, a) < m then
m- (x,a) M- (x,a)
llx- Y111 = llall < llall = llx- Y211-
It follows in this case that y 1 = PrA(x). If (x, a) > M, then
(x, a) - M (x, a) - m
llx- Y2ll = llall < llall = llx- Y1ll-
It follows in this case that y2 = Pr A ( x). Therefore
x + (m- (x, a)) a/ llall 2 if (x, a) < m,

PrA(x) = { xx + (M- (x, a)) aj llall 2 if (x, a) > M,
ifm::; (x,a)::; M.
v) Consider (H, (-, ·) 1), where (x, y) 1 = 3? (x, y) 't:/x, y E H. Then (H, (·, ·) 1) is a real
Hilbert space and the set from the exercise is A= {x E H I (x, a) 1 = 1}. From (ii)
1- (x, a) 1 1- 3? (x, a)
PrA (x ) = x+ 2 a= x+ 2 a.
llall llall
Analogously B = {x E HI -1::; (x, a) 1 ::; 1}. Using (iv) we obtain that
x + (-1- 3? (x, a)) aj llall 2 if3? (x, a)< -1,

PrA(x) = { x + (1- 3? (x, a)) aj llall 2 if3? (x, a)> 1,
x if - 1 ::; 3? (x, a) ::; 1.
The above projections are calculated in (H, (·, ·) 1). But using the definition for the projec-
tion (as the point where an infimum is attained) and the fact that the norm associated to
(·, ·) 1 is equal to the norm associated to ( ·, ·) , we obtain that Pr A ( x) and Pr B ( x) are the
wanted projections.
vi) Let us observe that E = {A E Mn(IK) I 3? (A, In) = 1}. From (v) we have
Pr (B)= B + 1- 3?(B,Jn) I = B + 1- 3?(tr(B)) I

E 11Inll 2 n n n,
so
- I 1-3?(tr(ain))I _n'J(a)i+1I
PrE (I)
a n - a n+ n- n·
n n
WehaveF ={A E Mn(IK) II3?((A,Jn))l::; 1},hencefrom(v)
B + ((-1 - 3? (tr( B))) / n) In if 3? (tr( B)) < -1,

PrF(B) = { BE+ ((1- 3? (tr(B))) jn) In if3? (tr(B)) > 1,
if- 1::; 3?(tr(B))::; 1,
11.2 Solutions 299
and from here

((n~ (a) i - 1) In) In if~ (a)< -1ln,
Prp(ain) = { ((n~ (a) i + 1) In) In if~ (a) > 1ln,
ain if - 1ln:::; ~(a) :::; 1ln.
27. Let x* : H 2 (1!))) ----+ C be a linear and continuous functional. From exercise 15 of
r
oo _ _
chapter 10, the function g E H 2 (l1Jl) given by g(z) = 2: x*(zn)zn has the properties that
n=O
x*(f) = llx*ll =
(f,g)H2(K}) Vf E H 2 (1!))) and 0
(f
1x*(zn)l 2 12 = llgll· The set from
the exercise is of the form A = {! E H 2 (1!))) I (!,g) = 1}, and then by exercise 26(ii) the
minimal norm element is PrA(O) = gl llgll 2 , i.e., PrA(O) is the function
g(z) 1 ~--
h(z) = llgll 2 = L~=O lx*(znW ~x*(zn)zn,
and IIPrA(O)II = 11 llgll·
For our exercise we have x*(f) = f(~). Applying what we have proved above we ob-
tain that IIPrA(O)II = j1 -1~1 2 and PrA(O) is the function h(z) = (1 -l~n I (1- ~z).
28. Let x* : H 2 (1!))) ----+ C be defined by x*(f) = !'(~). Using exercise 16 of chapter
10, x*(f) =(!,g) Vf E H 2 (lDl), where g(z) = zl(1- ~z) 2 and
Then A={! I (!,g) = 1} and from exercise 26(ii), PrA(O) = gl llgll 2 and IIPrA(O)II =
11 llgll, i.e., PrA(O) is the function
g(z) z (1 -1~n 3
h(z) = li91r = (1- ~z)2 (1 + 1~n
and IIPrA(O)II = (1 -l~n j (1 -l~n I (1 + l~n.
We observe that the minimal norm element in a closed convex non-empty set in a
Hilbert space is the projection of 0 on that set.
i) Since x* : A2 (Q) ----+Cis a linear andcontinuous functional then by exercise 18(i) of
= 2: anfn(z), where an= x*(fn),
00 - -
chapter 10 there is a unique function g E A 2 (Q), g(z)
n=O
which satisfies x*(f) = (!,g) A2(0) Vf E A 2 (Q). We also have
L lx*(fn)l
00
llx*ll = llgiiA2(0) = 2-
n=O
The set from the exercise isH= {f E A 2 (S1) I (f,g)A 2(o) = 1}. Then by exercise 26(ii)
we have
PrH(O) =
g
2
2::=0 f n ( Z) X*UJ
II.9IIA2(oJ I:::o lx* Un) 12 '
and IIPrH(O)II = (
fo lx*(Jn)l
00
2
) -1/2
ii) Let x* : A 2 (S1) _____, C be defined by x*(J) = f(~). It is proved at exercise 18(ii)
of chapter 10 that x* (f) = (!, K ( ·, O), where K is the Bergman kernel for S1. Then the
set from the exercise isH = {f E A 2 (D) I (!, K(·, 0) = 1}. From exercise 26(ii) we
know that ft.= PrH(O) = K(·, 0/ IlK(·, 011~2(fl), and since it is proved at exercise 18 of
chapter 10 that IlK(·, 0 11~2(n) = K(~, 0 we obtain that ft.(z) = K(z, 0/ K(~, 0 and also
that llfd = 1/)K(~,O, i.e., the statement.
iii) It is proved at exercise 18(iv) of chapter 10 that the Bergman kernel for the open
unit disc is K(z,O = 1/ (n(1- z~) 2 ). Then we deduce that PrA(O) = ft. where
ft_(z) = ((1-1~1 2 ) / (1- z~)) 2 and that the norm for the minimal norm element in H
is Vif (1 -l~n.
30. i) See [9, exercise 18, chapterV, section 1].

From the Riesz representation theorem, there is a unique element y E H such that
f (x) = (x, y) Vx E H. Then <p (x) = llxll 2 - (x, y) = (x, x)- (x, y) = (x, x- y). Since
(a b)= IIa + bll2 -I Ia- bW Va bE H

' 4 ' '
we obtain that <p (x) = llx- y/211 2 -lly/211 2 Vx E H. Then inf 'P (x) = inf llx- y/211 2 -
xEA xEA
lly/211 2 = d (y/2, A) - IIY/211 2 . Now using the projection theorem we obtain that
inf 'P (x) = IIY/2 - PrA (y/2) 11 2 - lly/211 2 = 'P (PrA (y/2)), i.e., 'P attains its minimum
xEA
on A at PrA (y/2).
ii) By (i) we have fo = PrA (g/2) = PrA (8x), since g is the function 16x. To calculate
f 0 , we will use the results from exercise 21. We have
fo(x) = { 0, x E [0, 1/2),

8x- 4, X E [1/2, 1],
and
inf <p (f)= 'P (PrA (g/2)) = cp(J0 ) =

/EA
t
}1/2
(8x- 4) 2 dx- 16 t
}1/2
x(8x- 4)dx = -32/3.
31. Let H be a Hilbert space, and {An} ~ H a sequence of closed, convex, and
bounded sets with An =J 0 and An+ 1 ~ An Vn E N. From the projection theorem it follows
that there is an element of minimal norm an E An, i.e., II an II = min {II a II I a E An} = An,
(an = PrAn(O)). From An+1 ~ An it follows that llanll ::; llan+111 Vn E N. Now let n,
p E N. Then an+p E An+p ~ An, hence a"' an+p E An and as An is convex it follows that
11.2 Solutions 301
(an+ an+p) /2 E An and ll(an + an+p) /211 ?:: An. Using now the parallelogram law we
-II
have
llanll 2 + 11an+pll 2
2
an+p + an
2
w
).~ + ).~+p 2 ).~+p - ).~
< 2 -An= 2
that is, llan+p- anll 2 S 2(>.~+P- >.~)'<In, pEN. But (ank~z ~ A1 and as A1 is bounded
it follows that (>.n)nEN is an increasing and bounded sequence of real numbers, hence
convergent, so a Cauchy sequence. It follows that (an)nEN ~ H is a Cauchy sequence.
Since His a Hilbert space, there is X E H such that an~ X. Let n EN. Then lim an+p =
p-->00
x. Since an+p E An+p ~ An Vp E N we obtain that x E An = An, and therefore

nAn# 0.
nEN
32. i) Let z = (1, 1/2,1/3, ... ) E l 2 and we define z* E l2, z* (x) = (x, z) Vx E b Let
00
x* = z* lcoo· Then x* E c00 and for any x = (xn)nEN E Coo we have x* (x) = 2:: xnfn.
n=l
Thus M = ker x* and obviously x* E c00 is unique with this property.
ii) Suppose that there is y E Coo such that x* (x) = (x, y) Vx E c00 . We consider
now the element y as belonging to 12 and we obtain that (x, y) = (x, z) Vx E Coo, that is,
(y- z) ..l Coo· Since en E Coo '<In E Nit follows that (y- z) ..len '<In EN, hence y = z.
tt
However z c00 , and we obtain a contradiction.
iii) Let w = (wn)nEN E Mj_ ~coo· Then (w, (1, 0, ... , 0, -k, 0, ... )) = 0, since for any
k E N, k ?:: 2 we have (1, 0, ... , 0, -k, 0, ... ) E M, and then wk = wdk Vk E N. Since
wE Coo we obtain that w1 = 0 and therefore w = 0. We obtain that Mj_ = {0}. Obviously
M # c00 , hence c00 # M E9 Mj_ = M. Since Mj_ = {0} we obtain that M1_1_ =coo, and
therefore M # M H.
Remark. (c00 , ( ·, ·)) is an inner product space which is not a complete one. We observe
that coo~ (lz, 11·11 2) is not a closed linear subspace.
33. See [14, exercise l, chapter II, section 3].

Choose A= ( ~ ~) EM 2 (JR.) such that ex+ dy = 0 Vx, y E JR. and ax+ by = 0 if
and only ify = xtane. It follows that A= a ( ~ ~ 1 /tane). with a E lR\{0}. Then
A2 = a2 ( 01 0-1/ tan() ) . If A 2 =A, then a E { -1, 1}. Takmg

·
for example a= 1 we
obtain that A = ( ~ ~ 1/ tan() ) . The operator To E L (H) will be given by the formula
T0 (x,y) = (x-yjtane,O)V(x,y) E H. Wehave
1 1 2 1/2 1
IIToll = sup --:--() lxsin()-ycos()l = --:--() (sin2 ()+cos e) = --;--().
lxlz+IYiz::::I sm sm sm
Since II Toll > 1 it follows that To is not an orthogonal projection.

34. See [14, proposition 3.3, chapter II].

'(i) =? (ii)' Let M ~ H be a closed linear subspace and T : H ~ M ~ H be the
orthogonal projection onto M. Then TEL (H), T 2 = T, T (H)= M, kerT = Ml_, so
kerT = (T (H))j_.
'(ii) =? (i)' Since Tis idempotent we have ker(I- T) = T (H), i.e., T (H) is a closed
linear subspace. Let M = T (H) . Then by the orthogonal projection theorem, M EEl M j_ =
H, so for any x E H there are two unique elements y E M and z E M j_ = ker T (by
hypothesis (ii), kerT = (T (H))j_) such that x = y + z. Then Tx = Ty. There is wE H
such that Tw = y so T 2 w = Ty and then Tw = Ty, i.e., Ty = y. It follows that Tx = y
and therefore Tis the orthogonal projection onto T (H).
'(i) =? (iii)' It is obvious.
'(iii) =? (ii)' Let now T be idempotent, with IITII = 1. We will prove that kerT =
(T (H) )j_. Let x E (ker T)j_. Since T 2 = T it follows that x - Tx E ker T, so 0 =
(x- Tx,x) = llxll 2 - (Tx,x), that is, (Tx,x) = llxll 2 • Then llxll 2 :S IITxllllxll :S
J
llxllllxll = llxll 2 , i.e., IITxll = llxll = (Tx, x) Vx E H. We deduce that llx- Txll 2 =
llxll - 2~ (Tx, x) + 11Txll = 0, i.e., Tx = x. So (ker T)j_ ~ ker (I-T) = T (H).
2 2
If y E T (H) then using that H = (ker T) EEl (ker T) j_ it follows that there are z E ker T,
wE (kerT)j_ withy= z + w. There ish E H such that Th = w, and then T 2 h = Tw,
Th = Tw, that is, w = Tw. In the same way y = Ty. Then z = Tz and as z E ker Tit
follows that z = 0, i.e., y E (kerT)j_. Hence kerT = (T (H))j_.
'(i) =? (iv)' If T is the orthogonal projection onto the closed linear subspace M in
Hthenforanyx,y E H,x = a+b,y = c+d,a,c E M,b,d E M1_,wehave
(Tx,y) = (T(a+b),c+d) = (a,c) = (a+b,c) = (a+b,T(c+d)) = (x,Ty),thatis,
T = T*, i.e., (iv).
'(iv) =? (v)' It is obvious.
'(v) =? (ii)' Let us suppose that T 2 = T and that T*T = TT*. Then 11Txll 2 =
(Tx, Tx) = (x, T*Tx) = (x, TT*x) = (T*x, T*x) = IIT*xll 2 . Hence IITxll = IIT*xll
Vx E H. From here we easily deduce that ker T = ker T* and since we have ker T* =
(T (H))j_ we obtain (ii).
'(i) =? (vi)' If Tis the orthogonal projection onto the closed linear subspace M in H
then for any x E H, x =a+ b, a EM, bE Mj_ we have (Tx, x) = (T (a+ b), a+ b) =
(a, a+ b) = llall 2 2': 0.
'(vi)=? (ii)' Let now T E L (H) such that T 2 = T and (Tx,x) 2': 0 Vx E H. Then
(T(x+y),x+y) 2': 0\:/x,y E H. Letx E T(H),y E kerT. ThenusingthatT(y) = 0
we have (Tx, x + y) 2': 0. Since x E T (H) we have Tx = x, hence (x, y) 2': -llxll 2
Vx E T (H), Vy E kerT. But for y E ker Tit follows that ny E kerT Vn EN, so by above
(x, y) 2': -llxll 2 jn Vn EN, and passing to the limit for n ~ oo it follows that (x, y) 2': 0.
Since also -y E ker T, we have (x, -y) 2': 0 and then (x, y) = 0. Hence T (H) j_ ker T.
We have H = T (H) + ker T, therefore H = T (H) EEl kerT, hence ker T = (T (H))j_,
i.e., (ii).

For any x E H we have x-Tx E (I-T) (H)~ A\ Tx E T (H)~ A by hypothesis,
thus (x- Tx) _l_ Tx, and so (Tx, Tx) = (Tx, x) Vx E H. IfTx = 0 then IITxll :S llxll·
If Tx -=1- 0, since (Tx, Tx) = (Tx, x) it follows that 11Txll 2 ::; IITxllllxll , hence again
we obtain that IITxll ::; llxll· SoT : H ~ His linear and continuous with IITII ::; 1.
11.2 Solutions 303
For any x E H, Tx- T 2 x E T (H) n (I-T) (H), so Tx- T 2 x E An A_L = {0}. It

follows that T 2 = T. If T is the null operator then H ~ A _L, so A = { 0}, and then T is the
orthogonal projection onto A. If there is x E H such that Tx =f 0, then from T (Tx) = Tx
and IITII ~ 1 it follows that IITII = 1. Since T 2 = T from exercise 34 it follows that T
is the orthogonal projection onto T (H), T (H) being a closed linear subspace of H. But
T (H) ~ A and (T (H))_L ~ A_[_, hence T (H) ~ A and A ~ Au ~ T (H). It follows
that T (H) =A.
36. See [14, exercises 4, 6 and 7, chapter II, section 3].

i) Suppose that P + Q is an orthogonal projection. Then (P + Q) 2 = P + Q, so
P 2 +PQ+QP+Q 2 = P+Q. UsingthatP 2 = PandQ 2 = Q, we obtain thatPQ+QP =
0. For any x E Q(H) we have x = y + z withy E P(H), z E (P(H))_L = ker P.
Applying the operator P we obtain that Px = y. Applying the operator PQ and using
that PQ = -QP we obtain that Px = -QP (y)- QP (z) = -Qy. Hence y + Qy = 0
and applying again Q we deduce that Qy = 0 and then y = 0. It follows that x = z E
(P (H))_L, i.e., Q (H)~ (P (H))_L, and then P (H) l. Q (H).
If P (H) l. Q (H), then Q (H) ~ (P (H))_L = ker P, and analogously, P (H) ~
ker Q. Then PQ = QP = 0 and so (P + Q) 2 = P + Q. Since (P + Q)* = P* + Q* =
P + Q, we can use exercise 34 to obtain that P + Q is an orthogonal projection.
Let us suppose now that P + Q is an orthogonal projection. Obviously, (P + Q) (H) ~
P (H)+ Q (H). Let x E P (H)+ Q (H), x = y + z, x E P (H), y E Q (H). Then
(P + Q) (x) = (P + Q) (y) + (P + Q) (z) = y + z = x, sox E (P + Q) (H). If x E
ker P n ker Q, then x E ker (P + Q). Let now x E ker (P + Q), i.e., (P + Q) (x) = 0.
But Px l. Qx, and then Px = Qx = 0, i.e., X E ker p n ker Q.
ii) If PQ is an orthogonal projection, then (PQ)* = PQ, so Q* P* = PQ, i.e., QP =
PQ.
If PQ = QP, then (PQ) 2 = PQPQ P (PQ) Q = P 2 Q 2 = PQ, and (PQ)* =
=
Q P = PQ. From exercise 34 it follows that PQ is an orthogonal projection.
If PQ is an orthogonal projection, then PQ is the orthogonal projection onto
(PQ) (H). Let x E (PQ) (H). Then x E P (H) and as (PQ) (H) = (ker (PQ))_L, it
follows that x E (ker (PQ) )_[_. But ker Q ~ ker (PQ), hence (ker (PQ) )_[_ ~ ker ( Q)_L.
Then X E ker (Q)_L = Q (H), i.e., X E p (H) n Q (H)' so (PQ) (H) ~ p (H) n Q (H).
Now if x E P (H) n Q (H), then Px = x, Qx = x, i.e., PQx = x, x E (PQ) (H), and so
(PQ) (H) = P (H) n Q (H) .
Now we will prove that if A and B are two closed linear subspaces in a Hilbert space
H, then An B = (A_[_+ B_L)_L. Indeed, if X E An B then X l. A_[_, X l. B\ so
x l. (A_L + B_L), and therefore x E (A_L + B_L)_L. Ifx E (A_L + B_L)_L, since 0 E A_L
and 0 E B_L it follows that x E (A _L) _L and x E ( B_L) _L, hence x E A n B.
FromAn B = (A_[_+ B_L )_[_we deduce that (An B)_L = (A_[_+ B_L ). Taking A =
P (H) and B = Q (H) we obtain that
(P (H) n Q (H))_[_= ((P (H))_L + (Q (H))_L),
so ((PQ) (H))_L = (ker P + kerQ), i.e., ker (PQ) = (ker P + ker Q).
iii) If FQ = Q then Q (H) c;;;; F (H). If Q (H) c;;;; F (H), then FQx = Qx Vx E H,
since Qx E F (H), and then (b) and (c) are equivalent.
Obviously (c) and (d) are equivalent, since if FQ = Q then ( FQ) * = Q*, so Q F = Q,
and conversely, if Q F = Q then FQ = Q.
IfF- Q is an orthogonal projection then (F- Q) 2 = F- Q, from whence 2Q =
FQ+QP. Multiplying to the left by F we obtain that 2FQ = FQ+ FQF, so FQ = FQF,
and multiplying to the right by F we obtain that Q F = FQ P. So FQ = Q F and then
Q = FQ = QF. If Q = FQ then QF = Q, hence 2Q = PQ + QP, from whence it
follows that (F- Q) 2 = F- Q. But (F- Q)* = P- Q, so from exercise 34 it follows
that F - Q is an orthogonal projection.
Let us suppose now that F - Q is an orthogonal projection. Since Q (H) c;;;; P (H) we
can write F (H) = Q (H) EB (F (H) 8 Q (H)) and then it follows that (P- Q) (H) =
F (H) 8 Q (H), the orthogonal complement of Q (H) as a linear subspace ofF (H).
We have H = kerF EB F(H) = kerF EB Q(H) EB (P(H) 8 Q(H)) = kerF EB
Q (H) EB (F- Q) (H). Since F - Q is an orthogonal projection then ker (F- Q) =
((F- Q) (H))j_ =kerF EB Q (H).
iv) IfF+ Q- FQ is an orthogonal projection then (P + Q- FQ)* = F + Q- FQ,
so FQ = QP.
If FQ = QF then (F + Q- FQ)* = F + Q- FQ and (F + Q- FQ) 2 = F + Q-
FQ, hence by exercise 34 it follows that F + Q - PQ is an orthogonal projection.
37. i)Forn = 2k + 1, kEN, since TS = ST, T 2 = T, S 2 = S, we have
(T- St = T- (7)Ts + (~)Ts- (~)Ts + · · · + (n: 1 )Ts- S,
so (T- sr = T- S. Then liT- Sll = II(T- Stll ~ liT- sr

'in= 2k + 1, kEN.
If liT- Sll < 1 then passing to the limit fork -+ oo we obtain that liT- Sll = 0, i.e.,
T=S.
ii) See [40, exercise 8.40].
Let us denote by F/ the orthogonal projection onto Lf. We have I = F/ + P;,
i = 1, 2, where I : H -+ His the identity operator. Then F1 = F 1 I = HF2 + F 1 Fl,
F2 = I F2 = F1F2 + F 1j_ F2, and so F1 - F2 = F1P2j_- Ff P2. For x E H, llxll ~ 1, we
have by the Pythagoras theorem
II(Pl- F2)(.1:)ll 2 11Fl(F2j_(x))- Fl(F2(x))ll 2 = 11Fl(Ff(x))ll 2 + IIFhP2(x))ll 2

< IIP1II 2 IIFl(x)W + IIF1j_WIIF2(x)W ~ IIP2j_(x)ll 2 + IIP2(x)W
II F2j_ (.T) + p2 (X) 11 2 = II.T 11 2 ~ 1.
Now passing to the supremum with respect to .T E H, II x II ~ 1, we obtain that II H - P2ll ~

1.
iii) We have F 2 = F, Q 2 = Q, and by exercise 36(ii) we have also FQ = QP. Now
we can apply (i) and (ii).
Chapter 12
Linear and continuous operators on Hilbert

spaces
Theorem. Let H1, H2 be two Hilbert spaces, and U: H 1 --+ H 2 a linear and continuous
operator. Then there is a unique linear and continuous operator U* : H 2 --+ H 1 such that
(Ux, y) = (x, U*y) Vx E H 1, Vy E H 2. U* is called the adjoint of the operator U.
Definition. Let H be a Hilbert space, and U : H --+ H a linear and continuous operator.
Then U is called self-adjoint if and only if U* = U, i.e., if and only if (Ux, y) = (x, Uy)
Vx,y E H.
For a Hilbert space H we denote A( H) = {U E L(H) I U is self-adjoint}.
Theorem. If His a Hilbert space and U E A( H) then IlUll = sup I(Ux, x) I·
llxll9
Definition. Let H be a Hilbert space, and U : H --+ H a self-adjoint operator. U is
called positive, and we write U 2: 0, if and only if (U x, x) 2: 0 Vx E H.
For a Hilbert space H we denote A+(H) = {U E A( H) I U is positive}.
Definition. Let H be a Hilbert space, and U, V : H --+ H two self-adjoint operators.
We write U::::; V if and only ifV- U 2: 0, i.e., if and only if (Ux, x) ::::; (Vx, x) Vx E H.
Definition. Let H be a Hilbert space. A family (Ui)iEI <:;:; A(H) is called upper
bounded (respectively, lower bounded) if and only if there is an operator U E A( H) such
that Ui :S U Vi E I (respectively, Ui 2: U Vi E I).
Definition. Let H be a Hilbert space. Given a family (Ui)iEI <:;:; A(H), an operator
U E A( H) is called the supremum (respectively, infimum) of the family (Ui)iEI if and only
if Ui :S U Vi E I (respectively, Ui 2: U Vi E I) and if V E A( H) has the property that
Ui :S V Vi E I (respectively, Ui 2 V Vi E I) then U :S V (respectively, V :S U). In this
case we write U = sup Ui (respectively, U = inf Ui)·
iEI •El
The Weierstrass convergence theorem. Let H be a Hilbert space. Then:
306 Linear and continuous operators on Hilbert spaces
i) For any upper bounded increasing sequence (Un)nEN ~ A(H) there exists U =
sup Un. Moreover, U(x) = lim Un(x) \fx E H.
nEN n->oo
ii) For any lower bounded decreasing sequence (Un)nEN ~ A(H) there exists U =
inf Un- Moreover, U(x) = lim Un(x) \fx E H.
nEN n->oo
The square root of a positive operator. Let H be a Hilbert space, and U E A+ (H).
Then there is a unique positive operator denoted V7J E A+ (H) and called the square root
of U, such that ( VU) 2 = U. V7J has also the property that it commutes with any operator
that commutes with U.
Theorem. Let H be a Hilbert space, and U, V E A+(H) be such that UV = VU. Then
UV E A+(H).
Definition. Let H 1, H 2 be two Hilbert spaces, and U : H 1 ____, H 2 a linear and con-
tinuous operator. The modulus of the operator U, denoted lUI : H 1 ____, H 1, is defined by
lUI = VfFU.
Definition. Let H be a Hilbert space, and U E L(H). Then the positive part,
respectively, the negative part of U, is defined by U+ = (lUI+ U) /2, respectively,
u_ =(lUI- U) /2.
Definition. Let H 1, H 2 be two Hilbert spaces. A E L(H1 , H 2 ) is called a partial
isometry if and only if there is a closed linear subspace G ~ H1 such that IIA(x)ll = llxll
\fx E G and A= 0 on Gl_. In this case G is called the initial subspace and A (H1) the .final
subspace of the partial isometry A.
The polar decomposition for an operator. Let H 1, H 2 be two Hilbert spaces, and
U: H 1 ____, H 2 a linear and continuous operator. Then:
i) ker lUI = ker U, lUI (H1) = (ker U)l_ and IIIUIII = IIUII;
ii) There exists a unique partial isometry A E L(H1 , H 2 ) such that ker A= ker U and
U =A lUI. In addition, the initial subspace of A is (ker U)l_ and the final subspace of A is
U (H1).
The pair (A, IU I) is called the polar decomposition of U.
Theorem. Let H 1, H 2 be two Hilbert spaces, U : H 1 ____, H 2 a linear and continuous
operator, and (A, lUI) be the polar decomposition for U. Then (A*, IU*I) is the polar
decomposition for U*.
Theorem. Let H be a Hilbert space, and U E L (H). The spectral radius of U is
p (U) = sup {I.XI I ,\ E C, AI - U is not invertible } = lim ~·
n->oo
12.1 Exercises
The norm for some operators between two Hilbert spaces
1. Let H 1,H2 be two Hilbert spaces, {e 1, ... ,en} ~ H 1 is an orthonormal system,

{b1, ... , bn} ~ H 2 is an orthonormal system, ,\ 1, ... , An E IK, and U : H 1 ____, H 2 is defined
n
by U(x) = 2::: ,\ibi (x, ei)· Calculate IlUll·
i=l
2. i) Let H be a Hilbert space, a, b E H\ {0} are two orthogonal elements and U :
H ____,His defined by U(x) =a (x, b)+ b (x, a). Calculate IlUll·
12.1 Exercises 307
ii) Using (i) calculate IlUll, where U : £ 2 [0, 1r] ~ L2[0, 1r] is defined by
Uf(x) =sinx 11r f(t)costdt+cosx 11r f(t)sintdt.
3. Let A= ( ~ ~) E M 2 (C). Prove that
2 _1 lj 2 2
IIAIIL(IC2,11·112)- 2N + 2Y N - 4IDI '
where N = lal 2 + lbl 2 + lcl 2 + ldl 2 and D = det(A) = ad- be.

L(H) is a Hilbert space if and only if dimJK H = 1
4. i)LetHbeaHilbertspace,e 1 ,e 2 E Hisanorthonormalsystem,A = ( ~ ~) isa

scalar square matrix and U, V: H ~Hare the operators defined by U (x) =a (x, e 1 ) e 1 +
b (x, e 2 ) e 2 and V (x) = c (x, e 1 ) e 1 + d (x, e 2 ) e 2 • Prove that
11u + v11 2 + 11u- v11 2 = 2 (IIUII 2 + 1w1n

if and only if
(max (Ia + cl, lb + dl)) 2 +(max (Ia- cl, lb- dl)) 2 = 2(max (Ia I, lbl) 2 +max (lei, ldl) 2 ).
ii) Using (i) prove that if H is a Hilbert space of dimension ~ 2 then L(H) is not a
Hilbert space.
Infinite matrices and operators between separable infinite-dimensional Hilbert
spaces
5. Let X and Y be two infinite-dimensional separable Hilbert spaces, (xn)nEN an
orthonormal basis in X and (y,.)nEN an orthonormal basis in Y.
00
i) Let U : X ~ Y be a linear and continuous operator. Let U (xn) = 2: CYmnYm·

m=l
00 00
Prove that 2: lamnl 2 :S IIUII 2 Vn EN and 2:

lamnl 2 :S IIUII 2 Vm EN.
m=l n=l
ii) Give an example of a double-indexed sequence of scalars (amn) such that
2 2
2: 2: lamnl
00 00
lamnl ::; 1 Vn E N and ::; 1 Vm E N, but for which we cannot find
m=l n=l
U E L(X, Y) such that (U (xn), Ym) = CYmn Vn, m E N.
Let:,:~::~:':~:,s:i:~ ==~~~:~q:en(ce ~ an~;a),)•::; ::";:::!:~:;~:~ N,
ak ak
A1 ~2 ~
sequence (amn) defined by the matrix Let X, Y be infinhc-
... )
( ~- 0 A, .. : .
dimensional separable Hilbert spaces, (xn)nEN an orthonormal basis in X and (Yn)nEN an

orthonormal basis in Y. Prove that ifthere is U E L(X, Y) such that (U (xn), Ym) = amn
Vn, mEN, then the sequences (nkak)kEN and (nkak)kEN are bounded.
Linear symmetric operators are continuous operators
7. Let H be a Hilbert space and T : H ---+ H a linear operator which is symmetric, i.e.,
(Tx, y) = (x, Ty) Vx, y E H. Prove that Tis continuous.
Linear operators sending orthogonal vectors into orthogonal vectors

n
8. For X= (xl, ... , Xn), y = (yl, ... , Yn) E en, consider (x, y) = 2::: Xj'j}j, the canonical
j=l
inner product. LetT : en ---+ en be a linear map such that (Tx, Ty) = 0 if (x, y) = 0.
Prove that T = kS, for a scalar k and an unitary operatorS (that is, SS* = S* S =I).
Decompositions for operators on a Hilbert space
9. i) Let H be a complex Hilbert space. Prove that any operator T E L (H) can be
written in the form T = U + iV, where U, V E L (H) are self-adjoint operators.
ii) Let H be a Hilbert space. Prove that any operator T E L (H) can be written in the
form T = U - V, where U E L (H) is self-adjoint and V E L( H) is antisymmetric, i.e.,
V* = -V.
iii) Using (ii) prove that if His a Hilbert space with dimJK H 2: 2 then the sets A( H) =
{U E L( H) I U is self-adjoint} and { U E L( H) I U is antisymmetric} are nowhere dense
in L(H).
Positive matrices
10. Let A Mn (JR). Prove that the following assertions are equivalent:
= ( a;1 ) E
i) A E A+(JRn), i.e., (Ax, x) 2: 0 Vx E lRn;
ii) All the diagonal minors of A are positive, i.e., for any 1 ::;: k ::;: n and any 1 ~ i 1 <
· · · < ik ::;: n we have
ai1i1 ai1i2 a;l;k
ai2ik
.6. 21 , ... ,Zk. =
ai2i1 ai2i2
> 0.
a;k;l a;k;2 a;k;k
A rank one integral operator
11. i) Let <p: [0, 1] ---+ lR be a continuous function and A: L2 [0, 1] ---+ L2 [0, 1] defined
by (Af) (x) = <p (x) f 01 <p (t) f (t) dt.
a) Prove that A is self-adjoint and positive.
b) Prove that there is .A 2: 0 such that A 2 = .AA.
c) Calculate JA.
d) Calculate the spectral radius for the operator A.
e) Prove that A is a non-null orthogonal projector if and only if J01 <p 2 (t)dt = 1.
ii) Let A: L 2 [0, 1] ---+ L 2 [0, 1] be defined by
(Af) (x) =X-

1+x
1 0
1
t
-f(t)dt.
1+t
12.1 Exercises 309
Deduce that A is a positive operator which is not an orthogonal projector, that VA

L2 [0, 1] --+ L2 [0, 1] is given by
(
VAJ )
1 X
(x)= J3/2-2ln21+x}0 1+/(t)dt,
t t
and that the spectral radius for A is (3- 4ln 2) /2.
The norm and the spectral radius for rank one operators
12. i) Let H be a Hilbert space, and a, b E H. U : H --+ His the rank one operator
defined by U(x) = (x, a) b Vx E H. Prove that IIUII = llallllbll, and that the spectral
radius of U is p(U) = I(a, b) I·
In particular, p(U) = IIUII {:::}a, bare linearly dependent.
ii) Let X be a Banach space, x* E X*, y E X, and U : X --+ X is the rank one
operator defined by U(x) = x*(x)y Vx E X. Prove that IIUII = llx*IIIIYII, and that the
spectral radius of U is p(U) = lx*(y)l.
In particular, p(U) = IIUII {:::} lx*(y)l = llx*IIIIYII-
A characterization for one-dimensional real Hilbert spaces
13. i) If H is a Hilbert space and A : H --+ H is a self-adjoint operator such that

(Ax, x) = 0 Vx E H, prove that A= 0.
ii) Find a non-null matrix A E M 2 (JR) such that (Ax, x) = 0 Vx E JR 2 .
iii) Using (ii) prove that if H is a real Hilbert space then the following assertions are
equivalent:
a) For any U E L(H) with the property that (U x, x) = 0 Vx E H, it follows that
U=O;
b) dimiR H = 1;
c) The locally convex topology on L(H) generated by the family ofseminorms (Px)xEH
is Hausdorff, where Px ( U) = I (U x, x) 1-
Multiplication operators on l 2
14. Let A = ( An)nEN <;;; C with sup IAn I < oo and consider the multiplication operator
nEN
M>-.: l2 --+ l2 defined by M>-.(x 1 , x2, ... ) = (A 1 x 1 , A2x 2, ... ).
i) Calculate M; and prove that M>-. is self-adjoint{:::} An E lR \In E N.
ii) Prove that M>-. is positive{:::} An 2 0 \In E N, and in this case find v/JW;.
iii) Calculate IM>-.1 and the positive and negative parts !vFJ, M;_ of M>-..
Effective calculation of the square root for a positive operator
15. Let A : lR 2 lR 2 be defined by A ( x 1 ) = ( 2 ~ 1 + 3 ~ 2 ) . Prove that A is

--+ 3 5
x2 :r,l + x2
self-adjoint and positive, and find VA.

16. Let A : l2 --+ l2 be defined by A(x 1 , :r: 2, ... ) = (0. 0, x 3 • x 4 , ... ). Prove that A is
linear, continuous, self-adjoint, positive, and find VA.
Monotony results for positive operators
17. Let H be a Hilbert space, and A, BE A+(H) with AB = BA. Prove that
18. Let H be a Hilbert space, and A, B E A+ (H) with AB = BA. Prove that
A+B
>
19. Let H be a Hilbert space and A, B E L (H) with I~ A~ B. Prove that A and
B are invertible, with A -I, B- 1 continuous, and that A -I :;::: B- 1 .
Convexity inequalities for operators
20. i) Let H1. H 2 be two Hilbert spaces. Prove that:

lA + Bl 2 ~ 2 (IAI 2 + IBI 2) VA, BE L(H1, H2).
a)
IAl + ... + Anl 2 ~ n(IAII 2 + ... + IAnl 2) VAl, ... ,An E L(HI,H2)·
b)
lalAl + ... + etnAnl 2 ~ (laii 2 + ... + lani 2)(IAII 2 + ... + IAnl 2) VAl, ... , An E
c)
L(HI, H2), Va1, ... , etn ElK..
ii) Let H be a Hilbert space and A 1 , ... ,An, B 1 , ... , Bn E L(H). Prove that
2 n
~ LA;A~
i=l
iii) Let A = ( ~ ~ ) , B = ( -;l ~l ) E M2(JR). Find lA + Bl, IAI, IBI and
prove that the inequality lA + Bl ~ IAI + IBI is not true.
iv) Let H be a Hilbert space with dimoc H :;::: 2. Using (iii) prove that we can find
U, V E L(H) such that the inequality IU +VI ~ lUI+ lVI is not true.
21. Let H be a Hilbert space, M : A+ (H) ---> JR+ be a positive homogeneous, sub-
additive and increasing mapping, and n E N. Prove that for any A 1 , ... ,An E A+(H) we
have
Linear and continuous operators associated to orthogonal systems
22. Let H be a Hilbert space, (en)nEN ~ H\{0} an orthogonal system, (an)nEN ~

DO
lK and Pca 1 ,a2 , •.• ) : I: an (x, en) en. Prove that

H ---. H be defined by P(a 1 ,a2 , •.• ) (x) =
n=l
P(a 1 ,a2 , ••• ) is well defined, linear, and continuous if and only if sup (lanlllenln < oo, and
nEN
in this case:
12.1 Exercises 311
i) P (a1,a2,
2
... )
= p (a 2 [[qll 2 ,a 2 [[e2[[ 2 ,... )'•
1 2
00
ii) Pta 1 ,a2 , .•• ) (x) =

.2::::: an (x, en) en;
n=l
iii) If an ~ 0 \in E N, prove that
.I
y
~,;a;;
P(a 1 ,a2 , ... ) (x) =~lien II (x, en) en Vx E H.
23. i) Let H1 and H2 be two Hilbert spaces, (en)nEN ~ H1 \{0} and Un)nEN ~ H2 \{0}
00
two orthogonal systems, and (An)nEN ~ JK. Prove that the series .2::::: An (x, en) fn converges
n=l
in H2 for any x E H1 if and only if sup (IAnlllenllllfnll) < oo. Deduce then that if U :
nEN
00
H 1 ---+ H 2 , U (x) = .2::::: An (x, en) fn is well defined, then U is linear and continuous, with
n=l
IIUII =sup (IAnlllenllllfnll). If U is linear and continuous, prove that:
nEN
00
a) U* (x) = .2::::: An (x, fn) en Vx E H2;

n=l
00
b) lUI (x) = .2::::: IAnl (llfnll /lien II) (x, en) en Vx E H1;
n=l
c) U is compact{::} (An llenllllfnll)nEN E Co.
ii) Let (An)nEN ~ lK and U: L2[0, 1] ---+ l2 be the operator defined by
U (f) = (An Jl/n f (x) dx) .

l/(n+l) nEN
Using (i) prove that U is well defined{::} U linear and continuous{::} sup (I Ani jn) < oo,
nEN
and in this case:
00
a) U* (xi, X2, ... ) = .2::::: AnXnX(1/(n+1),1/n)·
f
n=l
b) lUI (f)= 1 (!11/(:+1) f (x) dx) Jn 2 + n IAni X(l/(n+l),l/n)·
c) U is compact{::} An/n---+ 0.
iii) Let (SI,EI,P,I), (S2,E2,P,2) be two measure spaces, (An)nEN ~ E1 and
(En)nEN ~ E2 are two sequences of pairwise disjoint sets of strictly positive and finite
measure, and (An)nEN ~ K Let U : L2 (p,I) ---+ L2 (p, 2) be the operator defined by
Using (i) prove that the operator U is well defined if and only if U is linear and continuous,
or, if and only if sup (I Ani J 111 (An) 112 (En)) < oo, and that if U is continuous then
nEN
J
IIUII =sup (I Ani 111 (An) 112 (En)). If U is continuous then
nEN
a) Calculate U*, the adjoint of U;
b) Calculate IU I;
J
c) Prove that U is compact{::} An j.t 1 (An) J-t2 (Bn) ---> 0.
24. i) Let H be a Hilbert space, (xn)nEN ~ H\{0} is an orthogonal system, and
(An)nEN ~ lK is such that sup IAnlllxnll < oo. Let us consider the operator U : H ---> l2
nEN
defined by U ( x) = (An (x, Xn) )nEN. Prove that U is compact {::} AnXn ---> 0 in norm.
ii) Then deduce that for any a ~ 1 the operator U : L 2[0, 1] ---> l2 defined by U(f) =
(no. f11/(:+l) f(x)dx) nENis linear and continuous, and that U is compact{::} 1. a<
Linear and continuous operators associated to almost orthogonal systems
25. i) Let H 1 and H2 be two Hilbert spaces, (en)nEN ~ H1 \{0} and Un)nEN ~ H2 \{0}
are two orthogonal systems, and (An)nEN, (J-tn)nEN are two scalar sequences. Prove that the
00
series L(An (x, en) fn + J-tn (x, en+l) fn+l) converges in H2 for any x E H1if and only if
n=l
sup (IAnlllenllllfnll) < oo and sup (IJ-tnlllen+lllllfn+lll) < oo. Prove that in this case the
nEN nEN
operator U: H 1 ---> H 2 defined by
00
U (x) = 2)An (x, en) fn + J-ln (x, en+l) fn+l)

n=l
is linear and continuous. If U is linear and continuous, prove that:
00
a) U* (x) = L (An (x, fn) en+ J-ln (x, fn+l) en+l) \fx E H2;
n=l
b) U is compact{::} An llenllllfnll ---> 0 and J-tn llen+lllllfn+lll--+ 0.
ii) Let (An) nEN ~ 1K and U : L2 [1, oo) ---> h be the operator defined by
where Un)nEN ~ l 2 is the standard basis. Using (i) prove that U is well defined{::} U linear
and continuous{::} sup IAni < oo, and that in this case:
nEN
00
a) U* (xl, X2, ... ) = L An(XnX[n,n+l) + Xn+1X[n+l,n+2));

n=l
b) U is compact {::} An ---> 0.
Multiplication operators on L 2(J-t)
26. i) Let rp E L 00 [0, 1] and M"' : L 2 [0, 1] ---> L 2 [0, 1] be the multiplication operator
defined by rp, that is, (M'Pf) (x) = rp(x)f(x) Vf E L 2 [0, 1]. Prove that:
a) M; = Mv;, i.e., (M;f)(x) = rp(x)f(x) Vf E L 2 [0, 1], where (j5 is the conjugate of
rp. In particular, M'P is self-adjoint if and only if rp takes real values a. e.;
b) M 'P :;:::: 0 if and only if rp :;:::: 0 a.e ..
ii) Let (S, ~' J-t) be a O"-finite measure space, rp E Loo (J-t), and M"' : L 2(J-t) ---> L2(J-t)
be the multiplication operator defined by rp, (M'Pf) (x) = rp(x)f(x) \fj E L 2 (J-t). Prove
that the parts (a) and (b) from (i) are still true in this new context.
12.1 Exercises 313
iii) Let (S, ~' tJ) be a a-finite measure space, cp E L 00 (tJ), and M'P : L 2 (tJ) ----+ L 2 (tJ)
be the multiplication operator defined by cp, (M'Pf) (x) = cp(x)f(x) \If E L 2 (tJ). If cp is
positive a.e. prove that~= M.JP, i.e., (~f)(x) = ~f(x) \If E L 2 (tJ).
Properties for positive operators
27. Let H be a Hilbert space and A E A+(H). Prove that the following assertions are
equivalent:
i) A (H) <;:: His dense;
ii) ker A= 0;
iii) A is positive definite, i.e., (Ax, x) > 0 Vx -=f. 0.
28. Let H be a Hilbert space.
i) Prove that a positive operator T E L (H) is bijective if and only if there is E > 0
such that T - ci is positive definite.
ii) Prove that an operator T E L (H) is bijective if and only if there is E > 0 such that
T*T - ci and TT* - ci are positive definite.
An inner product associated to a positive operator
29. i) Let (H, (-,·))be a Hilbert space, A E A+(H), and(-,·) A : H x H ----+ lK defined
by (x, y) A = (Ax, y) Vx, y E H.
a) Prove that(-,·) A is an inner product on H <=?(Ax, x) = 0 implies x = 0;
b) If A satisfies the conditions from (a) then ( H, (-, ·)A) is a Hilbert space if and only if
there is c > 0 such that (Ax, x) 2:: c llxll 2 Vx E H.
ii) Let a = (an)nEN <;:: [0, oo) be a bounded sequence, and (-,·)a : l2 x l2 ----+ lK be
00
defined by (x, y)a = L anXnYn· Using (i) prove that:

n=l
a) (-,·)a is an inner product on l2 <=?an > 0 \In E N;
b) If an > 0 \In E N then (l 2 , (·,·)a) is a Hilbert space if and only if inf an > 0.
nEN
iii) Let (S, ~. tJ) be a a-finite measure space, and cp E L 00 (tJ) positive tJ-a.e .. We
consider the multiplication operator M'P : L 2 (tJ) ----+ L 2 (tJ) defined by M'P(f) = cpf, and
let (-, ·) 'P : L 2 (!J) x £ 2 (tJ) ----+ lK be defined by (!,g) 'P = (Mcp(f), g). Using (i) prove that:
a) (-, ·) 'P is an inner product on L 2 (!J) <=? cp(x) > 0, tJ-a.e.;
b) If cp( x) > 0, tJ-a.e., then (£ 2 (tJ), (-, ·) 'P) is a Hilbert space if and only if there is c > 0
such that cp( x) 2:: c, tJ-a.e ..
A Dini type of characterization for finite-dimensional Hilbert spaces
30. i) Let H be a Hilbert space, (en) nEN <;:: H an orthonormal system, (an) nEN c
[0, oo) a bounded sequence, and for any n E N define Un : H ----+ H, Un (x)
00
L ak (x, ek) ek.

~n
Prove that 0 :::; Un \In E N, Un 2:: Un+l \In E N, inf Un = 0 and
~N
IIUnll = sup ak \In E N. In particular Un ----+ 0 in norm if and only if an ----+ 0.
k?:.n
ii) Let H be a Hilbert space. Using (i) prove that the following assertions are equiva-
lent:
a) For any sequence (Un)nEN ~ A+ (H) with Un '\.. 0 (i.e., Un ~ Un+l \:In E Nand
inf Un = 0) it follows that Un ---+ 0 in norm;
nEN
b) H is finite-dimensional.
Contractions on Hilbert spaces
31. Let H be a Hilbert space, and T E L (H) with IITII ~ 1.

i) Prove that I - T*T is positive.
ii) If Dr:= vfi- T*T, prove that llxll 2 = 11Txll 2 + IIDrxll 2 '1:/x E H.
iii)Provethat{x E H lllxll = IITxll} =ker(Dr).
Compact positive operators
32. Let H be a Hilbert space, and A E A+(H). Prove that A is compact{::} JA is

compact{::} A+ and A_ are compact{::} IAI is compact.
33. Let H be a Hilbert space. If A, B : H ---+ H are self-adjoint operators with
0 ~ A ~ B and B is compact, prove that A is compact.
Pointwise convergence and uniform convergence in L (H)
34. Let H be a Hilbert space, and (An)nEN ~ L (H). If lim I(Anx,

n-->oo
y) I = 0 '1:/x, y E H,
does it follow that lim II An II = 0? Does it follow that the sequence (IIAnll)nEN is bounded?
n-->oo
35. Let a= (an)nEN E Zoo and define the sequence of operators An: l2---+ l2 by
i) Prove that An E L(l 2 ) and An(x) ---+ 0 '1:/x E b

ii) Calculate A~ E L(l2).
iii) If C = { x E l 2 I A~ ( x) ---+ 0} then prove that C = l2 if and only if a E c0 , and that
C = {0} if and only if a rf:. c0 .
Two recurrence relations
36. i) Let a, b E lR be such that a ~ 0 and lbl ~ a. Define two sequences of real
numbers (xn)nEN and (Yn)nEN by the recurrence relations: x1 = a, Y1 = b and Xn+l =
a+x~ +y~, Yn+l = b+ 2XnYn \:In EN. Prove that (xn)nEN and (Yn)nEN are simultaneously
convergent if and only ifO ~a~ 1/4 and lbl ~ 1/4- a.
ii) Let a, b be two real numbers such that a E (0, 1) and lbl < min( a, 1 -a). Define
two sequences (an)ne::o and (bn)ne::o by the recurrence relations: a0 =a, bo =band an+l =
an- a~- b~, bn+l = bn- 2anbn \:In~ 0. Prove that
. n
hm --(nan- 1) = -1,
ln n
n-->00
and that
n2b
lim -1 n =0.
n-->oo n n
12.1 Exercises 315
The supremum for a sequence of multiplication operators on l 2
37. i) Let a= (an)nEN, b = (bn)nEN E 100 , and Ma, Mb: l2----+ l2 be the multiplication
operators given respectively by a and b. Prove that Ma :::; Mb {o} a :::; bin l00 , i.e., an :::; bn
\In E N. (Here, loo is considered as being defined over JR, and l2 is defined over IK.)
ii) Let (an)nEN ~ l 00 be an increasing sequence, i.e., an :::; an+l \In E N (in l 00 ), and
Man : l2 ----+ l2 be the multiplication operator given by an. Prove that there exists sup Man in
nEN
A (l 2 ) {o} there exists a E loo such that an :::; a in loo \In E N. In this case, sup Man = Ma,
nEN
where a = sup an in loo.
nEN
iii) For every n E N consider the operator Un : l 2 ----+ l 2 defined by
Using (ii) prove that sup Un = I in the space A (1 2 ).

nEN
The supremum and the infimum for a sequence of multiplication operators on L 2
38. i) Let (S, ~' JL) be a a-finite measure space. Prove that if i.p, 1/J E L 00 (JL; JR)
and M'P, M,p : L 2 (JL) ----+ L 2 (JL) are the multiplication operators given by 1.p and 1/J then
M'P :::; M,p {o} l.fJ:::; 1/J in Loo(JL; JR).
ii) Let (S,~,JL) be a a-finite measure space and let (l.fJn)nEN ~ Loo(JL;lR) be an in-
creasing sequence, i.e., i.fJn :::; i.fJn+I \In E N. Let M'Pn : L 2 (JL) ----+ L 2 (JL) be the multipli-
cation operators given by i.fJn· Prove that there exists sup M'Pn in A ( L 2 (JL)) {o} there exists
nEN
i.p E Loo(JL; JR) such that i.fJn :::; i.p \In E N. In this case sup M'Pn = M'P, where i.p = sup i.fJn
nEN nEN
in L 00 (JL; lR).
iii) Let 1.p: [0, 1]----+ [0, 1] be a continuous and increasing function, and for n EN with
n :::: 2 let Un : L 2 [0, 1] ----+ L 2 [0, 1] be defined by (Unf) (x) = ~.p( ylx)J (x). Prove that
sup Un = ~.p(1)I in the space A (L 2 [0, 1]).
n;:>2
iv) Let 1.p : [0, 1] ----+ [0, 1] be a continuous and increasing function, and for every
n E N let Un : L 2 [0, 1] ----+ L 2 [0, 1] be defined by (Unf) (x) = ~.p(xn)f (x). Prove that
inf Un = ~.p(O)I in the space A (L 2 [0, 1]).
nEN
v) Let (an) n> 2 ~ [0, oo) be an increasing sequence, and for every n E N with n :::: 2
let Un: L 2 [0, 1] ~ L 2 [0, 1] be defined by (Unf) (x) =an ylxj (x). Prove that there exists
sup Un in A (L 2 [0, 1]) {o} sup an E JR, and in this case sup Un = od, where o: =sup an =
n;:>2 n:;>2 n:;>2 n:;>2
lim an.
n~oc
Composition operators on the Hardy and the Bergman spaces
39. Let lill

~ C be the open unit disc in the complex plane, and w E lill.
i) Let Tw : H 2 (lill) ----+ H 2 (lill) be the operator defined by (Twf) (z) = f(wz) Vz E lill.
Prove that Tw is linear and continuous, IITw I = 1, Tu. is compact, and that Tw is self-adjoint
{o}wER
ii) Let Tw : A 2 (lDl) ---+ A 2(lDl) be the operator defined by (Twf) (z) = f(wz) Vz E lDl.
Prove that Tw is linear and continuous, IITw II = 1, Tw is compact, and that Tw is self-adjoint
9wER
Compact operators on the Hardy space
40. Let lDl

~ C be the open unit disc in the complex plane.
i) Let (~k)kEl\1 ~ lDl and~ E lDl be such that ~k ---+ ~. Consider the operator U : H 2(lDl) ---+
c0 defined by U (f) = (f (~k) - f (0) kEN. Prove that U is compact. In the case when ~ = 0
find the norm of U.
ii) Let~ E lDl and U : H 2(lDl) ---+ c0 be defined by U(f) = (f(~k)- f(O))kEl\1· Prove
that U is compact. Calculate the norm of U.
iii) Let U: H 2(lDl)---+ c0 be defined by U(f) = (!(1/ (k + 1))- f(O))kEl\1· Prove that
U is compact. Calculate the norm of U.
Compact operators on the Bergman space
41. Let lDl C be the open unit disc in the complex plane.
~
i) Let (~k) kEN ~ lDl and~ E lDl such that ~k ---+ ~. Consider the operator U : A 2(lDl) ---+ c0
defined by U (f) = (f (~k) - f (0 )kEN. Prove that U is compact. In the case when ~ = 0
find the norm of U.
ii) Let~ E lDl and U : A 2(lDl) ---+ c0 be defined by U(f) = (!(e)- f(O))kEl\1· Prove
that U is compact. Calculate the norm of U.
iii) Let U: A 2(lDl)---+ c0 be defined by U(f) = (!(1/ (k + 1))- f(O))kEl\1· Prove that
U is compact. Calculate the norm of U.
The polar decomposition for a rank one operator
42. Let H 1 ,H2 be two Hilbert spaces, a E H 1 \{0}, bE H 2 \{0}, and U: H 1 ---+ H 2
defined by U x = (x, a) b.
i) Prove that U is linear and continuous.
ii) Calculate U*.
iii) Calculate lUI .
iv) Find the polar decomposition of U.
v) If H 1 = H 2 = H, prove that U is self-adjoint if and only if there is t E lR \ {0} such
that b = ta. Prove that U is normal if and only if there is A E C\{0} such that b =.\a.
Prove that U is an orthogonal projection if and only if b =a/ llall 2 •
Effective calculation for the polar decomposition
43. Let (An)nEI\I be a sequence of pairwise disjoint Lebesgue measurable sets, with
U An = [0, oo), tL (An) > 0 Vn E N, and sup tL (An) < oo. Consider the operator
nEl\1 nEl\1
00
U: l2---+ L2 [0, oo) defined by U (x1, X2, ... ) = :Z:::: XnXAn·

n=l
ii) Calculate U*, the adjoint of U.
iii) Calculate 1U I·
12.1 Exercises 317
iv) Find the polar decomposition (A, lUI) of U.

44. Let U: L 2 [0, oo)-+ l 2 be defined by U f = (J,n+l
n
f(x)dx)
n>O
.
i) Prove that U is linear and continuous. -
iii) Calculate lUI.
The composition operator, the one variable case
45. Let cp : [a, b] -+ [c, d] be a C 1 diffeomorphism. Consider the composition operator

U: L 2 [a,b]-+ L2 [c,d] defined by (UJ) (x) = f(cp- 1 (x)) Vx E [c,d]. Prove that:
i) U is linear and continuous;
ii) (U* f) (x) = lcp' (x) If (cp (x));
iii)( lUI f) (x) = ~f(x);
iv) The polar decomposition of U is (A, lUI) where the operator A is given by the
formula (AJ) (x) = )l(cp- 1 )'(x)IJ(cp- 1 (x)).
46. Let U: L 2 [0, 1]-+ L 2 [0, 1] be defined by (UJ) (x) = f (2x/ (1 + x)).
iii) Calculate IUI-
47. Let cp : [0, 1] -+ [0, 1] be a C1 diffeomorphism. Under what conditions on the
function cp, is the composition operator U : L2 [0, 1] -+ L 2 [0, 1] defined by ( U f) (x) =
f(cp- 1 (x)):
i) self-adjoint?
ii) normal?
iii) a projector?
48. i) Let cp : [0, 1] -+ [0, 1] be a C 1 diffeomorphism, and consider h E Lao [0, 1]. Con-
sider the operator U : L 2 [0, 1] -+ L2 [0, 1] defined by (U f) (x) = h (x) f (cp- 1 (x) ). Prove
that (U* f)= h (cp (x)) lcp' (x)l f (cp (x)) and that (lUI f) (x) = lh (cp (x))l Jlcp' (x)IJ (x).
ii) Let n EN, and U: L 2 [0, 1]-+ L 2 [0, 1] defined by (U f) (x) = xn f (1- x). Using
(i) calculate U* and lUI.
The composition operator, the several variables case
49. Let n E N, A ~ IPI.n is a bounded Lebesgue measurable set, U, V are open sets
in IPI.n with A ~ U, and cp : U -+ Vis a C 1 diffeomorphism. Consider the composition
operator T : L 2 (A) -+ L 2 ( cp( A)) defined by (T f) (.1:) = f( cp- 1 ( x) ). Prove that:
i) T is linear and continuous;
ii) (T*J) (x) = IJ,(x)l f(cp(x));
iii) (ITI f) (x) = JIJ,(x)IJ(x);
iv) The polar decomposition ofT is (A, ITI), where the operator A is given by the
formula (AJ) (x) = )IJ,-1 (x)lf(~t?- 1 (x)).
Here J,(x) = det ip (x) is the Jacobian of ip.
1
50. Let n E N, A ~ IPI.n is a bounded domain, U, V are open sets in IPI.n with A~ U,
and IP : U -+ V is a C 1 diffeomorphism such that 1p(A) = A. Consider the composition
operator T : L 2 (A) ---> L 2 (A) defined by (Tf) (x) = f(cp- 1 (x)). Under what conditions
on the function cp is the composition operator:
i) self-adjoint?
ii) normal?
51. LetT: L2 ([0, 1] 2 ) ---> L2 ([0, 1] 2 ) defined by
2x 2y )
(Tf)(x,y)=f ( 1+x'1+y .
i) Prove that T is linear and continuous.

ii) Prove that
iii) Prove that

2
(ITI f) (x, y) = (2- x)(2- y/(x, y).
iv) Find the polar decomposition (A, ITI) forT.

Extensions for operators
52. i) Let X, Y, Z be normed spaces, S E L(X, Z), T E L(X, Y) with T surjective,

such that there isM > 0 with IISxll s; M IITxll Vx E X. Prove that there is a unique
operator R E L(Y, Z) such that RoT= Sand IIRII s; M.
ii) If Y is a Hilbert space and Z is a Banach space, prove that we can obtain R with
the above properties without the hypothesis that T is surjective. (However, in this case, we
cannot obtain the uniqueness for R.)
A Hahn-Banach type of result in L( H)
53. Let H be a real Hilbert space.

i) Prove that there is f : L( H) ---> JR, a linear and continuous functional of norm s; 1
such that
inf (U x, x) s; f(U) s; sup (U x, x) VU E A( H).
llxll<::i llxll<::i
ii) Prove that there is g: L(H) ---> JR, a linear and continuous functional of norm equal
to 1 such that
inf (Ux, x) s; g(U) s; sup (Ux, x) VUE A( H).
llxll=l llxll=l
12.2 Solutions
1. From the Pythagoras theorem and the Bessel inequality we have
n n
IlUx 1I2 = ~ ,\I 2 llbill 2I (x,

~I
~ 1,\1 2I (x, e;) I2
e; )2I = ~
i=l i=l
n
< M2 L I (x, e;) 12 s; M211xll2,
i=l
12.2 Solutions 319
where M = maxi.XJ Hence IIUxll::; Mllxll Vx E H, i.e., IIUII ::; M. Let i = 1,n.
i=l,n
We have IIUeill ::; IIUIIIIeill, and using that Uei = Aibi it follows that I.Xil ::; IlUll, i.e.,
max I-Ail::; IlUll- Thus IlUll= max 1>-J
i=l,n i=l,n
2. i) From the Pythagoras theorem we have IIUxW = llaWI (x,b) 12 + llbWI (x,a) 12.
Now from the Bessel inequality we deduce that
IIUxW = llaWIIbW (l(x,b/ llbll)l 2 + l(x,aj llall)n::; llaWIIbll 2llxW.
Hence IlUll::; llallllbll- But U(a) = bllaW, llaWIIbll = IIU(a)ll ::; IIUIIIIall, i.e., IlUll;?:
llallllbll-
ii) Since (sin x, cos x) = f 011" sin x cos xdx = 0, IlUll = II sin xllll cos xll- But
II sin xll 2 = J; sin2 xdx = 1r /2, and II cos xW = J; cos2 xdx = 1r /2, hence IlUll = 1r /2.
3. As is well known, we have IIAII~(c2 ,ll·ll 2 ) = p(A* A), where
A* A= ( lal~ + 1~ 2 ab+cd )
ab + cd lbl 2 + ldl 2 '
and p denotes the spectral radius. If AI and .X2 are the eigenvalues for the operator A* A,
then .XI, .X2 E ~+'since A* A;?: 0. It follows that
1 1 1 lj 2
p(A* A) max(.XI, .X2) = 2 (.XI+ .X2) + 2I.XI- .X2I = 2 (.XI+ .X2) + 2Y (.XI- .X2)
1 1 1 2
2 (.XI+ A2) + 2Y (.XI+ .X2) - 4AIA2
~tr(A* A)+ ~J(tr(A* A)) 2 - 4 (det(A* A) )2
~N + ~VN 2 - 4IDI 2,
where N = lal 2 + lbl 2 + lel 2 + ldl 2 and D = ad- be.
4. i) Using exercise 1 we have that IlUll = max (Ia I, lbl), IlVII = max (lei, ldl),
IIU +VII = max (Ia + el, lb + dl) and IIU- VII = max (Ia- el, lb- dl). From here
ii) Since dimoc H ;?: 2, we can find x, y E H, two linearly independent elements.
Using the Gram-Schmidt procedure on {x, y} we can construct an orthonormal system
{ei, e2} ~ H. Now construct U, V using the matrix ( ~ ~ ) , i.e., define U, V : H ---7 H
by U(x) = 2 (x, ei) ei + (x, e2) e2 and V(x) = 2 (x, e2) e2. If L(H) were a Hilbert space,
then by the parallelogram law we must have
i.e., by (i)
[max(2, 3W + [max(2, 1W = 2([max(2, 1)] 2 + [max(O, 2W),

and this is not true!

i) Since U (xn) E Y and ( Ym)mEN is an orthonormal basis in Y then from the Fourier
00
formula we have U (xn) I: (U (xn), Ym) Ym, i.e., amn = (U (xn), Ym)· From the
=
m=1 00
Parseval formula we have I: lamnl 2 = 11Uxnll 2 . But IIUxnll :S IIUIIIIxnll = IIUII, and
m=1
therefore we obtain the first inequality.
For the second one we have
00 00 00
n=1 n=1 n=1

where the last equality is true again by the Parseval formula. But IIU* (Ym)ll <
IIU*IIIIYmll = IIU*II = IIUII, i.e., we obtain the second inequality.
ii) Let us consider the double-indexed sequence defined by the infinite matrix
1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 0
vl2 vl2
0 1 1 0 0 0
vl2 vl2 1 1 1
0 0 0
0 0 0 1 V31 V31
V3
V3
1 V31 V31
0 0 0
V3 V3 V3
It is clear that this double-indexed sequence (amn) satisfies the conditions from the state-
oo 00
ment: we have I: lamnl 2 = 1 and I: lamnl 2 = 1. Let us suppose that there is

m=1 n=1
00
U E L(X, Y) such that (U (xn), Ym) = amn Vn, m E N. If y E Y then y = I: AmYm,

m=1
where Am= (y, Ym)· Then
00 00 00
m=1 m=1 m=l
00
and then U (xn) = I: amnYm Vn EN, i.e.,

m=1
12.2 Solutions 321
where kn = (n (n - 1)) /2 + 1 Vn E N. Since U is linear and continuous we have
that is,
(kn+l- kn) 2 [[Ykn/Vn + · · · + Ykn+I-dvn[[ 2 ::S: IIUII 2 (kn+l- kn),

or (kn+l- kn) 2 (kn+l- kn) /n :::; IIUII 2 (kn+l- kn), i.e., IIUII 2 ~ (kn+l- kn) 2 /n = n,
IIUII 2 ~ n Vn E N, contradiction.
Remark. It is clear that the part (ii) can be generalized in the way which is indicated in
the next exercise.
6. Let us suppose that there is U E L(X, Y) as in the statement. Then by exercise 5(i)
00
it follows that L lamkl 2 :::; IIUII 2 Vk EN, i.e., using the expression for the infinite matrix
m=l
(amk), we obtain that nk lakl 2 :::; IIUII 2 Vk EN. Fork~ 2 let tk = n1 + n2 + · · · + nk-1·
We have U (xtk+l) = akYt,, + akYtk+l + · · · + akYtk+ 1 , ••• , U ( Xtk+I) = akYtk + akYtk+l +
· · · + akYtk+ 1 Vk ~ 2. Since U E L(X, Y) we have
that is, (tk+l- tk) 2 [[akYtk+l + · · · + akYtk+ 1 [[ 2 :::; IIUII 2 (tk+l- tk), i.e., using the or-
thonormality ofthe sequence (Yn)nEN, (tk+l- tk) lakl ::S: IIUII, i.e., nk lakl ::S: IIUII Vk ~ 2.
7. See [35, exercise C, chapter 3].

Since H is a complete space and T is a linear operator, it is sufficient to prove that T is
a closed graph operator. Let (xn)nEN, x, y E H such that Xn ----+ x and Txn ----+ y. Since by
hypothesis (T (xn- x), y) = (xn- x, Ty) Vy E H we obtain that (T (xn- x), y) ----+ 0
Vy E H. Thus T(xn- x) ----+ 0 weak, and since Tis linear we obtain that Txn ----+ Tx
weak. But Txn ----+ yin norm and therefore Txn ----+ y weak. We obtain that Tx = y, i.e.,
T is a closed graph operator.
8. See [1, exercise 9, Falll978].

For i,j E {1, 2, ... , n} with i -=1- j, since (e;, ej) = 0 and (e;- ej, e; + ej) = (e;, e;) +
(e;, ej) - (ej, e;) - (ej, ej) = 0 then by hypothesis it follows that (Te;, Tej) = 0 and
(T (e;- ej), T (e; + ej)) = 0, hence (Te;, Te;) = (Tej, Tej)· Thus there is k E e such
that (Te;, Te;) = k, i = 1, n. Then for any x = (x 1 , ... , Xn), y = (y1 , ... , Yn) we obtain that
For any x E en, (x, x) ~ 0, and therefore k ~ 0. If k > 0 we denote S = T / Vk and

we obtain that (Sx, Sy) = (1/k) (Tx, Ty) = (x, y) Vx, y E en. Thus Sis unitary and
T = VkS, with Vk E JR+. If k = 0 we obtain that (Tx, Tx) = 0 Vx E en, i.e, T = 0, and
then T = 0 · S, where S : en ----+ en is an arbitrary unitary operator.
9. i) Let U = (T + T*) /2 and V = (T- T*) j (2i). Obviously U, V E L (H),

T = U + iV, and
T* + T** T*+T
U* (T~T*)* 2 - --
- 2 -U
- '
V* = (T ;iT*)*
T* -T
-2i
T-T*
2i
=V,
hence U and V are self-adjoint operators.

ii) Let U = (T + T*) /2 and V = (T*- T) /2. Obviously U, VEL (H), T = U- V
and U* = (T + T*) /2 = U, V* = (T** - T*) /2 = (T- T*) /2 = - V.
iii) Let P : L(H) ____, L(H) be the operator defined by P(U) = (U* - U) /2. Clearly
Pis linear and continuous and then ker P = {U E L(H) I U is self-adjoint} is a closed
linear subspace. Since dimocH?: 2 there exists an orthonormal system {e 1 ,e 2 } s;;: H,
and then the operator T : H ---+ H defined by T(x) = (x, e 1 ) e2 is not self-adjoint, since
(Te 1 , e2 ) = 1 # 0 = (e 1 , Te 2 ). Thus ker Pis a proper subspace. From exercise lO(i) of
chapter 9 it follows that ker P is a nowhere dense set. For the second set, one can take
S : L(H) ____, L(H) defined by S(U) = (U* + U) /2.
10. We will use the well known Sylvester theorem from the linear algebra, which says
that if A= (aij) E Mn(JR), then A is positive definite (that is, (Ax, x) > 0, 'ix E lRn\{0})
if and only if
> 0,
for any 1 ::; k ::; n.

For any E > 0 we will write Ae: = A + cln.
'(i) =? (ii)' Clearly (A(x), x) = (A(x), x) + cllxll 2 ?: cllxll 2 ?: 0 'ix E lRn, and
if (AE(x),x) = 0 then cllxll 2 = - (A(x),x) ::; 0, by (i), so since E > 0 it follows that
llxll 2 ::; 0, llxll = 0, i.e., x = 0. Hence Ae: is positive definite. Let Dk be a diagonal minor
of order k for A. Then Dk + ch is a diagonal minor of order k for A + cln. Since Ae: is
positive definite then Dk +chis positive definite, and from the Sylvester theorem we have
that det(Dk + ch) > 0 'Vc > 0, hence passing to the limit forE ---+ 0, c > 0, we obtain
det(Dk) ?: 0, i.e., (ii).
'(ii) =? (i)' We will prove by induction on k = 1, n that under the hypothesis (ii), all
the diagonal minors of order k for the matrix A+ cln are positive definite, 'Vc > 0. For
k = 1, we have Li, (c) = ai,i, + c ?: c > 0, since ai,;, ?: 0 by our hypothesis (ii). Let
us suppose now that for any c > 0 all the diagonal minors of order ::; k - 1 for the matrix
A+ cln are positive definite, and we will prove that all the diagonal minors of order k for
the matrix A+ cln are positive definite, 'Vc > 0. Let Lk(c) be an arbitrary diagonal minor
of order k for the matrix A+ cln. Say, for example, that
ai,i 1 + c ai1i2 ai1ik
ai2i1 ai2i2 + E ai2ik

Lk(E) =
aiki, aikiz aikik + E
12.2 Solutions 323
Consider Dk as a function of E E [0, oo). Then
1 0 0 a;, ; 1 + E a;, ;2
0 1
+
a;k;2 a;kik +E a;k;,
ai1i1 +c- a;, i2 ai1 ik
ai2i1 ai2i2 +E ai2ik
+···+
0 0 1
+···+
a,2, 2 +E ... a, 2 ,k ) ( a,,, +E a;,;k_, )

But ( are all diagonal
a,k,2 a,k,k + E ' ... , a,k_,,, a;k_,i~·~, + E
minors of order k - 1 for the matrix A + cln, and by our supposition they are all posi-
tive definite. Then/:::,~(c-) > 0 Vc > 0, i.e., Dk: [O,oo) ____, lRisastrictlyincreasing
function, from whence L:,k(E) > Dk(O) Vc- > 0. We also have
ai1 i1 a;,;2 a;,;k

ai2i1 ai2i2 ai2ik
L:,k(O) = ~ 0,
a;k;, a;k;2 a;k;k
by our hypothesis (ii). Hence L:,k(c-) > 0 Vc > 0. Then by the Sylvester theorem and
a,,,, + E a,,2 ... a,,,k )
using our hypothesis of induction we obtain that ( a:~.'' a, 2 '~..+ E ··· a:~.'k
a,k,, a,k,2 a,k,k +E
is positive definite Vc > 0.
Then, by induction, fork = n we obtain that A is positive definite, i.e.,
(A(x), x) = (A(x), x) + cllxll 2 > 0 Vx E lRn\ {0},
hence passing to the limit forE____, O,c > 0, we obtain that (A(x),x) ~ 0 Vx E lRn\{0},
i.e., (i).
11. i) a) Obviously A is well defined, linear, and continuous. We prove that A is

self-adjoint, i.e., (Af, g) = (!, Ag) Vf, g E L 2 [0, 1]. Indeed, we have
(Af, g) = 1\Af)(x)g(x)dx = 1 (1
1
zp (x)
1
zp (t) f (t) dt) g (x)dx
(1 zp(x)g(x)dx) (1 zp(t)f(t)dt),
1 1
and, analogously,
(f,Ag) 11
f (x) (Ag) (x)dx = 1 1
f(x)rp(x) (1 1
rp (t) g(t)dt)dx
(1 rp(t)g(t)dt) (1 rp(x)f(x)dx).
1 1
J
2
Also, A is a positive operator since (Af, f) = I rp (x) f (x) dxl 2 0 \:/ f E L 2 [0, 1].
0
1
b) For f E L 2 [0, 1], let g = Af E L 2 [0, 1]. Then A 2 f = Ag, where (Ag) (x) =
rp (x) f 01 rp (t) g (t) dt. Since g(t) = r.p (t) J01 rp (s) f (s) ds, we obtain that
(Ag) (x) r.p (x) 11

r.p (t) r.p (t) (1' 1
rp (s) f (s) ds) dt
r.p(x) (1 r.p(s)f(s)ds) (1 rp2 (t)dt) = (Af)(x) (1 rp (t)dt),

1 1 1
2
i.e., A 2 f = >-.Aj, with A= J01 cp 2 (t) dt 2 0.
c) If>-. > 0, since A 2 0 then A/~ 2 0, and using (ii) we deduce that (A/~) 2 = A.
Now from the uniqueness of the square root it follows that VA= A/~, i.e.,
Vfo1 rp2(t)dt Jo
(VA!) (x) = rp (x) ( rp (t) j(t)dt.
If A = 0, i.e., J01 rp 2 (:x:)dx = 0, then since rp is continuous it follows that rp (x) = 0

\:Jx E [0, 1]. Then VA= 0, since A= 0.
d) Using the relation from (ii) we have A 2 = >-.A, hence by induction we obtain that
An= >-.n- 1 A \:In EN, and from here
IIAnll = 1>-.ln-l IIAII' IIAnlll/n = 1>-.l(n- 1)/n IIAII 1/n----> 1>-.1'
hence the spectral radius for the operator A is p (A) = lim 11Anll 1/n =
n~oo
J01 rp 2 (t)dt.
e) Since A is self-adjoint, A is an orthogonal projector if and only if A 2 = A, or using
the relation proved at (b), if and only if >-.A= A, that is, J01 rp 2 (t)dt = 1.
ii) We have rp (x) = xj (x + 1) and
{1 r.p2(x)dx
Jo
=
Jo
( (1- _1_)2
x+
dx = 3-
1
4ln 2.
2
12. i) We have IIU(x)ll = l(x, a)lllbll ~ llallllbllllxll \:Jx E H, from whence IIUII ~
llallllbll· If a = 0 orb = 0 then U = 0. Let now a # 0 and b # 0. Then IIU(a)ll =
I(a, a) lllbll ~ IIUIIIIall, that is, llall 2 llbll ~ IIUIIIIall, and then IlUll 2 llallllbll·
For x E H, let y = U(x). Then U 2 (x) = U(y) = (y, a) b, where (y, a) = (Ux, a) =
(x, a) (a, b), i.e., denoting with>-.= (a, b), we have U2 = >-.U, and from here, by induction,
un = >-.n-lu \:In EN. Now
12.2 Solutions 325
and it follows that p(U) = I.AI = I(a, b) 1.

The last assertion from the statement is a consequence of the facts proved above and
the fact that in the Cauchy-Buniakowski-Schwarz inequality we have equality if and only
if the system {a, b} is linearly dependent.
ii) We have IIU(x)ll = lx*(x)IIIYII S llx*IIIIYIIIIxll Vx E X, so IIUII S llx*IIIIYII·
If y = 0 then U = 0 and (ii) is true. Suppose now that y # 0. For x E X we have
IIU(x)ll s
IIUIIIIxll, that is, lx*(x)IIIYII s
IIUIIIIxll, and then lx*(x)l s
(IIUII I IIYII) llxll,
from whence llx*ll s
IIUII I IIYII, i.e., IIUII;:::: llx*IIIIYII·
For x E H, let z = U(x). Then U2 (x) = U(z) = x*(z)y and z = U(x) = x*(x)y,
x*(z) = x*(x)x*(y), and therefore U2 (x) = x*(y)x*(x)y. Denoting.\ = x*(y) we have
U 2 = .AU, and from here by induction we obtain that un = _An-lu Vn E N. As above, we
obtainp(U) = 1>-1 = lx*(y)l.
13. i) Since A : H ____, His self-adjoint, II All = sup I(Ax, x) I and hence by hypothesis
llxll-<:1
IIAII = 0, i.e., A= 0.
ii) Let A = ( ~ !) E M 2 (1R). From the definition for the inner product in JR 2 we
have
For a= d = 0, b = -c, c E lR\{0}, we obtain that A= ( ~ -~) E M 2 (1R.) is a non-

null matrix with the property that (Ax, x) = 0 Vx E JR. 2 . Obviously we do not contradict (i)
since A is not symmetric, hence the associated operator from 1R. 2 to JR. 2 is not self-adjoint.
iii) '(a) =? (b)' Suppose that dimlR'. H 2': 2. Then there is an orthonormal system
{e 1 ,e 2 } ~H. Then, as in (ii), define U: H ____, H by U(x) = (x,e 1 )e 2 - (x,e 2 )e 1 .
Since H is a real Hilbert space we have
Also U # 0, and this contradicts (a).

'(b)=? (a)' Since dimlR'. H = 1, let e E H with II ell = 1 such that { e} ~ His a basis.
Let U E L(H) such that (U x, x) = 0 Vx E H. Then there is .\ E JR. such that U( e) = .\e.
Since (U e, e) = 0 it follows that .\ = 0. Now if x E H then there is a: E JR. such that
x = a:e, thus U(x) = a:U(e) = 0, i.e., U = 0.
'(c)<=? (a)' The locally convex topology on L(H) generated by the family ofseminorms
(Px)xEH is Hausdorff if and only if for every U E L(H) with U # 0 it exists x E H such
thatpx(U) # 0.
14. i) The operator M>- : l 2 ____, l 2 is linear and from

it follows that M>.. is continuous. By definition we have (M>..x, y) = (x, M~y) 'Vx, y E l2 •
00 00
For y E l2 let z = M~y. Then (M>..x, y) = L AnXnYn and (x, M~y) = (x, z) = L XnZn.
n=l n=l
00 00
From (M>..x, y) = (x, M~y) it follows that L AnXnYn L

XnZn 'Vx E l 2 , from whence
=
n=l n=l
Zn = AnYn 'Vn E N, i.e., Zn = AnYn 'Vn E N. Hence M~ : l2 -+ l 2 is defined by
M~(y) = (A 1 y 1 , A2 y 2 , ... ) 'Vy E l2 , i.e., M~ is the multiplication operator associated to
the conjugate sequence>." = (An)nEN· It is clear now that M>.. is self-adjoint if and only if
An E IR 'Vn E N.
ii) M>.. is positive if and only if M>.. is self-adjoint and (M>..x, x) 2 0 'Vx E l2 , i.e.,
00 00
L Anlxnl 2 2 0 'Vx E l2. Now if L Anlxnl 2 2 0 'Vx E l2, then for x = ek. k E N, we
n=l n=l
obtain that Ak 2 0 'Vk E N. Conversely, if Ak 2 0 'Vk E N then M>.. is clearly positive.
Let A = (An)nEN and IL = (~in)nEN with sup IAnl < oo and sup l~inl < oo. Then
nEN nEN
a simple calculation shows that M>.. o Mit = Mv, where v = (Anlin)nEN· Suppose that
M>.. 2 0. Then there exists ,;M";. We try to find ,fM"; of the form Mit, where li = (~in)nEN
with lin 2 0 'Vn E N will be given by the condition M; = 1\!f>-.. Then, by the above, we
have li;, = An 'Vn E N, thus lin = ~ 'Vn E N, hence ~ = M..f).., where J>: =
(vx;-, /X;, ... ), i.e.,
iii) By (i) we have M~M>.. = M;..M>.. = Mv, where Vn = 1Anl 2 'Vn EN. Then by (ii) we
have 1M>.. I = J M~M>.. = VM;; = Mfo, i.e., IM>..I(x) = (IA1Ix1, l>-2lx2, ... ).From here it
follows that
and
Remark. For A E IR if we denote A+ = (IAI +A) /2 and A- = (1>-1- A) /2, and for
a sequence ofreal numbers A= (>-n)nEN if we denote IAI = (IAnl)nEN, A+ = (A~)nEN
and A_ = (A~)nEN, then it follows that if M>.. is the multiplication operator associated to
A E l 00 , then IM>..I, M"{ and M;: are the multiplications operators associated to IAI, A+,
respectively A_.
15. See [40, exercise 18.41].

Identify the operator A with the matrix A = ( ~ ~ ) E M 2 (IR). Since A is sym-
metric, the operator A is self-adjoint. The eigenvalues for A are A1 = (7 + 3VS) /2 and
A2 = (7- 3VS) /2. Since A is symmetric and with positive eigenvalues then A is positive,
that is, the operator A is positive. The eigenvectors corresponding to the above eigenvalues
12.2 Solutions 327
are: for AI we have (1, (1 + V5) /2f u, u E JR, and for A2, (1, (1- V5) /2)t u, u E R
Considering in JR 2 the orthonormal basis
{ 1 ( 1, ( 1 + J5 ) /2 )t ' 1 ( 1, ( 1 - V5) /2 )t}

.j(w + 2V5) /4 .j(w- 2V5) /4
the matrix of the operator A with respect to this basis is ( ~I ~2 ) . Denoting by
we have B-I AB = ( ~I ~2 ) . Then
A= B( AI0 0 ) B-I
A2
= (B ( A0 A
0 ) B-I)
2
Let C =B ( v;; k ) B-I. Then C E M 2 (JR), Cis positive, C 2 = A, and therefore
y'A =C.
16. See [40, exercise 18.39].
00
Obviously A is linear and continuous with IIAII = 1, and (Ax, y) = 2::: XkYk = (x, Ay)
k=3
00
Vx, y E l2, i.e., A is self-adjoint. Since (Ax, x) = E lxkl 2 ~ 0 Vx E l2 it follows that A is
k=3
positive. Then there exists the square root v'A: l2 ----+ l2. Since
we have A 2 =A, and hence by the uniqueness of the square root it follows that VA= A.
17. Let us suppose that VA:::; JB. Since AB = BA then AVB = VBA, and from
here v'AJB = VBVA. Then B- A= (VB) 2 - (VA) 2 =(VB- VA)( VB+ VA).
Since VB- v'A ~ 0, VB+ VA ~ 0, and the operators VB- VA, VB+ VA commute, it
follows that their product is positive, i.e., (VB- VA) (VB+ VA) ~ 0, that is, B- A ~ 0,
B~A.
Conversely, suppose that A, BE A+(H) with AB = BA and A:::; B. We can suppose
that A :::; B :::; I (otherwise replace A with A/M and B with B/M, where M ~ IIB\1).
We recall first that ifT0 = 0, Tn+l = (A+ T~)/2 Vn ~ 0 then Tn(x) ----+ T(x) Vx E H
where T = supTn, and T =I- JI- A. In the same way, ifV0 = 0, Vn+I = (B + v;)/2
nEN
Vn ~ 0, then Vn(x) ----+ V(x) Vx E H, where V =sup Vn, and V =I-JI-B. Since
nEN
AB = BAitfollowsthatforanyn E NwehaveBn-An = (B-A)(Bn-I+Bn- 2 A+··
· + BAn- 2 + An- 1 ) and since both members from the right side are positive and commute
it follows that Bn- An 2: 0, i.e., Bn 2: An. From here, if we observe that Tn, Vn are
polynomials in A and respectively B, of degree 2n- 1 with positive coefficients, we deduce
that Vn 2: Tn Vn E N. Since for any x E H we have Tn(x) ----+ T(x) and Vn(x) ----+ V(x)
then (Tn(x), x) ----+ (T(x), x) and (Vn(x), x) ----+ (V(x), x). But (Vn(x), x) 2: (Tn(x), x)
Vn E N, hence passing to the limit for n ----+ oo we deduce that (V(x), x) 2: (T(x), x),
V 2: T, i.e., I - y'I - B 2: I - y'I - A, that is, y' I - B :S y' I - A. Since 0 :S A :S
B :::; I we can replace in the above reasoning A ----+ I - B and B ----+ I - A to deduce that
v'A :::; v'B, i.e., the statement.
A and B commute it follows that Av'B = v'BA, and from here v'Av'B =
18. Since
JBJA, so ( y'Ay'Br = AB. Also, ( JABr = AB. By the uniqueness of the
square root we deduce that v'Aii = v'A v'B. From this it follows that the operators
from both sides of the first inequality from the statement commute. Using exercise 17,
the inequality from the statement is equivalent with ((A+ B) /2) 2 2: ( v'ABr, i.e.,
(A 2 + B 2 + 2AB) /4 2: AB, (A- B) 2 2: 0, which is obviously true.
In the same way the operators from both sides of the second inequality from the exercise
J (A + B) /2) 2
r,
commute. Again, using exercise 17 the inequality is equivalent to ( 2:
((VA+ JB) /2 i.e., (A+ B) /2 2: (A+ B + 2VAv'B) /4, (A+ B) /2 2: JAB.
19. See [40, exercise 18.36].
Since A 2: I it follows that (Ax, x) 2: llxll 2Vx E H. Then A is injective and A (H) ~
His dense (see, for example, exercise 27 below). Now we will prove that A (H) is closed,
and then A : H ----+ H will be bijective. Let (Yn)nEN ~ A (H) with Yn ----+ y E H. Let
Yn = Axn, Xn E H. We have
that is, IIAxm- Axnll 2: llxm- Xnll Vm,n E N. Since (Axn)nEN is Cauchy, being
convergent, it follows that (xn)nEN is Cauchy in Hand hence there is x E H such that Xn ----+
x. Then Axn ----+ Ax from whence y =Ax, i.e., y E A (H). We also have (y, A- 1 y) 2:
IIA-1yW Vy E H, from whence IIYIIIIA-1yll 2: IIA-1yll2 Vy E H, i.e., IIYII 2: IIA-1yll
Vy E H, hence A- 1 is linear and continuous with norm:::; 1. Analogously B is bijective
and B- 1 : H ----+ H is linear and continuous. Since A and B are self-adjoint operators,
then A- 1and B- 1are also self-adjoint operators. We will prove now that A- 12: B- 1, i.e.,
A- 1- B- 12: 0. We have A- 1- B- 1= A- 1 (B- A)B- 1 and then
((A- 1 - B- 1 )x,x) (A- 1 (B- A)B- 1 x,x) = ((B- A)B- 1 x,A- 1 x)
((B- A)B- 1 x, B- 1x) + ((B- A)B- 1 x, A- 1 x- B- 1x)
> ((B- A)B- 1 x, (A- 1 - B- 1 )x)
((B- A)B- 1 x, (A- 1 )(B- A)B- 1 x) 2: 0,
since A: H----+ H positive implies A- 1 : H----+ H positive.

12.2 Solutions 329
20. i) See [31, Lemma 1.2.1].

Since IAI 2 =A* A, then the relation (c) becomes
that is,
(ta;A.x, ta;A;x) ~ (t lnol') (t. (A,x,A;x))

or
i.e.,
ta;A;x '~ (tlnol') (tiiA,xll').

But
by the Cauchy~Buniakowski~Schwarz inequality, and from here we obtain (c).

ii) See [41, p. 37].
Let x, y E H with llxll ::; 1 and IIYII ::; 1. Then we have:
n n n
L (Bix, A:y} :::: L I(Bix, A:y!l:::: L IIBixiiiiA:yll

i=l i=l i=l
n n
< L 11Bixll 2
L IIAiYII 2
i=l i=l
n n
L (B; Bix, x} L (AiA;y, y}

i=l i=l
ButifUEA+(H)the niiUII =sup (Ux,x).Nowpassing tothesupremumove rllxll::; 1

llxii:Sl
and IIYII ::; 1 and using this relation we obtain that
LAiBi <
i=l i=l

iii) See [42, exercise 16, chapter VI].
We have
and
(A+B)*(A+B) = ( ~ ~), IA+BI = y'(A+B)*(A+B) = ( ~ J).

Then lA + Bl (e2) = v'2e2, (lA + Bl (e2), e2) = v'2, IAI (e2) = 0, IBI (e2) = e2 - e1.
(IBI (e2), e2) = 1. If lA + Bl ::::; IAI + IBI, then we must have (lA + Bl (e2), e2) ::::;
(IAI (e 2), e2) + (IBI (e 2), e2), i.e., v'2::::; 1, which is obviously false.
iv) Since dimJK H ~ 2, we can find an orthonormal system {e1 , e2} ~ H. We consider
U, V E L (H), U(x) = 2 (x, e1) e1 and V(x) = - (x, e1 - e2) (e 1 - e2). Then we have
lUI = U, JVI (x) = (x, e1- e2) (e1 - e2). Since (U + V)(x) = (x, e1) (e1 + e2) +
(x, e2) (e1- e2), we obtain that (U + V)*(x) = (x, e1 + e2) e1 + (x, e1 - e2) e2. Now (U +
V)*(U + V)(x) = 2 (x, e1) e1 + 2 (x, e2) e2 Vx E H, and from here by the orthonormality
ofthe system {e 1,e 2} we easily deduce that IU +VI (x) = v'2(x,e1) e1 + v'2(x,e 2)e2
Vx E H. If IU +VI ::::; lUI + JVI, then we must have (IU +VI e2, e2) ::::; (lUI e2, e2) +
(JVI e2, e2), and by the orthonormality of the system {e1, e2} we deduce that v'2 ::::; 1,
which is false.
Remark. The inequalities from (i) and (iv) and the inequalities from exercises 17-19
are well known for real numbers. Even if many of the analogies between the self-adjoint
operators and the real numbers are true (the inequalities from 17, 18, 19 and 20 (i) for
example), for the inequality from (iv) the analogy is no longer true.
21 Since M is positive homogeneous we may suppose that
M ( ( ~+ M + ... + VA:) 2
) = 1,
and then the inequality from the statement is
( y'M(Al) + y'M(A2) + · · · + y'M(An)r 2: 1,
i.e., (M(A 1 ), ... , M(An)) E E, where
E= {(tl, ... ,tn) E[O,oot I (0t+vt;"+···+vYn") 2 ~ 1}

is convex. If, for a contradiction, (M(A 1 ), ... , M(An)) tj. E, then using a separation theo-
rem we can find a 1 , ... ,an, t E lR such that
12.2 Solutions 331
Exactly as in the solution for exercise 20 chapter 8 it follows that

o: 1 2:: O, ... ,o:n 2:: 0, and therefore t > 0. Indeed, let (t1, ... ,tn) E (O,oot.
Then .\0 = ( /[; + /t:; + · · · + A) - 2 > 0 and then for .A 2:: .\0 we have
( J>i; + y>I; + ... + ~) 2 .A ( /[; + /t:; + ... + 0:)2

> Ao ( ~ + /t:; + · · · + Jt:) 2 = 1,
i.e., (.At1, ... , Atn) E E, and from (l), t ~ o:1.At1 +···+o:nAtn, that is, tl A~ o:1t1 +···+antn
'V.A 2::.\0 . Passingtothelim itfor.A __, ooweobtaintha tO ~ o: 1t 1+···+o:ntn V(t 1, ... ,tn) E
t
(0, oo and for t 2 __, 0, ... , tn __, 0, o: 1t 1 2:: 0 'Vt 1 > 0, from whence o: 1 2:: 0. Analogously
we obtain that o: 2 2:: 0, ... ,O:n 2:: 0. Since M(Al) 2:: 0, ... , M(An) 2:: 0, from (1) it follows
that t > 0.
Letx E Hand A= (J(A 1x,x) + · · · + J(Anx,x)) 2 . If .A =I 0, then .A> 0, and
( v\A1x,x) 1>- + ... + J(Anx,x) 1>-r = 1,
i.e., ( (A 1x, x) I A, ... , (Anx, x) I .A) E E, so by (l) it follows that
t ~ (o:1 (A1x, x) + · · · + O:n (Anx, x)) I A,
i.e.,
If .A = 0, then the last inequality is clearly true, and then
We have
if and only if
that is, if and only if
II ( ~ + ~+ ···+ JA:) xll ~ J\A1x,x) + · · · + J(Anx,x),

and using that
(Ax, x) = \ JA2 x, x) = II v'Axll2
for A E A+ (H), this is equivalent to
II(~+~+···+ VA:) xll ~ ll~xll + · · · + IIVA:xll,

which is clearly true. So
t ( ( J}i;- + M + ... + Ji"lr:r x, X) : :; O:j (A!x, x) + ... + O:n (A,x, x) 'Vx E H
I.e.,
t ( J}i;- + ~ + · · · + JA:) 2 :S a1A1 + · · · + O:nAn
in A+(H). Then
tM ( ( J}i;- + ~ + · · · + Jii:) 2
) :S advf(AI) + · · · + anM(An)·
But M ( (~+JiG+···+ ffn) 2) = 1, hence t:::; a 1 M(A 1) + · · · + anM(An), and
this contradicts ( 1).
L
00
22. Suppose that the series ak (x, ek) ek converges 'Vx E H. For any n E N let
k=l
n
Un : H ----+ H be defined by Un(x) = L ak (x, ek) ek. Then the sequence (Un)nEN is
k=l
pointwise convergent, hence by the Uniform Boundedness Principle we have sup II Un II <
nEN
oo. Using the results from exercise I we have IIUnll = max (laklllekll 2) 'Vn E N, and
I:Sk:Sn
hence sup (lanlllenln < oo. Conversely, if M = sup (lanlllenll 2) < oo then for any
nEN nEN
x E H we have
2
L an (x, en) en
00
n=l
~ lanl 2 llenll 2
l(x, en) 12 = ~ lanl 2
(X, 11::11) 12
llenll 4 1
:::; M2 ~I ( x, 11::11) 12 :::; M211xll2.
The last inequality is true by the Bessel inequality, the system (en/ llenll)nEN being or-
thonormal. From here it follows that P(a 1 ,a 2,... ) is linear and continuous, with IIP(a 1 ,a2,... ) II :S
M. The inequality 11Pca 1 ,a 2, .. )11 2': M follows from
lanlllenll 3 = IIP(aJ,a2,··l(en)ll :S IIP(aJ,a2, ... )1111enll

for any n EN.
i) For any sequences (an)nEN and (bn)nEN with sup (lanlllenll 2) < oo and
nEN
sup (lbnlllenln < oo, we will prove that P(a 1 ,a 2,... ) = P(b 1 ,b2 ,. ) if and only if an = bn
nEN
'Vn EN, and that P(aJ,a2,···l o p(b!,b2, ... ) = p(albllielll2,a2b2fle2112, .. .)'
The first assertion is clear, if we observe that from the orthogonality of the system
(ek)kEN we have P(a 1 ,a 2 , ... )(en) = P(b],b 2 , ... )(en) if and only if an= bn. For the second one,
ifx E Hthenlety = P(b 1 ,b 2,... )(x). We have
L an (y, en)
00
(P(a 1 ,a 2 , ... ) 0 P(b 1 ,b2 ,. J)(x) = P(a 1 ,a 2 , ... )(Y) = Cn.

n=l
12.2 Solutions 333
By the separate continuity of the inner product and the orthogonality of the system (en)nEN
we have
co
k=l
and then
co
(P(a 1 ,a2,... ) o P(b 1 ,b2,... ))(x) = 2.:::.: anbn llenll 2 (x, en) en= P(a,b,lletll2,a2b2llezllz, ... ) (x).
n=l
From here we deduce that P(~,,a 2 , ... ) = P(aille,llz,a~llezllz, .. }
ii) We prove now that P(:,,a 2 , ... ) = PcCi\,U2, ... )· Indeed, for any y E H the series
co co
L an (y, en) en converges (see (i)). Let z = L an (y, en) en, and then from the sepa-
n=l n=l
rate continuity of the inner product and the orthogonality of the system (en )nEN we have
that co
n=l
and therefore P(:,,az, ... ) (y) = z. From here it follows that P(a,,a 2 , .. ) is self-adjoint ¢?
P(a,,az, ... ) = P(a 1 ,a 2 , ... ) ¢?an = an \In E N ¢?an E R. \In E N.

co
iii) We have obviously (P(a,,a 2 , .. )x,x) = L anl(x,en)l 2 ~ 0, since an~ 0\/n EN.
n=l
Then we know that there exists JP(a 1 ,a 2,... )· We search JP(a,,a 2 , ... ) of the form P(b,,b2 , ... ),
V
i.e., P(a 1 ,a2 , ... ) = P(b,,b 2 , ... ), where bn ~ 0 \In E N are to be calculated. Then P(b,,bz, ... ) ~
0, and from P(t,,b 2 , ... ) = P(a,,a 2 , ... ) using (i) it follows that P(a,,a 2 , ... ) = P(billetllz,b~lle 2 ll2, ... )'
i.e., b~ llenll 2 =an, that is bn =..;a:;,/ lien I \In EN, i.e.,
co
)P(a 1 ,a 2 , ... ) (x) = 2.:::.: (ya;,j llenll) (x, en) en Vx E H.

n=l
co
23. i) From the Pythagoras theorem we have that the series 2.::: An (x, en) fn converges
co
n=l
in H2 for any x E H1 if and only if the series I: IAnl 2 llfnll 2 I(x, en) 2 converges Vx
1 E H1.
CXl
n=l
Suppose that the series 2.::: An (x, en) fn converges for any x E H 1 . Let V : H ----+ l2
n=l
defined by V (x) = (An llfnll (x, en) )nEN'
From the above V is well defined. Obviously,
V is linear. It is easy to see that V has its graph closed, and since H and l 2 are Banach
spaces, from the closed graph theorem it follows that V is continuous, and then II V (en) II :S
IIVIIIIenll \In EN. Using that
V (en)= (0, ... , 0, An llfnll (en, en), 0, ... )
we obtain that IAnlllenll 2llfnll :S: IJVIIJienll, and since en # 0 it follows that
IAn IJJenllllfnll :S: IJVII Vn EN, i.e., sup (JAniJJenllllfnll) :S: IJVII < 00.
nEN
Suppose now that M =sup (IAnlllenllllfnll) < oo. Then
nEN
00
L
n=l
1Anl 2llfnll 2l(x, en)l 2 ~ 1Ani 2Jienll 2llfnll 2 \X, JJ::JJ) 2
1 1
:S: M2 ~I ( 11::11)
x, 12 :S: M2Jixll2.
The last inequality is true by the Bessel inequality, the system (en/ llenll)nEN being or-
thonormal. Hence
00
JJUxJJ = ~An (x, en) fn = (00
~ 1Anl 2llfnll 2l(x, en)l 2
)~ :S: M JJxJJ Vx E H,
and since U is linear it follows that IJUII :S: M = sup (IAnlllenllllfnll). We have
nEN
JJU(en)IJ :S: IJUIIJienll Vn EN, and since U(en) = An(en,en)fn = Anllenll 2 fn, we
obtain that IAnlllenllllfnll :S: IJUII Vn EN, and then sup (IAnlllenllllfnll) :S: IJUJJ.
nEN 00
a) Since sup (IAnlllenllllfnll) < oo, using (i) the series I: An (x, fn) en converges
nEN n=l
Vx E H 2 , and therefore U* is well defined, linear, and continuous. We must prove that
(Ux, y) = (x, U*y) Vx E H 1 , Vy E H 2 . For this we will use the separate continuity of the
inner product. We have
(Ux, y) ~ (f;,!.., (x, en) fn, Y) ~ ~An (x, e,) (in, y) ,

and then
(x, U*y)
00 00
L An(Y, fn) (x, en)= L An (x, en) Un, y) = (Ux, y) ·
n=l n=l
b) By definition we have JUI = v'fFff, i.e., we must calculate the square root of U*U.
00
For x E H, let y = U(x). Then we have U*Ux = U*(y) = I: An (y, fn) en. Now again
n=l
by the separate continuity of the inner product we obtain that
00
L Ak (x, ek) (fk, fn) =An (x, en) llfnll 2,
k=l
12.2 Solutions 335
and then
= L l>-nl 2llfnll 2(x, en) en 't/x E H1.
00
U*Ux
n=1
Let us observe that U*U = P(a ,a where an= l>-nl 2llfnll 2 'tinE
1 2 , ... ), N. From exercise 22,
i.e.,
lUI (x) = Ju•u (x) = L 1>-nl (llfnll /lien II) (x, en) en 't/x E H1.
00
n=1
c) Suppose that U is compact. Since (en/ lleniUnEN is an orthonormal system then using
exercise 11(i) of chapter 10 it follows that en/ lien I ---+ 0 weak. Since U is compact from
exercise 38 of chapter 14 it follows that U (en/ lien II) ---+ 0 in norm, i.e., I U (en/ lien II) I ---+
0. Now from the orthogonality of the sequence (en)nEN we have
U (en/ lien II)= An (en/ lien II, en) fn =An lien II fn,
and then IAnlllenllllfnll---+ 0.
Conversely, let us suppose that IAnlllenllllfnll ---+ 0. In this case, for every n E N let
n
Un : H1---+ H2be defined by Un(x) = 2: Ak (x, ek) fk· We prove that Un ---+ U in norm
k=1
and then it follows that U is compact. We have
L
00
U(x)- Un(x) = Ak (x, ek) fk 't/x E H1,

k=n+1
and from (a),
IIU- Unll = sup (IAklllfkllllekll)---+ 0.
k2:n+1
ii) Take en = X(1/(n+1),1/n) E L2 [0, 1] Vn E Nand fn = (0, ... , 0, 1, 0, ... ) E l2 (1 on
the n 1h position), and then apply (i). We have
L An (x, fn) en= L AnXnX(1/(n+1),1/n)

00 00
U* (x) = 't/x = (xn)nEN E h,

n=1 n=1
and
L IAni (llfnll /lien II)(!, en) en

00
lUI (f)
n=1
L
oo (11/n f (x) dx) 1>-nl vln2+ nxc1/(n+1),1/n) 't/f E £2 [0, 1].
n=1 1/(n+l)
iii) Take en= XAn E L2(J.L1), fn = XBn E L2(J.L2) and then apply (i). We obtain that
that
and
24. i) Take en = .Tn and in = (0, ... ,0, 1, 0, ... ) E l2 \In E N ((jn)nEN is the standard
basis in l 2 ), and then apply the part (i) from exercise 23.
We give a second proof for the fact that An.Tn ____, 0 in norm implies U compact. Let
A = U(BH) ~ l 2 (A is bounded). To prove that A is relatively compact we use the
characterization for relatively compact sets in the space l 2 : A ~ l 2 is relatively compact if
00
and only if'VE > 0 3nE EN such that ~ 1Pk(a)l 2 ~ E \In?: nE, \Ia E A, where Pk: l 2 ____,
k=n
lK are the canonical projections. For a= U(.r) E A we have pk(a) = Pk(U.r) = )..k (.r, .TkJ·
Then
00 00 oc
k=n k=n
From the Bessel inequality
I: l(.r,.rk; ll.rkll!l
00
2
~ ll.rll 2 .
k=n
So
~ 1Pk(U.r)l ~ (~~~ 1.>-.klll.rkii)

2 2
il.rll 2 \/J; E H.
Since A= U(BH) it follows that
~ 1Pk(a)l ~ (~~~ 1.>-.klll.rkil)

2 2
\Ia EA.
Since 1.>-.nlll.rnll ----> 0 it follows that sup 1.>-.klll.rkll ----> 0. Hence A is relatively compact, i.e.,
k?n
U is compact.
ii) Let .Tn =X(l/(n+l),l/n) E L 2 [0, 1]. From exercise 23 we know that U is continuous
if and only if (no ll.rniiL [o,l]) nEN is bounded, that is, if and only if a ~ 1. Also, U is
2
compact if and only if n" ll.rn II L [o,l] ----> 0, i.e., if and only if no-l ____, 0, that is, a < 1.
2
25. i) If the series from the statement converges, it follows that for any .r E H 1 we have
11.>-.n (:r, en) in+ !Ln (.r, en+ll in+lll ____, 0, i.e., by the Pythagoras theorem,
1.>-.n 12 1(.r' en) 12 II fn 1 2 + lfln 12 1(J:' en+ll 12 I fn+lll 2 ____, 0,
12.2 Solutions 337
and from here An (x, en) llfnll ----+ 0 Yx E H1, i.e., An llfnll en ----+ 0 weak. Now from the
Uniform Boundedness Principle it follows that M 1 = sup (IAnlllenllllfnll) < oo. In the
nEN
same way we obtain that M2 =sup (lf-Lnlllen+lllllfn+d) < oo.
nEN
For the converse, let M = rnax(M1 , fiv12 ) < oo and observe that for n,p 2: 1 and for
any x E H 1 we have
n+p
L)Ak (x, ek) fk + /-Lk (x, ek+1) fk+l)
k=n
n+p-1
+ L (f-Lk (x, ek+1) + Ak+1 (x, ek+1) )fk+1
k=n
+f-Ln+p (x, en+p+1) fn+p+1·
From the Pythagoras theorem, we have that
n+p 2
L(Ak (x, ek) fk + f-Lk (x, ek+1) fk+1)

k=n
k=n
+ lf-Ln+pl 2 l(x, en+p+1)1 2 llfn+p+111 2
!iAn 1 2 II en 1 2 II fn 11 2 I(x, en/ I en II) 12
n+p-1
+ L lf-Lk + Ak+11 2 llek+111 2 llfk+lll 2
k=n
l(x,ek+l/ llek+111)1 2
+ lf-Ln+pl 2 llen+p+111 2 llfn+p+lll 2
I(x, en+p+d llen+p+lll) 12
n+p+l
< 4M 2 L l(x, ek/ llekll)l 2 ·
k=n
The inequality between the first term and the last one is true for p = 0 also, and now the
Bessel inequality shows that the series from the statement converges Yx E H 1 . It is easy
to see now that if M < oo then U is linear and continuous. Using what we have just
00
proved, the series I: (An (x, fn) en+ f-Ln (x, fn+I) en+ 1) is convergent Yx E H2 , and then
n=1
U* defined as in the statement makes sense, and is linear and continuous. We must prove
that (U x, y) = (x, U*y) Yx E H 1 , Yy E H 2 . For this we use the separate continuity of the
inner product. We omit the details (see exercise 23).
b) Suppose that U is compact. Then, as in the solution for exercise 23(i)(c), it follows
that IAnlllenllllfnll ----+ 0 and lf-Lnlllen+lllllfn+lll ----+ 0.
Conversely, let us suppose that IAnlllenllllfnll----+ 0 and lf-Lnlllen+11111fn+111----+ 0. Then
IJ.Ln + An+rlllen+IIIIIfn+III ---+ 0. In this case, let Un, Vn : Hr ----+ Hz be defined by

n
Un(x) = L (.Ak (x, ek) !k + J.lk (x, ek+r) fk+r) = Ar (x, er) fr
k=l
n-l
L
+ (J.Lk (x, ek+r) fk+r + Ak+l (x, ek+r) fk+r)
k=l
+J.Ln (x, en+I) fn+I'
and
n-l
Vn(x) = Ar (x, er) fr + L (J.Lk (x, ek+I) fk+I + Ak+l (x, ek+I) fk+r).
k=l
Since IIUn- Vnll = IPnlllen+lllllfn+III ---+ 0 and Un(x)---+ U(x) Vx E Hr it follows that
Vn(x) ---+ U(x) 't:/x E Hr.
Now from the Pythagoras theorem and the Bessel inequality we have
n+p
IIVn+p(x)- Vn(x)ll 2 = L IJ.Lk + Ak+rl 2 l(x, ek+r)l 2 llfk+III 2
k=n+l
k~r IJ.Lk + .Ak+rl 2

llfk+rll 2 llek+rll 2 j \ x, 1 :::~ II) 1
2
< sup (lpk+.Ak+rlllfk+rllllek+rll) 2

k2':n+l
~
k=n+l \
jfx,llek+rll)l
ek+l
2
< sup (IJ.Lk + Ak+rlllfk+rllllek+III) 2 IIxll 2 ·

k2':n+l
Passing to the limit for p ---+ oo we obtain that
i.e.,
IIU- Vnll : : ; sup (IJ.Lk + Ak+rlllfk+IIIIIek+rll)---+ 0.
k2':n+l
Since {Vn} are finite rank operators and Vn ---+ U in norm it follows that U is compact.
ii) Let en = X[n,n+l), fn = (0, ... 0, 1, 0, ... ) E l 2 (1 on the n 1h position) 't:/n EN. Take
J.Ln =An 't:/n EN. We have lien II = 1, llfnll = 1 Vn EN, and we apply (i).
26. i) a) Let M > 0 be such that liP (x)l : : ; M a.e .. Then I~Pfl 2 ::::; M2 lfl 2 , and as cpf
is measurable and 1!1 2 E £1 [0, 1], it follows that I'Pfl 2 E £ 1 [0, 1], that is, cpf E £2 [0, 1],
and therefore U is well defined. Moreover,
IIM'Pfll 2 = 1 1
IM'Pf(x)l 2 dx = 1liP (x)l lf (x)l
1 2 2 dx::::; M2 llfll 2 ,
i.e., IIM'Pfll : : ; M 11!11 't:/f E £2 [0, 1], thus M'P is linear and continuous, and liM"' II : : ; M.
12.2 Solutions 339
Let us calculate the norm for M'P. First, if s E L 00 [0, 1] is a step function, i.e., s =
O:tXA 1 + · · · + O:nXAn where {At, ... , An}<;: [0, 1] are pairwise disjoint sets and J.L (Aj) > 0
for 1 ::; j ::; n, then IIMsll = llslloo· Indeed, we have Ms (f) = O:tXAJ + · · · + O:nXAnf
and
For any 1 ::; j ::; n we have
IIMs (ajXA 1) 211 ~ lakl 2 ik lal XA1dx = lajl 4 J.L (Aj)
< IIMsll 2 llajxAJ 2 = 11Msll 2 lajl 2 J.L (Aj),
i.e., lajl 2 ::; 11Msll 2 ,hence llslloo =max lajl::; IIMsll· Wehaveprovedabovethereverse
l:'Or<::n
inequality, IIMsll ::; llslloo, and then IIMsll = llslloo for any mesurable step functions.
But if <p E L 00 [0, 1] then there is a sequence of step functions (sn)nEN such that sn --+ <p,
J.L-almost uniformly, i.e., ll<p- snlloo --+ 0 (see also the solution for exercise 11 of chapter
14). Then IIM'P- Msnll = IIM<p-snll ::; ll<p- snlloo Vn E N, hence Msn --+ M'P, and
then IIMsnll --+ IIM'PII· But IIMsnll = llsnlloo Vn E N, hence llsnlloo --+ IIM'PII- But
llsnlloo--+ ll<plloo' and then IIM'PII = ll<plloo·
We have M; = M;p if and only if (M'Pf,g) = (f,M;pg) Vf,g E £2[0,1], or
J01 (M'Pf)(x)g(x)dx = J01 f(x)(M;pg)(x)dx, i.e., using the expression for M'P and M;p,
1 1
if and only if
1 1
<p(x)f (x) g(x)dx = f(x)<p(x)g(x)dx,
which is clearly true.

M'P is self-adjoint if and only if M;p = M'P. Let us suppose that M'P is self-adjoint. As
[0, 1] has finite measure the constant function 1 is in £ 2 [0, 1] and it follows that M;p(1) =
M'P(1), i.e., <p(x) = <p(x) a.e., that is, <p takes real values a.e .. Conversely, if <p takes real
values a.e. then <p(x) = <p(x) a.e., and then <p(x)f(x) = <p(x)f(x) a.e., i.e., M;p(f) =
M'P(f) Vf E £2 [0, 1], M;p = M'P.
b)lf<p 2: Oa.e. then since lf(x)l 2 2: Oa.e. Vf E £2 [0, 1] itfollowsthat<p(x) lf(x)l 2 2:
0 a.e., and from the properties for the Lebesgue integral we have that f01 <p (x) lf(x)l 2 dx 2:
0, i.e., (M'Pf, f) 2: 0 Vf E £ 2 [0, 1] , that is, M'P 2: 0.
Conversely, if M'P 2: 0 then (M'Pf, f) 2: 0 Vf E £2 [0, 1], i.e., f01 <p(x) If (x)l 2 2: 0
Vf E £ 2 [0, 1]. Let A= [<p < 0] <;: [0, 1]. Since [0, 1] has finite measure, XA E £2 [0, 1],
J J
and it follows that 01 <pXAdx 2: 0, that is, 01 ( -<p) XAdx::; 0. Since -<pXA 2: 0 it follows
that f01 ( -<pXA) dx 2: 0, and therefore f01 ( -<pXA) dx = 0. But -<pXA 2: 0, so we obtain
that -<pXA = 0 a.e., i.e., <pXA = 0 a.e., and therefore <p 2: 0 a.e ..
ii) For this new context what we must justify is the fact that if M;p = M'P then <p takes
real values a.e., and that if M'P 2: 0 then <p 2: 0 a.e .. Since the measure space (S, E, J.L) is
a--finite there is a sequence (An)nEN <;: E such that S = U An and J.L(An) < oo Vn E N.
nEN
Suppose that M;p = M'P. We have XAn E L 2(J.L), from whence M;p(XAJ = M'P(XA,J, i.e.,
'i?XAn = <pXAn a.e .. Let En E E with J.L(En) = 0 such that <p(x)xAJx) = <p(x)XAn(x)
\lx E CEn· Then forE= U En we have J-L(E) = 0, and \lx E S\E there is n EN such
nEN
that x E An \E, and then x E Ar,\En. This implies that 4J(X)XAJx) = 4J(X)XAJx), and
as x E An, XAJx) = 1, thus 4J(x) = 4J(x), i.e., 4J(x) E R So J-L(E) = 0 and \lx E S\E,
4J(x) E JR., i.e. 4? takes real values a. e .. Let us suppose now that M'P ~ 0 and denote
A= [4? < 0]. Then A E I: and A nAn~ An, from whence J-L(AnAn):::; J-L(An) < oo, i.e.,
XAnAn E L2(J-L). Since M'P ~ 0, then (M'P(XAnAJ, XAnAJ ~ 0, i.e., fs 4?XAnAndf-L ~ 0,
that is, j 5 ( -4?)XAnAndf-L S 0. Since ( -4?)XAnAn ~ 0 it follows that j 5 ( -4?)XAnAndf-L ~ 0,
and therefore fs( -4?)XAnAndf-L = 0. Since ( -4?)XAnAn ~ 0, it follows that ( -4?)XAnAn =
0 a.e., i.e., 4?XAnAn = 0 a.e., and as above we obtain that 4?XA = 0 a.e., and therefore 4? ~ 0
a.e ..
iii) Since 4? ~ 0 a.e., then from (ii) M'P ~ 0 and Mfo ~ 0. We have M~ = M'P,
hence using the uniqueness of the square root it follows that yfM;, = !vffo, i.e.,
( JNi:,J) (x) = ~f(x) \If E L2 (J-L).
27. See [40, exercise 18.20].

'(i) =? (ii)' Suppose that Ax= 0. Then for any y E H we have (Ax, y) = 0, and using
that A is self-adjoint we obtain that (x, Ay) = 0, i.e., x .l A (H), and then x .l A (H).
Using that A (H) ~ His dense we deduce that x .l H, hence x = 0.
'(ii) =? (iii)' Since A is positive, let VA = B : H --> H be the square root. If x E H
has the property that (Ax, x) = 0 then (B 2x, x) = 0, i.e., (Ex, Bx) = 0, 11Bxll 2 = 0, that
is, Bx = 0. It follows that Ax= B(Bx) = 0, i.e., x E ker A, and by (ii) x = 0.
'(iii)=? (i)' If A (H) ~ His not dense then there is x E H\ {0} such that x .l A (H).
In particular x .lAx, i.e., (Ax, x) = 0. From (iii) it follows that x = 0, a contradiction.
28. i) Since Tis positive letS = VT E L (H). Let E > 0 be such that T- E1 is
positive definite. Then (Tx, x) ~ E llxll 2 \lx E H, hence (S 2 x, x) ~ E llxll 2 \lx E H,
i.e., (Sx, Sx) ~ E llxll 2 \lx E H. We obtain that IISxll ~ .Ji llxll \lx E H. From here it
follows that S is injective and that S (H) ~ H is closed. Indeed, if Sx = 0 then x = 0,
and if (Sxn)nEN converges then (xn)nEN is a Cauchy sequence, which implies that (xn)nEN
is a Cauchy sequence, hence there is x E H such that Xn --> x E H, which implies that
Sxn --> Sx. We prove now that Sis surjective. If x E (S (H))J., then (x, Sy) = 0 \lyE H,
hence (Sx, y) = 0 \lyE H, i.e., Sx = 0, and then x = 0. It follows that (S (H))J. = {0},
and since S (H) ~ H is a closed linear subspace from the projection theorem it follows
that S (H) =H. Since S E L (H) is bijective, from 5 2 = Tit follows that Tis bijective.
1fT is bijective then Sis bijective. Then from the inverse mapping theorem (see chapter
9) there is m > 0 such that IIS- 1 yll :::; rn IIYII \ly E H, i.e., llxll /m :::; IISxll \lx E
H. Denoting by E = 1/ (2Jffi) it follows that IISxll 2 > E llxll 2 \lx E H\ {0}. Then
(Sx, Sx) > E llxll 2 \lx E H\ {0}, hence (S 2 x, x) > E llxll 2 \lx E H\ {0}, i.e., (Tx, x) >
E llxll 2 V.r E H\ {0}, that is, T- dis positive definite.
ii) If T is bijective it follows that T* is also bijective. Indeed, TT- 1 = r- 1T = I
implies that (T- 1 )* T* = T* (T- 1 )* = I, and therefore T* is invertible. Hence T*T
and TT* are bijective. Since these operators are positive, from (i) it follows that we can
find E 1 , E2 > 0 such that T*T- EJ and TT* - E2 I are positive definite. Then forE =
rnin(E 1, E2 ) > 0 it follows that T*T- E1 and TT*- E1 are positive definite.
12.2 Solutions 341
Conversely, if there is c > 0 such that T*T - ci and TT* - ci are positive definite,
then by (i), T*T and TT* are bijective. T*T being injective implies that T is injective, and
TT* being surjective implies that Tis surjective. Hence Tis bijective.
29. i) a) Since A is positive we have (x, x) A = (Ax, x) ?: 0 Vx E H. From A being

self-adjoint we have
(x, y) A = (Ax, y) = (x, Ay) = (Ay, x) = (y, x) A.

The linearity of A implies that
(ax+ f3y, z) A= (A( ax+ f3y), z) =a (Ax, z) + f3 (Ay, z) A= a (x, z) A+ f3 (y, z) A.

Therefore ( ·, ·)A is an inner product if and only if (x, x) A = 0 implies x = 0.
b) We will use the inverse mapping theorem (see chapter 9). Since A is linear and
continuous,
llxiiA = V(x, x) A= }(Ax, x) ~ JITAif llxll Vx E H,
i.e., the identity I : (H, 11·11) ____, (H, II·IIA) is linear, continuous, and obviously bijective.
Suppose that (H, (·,·)A) is a Hilbert space. Since (H, (·,·))is a Hilbert space, from the
inverse mapping theorem it follows that I- 1 : (H, II·IIA) ____, (H, 11·11) is linear and con-
tinuous, i.e., there is c > 0 such that llxll ~ c llxiiA Vx E H, i.e., (Ax, x) ?: llxll 2 /c 2
Vx E H. Conversely, suppose that there is c > 0 such that (Ax, x) ?: c llxll 2 Vx E H, i.e.
llxll ~ llxiiA / y'C Vx E H. Then the two norms on Hare equivalent. Since 11·11 is complete,
from exercise 31 (i) of chapter 1 it follows that 11·11 A is also complete, hence ( H, (-, ·)A) is a
Hilbert space.
ii) a) Let Ma : l 2 ____, l 2 be the multiplication operator given by a. Using exercise 14(ii)
we have MaE A+(l 2 ). Then
L anXnYn = (x, Y)a.

00
(x, y) Ma = (Max, y) =
n=l
From (i) we have that (-, ·)a is an inner product on l2 if and only if from (Max, x) = 0 it
follows that x = 0.
Let us suppose that (-, ·)a is an inner product on l 2 . Suppose that there is k such that
ak = 0. Then for x = ek we have (Afae,, ek) = ak = 0, and since (-,·)a is an inner product
on l 2 it follows that ek = 0, which is false. Hence an # 0 \In E N, and as an ?: 0 \In E N
it follows that an > 0 \In E N.
Conversely, suppose that an > 0 \In E Nand let x E l 2 be such that (Max, .T) = 0, i.e.,
I: lxnl 2 = 0. Then an lxnl 2 = 0 \In E N, and as an >
00
an 0 \In EN it follows that Xn =0
n=l
\In E N, i.e., x = 0.
b) By (i) we know that ( l 2 , (-, · U is a Hilbert space if and only if there is c > 0 such
that (Max, x) ?: c llxll 2 Vx E l2. If the last inequality is true, then (Maen, en) ?: c llenll 2
\In E N, i.e., an ?: c \In E N, hence inf an ?: c > 0. Conversely, if c = inf an > 0 then
nEN nEN
for any x E l2 we have
iii) We will use the following well known result from measure theory: for g E L 1 (JL)
if Is g f dJL ::; 0 \::1 f E L 1 (JL) with f ;::::: 0, then g ::; 0 JL-a.e., and conversely, if g ::; 0
JL-a.e. then IsgfdJL ::; 0 \::If E L 1 (JL) with f ;::::: 0. Indeed, let E E I: with JL(E) < oo,
and take h = 9XE· Then [h > OJ = U An where An = En [g ;: : : 1/nJ ~ E. We have
nEN
XAn/n ::; hXAn· Since JL(An) ::; JL(E) < oo it follows that XA, E Ll(JL), and then by
hypothesis Is hXAndJL ::; 0, from whence Is (XAn/n) dJL ::; 0, i.e., JL(An)/n ::; 0, thus
JL(An) = 0 \::In E N. Since [h > OJ = U An, it follows that JL([h > 0]) = 0, i.e.,
nEN
JL([9XE > 0]) = 0. Now since (S, L:, JL) is a a-finite measure space there is a sequence
(Ek)kEN ~ I: such that Ek /Sand JL(Ek) < oo Vk EN. From the above it follows that
JL([9XEk > 0]) = 0 \::lk E N. We have [g > OJ = U [9XEk > 0], thus JL([g > 0]) = 0, i.e.,
kEN
g ::; 0 JL-a.e .. The converse is obvious.
Suppose that (-, ·) 'P is an inner product on L 2 (JL). Let A = { s E S I zp( s) = 0}. Since
(S, L:, JL) is a a-finite measure space we can find En E I: with !L(En) < oo Vn E N such
that S = U En. For each n E N, XAnEn E L2(JL), and clearly
nEN
(XAnEn) XAnEJ'P = r
JAnEn
zp(s)dJL(s) = 0.
Since(-, ·)'Pis an inner product on L 2(JL), it follows that XAnEn = 0, i.e., JL(A n En) = 0
\::In E N, hence JL(A) = 0, i.e., zp(x) > 0, JL-a.e ..
Conversely, if zp(x) > 0, JL-a.e., then with the same notations as above if we take
zp(s) if s tf: A,
h: S ____, (0, oo), h(s) = { 1 if 8 E A, we have h = zp, 11-a.e., and hence(-, ·)'P =
(·,·)h. From (i) (-,·)'Pis an inner product on L 2 (JL) {::?from (M'Pf,f) = 0 it follows
f = 0. Iff E L 2(JL) has the property that (M'Pf, f) = 0, then fs h 1!1 2 dJL = 0, and then
h 1!1 2 = 0, JL-a.e., and using that h(x) > 0 Vx E Sit follows that lfl = 0, JL-a.e., i.e.,
f = 0 in L 2(tL).
From (i) (L 2 (JL), (·, ·)'P) is a Hilbert space if and only if there is c > 0 such that
(M'Pf,f) ;::::: c(f,f) \::If E L 2 (JL), that is, I 8 (c- zp) lfl 2 dJL::; 0 \::If E L2(JL). Using
the above proved remark this is equivalent to c - zp ::; 0, JL-a.e., i.e., zp ;::::: c, JL-a.e ..
30. i) From exercise 22 it follows that Un is well defined, linear, and continuous, with
IIUnll= supak \::In EN, and that U is self-adjoint. By the separate continuity ofthe inner
k?:_n
00
product it follows that (Un (x), x) = I: ak l(x, ek)l 2 Vx

E H. Since an ;::::: 0 \::In E N we
k=n
have Wn (x), x) ;::::: 0 and Wn (x), x) ;::::: (Un+l (x), x) Vx E H. For any x E H by the
Pythagoras theorem we obtain that
by the Bessel inequality, and so from the Weierstrass convergence theorem, inf Un = 0.
nEN
ii) '(a):::::? (b)' Suppose that (b) is not true, i.e., His infinite-dimensional. Then there is
an infinite linearly independent system in H, and hence by the Gram-Schmidt procedure
12.2 Solutions 343
we can find an orthonormal system (en)nEN <;;;;H. We define now Un: H----+ H, Un (x) =
00
L (x, ek} ek. Then by (i) we have 0 :S Un+l :::; Un \:In E N, inf Un = 0, and IIUnll = 1
k=n nEN
\:In E N, hence Undoes not converge towards 0, which contradicts (a).
'(b) =? (a)' Suppose that H is finite-dimensional and let (Un)nEN <;;;; A+ (H), with
Un "'- 0. Let c. > 0 be fixed. For any x E BH by hypothesis there is n EN (depending on
c. and x) such that IIUn(x) II <E. Then (Un(x), x} <c., and therefore
BH <;;;; U{x E HI (Un(x), x} < E}.

nEN
Moreover, the continuity for the operators Un ensures that the sets from the right side are
open. Since H is finite-dimensional B H is compact, and so we can extract a finite cover,
i.e., there is n EN (depending on c.) such that
n
BH <;;;; U {x E HI (Uk(x), x} < E}.
k=l
Let p 2: n. For any x E BH there is 1 :::; k :::; n such that (Uk(x), x} < c.. Then
p 2: k and since (Un)nEN is decreasing we have (Up(x), x} :::; (Uk(x), x}, from whence
(UP(x),x} <E. Since x E BH is arbitrary we obtain that IIUPII = sup (Up(x),x} :::; c.,
llxll-<:1
i.e., Un ----+ 0 in norm.
31. We have (I- T*T)* = I-T* (T*)* = I- T*T, hence I- T*T is self-adjoint,
and for any x E H we have
((I- T*T) x, x} = (x, x} - (T*Tx, x} = (x, x} - (Tx, Tx} = llxll 2 - 11Txll 2 2: 0,
since II Til :::; 1. Hence I- T*T is positive and we can define the operator Dr = J I- T*T.
Then
IIDrxll 2 = (Drx, Drx} = (D}x, x) =((I- T*T) x, x} = llxll 2 - 11Txll 2 ,
i.e., llxll 2 = 11Txll 2 + IIDrxll 2 \:lx E H. Then (iii) follows from (ii).
From here we deduce that if IITII :::; 1 then the space H can be written as H
ker (Dr) ffi (ker (Dr)) _j_ such that on ker (Dr) the operator T is an isometry and for any
x E (ker (Dr))_]_= Dr (H) non-null we have llxll > IITxll·
32. See [40, exercise 18.54].

From the ideal property for the class of compact operators, if VA is compact, since A =
VA2 it follows that A is compact. Conversely, suppose that A is compact. Let (xn)nEN <;;;;
BH. Since A is compact there is a subsequence (xkJnEN for the sequence (xn)nEN such that
(AxkJnEN converges. Using now that the square root of a positive operator is self-adjoint,
we have
for all x E H, and then
Since the sequence (AxkJnEN is Cauchy from the last inequality it follows that the se-
quence (VAxkJnEN is Cauchy, hence convergent, i.e., VA is compact.
Suppose that A is compact. From the ideal property for the class of compact operators
A* A is compact, and then -v0f*"A is compact, i.e., IAI is compact. Conversely, suppose that
IAI is compact. Let (U, IAI) be the polar decomposition of A. Then A = U IAI. Using
again the ideal property it follows that U IAI is compact, i.e., A is compact.
If A is compact then IAI is compact, and using that K(H) is a linear subspace it follows
that A+ = (IAI +A) /2 and A_ = (IAI -A) /2 are compact. Conversely, if A+ and A_
are compact operators then A = A+ - A_ is compact.
33. See [40, exercise 18.55].

Since A is positive, let VA = C. Let (xn)nEN <;;; BH. Since B is compact there is a
subsequence (xkJnEN for the sequence (xn)nEN such that (BxkJnEN converges. From the
Cauchy-Buniakowski-Schwarz inequality we have (Ex, x) ::::; IIBxllllxll, and then
As
(A(xkrn - Xk ) ' xk-,.n - ·-'xk ) < (B(xk - xk ) Xk - xk ) = (Bxk m - Bxk Xk - Xk )

~n n - 'rn n ' rn n n l 1n ' n '
that is, IICxk"' - Cxk, 11 2 ::::; 2IIBxkm - Bxk,,l. From this it follows that the sequence
(Cxk, )nEN is Cauchy, hence convergent. We obtain that the operator VA is compact. Since
A = ( VA) 2 it follows that A is also compact.
34. For the first question the answer is: not necessarily. Let H = l2 and for n E N let
An E L (l 2 ) be defined by An ((x 1 , x 2 , .. )) = (0, 0, ... , 0. x 1 , x 2 , ... ) , where 0 appears on
the first n positions. Then II An II = 1 \.In E N. Now let x = (xkhEN andy= (Yk)kEN in l2.
Then
'L IYkl 2 < oo, and then lim I(Anx, y) I = 0.

00
But y E l2, I.e.,
0
k=l n--too
We will prove now that under the same hypothesis the sequence (II A, I )nEN is bounded.
Let :r E H and let us consider the sequence ( Anx )nEN <;;; H* (we have the identification of
H with H* given by the Riesz theorem). For any y E H the sequence ((An:r) (y))nEN =
( (Anx, y)) nEN is bounded. Using now the UniformBoundedness Principle we obtain that
12.2 Solutions 345
the sequence (Anx)nEN <::: H* is bounded, hence the sequence (Anx)nEN <:::His bounded
Vx E H. Applying again the Unifonn Boundedness Principle we obtain that the sequence
(IIAnll)nEN is bounded.
35. i) Let n E N. Obviously, An is linear and
hence An is continuous with IIAnll S sup lakl· Fork 2: n + 1 we have

k2:n+1
hence sup lakl S IIAnll, and therefore IIAnll = sup lakl· For x E l2, we have
k2:n+1 k2:n+1
IIAn(x)llz s llall c=~+11xk1 2 ) 112 . Since ~11xkl 2 < 00 it follows that 1~~ An(x) = 0
Vx E l 2 .
ii) We have (Anx, y) = (x, A~y) Vx, y E lz. For y E l2, let (a 1 , 0:2, ... ,an, ... ) = A~y.
Using the above relation we obtain that
and then
i.e., a1 · · · = an = 0, an+l = an+1Y1, an+2 = an+2Yz, .... Hence A~(y)

(0, ... , 0, an+1Y1, an+2Yz, ... ), 0 on the first n positions.
iii) Let x E C with x f 0. Then IIA~(x)ll ----+ 0. Since x f 0 there is kEN such that
Xk f 0. Then from lan+kllxkl S IIA~(x)ll Vn E Nit follows that an ----+ 0, i.e., a E co.
This shows that if C f {0} then a E c0 . If a E c0 then by (i)
IIAnll = sup lakl----+ lim sup lanl = 0,

k::C:n+ 1 n->oo
and then IIA~(x) I S IIA~IIIIxll = IIAnllllxll ----+ 0 for any x E l2, i.e., C = lz.
36. i) Let A= ( ~ ~ ) . Let us consider the sequence of matrices (Xn)nEN defined

by X 1 = A, Xn+ 1 = A+ X~ Vn E N. It follows that Xn = ( Xn Yn ) Vn E N, where
Yn Xn
X1 =a, Y1 = b, Xn+l = a+x~ +y~, Yn+1 = b+2xnYn Vn EN, i.e., the sequences (xn)nEN
and (Yn)nEN satisfy the same relations as in the statement. Let us observe that the sequences
(xn)nEN and (Yn)nEN are simultaneously convergent if and only ifthe sequence of matrices
(Xn)nEN converges. That is, if and only if the sequence of linear and continuous operators
associated to our matrices converges pointwise. Indeed, if Xn -t X = ( ~ ; ) point-
wise it follows that Xn ( ~ ) -t X ( ~ ) , thus Xn -t x and Yn -t y. Conversely, if

Xn -t X and Yn -t y then
X ( u ) = ( XnU + YnV ) -t X ( u ) "i/ ( u ) E ]R_2

n V YnU + XnV V V '
i.e., Xn - t X pointwise. Hence the study for the convergence of the sequences (xn)nEN
and (Yn)nEN is equivalent with the study for the pointwise convergence for the sequence
(Xn)nEN ~ L (JR2 ). The idea is to use the Weierstrass convergence theorem for monotone
and bounded sequences of operators. We have A :2: 0, by hypothesis. Since X~ :2: 0 and
A :2: 0 we obtain that Xn+l = A+ X~ :2: 0. Thus Xn :2: 0 "i/n E N. Also XnXm = XmXn
"i/n, m E N. We have X 2 = A+ A 2 and then X 2 - X 1 = A 2 :2: 0, since A is self-adjoint.
Suppose now that Xn+l- Xn :2: 0 and we will prove that Xn+ 2 - Xn+l :2: 0. By induction
we will obtain that Xn+l - Xn :2: 0 "i/n E N, i.e., Xn /. We have Xn+2 - Xn+l =
A + X~+l - A - X~ = X~+ 1 - X~ = (Xn+l - Xn)(Xn+l + Xn) (the last equality
since Xn and Xn+l commute). But from the theory we know that if A :2: 0, B :2: 0 and
AB = BA, then AB :2: 0. In our case A = Xn+l - Xn :2: 0 and B = Xn+l + Xn :2: 0, so
Xn+2 - Xn+l :2: 0.
Suppose that (Xn)nEN is pointwise convergent in A(JR 2 ). Then there is M > 0 such
that IIXnll : : ; M "i/n EN, and then (Xnx,x) ::::; Mllxll 2 "i/n EN, i.e., Xn::::; MI "i/n EN,
i.e., the sequence (Xn)nEN is bounded in A(JR 2 ). Since (Xn)nEN is increasing from the
Weierstrass convergence theorem for self-adjoint operators it follows that there is U E
A(JR 2 ) such that Xn - t U pointwise, and, moreover, supXn = U in A(JR 2 ). Xn - t U
nEN
pointwise means that Xn(x) - t U(x) "i/x E JR2 and from here X~(x) - t U 2(x) "i/x E JR 2 .
Recall that U 2 = U o U, i.e., U 2(x) = U(U(x)) "i/x E JR 2 . Using this and passing to
the limit in the recurrence relation we obtain that U(x) = A(x) + U 2(x) "i/x E JR 2 , i.e.,
U =A+ U2 in A(JR 2 ). We will prove that from this it follows that A::::; Il4. We have
U 2 - U + Il4 = Il4- A, or (U- Il2) 2 = Il4- A. Since (U- Il2) 2 :2: 0 it follows
that A::::; Il4.
Conversely, suppose that A ::::; I I 4. We will prove that in this case the sequence
(Xn)nEN is upper bounded in A(JR 2 ). More precisely, we will prove that Xn ::::; I 12 -
JII4- A "i/n EN (since Il4- A;::: 0 then JII4- A is well defined). To prove this
property we will use the result from exercise 17: if A, B E A+(H) and AB = BA,
then A ::::; B {::} VA : : ; VB. For n = 1, X 1 = A ::::; Il2- JII4- A if and only
if.JII4-A::::; II2-A,thatis,II4-A::::; (II2-A) 2,II4-A::::; II4-A+A 2,
A 2 :2: 0, which is true. Let us suppose that Xn ::::; I 12 - J I I 4 -A and we will prove that
r
Xn+l::::; Il2- JII4- A. We have
Xn+l A+ X~::::; A+ (II2- ../II4- A =A+ Il4- ../II4- A+ Il4- A

Il2- ../II4- A.
So, if A ::::; I I 4 it follows that (Xn)nEN is bounded in A(IR 2 ). Now from the Weierstrass
convergence theorem it follows that the sequence (Xn)nEN is pointwise convergent.
12.2 Solutions 347
Therefore, the sequences (xn)nEN and (Yn)nEN are simultaneously convergent if and
onlyifA:::; I/4. Buti/4-A 2 Oifandonlyifthematrix ( l/~~a 1 /~~a) is
··
positlve. U smg
· the resu 1t 1rom
c. ·
exercise 10 t h'IS IS · 1ent to { 1( / /4 - _ a>
· eqmva
1 4 a
O, b2 f_
2 O,
. { a< 1/4.
that IS,
.
/4 h
lbl-:::; 1 _a, I.e., t e statement.
Remarks. 1) Using the analogy between the self-adjoint (positive) operators and the
real (positive) numbers, the exercise is a very natural one.
2) Also, let us observe that the verification of the commutativity is important in this
new context.
3) From a recurrence relation in~. we can construct a recurrence relation in a Hilbert
space and then study the convergence of that sequence in the considered Hilbert space.
4) The recurrence relation has been suggested by [1, exercise 6, Spring 1984].
5) The general form for a real self-adjoint matrix is ( ~ ~) . Obviously, one can
solve the same type of exercise for such a matrix. The statement is the following:
Let a, b, c E ~. such that a 2 0, c 2 0 and ac - b2 2 0. Define the sequences of real
numbers (xn)n::::o, (Yn)n::::o and (zn)n::::o by the recurrence relations: Xo = a, Yo = b, zo = c,
and Xn+l =a+ x;; + y?:,, Yn+l = b + Yn(Xn + Zn), Zn+l = c + y?:, + z?:, \::In 2 0. Then these
sequences are simultaneously convergent if and only if a :::; 1/4, (a-1/ 4)( c-1/4) -b 2 2 0
and c:::; 1/4.
ii) Recall first some notations which will be used below. If T, U are two symmetric
matrices, we write T :::; U if (Tx, x) :::; (Ux, x) \::lx E ~ 2 , where by (-,·)we denote the
inner product on ~ 2 . A symmetric matrix Tis positive definite if (Tx, x) 2 0 \::lx E ~ 2
and (Tx, x) = 0 implies x = 0. By I we denote the unit matrix. We will also use that
if two positive definite matrices commute then their product is a positive definite matrix.
We define the sequence of matrices (An)n::::o by A 0 = ( ~ ~ ) and An = ( ~: ~:, )
for n 2 1. The relation from the exercise can be written in the form An+I = An - A;,.
The hypothesis on a and band the well known Sylvester theorem from linear algebra (see
exercise 10) assures that A and I - A are positive definite. From the recurrence relation
it follows easily, by induction, that 0 :::; An :::; I and An 2 An+l \::In 2 0. Now, from the
Weierstrass convergence theorem for positive operators on a Hilbert space it follows that
there exists lim An ( x ) E
n-----+:XJ y
~ 2 \::lx, y E R In particular there exists lim An ( 01 )
n---+oo
=
lim ( ban ) , i.e., there exists lim an and lim bn- From the first recurrence relation we
n---+oo n n---+XJ n---+Xl
deduce that lim an = 0 and lim bn = 0, i.e. An

n---+cx; n-----+oc
----+ ° °) Let
0= ( 0 0 . us observe that
from A 1 = A- A 2 = A(I- A) it follows that A 1 is positive definite. Also I- A 1 =
(I- A)+ A 2 2 I- A, and since I- A is positive definite it follows that I- A 1 is positive
definite. In this way, by induction, we obtain that A, and I - An are positive definite for
all n 2 0 and so An and I - An are invertible for all n 2 0. Moreover, the matrices A,
commute, hence their inverses commute. Let Tn = A;;: 1 for n 2 0. We have
- 1 - A-
A n+1 n 1A-n+1
n 1 = (A n - A n+1 )A- 1
= A n2 A-n 1A-n+1
1
AnA;;-~1 = (I- An)- 1 --+I.
(We use that if II All < 1 then (I- A)- 1 =I+ A+ A 2 +···,hence
IIU- A)- 1 - Ill < IIAII + IIAII 2 +

-
0 0 0
= IIAII
1-IIAII
0
Here, IIAnll --+ 0, IIAnll < 1 \In 2 0, hence II(!- An)- 1 - Ill ~ IIAnll I (1 -IIAnll)
\In 2 0, and then (I- An)- 1 --+I.)
From the vectorial form of the Stolz-Cesaro lemma (see the end of our solution), it
follows that
. Tn
l1 . Tn+1 - Tn I
m - = 11nl =
n~cxo n n~cxo n + 1 - n '
i.e., (nAn)- 1 --+ I, and then nAn --+ I, that is, nan --+ 1 and nbn --+ 0. Let now Yn =
Tn- nl. Then
Tn+l- Tn- I= (I- An)- 1 - I= (I- An)- 1[1- (I- An)]

(I- An)- 1 An,
and then n(Yn+l- Yn) =(I- An)- 1 (nAn)--+ I, that is, (Yn+l- Yn) I (1ln)--+ I. Again,
from the vectorial form of the Stolz-Cesaro lemma it follows that
.
l lm Yn I
= '
n~cxo 1 + 112 + · · · + 1ln
and therefore lim (Ynl ln n) =I, that is,

n~cxo
n
lim ~((nAn)- 1 - I)= I.
n~= ln n
Then
l:n (I- nAn)= l:n ((nAn)- 1 - !)(nAn)--+ I. I,
i.e., (nllnn) (I- nAn)--+ I, that is, (nllnn) (1- nan)--+ 1 and (nllnn)nbn--+ 0, i.e.
the statement.
Remark. The general form for a self-adjoint operator (matrix) on lR 2 is ( ~ : ) . One
can solve the analogous exercise in this more general context.
A vectorial form for the Stolz-Cesaro lemma (the case [-/oo])
Let X be a normed space, and (xn)nEN <;:;:X, (an)nEN <;:;: (0, oo) such that an/ oo. If
there exists
. Xn- Xn-1
l 1m X
= Ct E
n~cxo an - O.n-1
then there exists lim (xnlan) and lim (xnlan) = x.

n---+CXJ n-+CXJ
12.2 Solutions 349
Indeed, for E > 0 we can find nE E N such that
Therefore
llxn- Xn-1- (anan-dadi < c(anan-d Vn 2: nE.
Let us denote k = nE + 1. For n 2: k, we have
llxk+1- Xk- (ak+1- ak)aii < E (ak+l - ak),

llxk+2- Xk+1- (ak+2- ak+daii < E (ak+2- ak+I),
which by addition gives
llxn- Xk- (an- ak)aii < llxn- Xn-1- (anan-1)ail + · · ·

+ lixk+2- xk+1- (ak+2- ak+I)aii
+ lixk+1- Xk- (ak+l- ak)aii
< E(anan-d+···+ E(ak+2- ak+I) + c(ak+1- ak)
c(an- ak),
and then
Since an ____, oo it follows that lim llxk- aakii /an = 0, thus there is pE E N such that
n->oo
lixk- aakii /an< E Vn 2: Pc· Then for n 2: max(k,pE,) we deduce that llxn/an- ail <
2c, and therefore lim Xn/an =a.
n->oo
37. i) We have Ma ::; Mb ¢:? (Max, x) ::; (Mbx, x) Vx E l2 • If Ma ::; Mb we have

(anen, en) :S (bnen, en) Vn E N, i.e., an :S bn Vn E N. Conversely,
L an lxnl 2 :S L bn lxnl 2
00 00
(Max, x) = = (Mbx, x) Vx E l2.

n=l n=l
ii) Since by (i) we have Man ::; Man+' Vn E N, we can apply the Weierstrass con-
vergence theorem for self-adjoint operators to deduce that sup Man exists in A (l 2 ) if and
nEJ:\1
only if the sequence (MaJnEN is bounded in A (h). Suppose that there is U E A (l 2 )
such that Man ::; U Vn E N, i.e., (ManX, x) ::; (U x, x) Vx E h, Vn E N. In particular,
(Manek,ek) :S (Uek,ek) Vk EN, Vn EN. If an= (anl,an2, ... ,ank, ... ),we obtain that
ank :S ak Vk E N, Vn E N, where ak = (Uek, ek)· But lakl = I(Uek, ek)l :S IIUII, i.e.,
a= (a 1 , a 2, ... ) E Zoo and an :S a Vn EN. Conversely, if a E Zoo and an :S a Vn EN, then
by (i) we have Man :S Ma Vn E N. By the Weierstrass convergence theorem for self-adjoint
operators, there exists sup Man = U in A(l2) and, moreover, MaJx)-+ U(x) Vx E Z2.
nEN
We must prove that U = Ma where a= sup an in l00 • Since Man (x) -+ U(x) Vx E l2 then
nEN
(Man (ek) , ek) -+ (U ek, ek) , i.e., ank -+ (U ek, ek) Vk E N. Let ak = (U ek, ek)· Then we
have ank -+ ak and ank :S an+l,k Vk E N, and it follows that ak = sup ank Vk E N. We
nEN
L L
00 00
Ux = (Ux, ek) ek = akxkek = (a1x1, a2x2, ... ) = Ma (x) Vx E h

k=l k=l
iii) We take an = (n/ (1 + n), 2n/ (1 + 2n), ... , kn/ (1 + kn), ... ). Then an+l 2 an
in loo Vn E N and
nk
supank = s u1 pk- = 1,
nEN nEN + n
so by (ii) we have sup Un = I.
nEN
38. i) We have
Using the results from exercise 26 this is equivalent to cp :S 1/J, f..l-a.e ..

ii) Let us suppose that there exists sup M'Pn in A (L2(f..l)). Then the sequence (M'PJnEN
nEN
is bounded in A (L 2(f..l)). Since by (i), M'Pn :S M'Pn+l Vn E N, we can apply the Weierstrass
convergence theorem for self-adjoint operators to deduce that if U = sup M'Pn then we have
nEN
lim M'Pn(f) = U(f) Vf E L 2(f..l). Now we can use the Uniform Boundedness Principle
n->oo
(L 2(f..l) is a Banach space) to deduce that the sequence (M'Pn)nEN is uniformly bounded, i.e.,
there is c > 0 such that IIM'Pn II :S c Vn EN, that is, (see exercise 26(i)) II'Pnlloo :S c Vn E
N, i.e., there is c > 0 such that Vn E N, I'Pnl :S c, f..l-a.e .. Since IPn :S 'Pn+l and I'Pnl :S c,
M-a.e., it follows that there exists cp = sup 'Pn and I'PI :S c, f..l-a.e., i.e., cp E Loo(f..l; IR).
nEN
Conversely, if there exists cp = supcpn E L 00 (f..l;IR), then we have M'Pn :S M'P Vn EN.
nEN
If U E A (L 2(f..l)) is such that M'Pn :S U Vn E N, we obtain that fs 'Pn 1!1 2 df-l :S (U J, f)
Vn EN, Vf E L 2(f..l). Now we have I'Pnl :S max(II'PIIIoo, II'PII,x,) = M, f..l-a.e., and then
'Pn 1!1 2 -+ cp 1!1 2 and I'Pnllfl 2 :S M 1!1 2 . Hence by the Lebesgue dominated convergence
theorem it follows that
i.e., M'P :S U. Hence sup M'Pn = M'P.

nEN
12.2 Solutions 351
iii) From exercise 26 it follows that Un is self-adjoint and using that tp is increasing
it follows that Un ~ Un+ 1 • Also, Un ~ MI 1::/n 2 2, where M = sup I'P(x)l < oo.
xE[0,1]
From the Weierstrass convergence theorem there exists U = sup Un and, moreover,
n2:2
U f = lim Unf 1::/ f E L 2 [0, 1]. We must calculate, for any f E L 2 [0, 1], lim Unf
n-----+oo n-----+oo
in the space L 2 [0, 1], i.e., if 9n (x) = tp( ylx)f (x) we must find the limit for the se-
quence (gn)n> 2 in the space L 2 [0, 1]. But \IX ----t 1 1::/0 < x ~ 1, hence by the conti-
nuity of tp it -follows that tp( y/x) ----t tp(1). Therefore I'P( y/x)f (x)- tp(1)f (x)l 2 ----t 0
2 2 2
1::/0 < x ~ 1. Also, I'P( y/x)- tp(1)1 If (x)l ~ 4M 2 I! (x)l . Now we can apply the
Lebesgue dominated convergence theorem to deduce that J;
l9n (x) - tp(1)f (x) 12 dx ----t 0,
i.e., ll9n- tp(1)fll ----t 0 in L2 [0, 1], that is, Unf ----t tp(1)f 1::/f E L2 [0, 1]. Then
U = tp(1)/, hence sup Un = tp(1)1.
n::0:2
iv) We use the same reasoning as above. We omit the details.
v) We have Un ~ Un+ 1 1::/n 2 2. We can apply the Weierstrass convergence theorem for
self-adjoint operators to deduce that there exists sup Un in A ( L 2 [0, 1]) if and only if there
n2:2
exists V E A (L 2 [0, 1]) such that Un ~V 1::/n 2 2. But Un ~ V 1::/n 2 2 if and only if
\Unf, f) ~ (V f, f) 1::/ f E L2 [0, 1], 1::/n 2 2, that is,
an 1 1
V'xlf(x)l 2 ~ 1
1
(Vf)(x)f(x)dx.
If sup Un exists then for f (x) = 1 we obtain that an f01 y/xdx ~ M = IlVII 1::/n 2 2, i.e.,
n2:2
an ~ Mj (J
y/xdx) ~2M 1::/n 2 2, i.e., (an)n:;o: 2 is bounded.
0
1
Conversely, suppose that (an)n> 2 is also bounded and let o: = sup an E R We have
- n2:2
Un ~ o:I 1::/n 2 2, since
LetnowU E A(L2[0,1]), U = supUn- ThenweknowthatUnf ----t Ufl::/f E £ 2 [0,1].

n::0:2
For f E L2 [0, 1], let 9n (x) = ian \IX- o:l 2 lf (x)l 2. We have 9n (x) ----t 0, 0 ~ 9n (x) ~
4o: 2 lf (x)l 2 , 1::/x E (0, 1], and from the Lebesgue dominated convergence theorem it fol-
lows that f01 9n (x) dx ----t 0, i.e., Unf ----t o:f, and then sup Un = o:I.
n2:2
39. i) Let h: l2 ----t H 2(][])) be the isometric isomorphism from exercise 13(v) of chapter
10, i.e., h(a0 , a 1 , a 2 , ... ) = f {:} f(z) = a0 + a 1 z + a2 z 2 + · · · 1::/z E []). We consider the
diagram
Here, Uw = h- 1 o Two h. We will prove that Uw(a 0 , a 1 , a 2 , ... ) = (a 0 , wa 1 , w 2 a2, ... )

\i(ao, a 1 , a2, ... ) E l 2. Indeed, we have
co
Now if h(a0 , a 1, a2, ... ) = f and h(a0 , wa 1 , w 2a2, ... ) = g, then f(z) = and 2:= anzn
co
n=O
g(z) = 2:= anwnzn \fz E ]]}), and the equality which we must prove is Tw(f) = g, i.e.,
n=O
f(wz) = g(z) \iz E ]]}), which is clearly true. Hence Uw is a multiplication operator. From
exercise 14, Uw is linear and continuous, with IIUwll = 1. Also Uw is self-adjoint if and
only if w E JR. Since lwl < 1 then Iwin --+ 0, and therefore using exercise 21 of chapter 5
it follows that Uw is compact.
Using the relation Uw = h- 1 o Tw o hand the fact that his an isomorphic isometry of
Hilbert spaces we obtain the assertions from the statement.
ii) Let h : A2 (]]})) --+ l 2 be the isometric isomorphism from exercise 17(v) of chapter
10, i.e.,
co
Weobservethath- 1 (a 0 ,a 1 ,a 2 , ... ) = f {::} f(z) = 2:= (vn+T/vf7f)anzn. We consider
n=O
the diagram:
l2 ~ l2.
Here, Uw = h o Two h- 1 . We will prove that Uw(a 0 ,a 1 ,a2, ... )
\i(a0 , a 1 , a2, ... ) E l 2 . Indeed, we have
But if h- 1 (a 0 , a 1, a 2 , ... ) = f and h- 1 (a 0 , wa 1 , w 2 a2, ... ) = g then we have that f(z) =

co co
2:= (Vn+T/vf7f) anzn and g(z) = 2:= (Vn+l/vf7f) anwnzn \fz E ]]}), so the equality
n=O n=O
which we must prove is Tw(f) = g, i.e., f(wz) = g(z) \fz E ]]}), which is clearly true.
From here we continue as in (i).
40. i) Let a, (3 E ]]})_ We consider x* : H 2 (]]})) --+ C defined by x*(f) =

f (a) - f (!3). From exercise 15 of chapter 10, x* is a linear and continuous functional,
co
and llx*ll 2 = 2:= lx*(zn)l 2 • But x*(zn) = an - (3n \in E N and x*(l) = 0, so
n=O
llx*ll = (f1 1an- /3nl )
2
112
. Using the equality
an_ {3n =(a_ /3)(an-1 + an-2{3 + ... + a{3n-2 + (3n-1),

12.2 Solutions 353
we deduce that ian- Pnl :S nMn~l Ia- ,BI, where M =max (Ia I, I,BI) < 1. Then
00 00
n=l n=l
00
But L n 2 rn~l = (1 + r) I (1- r) 3 for 0 < r < 1, and then

n=l
~ian- /Jnl2 :S Ia- ,812 (11 ~ :22)3.

Hence llx*ll :S Ia- /JI )(1 + M 2 ) 1(1- M 2 )3. Let us observe that if p = 0, then
llx·ll ~ (t, IaI'"f' ~ (lal' I ( 1- lal')) ' 1'.
Let xZ: : H 2 (ID!) ----> C be defined by x'k(f) = f(~k)- f(O. Since ~k ---->~and f E H 2 (ID!)
is continuous it follows that f (~k) ----> f (0, i.e., xZ: (f) ----> 0 Vf E H 2 (ill!). Thus, U is
well defined. From the above proved relations it follows that xZ: is a linear and continuous
functional, with
where Mk = max(l~kl, IW < 1. Since l~k- ~~ ----> 0 and Mk ----> I~ I it follows that
llxZ:II ----> 0. From exercise 44(i) of chapter 5 it follows that U is a compact operator.
In the case in which~ = 0 we have llx'k II = j1~k 12 I (1 - l~k 12 ), and by exercise 42 of
chapter 5 we have that
l~kl 2 ~
IIUII = ~~~ llxkll = ~~~ 1 -l~kl2 - y l=A12'
where M = sup l~kl, since the function f : (0, 1) ----> (0, oo) defined by f(x)
kEN
2 l.,-,(,-:-1-------,x2" ') is strictly increasing.
vr-x~
ii) The compactness of U follows from (i). Also, with the same notations as in (i),
IIUII =sup llxZ:II, and llxZ:II = l~l 2 k I (1-1~1 2 k). We obtain that
kEN
IIUII =sup
kEN
iii) The compactness of U follows from (i), and for the norm of U we have
00
1 1 1
IIUII =sup
kEN L
n=l
(k + 1)2n = ~~~ Jp + 2k = J3"
41. i) Let n, j3 E [ll. We consider x* : A 2 ([ll) ----+ C defined by x*(J) = f(n)- f(j]).
From exercise 18(iii) of chapter 10, x* is a linear and continuous functional, and llx*ll =
(,~0 lx*(fn)l 2)
112 , where (fn)nEN ~ A 2([ll) is an orthonormal basis. Since in exercise
17(iv) of chapter 10 it is proved that
1/2
fo ((n + 1) l1r) lx*(zn)l 2 . But x*(zn)
)
llx*ll
CXl
is an orthonormal basis, we have = (

=
nn- j]n \In EN, and x*(1) = 0, so
llx'll ~ (~ ((n + 1) /rr) Ia" f'

I!" I'
Using the inequality Inn- f3nl ::; nMn- 1 In- fJI, where M = max (In I, lfJI) < 1, we
obtain that CXl 00
n=1 n=1
CXl
But we have that I:; n 2 rn+l = (r 2 + r 3 ) 1(1 - r) 3 , and then by derivation we obtain
oc
n=1
I:; (n + 1)n2 rn- 1 = (4r + 2) I (1- r) 4 forO< r < 1. Then
n=1
and then
llx* II ::; (1 ~n~2 ~Jvn v4M 2+ 2.
Let us observe that if j3 = 0 then
2lnl2 - lnl4
llx*ll =
1r(1 - lnl 2 )2'
00 00
since I:; rn+ 1 = r I (1 - r) and then by derivation I:; (n + 1)rn = 11 (1 - r) 2 , and there-
n=D n=O
2
+ 1) rn (2r- r 2 ) I (1- r) for 0 < r < 1.
00
fore I:; (n =
n=l
Let xk : A 2 ([ll) ----+ C be defined by xk(f) = f(~k)- f(O. Since ~k ----+ ~and f E A 2 ([ll)
is continuous it follows that f (~k) ----+ f (0, i.e., xk (f) ----+ 0 Yf E A 2 ([ll). It follows that U
is well defined. From the above proved relations it follows that xk is a linear and continuous
functional with
12.2 Solutions 355
where Mk = max(l~kl, IW < 1. Since l~k- ~~ ----t 0 and Mk ____, 1~1 it follows that
llx~ll ____, 0. From exercise 44(i) of chapter 5 it follows that U is a compact operator.
In the case in which~= 0, we have
llx~ll =
and by exercise 42 of chapter 5,
where M = sup l~kl, since the function f(x) = (2x- x 2) 1(1- x) 2 is strictly increasing
kEN
on[0,1).
ii) The compactness of U follows from (i). For the norm, by (i),
iii) By (i) U is compact and
IIUII = 1-MM2 J2 -7rM2'
where M =sup Ik~ll = 112, hence IlUll = v'7 I (3ft).

kEN
42. i) It is proved at exercise 12(i) that U is linear and continuous with IlUll = llallllbll·
ii) We have (Ux, y) = (x, U*y) 'Vx E H 1 , 'Vy E H 2. For y E H 2 let U*y = w. Then
(x, w) = (Ux, y) = ((x, a) b, y) = (x, a) (b, y) = (x, (y, b) a) 'Vx E H 1 ,
and then w = (y, b) a, i.e., U*y = (y, b) a 'Vy E H 2.

iii) We have
U*Ux = (Ux, b) a= ((x, a) b, b) a= (x, a) (b, b) a= llbll 2 (x, a) a.
Let P : H ----t H, Px = (x, a) a. Then
P 2 x = P (Px) = (x, a) Pa = (x, a) (a, a) a= llall 2 Px,
and (Px, x) = (x, a) (a, x) = l(x, a)l 2 ;:::: 0, i.e., P ;:::: 0. Since (PI llall) 2 = P from
the uniqueness of the square root we obtain that VP = PI llall· Since U*U = llbll 2 Pit
follows that
lUI= vTFU = llbll VP = (llbll I llall) P,
i.e., lUI (x) = (llbll I llall) (x, a) a 'Vx E H1.
iv) Let (A, lUI) be the polar decomposition for U. We have ker A = ker lUI. But x E
ker lUI <(=} (x, a} = 0 <(=} x l_ a <(=} x E {a} l_, and therefore ker A = {a} l_. Since
lUI (HI) = Sp {a} and A: lUI (H1) ---+ H2 is defined by Ax= U z <(=} x = lUI z, then
A (a)= A (lUI Clal~llbll)) = U Clal~llbll) '

and therefore A (a)= (llall / llbll) b. Hence A: H 1 ---+ H 2 is defined by
if X E {a }l_,
A(x) = { ~'(llall / llbll) b, if X = Aa, ).. E JK.
v) We have U: H---+ H, Ux = (x,a} b. U is self-adjoint B- U* = U <(=} Ux = U*x

Vx E H <(=} (x, a} b = (x, b} a Vx E H. Suppose that U is self-adjoint. Then llall 2 b =
(a, b} a, i.e., b = ta, with t E C\ {0}. We obtain that (x, a} ta = t (x, a} a Vx E H, and
from here t E IR\{0}, i.e., b = ta with t E IR\{0}. Conversely, ifthere is t E IR\{0} such
that b = ta then (x, a} b = (x, b} a Vx E Hand therefore U is self-adjoint.
U is normal<(=} U*U = UU*. We have that U*U (x) = (x, a} llbll 2 a and UU* (x) =
(x, b} llall 2 b Vx E H. Hence U is normal<(=} llbll 2 (x, a} a = llall 2 (x, b} b Vx E H. If U
is normal, it follows that llbll 2 (b, a} a= llall 2 llbll 2 b, and therefore b = (b, a} aj llall 2 , i.e.,
there is ).. E C\ {0} such that b = >.a. Conversely, ifthere is ).. E C\ {0} such that b = >.a
then Vx E H we have
llall 2 (x, b} b = llall 2 ~ (x, a} >.a= I.AI 2 IIall 2 (x, a} a= II.Aall 2 (x, a} a= llbll 2 (x, a} a,
and therefore U is a normal operator.

U is an orthogonal projector<(=} U is self-adjoint and U 2 = U. U is self-adjoint if and
only if there is t E lR \ { 0} such that b = ta. Also, U2 = U if and only if
U2 x = U(Ux) = (Ux,a}b= ((x,a}b,a}b= (x,a} (b,a}b

= Ux = (x,a}b Vx E H,
i.e. if and only if (a, b) = 1. Hence U is an orthogonal projector<(=} b = ta and (a, b) = 1 <(=}
b =a/ llall 2 , and therefore U x = (:r, a} a/ llall 2 V:r E H.
(X)
43. i) Let U (x) = f, where f = 2:: XnXAn. Since the sets An are pairwise disjoint,
n=l
f0
2 2 2
L
2
L
(X) (X) CXl
If I = lxnl XAn, and then lfl dtL = lxnl fL (An). Let M =sup fL (An) < oo.
n=l n=l nEN
Then
IIUxll = 11!11 = (1 00
1!1 2 dtt) 112 ~ VM llxll Vx E l2.
From here it follows that U is well defined. Obviously U is linear, and therefore U is
continuous, with IIUII ~ VM.
ii) U* is defined by (U x, f) = (x, U* f) Vx E l2, Vf E £ 2 [0, oo ). For f E £ 2 [0, oo),
let U* f = y = (Yn)nEN· Then
12.2 Solutions 357
00
and (x, y) = 2: XnYn· Thus

n=l
and then Yn =fA fdf.l Vn EN, i.e., U* f = (fA fdf.l) .

n n nEN
iii) By definition lUI = v'fl*U, i.e., we must calculate the square root of U*U. But
i.e., we must evaluate U* (XAJ . We have
since the sets (AkhEN are pairwise disjoint. Then
L Xnf.l (An) en= (Xlf.l (Al), X2{l (A2), ... ),

00
U*Ux =
n=l
i.e., U* U is a multiplication operator. By exercise 14(iii) we obtain
lUI (x) = ( X1 J f.l (Al), X2V f.l (A2), ... ) Vx = (xn)nEN E l2.
vi)Wehave IIUII = IIIUIII = supJf.L(An) = ..JM. AlsokerU = keriUI = {0},

nEN
since f.l (An) > 0 Vn E N. From the theory, we know that A : lUI (l 2 ) ----> U (l 2 ) is
defined by Ax = U z ¢:? x = lUI z. But x = lUI z ¢:? Xn = Zn f.l (An) Vn E N, i.e.,J
J
Zn = Xn/ f.l (An) Vn E N, from whence A : l2 ----> L2 [0, oo) is defined by
44. i) By the Cauchy-Buniakowski-Schwarz inequality we have
1
Then
~ 11n+l f(x)dxl ~ ~ 1n+llf(x)l

2
2 = 00
lf(x)l 2 dx < oo.
Hence U is well defined, and II U f II ~ II f II Vf E L2 [0, oo). Since obviously U is linear it

follows that U is continuous.
ii) U* : l 2 ___, L 2 [0, oo) is defined by the relation (U j, x/ = (J, U*x/ Vf E L 2 [0, oo ),
Vx E l2. For x = (xn)n;::o E l2, let U*x =g. Then
(U j, x! = ~ Xn n
00 1n+l 00 roo roo (
~ Xn lo X[n,n+l)fdt
00 )
j(t)dt = = lo ~ XnX[n,n+l) fdt,
and (J, U*x/ = (J, g) = J0

00
j(t)g(t)dt. Hence
1 (~ x,xr"•"
00
>'l) jdt ~ 1 jgdt
00
Vf E L, [0, oo ),
00 00
andthenitfollowsthatg = 2:: XnX[n,n+1),i.e.,U*(x) = 2:: XnX[n,n+I) Vx = (xn)n>o E l2.
n=O n=O -
iii) Let f E L 2 [0, oo ). Then
We will prove that V 2 = V. Indeed, let V f = g, i.e., g = fo (I:+ I jdt) X[n,n+I)· Then
V 2f = Vg = fo (J:'+I gdt) X[n,n+I)· Since the intervals ([n,n + l))n;::o are pairwise
disjoint it follows that gX[n,n+I) = (Inn+ I jdt) X[n,n+I), and therefore
n+ 1 roo 1n+ 1
1n gdt = Jo gX[n,n+l)dt = n jdt.
Then
V 2j = Vg = ~ (1n+I fdt) X[n,n+I) = Vf.
We have V positive and V 2 = V, so y'V = V, i.e., lUI= v1FtJ = y'V = V, that is,
oo (ln+1
IUI(J)=~ n J(t)dt ) X[n,n+l) 'VjEL2[0,oo).
00
iv) It is proved in (ii) that U*(x) = 2:: XnX[n,n+l)·

Then by exercise 43 the polar
n=O
decomposition of U* is ( B, IU* I), where B : l 2 ___, L 2 [0, oo) is defined by
00 00
B(x1,X2, ... ) = L Xn X[n,n+l) = LXnX[n,n+1)·

n=O VJL([n,n+ 1)) n=O
Now from the theory we know that if (B, IWI) is the polar decomposition of W then
(B*, IW* I) is the polar decomposition for W*. Therefore if (B, IU* I) is the polar decom-
position for U* then (B*, IU**I) = (B*, lUI) is the polar decomposition for U. Hence
12.2 Solutions 359
to find the polar decomposition for the operator U from our exercise, we must calculate
B*. We apply the same exercise and we obtain that B* f = f (t) dt) (JA
, where
n n>O
An = [n, n + 1), that is, B* f = (I:+l j(t)dt) n>o· Hence the polar decomposition for U
is given by U =A lUI, where -
lUI (f) =
oo (ln+1
~ n j (t) dt ) X[n,n+1), A(J) =
(1n+1
n f (t) dt ) n;o,o = U(J).
45. We have that iff E L1 [c, d] and rp : [a, b] ----+ [c, d] is a C 1 diffeomorphism, then
(the change of variables formula for the Lebesgue integral).

i) We have fed If (i.p- 1 (x)) 12 dx = J:
lrp' (t) llf(t) 12 dt. Hence
and then IIU !II :::; (sup lrp' (t)

tE[a,b[
1) 112
11111, i.e. U is well defined. Since U is obviously
linear, U is continuous and IIUII :::; (sup lrp' (t)

tE[a,b]
1) 112
ii) We have (U j, g) = (J, U*g) Yj E L 2 [a, b], Yg E L 2 [c, d]. For g E L 2 [c, d], let
h = U*g. Then
(Uj,g) = 1d f(rp- 1(x))g(x)dx= 1blrp'(t)IJ(t)g(rp(t))dt.

Also (f, U*g) =(!,h)= J: f(t)h(t)dt. j,Since (UU*g), g)=(!, it follows that
1b lrp'(t)l j(t)g(rp(t))dt = 1b f(t)h(t)dt Yj E £ 2 [a,b],
so h(x) = lrp' (x)l g(rp(x)) a.e., i.e.,
(U*g) (x) = lrp'(x)lg(rp(x)) Yg E £ 2 [c,d].
iii) For f E £ 2 [a, b], let Uj =g. Then (U*g) (x) = lrp'(x)l g(rp(x)). Now
g(rp(x)) = (U f) (rp(x)) = f(rp- 1 (rp (x))) = f(x),

and then (U* g) (x) = Icp' (x) I f(x ), i.e., (U*U f) (x) = lcp' (x) I f(x), that is, U*U = MI'P'I•
where MI'P'I is the multiplication operator given by lcp'l (see exercise 26). Then~=
M Ji7l, and therefore
lUI= v'rFU = ~ = MJi71.

iv) We have f E ker lUI{::} lUI f = 0 {::} ~f(x) = 0 a.e. {::} f(x) = 0 a.e., i.e.,
f = 0 in L 2 [a, b]. Therefore ker lUI = {0}. If (A, lUI) is the polar decomposition for U we
know that (ker A) -L = (ker IU I) _l = { 0} -L = L 2 [a, b] is the initial subspace for A and that
the final subspace for A is U (L 2 [a, b]) = L 2 [c, d]. Moreover, A: lUI (L 2 [a, b]) ----. L 2 [c, d]
is defined by Af = Ug {::} f = lUI g. But f = lUI g {::} f(x) = ~g(x) a.e. {::}
g(x) = f(x)/ ~ a.e .. Hence
(Af) (x) ~ (U ) (x) ~ ( - 1 (x)) ~ f(cp- 1 (x))

~ g ~ g cp ~ vlcp' (cp- 1 (x))l
Since cp (cp- 1 (x)) = x Vx E [c, d] we have cp' (cp- 1 (x)) (cp- 1 )' (x) = 1, and then
46. Let cp : [0, 1] ----. [0, 1] be defined by cp (x) = xj (2 ~ x). Then cp- 1 (x)
2x/ (1 + x), i.e., (U f) (x) = f (cp- 1 (x) ). From exercise 45 it follows that
(U* f) (x) Icp' (X) I f (cp (X)) = (2 ~ X) 2 f (2 ~ X) '

(lUI f) (x) ~f(x) = 2J}xf(x),
and the polar decomposition for U is (A, lUI), where
47. We will use the results from exercise 45.

i) U is self-adjoint {::} U = U* {::} (U f) (x) = (U* f) (x) {::} f (cp- 1 (x)) =
lcp' (x)l f(cp(x)) \:If E L 2 [0, 1]. Suppose that U is self-adjoint. For f(x) = 1 E L 2 [0, 1] it
follows that Icp' (x) I = 1, equality in L 2 [0, 1] , i.e., Icp' (x) I = 1 a.e.. Since both members
are continuous functions then Icp' (x) I = 1 Vx E [0, 1]. Since cp' has the Darboux property
it follows that cp' (x) = 1 Vx E [0, 1], or cp' (x) = ~1 Vx E [0, 1]. In the first case it follows
that there is a constant k E lR such that cp(x) = x + k Vx E [0, 1]. Since cp: [0, 1]----. [0, 1]
is bicontinuous it follows that k = 0, i.e., cp(x) = x Vx E [0, 1], soU= I. In the second
case it follows that there is a constant k E lR such that cp(x) = ~x + k Vx E [0, 1]. Since
cp: [0, 1] ----. [0, 1] is bicontinuous it follows that k = 1, i.e., cp(x) = 1 ~ x Vx E [0, 1], and
then U f (x) = f (1 ~ x). Conversely, it is clear that the above two operators are self-adjoint.
12.2 Solutions 361
ii) We have (U*U f) (x) = liP' (x) I f(x), and
(UU*f) (x) = (Ug) (x) = g (~P- 1 (x)) =liP' (~P- 1 (x))l f(x),
where g (x) = ( U* f) (x) = Iip x) I f (ip ( x)). Hence U is normal ¢:? I4', ( x) I f (x) =
1
(
liP' (4?- 1 (x))l f(x) \If E £2 [0, 1] ¢:? I~P'(x)l = liP' (4?- 1 (x))l a.e. ¢:? I~P'(x)l =
I~P'(4?- 1 (x))l Vx E [0,1], by continuity. Forx __, 1p(x), itfollowsthatUisnormal
ifandonlyifi~P'(IP(x))l = I~P'(x)l VxE [0,1].
iii) U E L(H) is an orthogonal projector if and only if U is self-adjoint and U2 = U
(see exercise 34 of chapter 11). If U2 = U we obtain that f (ip- 1 ( ip- 1 (x)) = f (ip- 1 (x))
\If E £ 2 [0, 1] and taking f(x) = x it follows that ip- 1 (ip- 1 (x)) = ip- 1 (x) a.e., and
therefore ip- 1 (ip- 1 (x)) = ip- 1 (x) Vx E [0, 1], that is, IP(IP(x)) = 1p(x) Vx E [0, 1], and
since ip is injective, ip (x) = x Vx E [0, 1], in which case (U f) (x) = f (x), i.e., U = I,
the identity operator, which is obviously an orthogonal projector. Hence U is an orthogonal
projector if and only if ip ( x) = x Vx E [0, 1].
48. i) We have (U f, g) = (!, U*g) \If, g E £ 2 [0, 1]. Let U*g = v. Then
1h(x)f(~P- 1 (x))g(x)dx= 1
1 1
f(x)v(x)dx.
Now by a change of variables we have
1 1
h (x) f (ip - 1 ( x)) g (x) dx = 1
1
h (ip ( t)) f (t) g (ip ( t)) Iip 1
( t) I dt Vf E £2 [ 0, 1] .
Then v (x) = h (4? (x)) liP' (x)l g (cp (x)) a.e., i.e., v (x) = h (4? (x)) liP' (x)l g (4? (x)), i.e.,
(U* g) (X) = h (ip (X)) I'{) 1

(X) Ig ( ip (X)) .
We also have
(U*U f) (x) (U*g) (x) = h (cp (x)) lcp' (x)l g (4? (x))
h (ip (X)) Icp' (X) I h (ip (X)) f (X) = I h (ip (X)) 12 1ip (X) I f (X) ,
1
i.e., U*U = Mu, where u(x) = lh(cp(x))l 2 lcp' (x)l. Using exercise 26 we have that
lUI = v7Fff = ~ = M..;u, i.e.,
(lUI f) (x) = (M..;uf) (x) = lh (cp (x))l VIIP' (x)lf (x).
ii) Take h (x) = xn, ip (x) = 1 - x and then apply (i). We obtain that (U*g) (x) =
r
(1 - X g ( 1 - X) and ( IU I f) (X) = ( 1 - X f (X). r
49. We have that iff E L 1 (cp(A)) then
1 <p(A)
f(x)dx = rf(cp
jA
(x)) l.7<p(x)l dx,
where :J'P(x) = det tp' (x) is the Jacobian of tp (the change of variables formula for the
Lebesgue integral in JRn).
i) For f E L2(A), we have f'P(A) If (tp- 1 (x))l 2 dx =fA I.J'P(x)llf(x)l 2 dx. Hence
and then liT !II :::; sup I:J'P(x) 111!11 < oo, i.e., Tis well defined. Since Tis obviously lin-
xEA
ear then Tis continuous and II Til :::; sup I.J'P(x)l. (:J'P is continuous on A, and therefore
xEA
bounded on A, since A is compact.)
ii) We have by the definition that (T J, g) = (!, T* g) V f E L 2(A), Vg E L 2(tp(A) ). For
g E L 2 (tp(A)) let h = T*g. Then
(Tf,g) = 1 tp(A)
f (tp- 1 (x)) g(x)dx = rI.J'P(t)l f(t)g(tp (t))dt.
JA
Also(!, T*g) = (!,h) =fA f(t)h{t)dt. Using that (T f, g) = (!, T*g) we obtain
i I.J'P(t)l f(t)g(tp (t))dt = i f(t)h(t)dt \If E L2(A),
and then h(x) = I.J'P(x)l g(tp(x)) a.e., i.e., (T*g) (x) = I.J'P(x)l g(tp(x)).
iii) For f E L 2(A), letT f =g. We have (T*g) (x) = I.J'P(x)l g( tp(x) ). But
g(tp(x)) = (Tf) (tp(x)) = f(tp- 1 (tp (x))) = f(x),
and therefore (T*Tf) (x) = I.J'P(x)l f(x), i.e. T*T = Mh. where h(x) = I.J'P(x)l 2':
0. From exercise 26 we have Vl\T,; = M0i, and then ITI = M0i, i.e., (ITI f) (x) =
vi.J'P(x)lf(x).
iv) We have f E ker ITI B- ITI f = 0 -R JI:J'P(x)lf(x) = 0 a.e. -R f(x) = 0
a.e. -R f = 0 in L 2 (A), i.e. ker ITI = {0}. If (A, ITI) is the polar decomposition for
T, we know that (ker A)j_ = (ker ITI)j_ = {O}j_ = L 2 (A) is the initial subspace for A
and T(L 2 (A)) = L 2(tp(A)) is the final subspace for A. In addition, A: ITI (L 2 (A))---+
L2( tp(A)) is defined by Af = Tg B- f = ITI g. Using what we have proved, f = ITI g -R
J(x) = vi.J'P(x)lg(x) a.e. {=?- g(x) = J(x)J JI:J'P(x)l a.e., i.e.,
(Af) (x) ~ (T ) (x) ~ ( - 1 (x)) ~ f(tp- 1 (x))

~ g ~ g tp ~ JI:J'P (tp- 1 (x))l
Since tp (tp- 1 ( x)) = x by differentiation tp' (tp- 1 ( x)) (tp- 1 )' (x) = IIT?.n and passing to the
determinant we obtain that :J'P(tp- 1 (x)) = 1/.J'P-1(x), and therefore
12.2 Solutions 363
50. We will use exercise 49.

i) T is self-adjoint if and only if T = T*, that is, if and only if
Suppose that T is self-adjoint. Since A is bounded, hence of finite Lebesgue measure,

f(x) = 1 E L2(A), and we obtain that I.J'P(x)l = 1 a.e.. By continuity we have
I.J'P(x)l = 1 Vx E A, and therefore f(cp- 1 (x)) = f(cp(x)) '<If E L 2 (A). Fori = 1, n
the canonical projections p; : A ---+ lR defined by p;(x 1 , x 2 , ... , xn) = x; belong to
L 2(A), and then p;(cp- 1 (x)) = p;(cp(x)) a.e .. Again from the continuity it follows that
p;(cp- 1 (x)) = p;(cp(x)) Vx E A, and therefore cp- 1 (x) = cp(x) Vx EA. Since cp(A) =A
for x f-----t cp(x) we obtain that cp(cp(x)) = x Vx E A. Hence if Tis self-adjoint then
I.J'P(x)l = 1 Vx E A and cp(cp(x)) = x Vx E A. Conversely, from these two conditions
it follows easily that T is self-adjoint. Now if we use the Darboux property, the connect-
edness of A and the continuity for cp' and for the determinant function, it follows that T is
self-adjoint if and only if .J'P(x) = 1 Vx E A and cp(cp(x)) = x Vx E A, or .J'P(x) = -1
Vx E A and cp(cp(x)) = x Vx EA.
ii) We have (T*Tf) (x) = I.J'P(x)l f(x). For f E L2(A) let g = T* f. Then g (x) =
I.J'P(x)l f(cp(x)) and then
Tg(x) = g(cp- 1 (x)) = I..7'P(cp- 1 (x))l f(cp(cp- 1 (x)) = I..7'P(cp- 1 (x))l f(x),
i.e., (TT* f) (x) = I.J'P(cp- 1 (x))l f(x).

T is normal if and only if TT* = T*T, that is, if and only if
which is equivalent with I.J'P(x)l = I.J'P(cp- 1 (x))l a.e .. From the continuity this is equiva-
lent with I.J'P(x)l = I..7'P(cp- 1 (x))l 'Vx E A, i.e.,
Jdetcp' (x)j = Jdetcp' (cp- 1 (x))j Vx E A~ JRn.

Since cp(A) =A for x f-----t cp(x) we obtain that
Jdetcp' (cp(x))j = Jdetcp' (x)j Vx E A,
andthereforedetcp' (cp(x)) = detcp' (x)Vx E A,ordetcp' (cp(x)) = -detcp' (x)Vx EA.
51. Let cp : (-oo, 2) 2 --+ ( -1, oo ) 2 be a C 1 diffeomorphism such that cp- 1

( -1, oo ) 2 --+ ( -oo, 2) 2 is defined by
cp- 1 (x, y) = (2x/ (1 + x), 2yj (1 + y)).

The Jacobian for cp- 1 is
and <p: (-oo,2) 2 ---t (-1,oo) 2 is given by <p(x,y) = (x/(2-x),y/(2-y)). The

Jacobian is
-r ( ) = 12/(2- x? 0 I 4
J'P x,y 0 2/(2-y) 2 - (2-x) 2 (2-y) 2 .
Using exercise 49 we deduce that
(U* f) (x, y) 4 f(-x _Y)

(2-x) 2 (2-y) 2 2-x'2-y '
2
(lUI f) (x, y) (2- x) (2- y) f(x, y),
and
A
(f)( ,y)
x = 2
(1+x)(1+y/
(~ __3!!._)
1+x'1+y ·
52. i) We defineR: Y ---t Z by R(y) = S(x) if and only ify = T (x). lfy = T (xi)
andy = T (x 2 ) then T(xi- x 2 ) = 0, and then, by hypothesis, liS (xi- x 2 )11 = 0, i.e.,
S (xi) = S (x 2 ), so R : Y ---t Z is well defined (Tis surjective, therefore R is defined
on Y). Let now a, f3 E JK, y, z E Y. Let y = T(x), z = T(w), x, w E X. Then by
the definition of Rand the linearity of S we have aR(y) + (3R(z) = aS(x) + BS(w) =
S(ax + f3w). Since T(ax + f3w) = ay + (3z, it follows again by the definition of R that
R(ay + f3z) = S(ax + (3w), hence R(ay + f3z) = aR(y) + .BR(z), i.e., R is linear. For
any y E Y we have IIRYII = IISxll :S M IITxll = M IIYII, (y = Tx), and soRE L(Y, Z)
with IIRII :SM. By construction, RoT= S. The uniqueness of R follows from the fact
that T is surjective.
ii) Let S : X ---t Z and T : X ---t H be linear and continuous, where Z is a Banach
space and H a Hilbert space. Using the same technique as in (i) we can defineR: T (X) <;;:
H ---t Z, a linear and continuous operator, such that RoT = S, IIRII :S M. Since Z is a
Banach space, R has a unique linear extension toT (X), i.e., there is R: T (X) <;;: H ---7 Z
linear and continuous, unique with IIRII = IIRII and R/ T(X) = R. Since T (X) <;;: His a
closed linear subspace in a Hilbert space, let P : H ---t T (X) be the orthogonal projection.
- -
We define then R: H Z by R = R o P. Then R E L(H, Z) and IIRII :S IIRIIIIPII :S
---t
IIRII = IIRII :SM. For any x EX we have
S (x) = R (T (x)) = R (T (x)) = R (P ((T (x))),

since T (x) E T (X) <;;: T (X), hence S =RoT.
53. i) Let q: L(H) ---t lR be defined by q(U) = inf (Ux, x). We will prove that g is
[[x[[:Sl
supra-linear. LetU, V E L(H). Then ((U + V)x,x) = (Ux,x)+(Vx,x) 2': q(U)+q(V),
V llxll :S 1, and therefore passing to the infimum over llxll :S 1 we deduce that q (U + V) 2':
q(U) + q (V). For A 2': 0 we have g (AU) = inf (AUx, x) = A inf (Ux, x) = Aq (U).
llxii:SI [[x[[:Sl
12.2 Solutions 365
Also if U E A( H) for x E BH we have (Ux, x) s; I(Ux, x)l I(Uy, y) I = IIUII,

s; sup
IIYII:Sl
and then q (U) s; IIUII VU E A( H). Let p : L(H) ----.. lR be defined by p (U) = IIUII·
Since p is a norm, p is sublinear. So we have the following situation: p, q : X ----.. JR,
with p sublinear and q supra-linear, G ~ X is a convex cone, and q (x) s; p (x) 'Vx E G.
From exercise 3(ii) of chapter 7 it follows that there is f : X ----.. JR, a linear functional,
such that q (x) s; f (x) 'Vx E G and f (x) s; p (x) 'Vx E X. In our case we deduce
that there is f : L(H) ----.. lR linear such that inf (U x, x) s; f (U) 'VU E A( H) and
llxll9
f (U) s; IIUII VU L(H). From here we deduce that f is continuous and 11!11 s; 1. Also
E
from inf ( -U x, x) s; f (-U) 'VU E A( H) it follows that - sup (U x, x) s; - f (U)
llxii:Sl llxll:9
'VUE A( H), and therefore f (U) s; sup (Ux, x) 'VUE A( H).
llxii:Sl
ii) As above, taking q : L(H) ----.. lR defined by q(U) = inf (U x, x) we deduce that
llxll=l
there is a linear and continuous functional g : L( H) ----.. lR with norm s; 1 such that
inf (Ux,x)s;g(U)s; sup (Ux,x) 'VUEA(H).

llxll=l llxll=l
Since inf (x, x) s; g(I) s; sup (x, x) it follows that g(I) = 1 and therefore llgll = 1.
llxll=l llxll=l
Part III
General topological spaces

Chapter 13
Linear topological and locally convex spaces
Definition. A linear topological space is a linear space X with a topology T on it such

that each of the following maps is continuous:
i) +:X x X-----* X, (x, y)-----* x + y;
ii). : ][{X X ----7 X, (A, y) ----7 AX.
In this case the topology T is called a linear topology on X.
Definition. Let X be a linear topological space. A subset A <;;; X is called:
i) balanced if and only if\?' A ElK with IAI ~ 1 and \ix E A it follows that AxE A;
ii) absorbing if and only if \ix E X 35 > 0 such that \i A E lK. with A =J 0 and IAI < o
it follows that AX E A;
iii) bounded if and only if \iV a neighborhood of 0 it exists A E lR such that A <;;; AV;
iv) convex if and only if\ix, yEA, VA E [0, 1] it follows that>.x + (1- A) yEA;
v) convex cone if and only if\ix, y E A it follows that x +yEA and \ix E A, VA 2: 0
it follows that Ax E A.
Theorem. Let X be a linear topological space and A <;;; X a balanced subset. Then A
is absorbing if and only if\ix E X 35 > 0 such that ox E A.
Theorem. A linear topological space X is Hausdorff if and only if \ix =J 0 3W a
neighborhood of 0 such that x rt W.
Theorem. Let X be a linear topological space. Then there exists a basis B for the
system of neighborhoods at 0 such that:
i) \iU, V E B 3W E B such that W <;;; U n V;
ii) U is balanced and absorbing \iU E B;
iii) \iU E B, \i A E lK with A =J 0 it follows that AU E B;
iv) \iU E B 3V E B such that V + V <;;; U.
Conversely, let X be a linear space and B a non-empty family of subsets of X which
13.1 Exercises 369
satisfies (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv), and let
T = {W <:::;X I Vx E W :JU E B such that x + U <:::; W}.

Then Tis a linear topology for X having Bas a basis of neighborhoods for 0.
Definition. Let X be a linear topological space. The dual of X is X* =
{x* : X ---> IK I x* is linear and continuous}.
Definition. Let X be a linear topological space and A <:::; X an absorbing set. The
functional PA : X ---> lR defined by PA (x) = inf {p, > 0 I x E p,A} is called the Minkowski
functional associated with A.
Theorem. Let X be a linear topological space, A <:::; X an absorbing set, and PA : X --->
lR the Minkowski functional associated with A.
i) We have PA (>.x) = APA (x) 'ix EX,\;/),> 0. IfO E A thenpA (0) = 0 and in this
case PA is positive homogeneous.
ii) If A is convex thenpA is subadditive, i.e., PA (x + y) :SPA (x) + PA (y) 'ix, y EX.
iii) If A is balanced thenpA (>.x) = I>.IPA (x) 'ix EX, V>. E K
If A is also convex and balanced then p A is a seminorm, called the Minkowski seminorm
associated with A.
Definition. A linear topological space X is called locally convex if and only if there is
a basis of neighborhoods B for 0 consisting only of convex sets.
Theorem. Let X be a linear space and (Pi)iEI a family of seminorms on X. For every
c: > O,n E N,andil,···,in E I,wedefineW(O;pi 1 , ••• ,pin;c:) = {x EX I Pi 1 (x) <
c:, ... ,pin(x) < c }. Then the family B = {W(O;pi 1 , ••• ,pin; c:) I i1, ... ,in E I, c > 0, n EN}
is a basis of neighborhoods ofO for a locally convex topology on X. This topology is called
the locally convex topology generated by the family of seminorms (Pi)iEI.
Conversely, if X is a locally convex space then there exists a family of seminorms
(Pi)iEI on X such that the linear topology on X coincides with the locally convex topology
generated by the family of seminorms (Pi)iEI.
Theorem. Let X be a locally convex space and (Pi)iEI a family of seminorms on X
which generates the topology of X. Then:
i) X is a Hausdorff space if and only if the family (Pi)iEI separates the points of X,
i.e., 'ix -=1- 0 :Ji E I such thatpi(x) -=1- 0.
ii) A net ( x 0)a ELl <:::; X converges to an element x E X if and only if Pi (x 0 - x) ---> 0
ViE I.
Definition. A locally convex space is called an F -space or a Frechet space if and only
if its topology is generated by a complete metric.
13.1 Exercises
Examples of linear spaces with topologies that are not linear
1. Let X -=1- {0} be a linear space on which we consider the discrete topology, i.e.,
the topology given by all the subsets of X. Prove that the addition + : X x X ---> X is
continuous, but the multiplication · : IK x X ---> X is not continuous.
370 Linear topological and locally convex spaces
2. Let X= C ((0, 1);JR). For f EX and r > 0 we denote by V(f,r) =hE X I

lf(x)- ')'(x)l < r Vx E (0; 1) }. We consider on X the topology generated by the family
of sets {V(f, r) I f E X, r > 0}. Prove that + : X x X ----+ X is continuous, but
· : lR x X ----+ X is not continuous.
3. Let X be a linear space of dimension 2: 2, and Y ~ X a proper linear subspace. On
X we considerthetopologyr given by: T = {0, Y \ {0}, X}. Prove that+: XxX----+ X
is not continuous, but · : IK x X ----+ X is continuous.
4. Let X -=1- {0} be a linear space, X# = {x# :X----+ IK I x# is linear} and let r be
the topology on X generated by the family A ~ P (X), A = { ker x# I x# E X#}. Prove
that:
i) + : X x X----+ X is continuous at (x 0 , y0 ) E X x X if and only if:
(a) the system { xo, Yo} ~ X is linearly dependent and x 0 + y0 -=1- 0;
or
(b)xo =Yo= 0;
ii) · : IK x X ----+ X is continuous at (>. 0 , y0 ) E IK x X if and only if (>. 0 , y0 ) E
((IK\ {0}) x X) U (0, 0).
Computations in linear topological spaces
5. Let X be a linear space and A ~ X a convex subset which contains 0. Prove that A
is balanced if and only ifVx E A, V>. E IK with 1>-1 = 1 it follows that >.x EA.
6. Let A be a convex subset in a real linear space X. Prove that A contains a convex,
balanced, and absorbing set if and only if for each line d passing through 0 E X the set
dnA contains an open segment, which contains 0 E X (i.e., for each x E X, x -=1- 0, we
can find a < 0 < (3 such that >.x E A V>. E (a, (3)).
7. i) Let X be a linear space and A ~ X a non-empty and balanced set. Prove that the
convex hull of A is balanced.
ii) Let X be a linear space and A ~ X a non-empty set. Prove that the convex hull of
the balanced hull of A is the convex balanced hull of A.
iii) Let A= {(0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 0)} ~ JR 2. Prove that the balanced hull of the convex
hull of A is not convex.
8. Let X be a linear space.
i) If Bi ~X is balanced for every i E I, prove that B = UBi is balanced.
iEJ
ii) If A ~ X is a set which contains the origin, let B = U{C I C balanced, C ~ A} .
Then B is the biggest balanced set included in A and prove that B = n
(>.A) .
iii) Give an example of a non-empty set A~ X, 0 tfc A, such that n (>.A)=
1-AI::C:l
1-AI::C:l
0.
9. i) Let X be a linear topological space, and B ~ X a balanced set. Prove that B is

0 0
also balanced. IfO EB, prove that B is balanced.

ii) Let B ~ (C 2, II · ll2), B = {(z1, z2) E C 2 llz1l :::; lz2l}. Prove that B is balanced,
0
but B is not balanced.
10. Let X be a linear topological space. Prove that:
i) The convex hull of a non-empty open subset of X is open;
ii) If A, B ~ X are bounded, prove that A + B ~ X is bounded;
iii) If A, B ~X are compact sets, prove that A+ B ~X is compact;
13.1 Exercises 371
iv) If A~ X is compact and B ~X is closed, prove that A+ B ~X is closed;

v) Not always the sum of two closed sets is closed.
Midpoint closed sets
11. Let X be a linear space and A~ X a non-empty set.

i) Prove that if A+ A ~ 2A then aA + ,BA ~ A for every a > 0 and ,8 > 0, a and ,8
in Q, a+ ,8 = 1, each a and ,8 being a finite sum of negative powers of2.
ii) Prove that if A is closed and A + A ~ 2A then A is convex.
The interior and the closure for a convex set
12. Let X be a linear topological space and A~ X a convex set.

i) Prove that if x EA andy E A then {Ax+ (1- .A) y I .A E (0, 1]} ~A.
0 -
ii) Prove that A, A ~ X are convex sets.
0 0 ~- 0
iii) If A# 0 prove that A=A, A= A.
The Kakutani lemma and the Stone theorem
13. Let X be a linear space and A, B ~X two non-empty convex and disjoint sets.
i) Prove that for every x E X\(AUB) we have co(AU{x}) n B = 0 or
co ( B u { x}) n A = 0.
ii) Using (i) deduce that there exist C, D ~ X convex and disjoint sets such that
A ~ C, B ~ D and C U D = X.
Helly's theorem for convex sets
14. i) Let n E Nand r E N with r > n + 1. Let A 1 , ... , Ar ~ JRn be convex sets such
n#k Ai # 0, for any k n Ai # 0.
r
that = 1, 2, ... , r. Prove that
j=l,r, j=l
ii) Let n E Nand C be a family of compact and convex subsets oflRn such that for every
choice of n + 1 elements from C their intersection is non-empty. Prove that C y!o 0. n
CEC
A linear topology need not be sequential
15. For 0 E lR we consider a base of neighborhoods as being given by the sets of the
form ( -c:, c:) , with c: > 0, from which we eliminate a countable set of non-zero elements.
We consider on lR the linear topology given by this base of neighborhoods for 0 E R Find
a set A~ lR such that 0 E A, and yet we have no null convergent sequence in A.
Characterizations for linear and continuous functionals
16. Let X be a real linear topological space.

i) Iff : X ~ lR is linear and continuous at 0 E X, prove that f is continuous on X.
ii) Iff : X ~ lR is linear, prove that the following assertions are equivalent:
a) f is continuous;
b) ker f ~ X is closed;
c) f is bounded on a neighborhood V of 0 E X.
Connected open non-empty sets in a linear topological space are arcwise connected
17. Let X be a linear topological space and G <;;; X a non-empty connected and open
subset. Prove that G is arcwise connected.
Additive operators continuous at 0 are linear operators
18. Let X and Y be two real linear topological spaces, Y being Hausdorff, and T :
X ---+ Y an additive operator (i.e., T (x + y) = T (x) + T (y), Vx, y E X), continuous at
0 E X. Prove that T is linear.
The extension by continuity for a linear and continuous operator
19. Let X be a linear topological space, M <;;; X a dense linear subspace, Y an F -space
and T : M ---+ Y a linear and continuous operator (on M we ~ve the topology given by
X). Prove that T has a unique linear and continuous extension T : X ---+ Y.
A non-metrizable linear topological space
20. On the linear space C [0, 1], we consider two topologies. The first, a, given by the
metric
t
lf(x)-g(x)l
d(f,g)= Jo 1+lf(x)-g(x)ldx,
and the second, Tp, the pointwise convergence topology given by the family of seminorms
(Px)xE[O,l], where Px (f) = If (x) I·
i) Prove that the identity I : (C [0, 1] , Tp) ---+ ( C [0, 1] , a) is sequentially continuous
but not continuous.
ii) Deduce that the pointwise convergence topology Tp is not metrizable.
The form for some particular linear and continuous functionals
21. i) Let X be a normed space and r <;;; X* a non-empty set. We consider on X
the topology T as being the locally convex topology given by the family of seminorms
{Px* I x* E r}, where Px* : X---+ IR+, Px* (x) = lx* (x)l. Prove that iff : (X, T) ---+ lK is
linear and continuous, we can then find n E N' al' ... ' an E lK and xr) ... 'X~ E r such that
n
f = 2:: aix?.
i=l
ii) Deduce the form for the linear and continuous functionals on (C [0, 1] , Tp) , where
Tp is the pointwise convergence topology.
A linear topological space for which the dual is the null space
22. Let X = C ([0, 1]; IR). For every E > 0 and oE (0, 1) let Vc,s be the set of
00
functions fin X for which there is an open set A<;;; [0, 1], A= U (ai, (3i), ((ai, f3i))iEN
i=l
00
pairwise disjoint intervals with 2:: ((3i- ai) ::; osuch that If (t)l ::; E Vt ~ A. (We can
i=l
have ai = (3i, in this case (ai, /3;) = 0.)
i) Prove that there is a linear topology Ton X such that (Vc,s) 00 ,o<b<l form a basis of
neighborhoods for 0 E X in the T topology.
ii) Prove that (X, T) is not a locally convex space.
iii) Prove that iff is a linear and continuous functional from (X, T) to lR then f = 0.
13.1 Exercises 373
Effective calculation for the Minkowski seminorm
23. Let (an)nEN be a sequence of scalars, 1:::; p < oo, and
i) Prove that A is balanced and convex.

ii) Prove that A is an absorbing set if and only if (an)nEN E Z00 •
iii) If (an)nEN E Z00 , calculate the Minkowski seminorm given by A.
24. i) Let X be a linear space, Pn : X ---+ ffi.+, n E N, be a sequence of seminorms, and
A= {x EX I Pn(x):::; 1 1::/n EN}.
a) Prove that A is convex and balanced.
b) Prove that A is absorbing if and only ifsuppn(x) < oo 1::/x EX, i.e., if and only
nEN
if the family (Pn)nEN is pointwise bounded. In this case, find the Minkowski seminorm
associated with A.
c) If, in addition, X is a Banach space and every seminorm Pn is continuous, then A is
absorbing if and only iEJM > 0 such that suppn(x):::; M llxll 1::/x EX.
nEN
ii) Let R[O, 1] = {f : [0, 1] ---+ ffi. I f is Riemann integrable}, which is a linear space
with respect to the usual operations of addition and scalar multiplication. A linear func-
tional x* : R[O, 1] ---+ ffi. is called positive if x* (f) 2 0 1::/ f E R[O, 1] with f 2 0. Let
x;, : R[O, 1] ---+ IR, n E N, be a sequence of positive linear functionals and let (an)nEN <;;; R
a) We define
A= {f E R[O, 1JIIanx~ (f) I:::; 11::/n EN}.
Using (i) prove that A is absorbing if and only if (anx~ ( 1)) nEN belongs to Zoo, and in this
case find the Minkowski seminorm associated with A. Then deduce that if cpn : [0, 1] ---+
[0, oo), n EN, is a sequence ofRiemann integrable functions and
A= {1 E R[O, 1]111 cpn(x)f(x)dxl:::; 11::/n EN}

1
then A is absorbing if and only if the sequence (J; 'Pn (x )dx) nEN
is upper bounded, and in
this case find the Minkowski seminorm associated with A.
b) We define
A~ { f E R]O, 1]1 ~ ]a"x~ (f)] <: I}

Using (i) prove that A is absorbing if and only if the sequence (anx~(1) )nEN belongs to Z1 ,
and in this case find the Minkowski seminorm associated with A. In particular, if (an)n>o <;;;
ffi.~ -
A •• {jER[O,l]l ~~a"[x"f(x)dcl <: 1}

prove that A is absorbing if and only if the series f: ~ is absolutely convergent, and
n=D n + 1
in this case find the Minkowski seminorm associated with A.
iii) Let X be a Banach space, (x~)nEN c;;;; X*, and
Using (i) prove that A is absorbing if and only if
sup { IILnEF x~111 F finite, F c;;;; N} < oo,
and in this case find the Minkowski seminorm associated with A.

iv) Let H be a Hilbert space, (en)nEN c;;;; H is an orthonormal system, (an)nEN c;;;; lK.
t,
and
A~ { x EHI Ia" (x,e")l <; 1}

Using (iii) prove that A is absorbing if and only ifthe sequence (an)nEN belongs to l2 , and
in this case find the Minkowski seminorm associated with A.
v) Let H be a Hilbert space, (en) nEN c;;;; H an orthonormal system, (an) nEN c;;;; IK., and
Using (iii) prove that A is absorbing if and only if (an)nEN E l 1 , and in this case find the
Minkowski seminorm associated with A.
vi) For a fixed 1 < p < oo and (an)nEN c;;;; IK., we consider the set
A= { f E C[O, 1] I Loo
n=1
an],
1/n
1/(n+l)
f(x)dx
P
::; 1
}
.
Using (i) prove that A is absorbing if and only if (an/ (n (n + 1)) )nEN E lp, and in this case
find the Minkowski seminorm associated with A.
vii) Let (an)nEN c;;;; lK. and
A= {f E C[O, 1JIIanf (1/n)l :S 1Vn EN}.

Using (i) prove that A is absorbing if and only if (an)nEN E l 00 , and in this case find the
Minkowski seminorm associated with A.
Separation in real linear topological spaces
25. Let X be a real linear topological space, and A c;;;; X a convex subset with 0 EA.
i) If p A : X ----+ JR.+ is the Minkowski functional for A prove that p A : X ----+ JR. is
continuous at 0. Moreover, if A is symmetric, i.e., A = -A, then PA : X ----+ JR.+ is
continuous.
ii) Prove that for any x 0 E X\ A there is a linear and continuous functional f : X ----+JR.
suchthatf(x)::; 1 Vx E Aandf(x 0 ) = 1.
13.1 Exercises 375
26. i) Let X be a real normed space, n EN, {xi, ... , x~} s;:;: X* a linearly independent
0
system, A = {x EX llxi (x)l ~ 1, ... , lx~ (x)l ~ 1} and xo ~ A. Prove that 0 EA and
that any f E X* with the properties If (x)l ~ 1 Vx E A and f (x 0 ) = 1 is of the form
n n
f = 2:: A;xi, where A1 E JR, ... ,An E lR satisfy the conditions 2:: A;Xi (xo) = 1 and
i=l i=l
i=l
ii) Let A = {U E L (l2) II (U e1, e2) I ~ 1, I(U e2, e2) I ~ 1} and Uo E L (l2) defined
by U0 (x) = (x, 2e1 + 3e2) e2. Using (i) prove that any f E (L (l 2))* with the properties
If (U)I ~ 1 VUE A and f (U0 ) = 1 is of the form
f (U) = 3A (U e1, e2) + (~- 2A) (Ue2, e2),
where A E [-2/5, 4/5].
Algebraic closure for convex sets
27. Let X be a real linear topological space and let A s;:;: X.

i) Prove that n (rA)
r>l
s;:;: A.
0
ii) IfO EA and A s;:;: X is convex, prove that n (r A) = -
A.
r>l
The space Lp [0, 1] for 0 <p < 1

28. Let p, be the Lebesgue measure on [0, 1] s;:;: JR, and 0 < p < 1. For a measurable
function f: [0, 1]--+ JR, let IIJIIP = J~ If (t)IP dt. Then
£p [0, 1] = { f: [0, 1] --+ lR I f measurable and II fliP < oo}
is a linear space with respect to the usual operations of addition and scalar multiplication.
Factorizing this space by the equivalence relation given by the equality p,-a.e., we obtain
the space Lp [0, 1].
i) Prove that II fliP = 0 ¢:} f = 0 in Lp [0, 1]; llafiiP = laiP IIJIIP Va E JR, Vf E
Lp [0, 1]; II!+ gllp ~ II fliP+ llgllp Vf, g E Lp [0, 1].
ii)Defined: Lp[0,1] x Lp[0,1]--+ [O,oo),d(f,g) = llf-giiP Vf,g E Lp[0,1].
Prove that d is a translation invariant metric on Lp [0, 1].
iii) If we consider on Lp [0, 1] the topology T given by the metric d, prove that the
only open convex sets in (Lp [0, 1], r) are 0 and Lp [0, 1], and then deduce that for each
non-empty open set in (Lp [0, 1], r) its convex hull is the space Lp [0, 1].
iv) Prove that if X is a locally convex Hausdorff space and T : ( Lp [0, 1] , T) --+ X is a
linear and continuous operator, then T = 0.
v) Prove that the topology T on Lp [0, 1] is not a locally convex one and that the dual of
(Lp [0, 1], r) is the null space.
The space C (rl) for a non-empty open set n ~ <C

29. Let n ~ <C be a non-empty open set and C (rl) the linear space of all continuous
functions from n to <C.
i)Foreachn EN, letVn = {z E <C llzl > n}U U D(z, 1/n) ~ <C, whereD(z,r) is
z\frl
the open disc of center z and radius r in the complex plane. Denoting Kn = Cvn Vn E N
00 0
prove that U Kn = rl, Kn ~Kn+l Vn EN, that Kn is a compact set for each n EN and
n=l
that if K ~ n is a compact set then there is annE N such that K ~ Kn.
ii)Foranyn E Nletpn: C(rl)---> [O,oo),PnU) =sup lf(x)l. Provethatpnisa
xEKn
seminorm for any n E N, Pn ~ Pn+l for any n E Nand that the family (Pn)nEN separates
the elements of C (rl).
iii) If Tis the locally convex topology on C (rl) defined by the family (Pn)nEN' prove
that the sets {Wn I n E N}, where Wn = {f E C (rl) I Pn (f) ~ 1/n} form a basis of
convex neighborhoods for the origin in the T topology.
iv) Prove that the topology T is compatible with the distance d : C (rl) x C (rl) --->
[0, oo),
~ Pn (f- g)
d(f,g) = ~2n(l+pn(f-g))'
i.e., the topology associated to the distance d coincide with T, and that dis a translation
invariant complete metric.
v) Prove that f n ---> f in (C (n) , T) if and only if for each compact K ~ n we have
fn ---> f uniformly on K.
vi) Prove that (C ( n) , d) is not normable.
The space 1t (rl) for a non-empty open set n ~ <C
30. Let n ~ <C be a non-empty open set and consider 1t (n), the linear space of all
holomorphic functions on n, considered as a linear subspace of (C (rl), T), where Tis the
topology considered at exercise 29.
c(
i) Prove that 1t ( n) ~ ( n) , T) is a closed linear subspace and then deduce that
(H (rl), T) is a Frechet space.
ii) Prove that any closed bounded subset in (7-i (rl), T) is compact in (7-i (rl), T).
iii) Prove that (7-i (rl), T) is not normable.
The space of all entire functions
31. Let I(<C) = {f : <C---> <C I f entire}, which is a linear space over <C with respect
to the usual operations of addition and scalar multiplication. For any n E N consider
ll·lln: I(<C)---> lR, llflln = sup lf(z)l Vf E I(<C).

lzi:<On
i) Prove that (I(<C), ll·lln)nEN is a Hausdorff locally convex space.

ii) For f E I(<C) and~ E <C we define fe : <C ---> <C, ft;(z) = f(~z). Prove that
feE I(<C) and that Jt)(z) = f(n)(~z)~n Vz E <C, Vn ~ 0.
13.2 Solutions 377
iii) Let x* : I(<C) ----> C be a linear and continuous functional, f E I(<C), and
consider F : C ----> C, F(O = x*(f~). Prove that F is analytic on C and that
p(nl(O) = J(n)(O)x*(zn) 'in 2 0.
iv) Deduce that iff E I(<C) has the property that f(nl(O) -=1- 0 Vn 2 0 then the set
u~ I ~ E C} s;;; I(<C) is fundamental.
A locally convex space analogous to h

32. Consider two sets A and B, and let (c,iJ)(a,ti)EAxB S: [0, oo ). Denote by
X= {x = (x,)aEA S: lKI PiJ (x) = L Cal) lxal <
aEA
00 V/3 E B},
which is a linear space with the usual operations of addition and scalar multiplication.
i) Prove that (PIJ) /JEB is a family of seminorms on X and that X with the locally convex
topology generated by the family (p13 )/JEB is Hausdorff if and only ifVa E A 3(3 E B such
that CaiJ > 0.
ii) Prove that if in addition the family (caiJ)(a,iJ)EAxB is uniformly filtered with respect
to A, i.e., V/31 , /32 E B 3(3 E B such that CaiJ 1 , CaiJ 2 :S CaiJ \Ia E A, then each linear and
continuous functional x* : X ----> IK can be represented by
x* ( (x,)aEA) = L u,x, V (xa)aEA E X,

aEA
wherethefamily(ua)aEA S: !Kverifiestheproperty: 3(3 E B,3a > Osuchthatlual :S ac,,3
Va EA.
Thus if CaiJ > 0 V (a, /3) E A x B then X* can be identified with the space
{ (ua)aEA S: IKI3/3 E B such that sup lual <

aEA Cal)
oo}.
13.2 Solutions
1. The discrete topology is T = P(X). Consider y E X, z E X and denote x = y + z.
For V, an open neighborhood of x, we consider V1 = {y }, an open neighborhood ofy, and
V2 = { Z}, an Open neighborhood of Z, and We have V1 + V2 = {X} S: V.
We now prove that the multiplication with scalars is not continuous. Consider .1: 0 E X,
x 0 -=1- 0. Then, since 1/n ----> 0 in IK, if the multiplication were continuous at (0, x 0 ) we
would have that (1/n) · x 0 ----> 0 in X. Since {0} E T = P(X) there is ann E N such that
(1/n) · x 0 E {0}, i.e, (1/n) · x 0 = 0, that is, x 0 = 0, contradiction.

We recall first some well known results of general topology.
a) Let X be a set. Let B = (B;)iEI S: P(X) be a family of sets with the properties:
u
iE/
n
Bi = X, and Bl' B2 E B implies Bl B2 E B. Then T = { u
B; I J s;;; I} is a
iEJ
topology on X named the topology generated by B. In this case we say that B is a basis for
T (if J = 0, then by convention U Bi = 0), and Vx EX, {BE B I x E B} is a basis of

iE0
neighborhoods for x in the T topology.
b) Let X be a set, and Q = (Gi)iEI ~ P(X) a family of subsets. We denote by
n
B = { Gi I J finite~ I} (by convention, if J = 0 then
iEJ
Gi =X). Then B is a basis n
iE0
for a topology Ton X, i.e., it satisfies the conditions from (a). Therefore Vx E X
is a basis of neighborhoods for x in the T topology. In this case the family Q is called a
sub-basis forT and Tis called the topology generated by the family Q = (Gi)iEI ~ P(X).
Using (b) we know that the set Q ~ P(X), Q = {V(f, r) I f EX, r > 0} generates a
topology T on X and that for any f E X,
{D V(f,, r,)l f., ... ,f. E X, r, > 0, ... , r. > 0, n EN, f E D V(f,, r,)}
is a basis of neighborhoods for f in the T topology.
We prove now that the addition + : X x X ----t X is continuous. Let u E X, v E X and
denote by h = u + v E X. Let G be a neighborhood of h from the basis of neighborhoods
for h in the T topology. We can find n E N, JI, ... , fn E X, r 1 , ... , rn > 0 such that
h E G = n V(fk, rk), i.e., h
n
k=l
E V(Ji, ri) Vi = 1,n. For every 1 ::::; i ::::; n we denote by
ui = u + (fi- h) /2, vi= v + (Ji- h) /2. Let z E V(ui,r;/2), wE V(vi,r;/2). We
obtain that
lz(x) + w(x)- J;(x)l [z(x)- (u+fi~h)(x)+w(x)- (v+J;~h)(x)l

< lz(x)- ui(x)l + lw(x)- vi(x)l < i +i
r· r·
= ri Vx E (0, 1),
therefore z + w E V(fi,ri), and V(ui,r;/2) + V(vi,r;/2) ~ V(J;,ri). If we denote

n V(ui,r;/2) and D 2 = n V(vi,r;/2) then u E D1, v
n n
by D 1 = E D2, and then D1
i=l i=l
is an open neighborhood of u and D 2 is an open neighborhood of v. Also D 1 + D 2 ~
n V(fi, ri)· We have proved that+ :X x X

i=l
n
----t X is continuous.
We now prove that the multiplication from lR x X to X is not continuous. Consider
f : (0, 1) ____, JR, J(x) = 1/ (x(x- 1)) Vx E (0, 1). We prove that the multiplication is
not continuous at (0, f). We suppose, for a contradiction, that it is continuous. Then there
n V(fi, ri), and
n
exist E > 0, n EN, JI, ... , fn EX and rl > 0, ... , Tn > 0 such that f E
i=l
n V(J;,ri)
n
that \f).. E (-c:,c:) it follows that)..· ~ V(O · f, 1). Then \f).. E (-c:,c:) we
i=l
have )..j E V(O, 1), i.e., I>..J(x)l < 1 Vx E (0, 1), \f).. E ( -E, c:). In particular, we have
c:j (2x(1- x)) < 1 Vx E (0, 1), that is, E < 2x(1- x) Vx E (0, 1) and, for x ----t 0, x > 0,
we obtain that E < 0, contradiction.
13.2 Solutions 379
3. Consider x 0 E X\Y and y0 E Y\{0}. Then (x 0 + y0 ) + (-x 0 ) = y0 . Ifthe addition

were continuous, using that y 0 E Y\ {0} we obtain that there exist V1 a neighborhood of
(x 0 + y0 ) and V2 a neighborhood of -x 0 such that x + y E Y\ {0} Vx E V1, Vy E V2.
Since V1 is a neighborhood of x 0 + y0 there is a set A E T such that (x 0 + y0 ) E A <;;;;
V1. If A = Y\ {0} then x 0 + y 0 E Y and, since y0 E Y and Y is a linear subspace,
(xo +Yo)- Yo = Xo E Y, contradiction! We obtain that A= X, therefore vl =X and,
since V1 + Vz <;;;; Y\ {0}, we obtain that Y\ {0} =X, a contradiction!
Let >. 0 E K, x 0 E X and consider (>. 0 , x 0 ) E K x X. Let V be a neighborhood of
>. 0 x 0 E X. Then there is a set A E T such that >. 0 x 0 E A <;;;; V. If >.0 = 0 then >. 0 x 0 = 0
and A = X. We obtain that V = X and, for every neighborhood V1 of >. 0 in K and for
every neighborhood v2 of Xo in X we have vl v2 c;;;; v. If Ao #- 0 then AoXo could be
non-zero, and then A could be X or Y\ {0}. If A = X we obtain the same conclusion as
before. If A = Y\ {0} then (>. 0 x 0 ) E Y\ {0} <;;;; V. Therefore as >. 0 #- 0 we obtain that
xo E Y\ {0} and, for V1 = K\ {0}, V2 = Y\ {0}, we have V1V2 <;;;; V, where V1 is an open
neighborhood of >. 0 #- 0 and V2 is an open neighborhood of x 0 .
Remark. We observe that (X, r) is not a Hausdorff space.
4. We shall use (a) and (b) from exercise 2.

Suppose that the addition is continuous at (x 0 , y0 ). For any x# E X#, with
x# (x 0 + y0 ) = 0, the set V = ker x# is a r-neighborhood for z 0 = x 0 + y 0 . There-
n keryf, yf (xo) n kerzf, zf (y
n p
fore there exist Vl = = 0, i = 1,n, V2 = 0) = 0,
i=l i=l
i = 1,p such that V1 + \12 <;;;; V. Since 0 E \ll, 0 E V2 and xu E V1, Yo E V2, we obtain that
x 0 , Yo E V, thus x# (x 0 ) = x# (Yo) = 0. Therefore if x# E X# and x# ( z0 ) = 0, we obtain
that x# (x 0 ) = x# (y0 ) = 0. For any x EX we denote by x: X# ---> K, (x#) = x# (x)x
Vx# E X#. Then x E X## Vx E X, and the above relation shows that iQ (x#) = 0
implies iQ ( x#) = fio (x#) = 0, that is, ker zo <;;;; ker iQ, ker iQ <;;;; ker fio. Using exercise
16(i) of chapter 14 we know that there are a, (3 E K such that iQ = aiQ, fio = (3iQ, that is,
x 0 = azo, Yo = f3zo, and therefore {3x 0 - ayo = 0. Suppose that x 0 +y0 = 0, that is, z 0 = 0.
Then Vx# E X#' Zo E ker x#. There exist V1 a neighborhood for Xo, v2 a neighborhood
for y0 , finite intersections of kernels of linear functionals, with V1 + V2 <;;;; ker x#. Since
0 E V1, xo E V1, 0 E V2, Yo E V2, we obtain that x# (x 0 ) = x# (y0 ) = 0 Vx# E X#, i.e.,
Xo =Yo= 0.
If x 0 = y0 = 0 it is immediate thatthe addition is continuous at ( 0, 0). Suppose now that
x 0 , y0 E X are such that there exist a, (3 E K, not both zero, with ax 0 + (3y 0 = 0. Suppose,
for example, that {3 #- 0, and then Yo = 1x 0 . We obtain that (1 + 1) ::r 0 = x 0 + y0 =: z 0 .
Suppose that 1 #- -1, and then 1 + 1 #- 0. If x 0 = 0, then y 0 = 0, and we have already
seen this case. If Xo #- 0 then Yo #- 0. Let v be a neighborhood of Zo, v = n
i=l
ker :ri'
xi (zo) = 0, i = 1, n. Since x 0 = z0 / (1 + 1) we obtain that xi (:r: 0 ) = 0, i = 1, n, and

since y0 = f.To we obtain that 1:i
(y0 ) = 0, i = l,n. Then Vis a neighborhood for :r 0 and
y0 , and also V + V <;;;; V. Thus, the addition is continuous at (:r: 0 , y0 ).
(ii) Suppose that · : K x X ---> X is continuous at (0, :r 0 ) , and that :r 0 #- 0. Then
z0 := 0 · :r 0 = 0. For any ;r# E X#, V := ker x# is a neighborhood for z0 , and therefore
there are E > 0 and vl a neighborhood for Xo such that (-E) E) . vl c;;;; v' and then AJ:o E v
V>. E ( -E, E), thus :r# (;r 0) = 0 v:r# E X#. Since X# separates the elements of X we
obtain that x 0 = 0, contradiction!

We now prove that the multiplication is continuous at (.A 0 , x 0 ), Ao # 0, and at (0, 0) E
n kerxf be a
n
K X X. Let Ao E K, Ao # 0 and Xo EX. Denote Zo = AoXo. Let v =
i=l
neighborhood for z0 , i.e., xf (z0 ) = 0, i = 1, n. Then since x 0 = z0 / .A0 we obtain that
xf (x 0 ) = 0, i = 1, n, and therefore Vis a neighborhood for x 0 . We have K · V ~ V
and therefore the multiplication with scalars is continuous at (.A 0 , x 0 ). For the continuity at
(0, 0), if V is a neighborhood for 0 = 0 · 0 in the T topology, with the form given above,
again K · V ~ V, and therefore the multiplication with scalars is continuous at (0, 0).
5. If A ~ X is a balanced set then it is trivial that Vx E A, V.A E K with 1>-1 = 1 it

follows that .Ax E A. Suppose now that 0 E A, A ~ X is a convex set and that Vx E A,
V.A E K with I-AI = 1 it follows that .Ax E A. Let A E K, I-AI ::; 1 and x E A. Then
1>-1 x = (1- I-AI) 0 + 1>-1 x and since A is convex, I-AI x E A. If A = 0 then .Ax = 0 E A,
by our hypothesis. If A # 0 then since lA/ 1>-11 = 1, using the hypothesis we obtain that
(.A/ I-AI) (I-AI x) E A, thus AXE A.
6. If B ~ A is a balanced and absorbing set then for any x E X there is Ox > 0 such
that Ax E B, VA E JR. with 0 ::; 1>-1 < Ox. Then for any x E X, x # 0, there is a Ox > 0
such that AXE A VA E (-Ox, Ox)·
Suppose now that for any x E X, x # 0, there are o: < 0 < (3 such that .Ax E A
V.A E (a:, (3). Let B =An (-A). For any x EX, x # 0, denote by Ox= min ( -o:, (3) >
0, where o: and (3 (depending on x) are given by our hypothesis. Then for any A E JR.
with I-AI ::; Ox we have that A E (o:,(J), and therefore AXE A. Also -A E (o:,(J), and
therefore -AxE A, that is, AxE -A. Thus AxE B for every A E JR., I-AI ::; Ox. We obtain
that B ~ X is absorbing. Clearly B ~ X is a convex set. Using exercise 5, in order to
prove that B ~ X is a balanced set, it is sufficient to prove that Vx E B, VA E JR. with
IAI = 1 (A = ± 1) it follows that Ax E B. But B = - B, and therefore the last assertion is
true.
7. i) Let A ~ X be a non-empty balanced set and x E co (A). Then there are n E N,

n n
.A 1 2 0, ... ,An 2 0, with I: A; = 1 and a 1 , ... ,an E A such that x = I: A;a;. Let A E K,
i=l i=l
n n
I-AI ::; 1. Then Ax = I: A; (.Aa;) = I: A;b;, with b; = Aa;, i = l,n. Since A is balanced it
i=l i=l
follows that b; E A, i = 1, n, and therefore AxE co (A).
ii) Using (i) the convex hull of the balanced hull of A is a balanced, and, obviously, a
convex set. Then the convex and balanced hull of A is contained in co (ec (A)) . Consider
n
now x E co (ec (A)). We obtain that there are n E N, o: 1 2 0, ... , o:n 2 0, with I: o:; = 1,
i=l
n
x 1 , ... , Xn E ec (A), such that x = I: o:;x;. But ec (A) = U .AA, and therefore, for each
i=l I.\I:SI
1 ::; i ::; n, we can find a; E A, A; E K, 1-A;I ::; 1, such that X; = A;a;. We obtain that
n
x = I: A;o:;a;. Then if C ~ X is a balanced and convex set which contains A we obtain
i=l
n
that A;a; E C for each 1 ::; i ::; n, and therefore I: A;o:;a; E C, that is, x E C. We obtain
i=l
13.2 Solutions 381
that x belongs to the convex and balanced hull of A. (For a set W <;;; X, co (W) is the
convex hull for Wand ec (W) is the balanced hull for W.)
iii)co(A) = {(x,y) E IR 2 I x ~ 0, y ~ 0, x+y :s; 1}. Since (0,1) E co(A)
we obtain that (0, -1) E ec (co (A)). Also (1, 0) E A<;;; ec (co (A)). If ec (co (A)) were
convex, then (1/2, -1/2) E ec (co (A)). It results that there are >. E K, 1>-1 :S 1 and
(x, y) E co (A), such that: (1/2, -1/2) = >. (x, y). Then x = -y and, since x, y ~ 0, we
obtain that x = y = 0, a contradiction.
8. i) Let x E Band>. E K with 1>-1 :s; 1. Then there is i E I such that x E Bi and using
that Bi is balanced we have >..r E Bi, and therefore >.x E B.
ii) We observe first that we have at least one set in our union, since {0} <;;; A is a
balanced set. Let D = n
(>.A). Then x E D {? x E >.A Vl>-1 ~ 1 {? f.LX E A 'v'lf11 :S 1.
l.\12"1
We obtain that D <;;; X is balanced. Since D <;;; A we obtain that D <;;; B. But if x E B
then there is a balanced set C <;;; A such that x E C. Then f.LX E C <;;; A Vl11l :S 1, and
therefore x E D.
iii) Consider A = {x} , with x E X, x -=/= 0 .
9. i) See [35, proposition 5.2, chapter 2].

Let B <;;; X balanced and A E C with 1>-1 :S 1. For 0 < 1>-1 :S 1, >.B = >.B, and
therefore >.B <;;; B. If>. = 0 then >.B = {0} E B, since B is balanced. We have proved
that B is balanced. Suppose now that 0 EB. For any A E C with 0 < 1>-1 :S 1 we have
0
A· B=fB<;;;B. If>.= 0 then A· B= {0} EB. Therefore B

is balanced.
Evidently if A E C with 1>-1 :S 1 and lz1l :S lz2l, then l>-z1l :S l>-z2l, and therefore
B <;;; C 2 is balanced. We prove now that B= { (Zl' Z2) E C 2 I Izll < Iz21}. Indeed let A
the set from the right side. Since A is open (to see this we can use the continuity of the
functionf(z 1,z2) = lz 11-lz2l)andA<;;; BitfollowsthatA <;;;B. Nowif(z 1,z2) EBthere
are a, bE (0, 1) such that D(z 1, a) x D(z 2 , b) <;;; Band therefore lzl :S lwl \fz E D(z 1, a),
\lw E D(z2, b). If z2 = 0, since lz11 :S lz2l we obtain that z 1 = 0, and therefore lzl :S 0
\lz E D(O,a), contradiction. Therefore z2-=/= 0. If z1 = 0, then lz1l < lz 21. If z1-=/= 0
then z 1 + z 1aj (2lz11) E D(z 1, a), and then lz 11(1 + aj (2lz11)) :S lz2l· We obtain that
lz 11 < lz 21. We have proved that B= {(z1, z2) E C 2 I lz1l < lz2l}. If we suppose, for a
contradiction, that B is a balanced set, we obtain that 0· B<;;;B and, since B-=/= 0, we obtain
that (0, 0) EB, a contradiction.
10. See [9, exercise 17, chapter II, section 1], or [44, exercise 3, chapter 1].
t. ~
i) Let A <;;; X be an open and non-empty set. We know that
co (A) ~ { ~ t,.T, I n E N, t, E [0, 1], x, E A V1 <: i <; n, t, 1} .
Therefore we have the equality:
co (A) c. u{(t,A + ... + tnA) I n EN, (t, ... , tn) E [0, 1]"' t,~ 1}
Since A is open then for any scalar a =/=- 0 we have that aA <;;; X is an open set. Then for
each n E N the set (t 1 A + · · · + tnA) <;;; X is open, because at least one of the ti is not
zero, and in a linear topological space the summation of a non-empty set and a non-empty
open set is always an open set (we use the relation U + V = U (u + V), the fact that the
uEU
translation x r-----+ u + x is an homeomorphism and the fact that a union of open sets is an
open set). Therefore co (A) <;;; X is an open set, being a union of open sets.
ii) Let V be a neighborhood of 0. There exist two balanced neighborhoods of 0, VA and
Vs, such that VA+ Vs <;;; V. Since A is bounded, for VA there is tA E lR such that A <;;; tA VA.
ForB and Va there is ts E lR such that B <;;; tsVs. Let then t = max(itAI, Its!).
Since VA and Vs are balanced and t ;:::: itA!, Its! we have the inclusions tA VA <;;; tVA and
tsVs <;;;tVa. ThenA+B <;;; tAVA+tsVs <;;; tVA+tVs = t(VA + Vs) <;;;tV, and therefore
A + B is bounded in X.
iii) Since A and Bare compact sets in X, we obtain that Ax B <;;; X x X is a compact set
if we consider the product topology on X x X. Since + : X x X --+ X is continuous, and
the range of a compact set by a continuous function is compact, we obtain that A + B <;;; X
is a compact set.
iv) Let A <;;; X be a compact set and B <;;; X be a closed set. Let x E X, x E A+ B.
There is a net (x,) 6 E 6 <;;; (A+ B) such that x, --+ x. For any 8 E D. there are a, E A
and b, E B such that xs = as+ bs. We obtain the nets (a,) 6E6 <;;; A and (bs) 6E 6 <;;; B.
Since A is compact the net (as) 8E 6 has a subnet which converges, i.e., there are a E A and
(a'P(T))TE2>' <;;; (as) 8 E 6 such that a'P(T) --+ a. Since b'P(T) = X'P(T) - a'P(T) for any T E 6.'
we obtain that b'P(T) --+ x- a. But (b'P(T))T <;;; Band B is a closed set. We obtain that
x- a=: bE B, and therefore x =a+ b, with a E A and bE B, i.e., x E A+ B.
v) Consider JR 2 with the Euclidean norm. Let A = {(x, 1lx) I x E lR\ {0}}, B =
{(y, 0) I y E JR}. Then A, B <;;; lR 2 are closed sets and
A +B = { (X + y' 1I X) I X E lR \ { 0}, y E lR} = R X (JR \ {0})
is not closed in lR x JR.
11. See [35, chapter I, A].

i) For any x, y E A we have x + y = 2a, with a E A, and then xl2 + yl2 EA. For any
n
a and (3 as in the statement of our exercise we can write a = 2::: ai I 2i, n E N, ai E { 0, 1},
i=l
n
i = 1, n, an = 1, and (3 2::: (3;/2;, with {3; = 1 - ai, i = 1, n- 1, f3n = 1. We prove
=
i=l
the assertion by induction on n E N. For n = 1, a = (3 = 112, and the assertion is true.
Suppose the assertion true for n - 1 and we prove it for n. Let x, y E A and let a and
n
(3 as above. We suppose, for example, that a 1 = 0. Then (31 = 1. Let 1 = 2::: a;/2i-l,
i=2
n
8= :L (J;j2i-l. Then 1 + 8 = 2 (a+ (3- 112) = 1. Using the hypothesis of induction we
i=2
obtain that {X+ 8y E A. Since y E A we deduce that yl2 + (rx + 8y) 12 E A, that is,
ax+ (Jy EA.
ii) Let x, y E A and a ;:::: 0, (3 ;:::: 0, a+ (3 = 1. We write a and (3 as a sum of negative
powers of 2 and we obtain that we can find sequences (an)nEN and (fJn)nEN in Q+ \ {0},
13.2 Solutions 383
an + f3n = 1 Vn E N, each an and each f3n being a finite sum of negative powers of 2
such that an -----* a, Pn -----* (3. Using (i) we have anx + PnY E A for each n E N. Since the
topology is linear then anx + PnY-----* ax+ fJy. Thus ax+ fJy E A= A.
12. See [ 11, proposition 16, chapter II, section 2]

i) If >. = 1 then the assertion is obvious. Suppose now that >. f 1. Let t =
>.x + (1 - >.) y. Then using, if necessary, a translation, we can suppose that t = 0.
Then y = >.xj (>.- 1). Since Ais an open set and>-/(>.- 1) E IR.\ {0} using the fact
that the mapping u >.uj (>.- 1) is a homeomorphism we obtain that(>-/(>.- 1))
t------t A
is a neighborhood of y. Since y E A there is a z E An (>-/ (>.- 1)) Let w EA A.
be such that z = >.wj (>.- 1). Then w EA and (>-/ (>.- 1)) w E A. Since A f 0,
the mapping u t------t >. (u - w) is a homeomorphism which takes w into 0. We obtain
that U = {A (u- w) I u EA} is a neighborhood for the origin. Let v E U. Then
v = >. (u- w), u EA, and therefore v = >.u + (1- >.) (>-/ (>.- 1)) w = >.u + (1- >.) z,
with u EA<;;;; A, z E A, and then v EA. We have obtained that U <;; ; A and therefore 0 EA.
A
ii) The fact that is a convex set follows from (i). To show that A is also a convex set,
we define f : X x X x JR. -----* X, f (x, y, >.) = >.x + (1- >.) y. Then f is continuous
and f (Ax Ax [0, 1]) <;; ; A, since A is a convex set. We obtain that f (A x A x [0, 1]) <;;;;
A, that is, >.A+ (1- >.)A<;;;; AV>. E [0, 1]. Therefore A is a convex set.
0
0 0- - Q_ - 0
iii) Obviously A<;;;; A implies A<;;;; A, and A <;; ; A implies A<;;;;A. Let y E A and x EA.
0
For any>. E (0, 1) let z.\ = >.x + (1- >.) y. Then z.\ EA (we use (i)) andy = lim z.\ .
.\-->0
o _ o _ o _ 0
o
Therefore yEA. We have proved that A<;;;; A and then A= A. We prove now that A<;;;;A.
0
Using, if necessary, a translation, it is sufficient to prove that 0 EA implies 0 EA. Let

W <;;;;A be a symmetric neighborhood of the origin (W = - W). Vj_e can choose W <;;;;A
because 0 is an interior point for A. Since 0 E A we obtain that 0 E Aand then W n Af 0.
Let z E wn A.. Then z EA, -z E (-W) = w <;;;;A, and using (i), 0 = z/2+( -z) /2 EA.
13. i) (Kakutani's lemma). See [35, exercise B, chapter I].
Suppose that co (A U { x}) n B f 0 and co (B U { x}) n A f 0. Therefore there are
a,fJ E [0, 1] and a, a' E A, b,b' E B, such thataa+ (1- a)x = b', fJb+ (1- fJ)x =a'.
Since x ~A and x ~ B we obtain that a, fJ f 0. Then
1-a b' 1-/3 a'

a+ -a~x = ;' b+ -fJ~x = /3.
If a = fJ then a + a'/ a = b + b' /a. Let t > 0 be such that t (1 + 1/ a) = 1. Since

ta + ta' /a = tb + tb' /a using the convexity of A and B we obtain that ta + ta' /a E An B,
contradiction. For a f (3, if we eliminate x we obtain that
1-/3 1-a, 1-a 1-/3,

--a+--a = --b+--b.
fJ afJ a afJ
Again, we consider t > 0 such that
1-,6
t (- - +1-a)
- - =t (1-a
- - +1-;3)
- - =1
;3 a;J a a;) '
and we obtain that An B #- 0, a contradiction. (Since An B = 0 we have that a, ;3 #- 1

and therefore (1- ;3) /;3 + (1- a)/ (a;J) #- 0.)
ii) (Stone's theorem). See [9, exercise 3, chapter II, section 1].
LetS= {(C, D)~ X x X I C, Dconvex, A~ C, B ~ D, CnD = 0}. We observe
that S #- 0, since (A, B) E S. We consider on S the partial order relation'-<' given by:
( C1 , DI) -< (C 2 , D 2 ) ¢:? C 1 ~ C 2 , D 1 ~ D 2 . We prove that every totally ordered family
of sets in (S, -<)has an upper bound. Indeed, letT = {(C;, D;)};EJ ~ S be a totally
ordered subset. Let then C = U C;, D = U D;. Consider x, y E C. There are i, j E I
iEJ iEJ
such that X E C;' y E cj. But, for example, C; ~ cj' and therefore X' y E cj. Then
for every a E [0, 1], ax+ (1- a) y E Cj, and therefore ax+ (1- a) y E C. We have
proved that C ~ X is a convex set and, analogously, D ~ X is a convex set. Obviously
A ~ C, B ~ D. Suppose that there is an x E C n D, and therefore there are i, j E I
such that x E C;, x E Dj. But, for example, (C;, D;) -< (Cj, Dj), and then x E Cj n Dj,
contradiction. Thus (C, D) belongs to S. Using Zorn's lemma we obtain that (S, -<)admits
a maximal element, denoted by (C, D) . Then C and D are convex disjoint sets and A ~ C,
B ~ D. Suppose that CUD#- X, and let x EX\ (CUD). Using (i) we can suppose, for
example, that co (C U {x}) n D = 0. If we denote by C' =co (C U { x}), we obtain that
(C', D) E S, and (C, D) ~ (C', D). Since (C, D) is maximal, we obtain that C = C', that
is, x E C, contradiction.

i) Let Xk E n
Aj, k = 1, ... 'r. There are then al, ... , ar in JR., not all zero, such
j=l,T,#k
r r
that La; = 0, L a;x; = 0 (any homogeneous system with m equations and p unknowns
i=l i=l
has a non-zero solution if m < p). It cannot happen that all a; be ::S; 0, or that all a;
r
be 2': 0, since the relation La; = 0 would imply that a; = 0 V1 ::S; i ::S; r. Suppose,
i=l
for example, that a 1 , ... , am < 0, and am+l, ... , ar 2': 0, where 1 :S m < r, and not all
m r
am+l, ... , ar are zero. Then L (-a;) X; = L a;x;. We denote this common value with
i=l i=m+l
r m r
x Since La; = 0, we obtain that L (-a;) = L a;, and we denote this common
E !R.n.
i=l i=l i=m+l
value with t E R Let us consider the element xjt E !R.n. For each j E {m + 1, ... ,r},
x; E Aj Vi E {1, ... , m }, and then xjt E Aj, for each j E { m + 1, ... , r }. For each
j E {1, ... , m }, xi E AJ Vi E { m + 1, ... , r }, and then xjt E AJ, for each j E {1, ... , m }.
n AJ.
r
Thus xjt E
j=l
ii) We shall prove that for any finite set of elements of C their intersection is non-empty.
Induction on k, the number of sets that we want to intersect. If k E { 1, ... , n + 1}, any
intersection of k elements from C is non-empty by our hypothesis. Suppose now that any
intersection of k elements from C is non-empty and that k 2': n + 1. We shall prove that
13.2 Solutions 385
any intersection of k + 1 elements from C is non-empty. Let A 1 , ... , Ak+l E C. Then

n
j=l,k+l,#i
Aj #- 0, for each 1 ~ i :::; k + 1. Using (i) we obtain that n
Aj #- 0 and
j=l,k+l
this is what we wanted to prove.
c
Suppose now that = {A;};El and that n
iEI
A; = 0. Then
iEI
u
CA, = IP!.n and then for
an i 0 E I we have that A;0 ~ U C A,. Since A; 0 is a compact set and the sets C Ai are open
iEI
u CAi n A;j =
p p
we obtain that there are il, ... , ip E I such that A;() ~ and therefore 0,
j=l 1 j=O
a contradiction.
15. Let A= ( -1, 1) \ {0}. For any V a neighborhood ofO from the fundamental system
of neighborhoods given by our hypothesis, we have V n A #- 0 and therefore 0 E A.
Suppose that there is a sequence (xn)nEN ~ A such that Xn ---+ 0 in our topology. Since
(xn)nEN ~ Aweobtainthatxn #-Olin EN. WeconsiderV = (-1,1)\{xn In EN}.
Then V is a neighborhood of 0 in this topology and since Xn ---+ 0 we can find elements
from the sequence (xn)nEN which belong to V and we obtain a contradiction.
16. See [35, proposition 5.4, chapter 2].

i) Consider x E X and E > 0. Since f is continuous at 0, there is a neighborhood W of
0 in X such that If (y)l < E liy E W. Then for any z Ex+ W, z = x + y, yEW, we have
If (z) - f (x) I = If (y) I < E. Since the topology on X is linear, we obtain that x + W is a
neighborhood for x and therefore f is continuous at x.
ii) Iff is continuous, since kerf = f- 1 ( {0}) and {0} ~ lPI. is a closed set we obtain
that kerf ~ X is a closed set, and therefore (a) implies (b). Suppose now that (b) is
true. If kerf = X then f = 0, and f is continuous. If kerf #- X we can find x 0 E X,
x 0 tf. kerf. Since kerf is a closed set there is a neighborhood V for 0 E X, balanced, such
that (x 0 + V) n kerf = 0. Since Vis balanced and f is linear we obtain that f (V) ~ lPI.
is balanced. Also 0 = f (0) E f (V). Therefore f (V) is a non-empty balanced set in R
Iff (V) is unbounded since for each A E f (V) all real numbers of modulus ~ IAI are in
f (V), we obtain that f (V) = lPI. and therefore there is x E V such that f (x) = - f (x 0 ).
If we denote by y = x + x 0 then y E (x 0 + V) n kerf, a contradiction. Therefore (b)
implies (c). If there is a neighborhood V of 0 E X and an M 2:: 0 such that If (x) I ~ M
lix E V, then, for any E > 0 if we denote by W = (c/ (M + 1)) V, for every y E W we
have If (x) I ~ E, and therefore f is continuous at 0 E X. Using (i) we obtain that f is
continuous on X, and therefore (c) implies (a).
17. Let x 0 E C. We denote by D = {x E G I ::Jf: [0, 1] ---+ G continuous, f (0) = x 0,

f (1) = x }. We shall prove that D ~ G is a closed and open set with respect to the
topology obtained on G by restricting the topology of X. Since x 0 E D, and therefore D
is non-empty, using the connectedness of G we will obtain that D = G, and then G will be
arcwise connected. Let x E D. Since D ~ G we obtain that x E G and, since G is open,
we obtain that there is V a balanced neighborhood of the origin such that x + V ~ G.
For any y E x + V, let g : [0, 1] ---+ X, g (t) = (1- t) x + ty. Then g is continuous,
g (0) = x, g (1) = y. For every t E [0, 1], g (t) = x + t (y- x). But y- x = v E V.
Since Vis balanced we obtain that Av E V liA E K with IAI ~ 1. Then t (y- x) E V,
g (t) E x + V lit E [0, 1], and therefore g (t) E C, lit E [0, 1]. We obtain that any
y E x + V can be connected with x by a continuous path, contained in G. Since there

is a continuous path in G from x 0 to x, we obtain that there is a continuous path in G
from y to x 0 , and therefore x + V c::; D, that is, D c::; G is an open set. Consider now x
belonging to the closure of D in G. Then x E G and for any neighborhood V of 0 E X
we have D n ((x + V) n G) =1- 0. Let V be a balanced neighborhood of 0 E X such that
x + V c::; G. Then D n (x + V) =1- 0 and let z E D n (x + V). Using the results proved
above, x and z can be connected by a continuous path contained in x + V, and therefore
contained in G. Since x 0 and z can be connected by a continuous path contained in G, we
obtain that x and x 0 can be connected by a continuous path contained in G, and therefore
XED.
18. Since Tis additive, T (0) = 2T (0), T (0) = 0. Let x E X and (xn)nEN c::; X be
such that Xn ____, x. Since the topology on X is linear we obtain that Xn - x ____, 0. Using
the continuity ofT at 0 EX we obtain that T (xn- x) ____, T (0) = 0. Then T (xn- x) +
T (x) ____, T (x). ButT (xn- x) + T (x) = T (xn) because Tis additive, and therefore
T (xn) ____, T (x) in Y.
Let x EX and A E R Then 0 = T (0) = T (x- x) = T (x) + T ( -x), and therefore
T ( -x) = -T (x). Using the fact that Tis additive we obtain that T (mx) = mT (x), for
any m E Z. Let now n E Nand mE Z. Then: mT (x) = T (mx) = T (n ((m/n) x)) =
nT ((m/n) x), that is, T ((m/n) x) = (m/n) T (x). Therefore T (qx) = qT (x) Vq E Q.
Let A E R Then there is a sequence (qn)nEN c::; Q such that qn ____,A. Since the topology on
X is linear we obtain that qnx ____, AX, and therefore T (qnx) ____, T (Ax). Then qnT (x) ____,
T (AX) . Also since the topology on X is linear we obtain that qnT (x) ____, AT (.1:). But Y is
Hausdorff, hence T (h)= AT (x). Therefore T (Ax)= AT (x) Vx EX and VA E JR, i.e.,
T : X ____, Y is a linear operator.

Let d be the translation invariant complete metric which generates the linear topology
on Y. Let Vo be a neighborhood of 0 E X. The operator T : M ____, Y is continuous
at 0 E M. Therefore there is a neighborhood W1 of 0 E X such that d (0, Tx) ::; 1/2
Vx E W 1 n M. For W1 neighborhood of 0 E X there is a neighborhood G 1 of 0 E X
such that G 1 + G 1 c::; W1 n V0 . For G 1 there is a balanced neighborhood V1 ofO such that
V1 c::; G 1 . Thus there is a balanced neighborhood V1 of 0 E X such that V1 + V1 c::; Vo
and d (0, Tx) ::; 1/2 Vx E V1 n M. In this way, by induction, we construct a sequence of
balanced neighborhoods of 0 E X, ( Vn) nEN , such that Vn + Vn c::; Vn- 1 for every n E N
and d (0, Tx) ::; 1/2n Vx E Vn n M, Vn EN.
Consider now x E X arbitrary. Since M c::; X is dense, for every n E N there is an Xn E
(Vn + x) n M. Then for every n ~ m ~ 1 we have d (Txm, Txn) = d (0, Txn- Txm) =
d (0, T (xn- Xm)). But Xn- Xm E Vn - Vm c::; Vm + Vm c::; Vm-1 and, since Xn and
Xm are from M and M is a linear subspace in X we have that Xn - Xm E M. Therefore
Xn -Xm E Vm-1 nM and therefore d (0, T (xn- Xm)) ::; 1/2m- 1 . From here it follows that
the sequence (Txn)nEN c::; (Y, d) is Cauchy. Using the completeness it results that there is
~unique element in Y, denoted T::; such that Txn ____, TxJn (Y, d) . We obtain the operato_E
T : X ____, Y. We must prove that T is well defined, that T is an extension ofT, and that T
is linear and continuous.
First, we observe that Tis well defined, that is, if we consider two sequences (x?)nEN
13.2 Solutions 387
and (x2)nEN' with x]: E M n (Vn + x), x2 E M n (Vn + x) Vn E N, then lim Tx]:
n->oo
=
lim Tx2. Indeed, we consider the sequence (x3 )nEN
n->oo
= (xL x~, xf, x~, ... ) . Then x3 E
M n (Vn + x) Vn E N and using what we have proved above we obtain that the sequence
(Tx3)nEN converges, and then, evidently, lim Tx]: = lim Tx2 = lim Tx3. Thus T :
n~oo n--+oo n---+oo
X ----t Y is well defined. For x E M if we consider Xn = x Vn E N we obtain that
T is an extension of T. We now prove that T is additive. Let x, y E X and we consider,
respectively, the sequences (xn)nEN and (Yn)nEN with which we define, respectively, Tx and
Ty. Let Zn = Xn + Yn for every n EN and z = x + y. Then Zn EM for every n EN and
Zn E z + Vn + Vn ~ z + Vn-1' for every n E N. Thus Zn E M n (z + Vn-1) for all n E N and
therefore Tz = lim Tzn = lim (Txn + Tyn) = lim Txn + lim Tyn = Tx + Ty. Thus
n--+oo n--+oo n--+oo n--+oo
T :X Y is additive. Consider now x E X and a E ][{with lal :S 1. Let (xn)nEN be a
----t
sequence with which we define Tx. Then Xn EM n (Vn + x) Vn EN. Since M ~X is a

linear subspace and Vn ~ X is balanced, we obtain that axn E M n (Vn + ax) Vn E N.
Therefore we can consider the sequence (axn)nEN for the definition of T (ax) , and we
have T (ax) = lim T (axn) = lim aT (xn) =aT (x). Thus, for any x EX and for any
n-+oo n-+oo
a E ][{ with Ia I ::; 1 we have T (ax) = aT (x) . Consider now3 E X an~ a E arbitrary. fK
Then there is n EN such that la/nl ::; 1. Then by the above T (ax) = T (n ((ajn) x)) =
nT ((ajn)3) = n (ajn) T (x) = aT (x). Thus T : X ----t Y is ~so homogeneous, and
therefore T : X ----t Y is linear. It remains to be proved that T is continuous. Since
T :X ----t Y is linear and the topologies on X and Y are linear it is sufficient to prove that
Tis continuous at 0 E X. Let E > 0. Since T : M ----t Y is continuous, there is an open

neighborhood V ofO E X such that d (0, Tx) < c/2 Vx E M n V. Let x E V arbitrary.
Then there is a neighborhood W for 0 E X such that x + W ~ V. Let W 0 = W and then
we can find a sequence (Wn)nEN of neighborhoods ofO EX such that Wn + Wn ~ Wn-1
for each n E N. Consider now Zn E (Wn + x) n (Vn + x) ~ M for each n E N, where
the sets Vn are the neighborhoods used for the definition ofT. We can always choose Zn
because (Wn + x) n (Vn + x) is a neighborhood for x E X and M ~ X is dense. Using
the definition forT we obtain that Tx = lim Tzn. But Zn E (Wn + x) ~ (Wn_ 1 + x) ~
n->oo
· · · ~ (W + x) ~ V Vn EN and, since Zn EM Vn EN, we obtain that d (0, Tzn) < c/2
Vn E ~-Then d ( 0, Tx) ::; E/2 and therefore for each x E V we have that Tx E Bd (0, E) .
Thus T is continuous at 0 E X.

i) Let f E C [0, 1] and Un)nEN ~ C [0, 1] such that fn ~ f. We obtain that fn (x) ----t
f (x) Vx E [0, 1]. Let (gn)nEN ~ C [0, 1],

lfn (x)- f (x)l
9n (x) = 1 + lfn (x) _ f (x)l Vx E [0, 1], Vn EN.
Then 9n (x) ----t 0 Vx E [0, 1] and l9n (x)l ::; 1 Vn E N, Vx E [0, 1]. Using the
Lebesgue dominated convergence theorem we obtain that J~gn (x) dx ----t 0, and there-
fore dUn, f) ----t 0. We have proved that the identity I : (C [0, 1] , Tp) ----t ( C [0, 1] , a) is
sequentially continuous.
Suppose now that I : (C[O, 1] ,Tp) _, (C[O, 1] ,u) is continuous at 0 E C[O, 1].
Then for any c E (0,1) there are 5 > 0, n EN and x 1 , ... ,xn E [0,1] such that
{f E C[0,1JIIf(xi)l:::; 5, i = 1, ... ,n} ~ Bd(O,c). For each k E N, let fk(x) =
k (x- x 1 ) · · · (x- Xn)· Then fk E C [0, 1] and for each 1 :::; i :::; n, ilk (x;)l = 0 :::; 5,
and therefore lk E Bd (0, c), i.e., J~ (ilk (x)l I (1 + ifk (x)l)) dx :::; c Vk E N (1). If
we denote now by hk (x) = lfk (x)l I (1 + lfk (x)l) Vx E [0, 1], Vk EN, then we have
hk (x) _, 1 Vx E [0, 1] \ {x 1 , ... , Xn}, i.e., hk _, 1 almost everywhere. Also ihk (x)l :::; 1
Vk E N, V.'r E [0, 1]. Using the Lebesgue dominated convergence theorem we obtain that
J
f01 hk (x) dx _, 01 1dx = 1. Then passing to the limit in (1) we obtain that c 2': 1, which
contradicts our choice for c.
ii) The fact that the topology Tp is not metrizable is now obvious, if we use (i), because
for a function between two metric spaces the continuity is equivalent to the sequential
continuity.
21. i) Let f : (X, T) _, lK be linear and continuous. Using the continuity off at
0 E X, for c > 0 we obtain that there are n E N, xr, ...
,X~ E rand 5 > 0 such that if
n kerx;. Then
n
X E X is such that lx; (x)l :::; 5, i = 1, ... , n, then If (x)l :::; c. Let X E
i=l
lxi (kx)i = 0 :::; 5, i = 1, ... , n, Vk E N, and therefore If (kx)i :::; c Vk E N, that is,
If (x)l :::; clk Vk E Nand passing to the limit fork _, oo we obtain that f (x) = 0. We
n ker xi ~ kerf and, using exercise 16(i) of chapter 14 we obtain that there
n
obtain that
i=l
n
are o: 1 , ... , o:n E IK. such that f = :Z::::o:;x;.
i=l
In the case in which r ~ X* is a linear subspace we observe that iff : (X, T) _, lK
is linear and continuous then f E r. Conversely, if x* E r then x* : (X, T) _, lK is linear
and continuous. Thus we have the identification r = (X' T )* .
ii) See [44, exercise 13 (c), chapter 1].
The topology Tp on c [0, 1] is given by r ~ (C [0, 1])*' r = { 5x I X E [0, 1]}' where,
for x E [0,1], 5x(J) = lf(x)l \:If E C[0,1]. By (i) we obtain that any linear and
n
continuous functional on (C [0, 1], Tp) is of the form f f---+ I: o:d (x;), with n E N,
i=l
O:J, ... ,O:n EIK.,XJ, ... ,Xn E [0,1].
22. See [9, exercise 2 (a), (c), chapter I, section 2].

i) We have Ve:;2,J/2 + Ve:;2,J/2 ~ Vc,J· Indeed, let f, g E Ve:;2,J/2· Then we can find
00
an open set A ~ [0, 1], A = U (o:;, Pi), ((o:i, p;))iEN pairwise disjoint intervals with
i=l
00
I: (Pi- o:i) :::; 512 such that If (t)l :::; cl2 Vt rf. A, and an open set B ~ [0, 1],
i=l 00
00
B = U (~;, r;;), ((~i, r;;))iEN pairwise disjoint intervals with I: (r;i- ~i)
:::; 512 such that
i=l i=l
19 (t)l :::; cl2 Vt rf. B. Let C =AU B. Then Cis open, and therefore Cis the union of its
00
component intervals: C = U (u;, v;), ((u;, v;))iEN pairwise disjoint intervals. If JL is the
i=l 00
Lebesgue measure on [0, 1] then JL (C) :::; JL (A) + 1;, (B), and therefore I: (v; - ui) :::; 5.
i=l
13.2 Solutions 389
Also Vt ~ C we have If (t) + g (t) I :::; If (t) I + Ig (t) I :::; E. Therefore f + g E Vc ,o.
If c 1 < E2 and 61 < 62 then "Vc 1 , 01 ~ "Vc 2 , 02 . Indeed, iff E "Vc 1 , 01 then we can find
00
an open set A ~ [0, 1], A = U (o:;, f);), ((o:;, f);))iE'N pairwise disjoint intervals with
i=1
00 00
2: (P;- o:;) :::; 61, such that If (t)l :::; c1 Vt ~A. Then 2: (P;- o:;) :S: 62 and If (t)l ::; E2
i=1 i=1
'Vt ~A, and we obtain that f E 'Vc 2 ,o 2 • Then Vmin{c',c"},min{o',o"} ~ Vc',o' n Vc",J"·
Clearly, for E > 0 and 0 < 6 < 1, Vc,s is absorbing and balanced. Also, if>.. # 0 then
>.. Vc,s = V\>.ic,J. Therefore there is a linear topology T on X such that (Vc,J) c,J form a basis
of neighborhoods for 0 E X in the T topology.
ii) It is sufficient to prove that if Vc',o' ~ U ~ Vc,s where E, E 1 > 0, 6, 6' E (0, 1/3),
then U is not a convex set. Indeed, there is n E N such that 1 > n6' > 26. Also, let
I; ~ [0, 1], i = 1, n, n pairwise disjoint intervals, each oflength 6'. For each 1 ::; i :::; n,
let J; be the interval of length 6' /2 centered in the middle of I; and we consider J; E X
with the properties fi = 0 outside I;, f; > nE on J;. Then f; E Vc',J' \/1 ::; i :::; n and
n
therefore f; E U \11 :::; i ::; n. If U were convex then ( 1/ n) 2: f; E U, and therefore
%1 f;) (t) > E Vt E ;9 J;, and the sum

i=1
(1/n) i~ f; E Vc,s, a contradiction, since ((1/n) 1
of the lengths for the intervals J; is n (6' /2) > 6.

iii) Let cp : (X, T) ---+ ffi. be linear and continuous. From the continuity, there are E > 0
and 6 E (0, 1) such that lc.p (f) I :::; 1 Vf E Vc,s· We consider a covering of [0, 1] with
open intervals U;, i = 1, n, such that every interval U; has its length lesser then 6. Using
n
the partition of unity theorem there are JI, ... , fn E X such that L f; = 1, and f; = 0
i=1
n
on [0, 1] \U; \/1 :::; i :::; n. Then for any f E X we have f = 2: f f; and since cp is
i=1
n
linear, cp (f) = 2: cp (f f;) . But (f f;) (t) = 0 for every t E [0, 1] with the exception of an
i=1
interval of length lesser than 6. We obtain that k (f f;) E Vc,s for every k E N, and then
lc.p (k (f f;))l :::; 1 for every k E N. Then lc.p (f f;)l ::; 1/k for every k E N, and passing to
the limit for k ---+ oo we deduce that cp (f f;) = 0 for each 1 ::; i :::; n. Then cp (f) = 0
\If EX, and cp = 0.
00
23. i) Let 1>..1 :::; 1 and x E A. Then L lanllxniP :::; 1 and therefore
n=1
00 00
n=1 n=1
i.e., >..x E A. Since p ~ 1 the function t t----t IW is convex and then
l>..xn + (1- A)Ynlp:::; >..lxnlp + (1- >..) IYnlp 'Vn EN, 'VO :'S: A :'S: 1.
If X = (xn)nE'N E A, y = (yn)nE'N E A, and 0 :'S: A :::; 1, then

00 00 00
n=1 n=1 n=1

i.e., AX+ (1 - A)y E A.

ii) Suppose that A is absorbing. Then Vx E ZP 3A > 0 such that AX E A, that is,
00 00 00
V 2::: lxniP < oo 3A > 0 such that I: lanl AP lxniP ::::; 1, that is, 2::: ianllxniP ::::; 1/AP.
n=1 n=1 n=1
But Vx = (xn)nEN E h, we have (lxni P) 11 E Zp, and then we can find A such that
nEN
00 00
I: lanllxnl ::::; 1/ AP, i.e., for every x = (xn)nEN E h the series I: anxn converges abso-
n=1 n=1
lutely. Using exercise 24(iii) of chapter 9 we obtain that (an)nEN E Z00 •
Conversely, if (an)nEN E Z00 , then Vx E lp 3A = (M llxiiP + 1)- 1/P (here M =
sup ian I < oo) such that AX E A, since
nEN
~ Ia I AP lx IP < AP M llxiiP < M llxiiP < 1.

~ n n - - M llxllp + 1 -
Since A is balanced we obtain that A is absorbing.

iii) Since (ii) is true we can calculate the Minkowski seminorm. We have
PA(x) =
24. i) a) If p : X ---+ JR.+ is a seminorm then a simple calculation shows that the
set {x EX I p(x)::::; 1} is convex and balanced, hence A is convex and balanced, as an
intersection of convex and balanced sets.
b)SupposethatAisabsorbing. ThenVx E X3c > Osuchthatc-x E A,i.e.,pn(c-x)::::; 1
"in EN, i.e., since Pn are seminorms, Pn(x) ::::; 1/c Vn EN. Conversely, ifsuppk(x) < oo
kEN
1
Vx EX then Vx EX 3c- = (1 + suppk(x)) - > 0 such that
kEN
Pn(x)
Pn(Ex) = EPn(x) = ( ) ::::; 1 Vn EN,
1+suppk x
kEN
and then A is absorbing. If A is absorbing we have
PA(x) = inf {JL > 0 I X E p,A} = inf {JL > 0 I Pn(x)::::; J.l "in EN}= suppn(x).
nEN
c) Suppose that A is absorbing. Using (b) we can define p : X ---; JR., p( x) = sup Pn (x),
nEN
and p is a seminorm. Since p takes finite values we have X = U Ek, where
kEN
Ek = {x EX I p(x)::::; k} = n
nEN
{x EX I Pn(x)::::; k}.
13.2 Solutions 391
Since the seminorms Pn are continuous then the sets Ek are closed. By the Baire category
0
theorem (X is a Banach space) it follows that there is k E N such that Ek-=1- 0. Then
there are c: > 0 and a E X such that B(a,c:) t:;:; Ek. Let now x E X, x -=1- 0. Then
a+ c:xj llxll E B(a, c:), hence a+ c:xj llxll E Ek, i.e., p (a+ c:xj llxll) ~ k, and then
(c:j llxll) p(x) ~ k + p (a), i.e., p(x) ~ ((k + p (a)) /c:) llxll·
The converse is clear by (b).
ii) a) Let Pn : R[O, 1] -+ JR. be defined by PnU) = lanx~ (f) I. Clearly all Pn are
seminorms and A = {! E R[O, 1]1 PnU) ~ 1 Vn EN}. If A is absorbing then by (i) the
family (Pn)nEN is pointwise bounded, in particular suppn(1) < oo, i.e., sup lanx~ (1)1 <
nEN nEN
oo. For the converse we remark first that if x* : 'R[O, 1] -+ JR. is linear and positive, and
a E JR., then we have
lax* (f) I ~ lal x* (1) sup lf(x)l \If E R[O, 1].

xE[O,l]
Then for any f E R[O, 1] and any n EN we have by the above remark that
Pn(f) = lanX~ (f) I ~ lanl X~ (1) sup lf(x)l,

xE[O,l]
hence
suppn(f)
nEN
~ (sup
nEN
lanl X~ (1)) (sup lf(x)l)
xE[O,l]
< oo
and this implies that A is absorbing.

If A is absorbing then PA (f) =sup Pn (f) =sup lanx~ (f) I, \If E R[O, 1]
nEN nEN
For the functions CfJn we take x~ : R[O, 1] -+JR. defined by Xn(f) = f01 CfJn (x) f(x)dx
and we apply the above calculations.
n
b) Let Pn : R[O, 1] -+ JR. be defined by PnU) = I: lakxk (f) 1. Clearly all the Pn are
k=l
seminorms and A= {! E R[O, 1]1 PnU) ~ 1 Vn EN}. If A is absorbing then the family
00
(Pn)nENispointwisebounded,inparticularsuppn(1) < oo,i.e., I: lakx;;;(1)1 < oo. For

nEN k=l
the converse we use the same remark: if x* : R [0, 1] -+ JR. is linear and positive and a E JR.,
then we have
lax* (f) I ~ lal x* (1) sup lf(x)l \If E R[O, 1].
xE[O,l]
Then for any f E R[O, 1] and any n EN we have by the above remark that
n n
PnU) = L
k=l
lakxk (f) I ~ sup lf(x)l· L lakxk (1)1
xE[O,l] k=l
hence
L
00
suppn(f) ~ sup lf(x)l· lakxk (1)1 < oo,

nEN xE[O,l] k=l
00
and hence A is absorbing. We also have that if A is absorbing then pA (f) = I: Iakxk (f) I
k=l
\If E 'R[O, 1].
For the particular case we take x~ : R[O, 1] ----> JR. defined by Xn (f) = f01 xn f (x )dx and
we apply the above calculations.
n
iii) For every n EN consider Pn: X--+ JR., Pn (x) = L lxt,(x)l. Then
k=l
A = {X E X I Pn (X) :S: 1 Vn E N} .
Since X is a Banach space from the part (c) of (i) it follows that A is absorbing if and only
00
if3M > 0 such thatsuppn(x) :S: M llxll Vx EX, i.e., 3M> 0 such that 2::: lx~ (x)l :S: M
nEN n=l
Vx E Bx. Now since for a finite system of scalars >. 1 , ... ,An we have that
n
sup {ILiEF>-ill F ~ {1, ... ,n}}:::; L 1>-kl :S: 6sup {ILiEF>-ill F ~ {1, ... ,n}}
k=l
(see [45, Lemma 6.3]) this is equivalent to
00
Also if A is absorbing thenpA (x) = suppn (x) = L lx~ (x)l.

nEN n=l
iv) Taking x~ : H ----> ]!{, x~ (x) = an (x, en), by (iii) we obtain that A is absorbing if
andonlyifsup{III:nEFx~lll Ffinite,F ~ N} < oo (1). AlsoforanyfinitesetF ~ N
we have
(LnEFx~) (x) = (x, LnEFanenJ Vx E H,
so IILnEFx~ll = IILnEF anenil = (LnEF lann 112 (for the last equality we have used
the Pythagoras theorem). From here it follows easily that (1) is equivalent with the fact that
2
L
00
lakl < oo.
k=l
00
If A is absorbing thenpA (x) = L ian (x, en) I Vx E H.

n=l
v) Taking x~ : L (H) --+ ]!{, x~ (U) = an (U (en), en), by (iii) we obtain that A is
absorbing if and only if sup { III:n~F x~lll F finite, F ~ N} < oo (2). Also for any
finite set F ~ N we have IILnEF x~11 = LnEF lanl· Indeed for any U E L (H) we have
so
For the converse, let U E L (l2) defined by U (x) = LnEF sgn (an) (x, en) en. Then
i(LnEFx~) (U)j :S: IIUIIIILnEFx~jj. We have (LnEFx~) (U) = LnEF lanl, and by
the Pythagoras theorem and the Bessel inequality
13.2 Solutions 393
thus IlUll ::; 1. We obtain that II LnEF x~ II 2: LnEF Iani· From here it follows easily that
00
(2) is equivalent with the fact that 2: Jakl < oo.

k=l
00
IfAisabsorbingthenpA(U) = L Jan(U(en),en)IVU E L(H)

n=l
vi) For every n EN let us consider the set En= [1/ (n + 1), 1/n), and Pn: C[O, 1] ---->
lR,pn(f) = (~1 ~akJEkf(x)dxiP) 11P. Thenallpnareseminormsand

A= {x EX I Pn(x) :S: 1 \fn EN}.
By (i), A is absorbing if and only if3M > 0 such that suppn(f) ::::; M 11!11 \If E C[O, 1]
nEN
(3). Using the Holder inequality we have
""(f)~ '"P { t. a,b, l, f(x)dx
(q is the conjugate ofp). It follows that the condition (3) is equivalent with the fact that
But
sup Lk=nl akbk {Ek f(x)dx

/EC[0,1], 11/ll-<:1 JF
since the sets Ek are pairwise disjoint. Thus the last inequality is equivalent with
Using again the Holder inequality this is equivalent with the fact that
i.e., ((1/ (n (n + 1))) an)nEN E lp.

If A is absorbing then
p)
PA (f)= (
L
00
k=1
ak J 1/k
1/(k+l)
f(x)dx
ljp
\fjEC[0,1].
vii) Let x~ (f) = anf (1/n). Then llx~ll = lanl 'Vn EN. Observing that
A= {f E C[O, 1JIIx~ (f) I S 1 'Vn EN}
by (i) it follows that A is absorbing if and only if sup llx~ll < oo, i.e., sup lanl < oo. Also
nEN nEN
if A is absorbing then
PA(f) =sup lx~ (f) I= sup lanf (1/n)l.

nEN nEN
25. i) Observe first that since 0 EA,A is a neighborhood of 0, hence absorbing, and
therefore PA has a meaning. Let c > 0. Then V := (c/2) An (-
(c/2) A) is a neighbor-
hood of 0, and for each x E V we have that PA (x) S c/2 < c and PA ( -x) S c/2 < c.
We obtain that x f------t PA (x) is continuous at 0, and also x 1-----t max (PA (x) ,pA (-x))
is continuous at 0. If A is symmetric then PA ( -x) = PA (x) 'Vx E X and then since
PA (x + y) SPA (x) + PA (y) 'Vx, y EX we obtain that
IPA (x)- PA (y)l SPA (x- y) 'Vx, y EX.
Since PA is continuous at 0 E X from here it follows that pA is continuous.

ii) See [42, chapter V, the proof of Theorem V.4].
Since xo E X\A, xo =I 0. Let M = Sp{x0 } = {Ax 0 I >. E IR} and g : M ----> IR,
g (>.xo) = >. 'V>. E R For any>. S 0 we have g (>.x 0 ) = >. S 0 SPA (>.x 0 ). If A > 0 then
since PA (xo) 2': 1 (xo ~ A) we have g (Axo) = A S APA (xo) = PA (Axo). Then g SPA
on M and by the Hahn-Banach theorem there is f: X----> lR linear such that JIM= g and
f SPA on X. Then J (x) SPA (x) S 1 'Vx E A and f (xo) = g (xo) = 1. We must prove
now that f: X----> lR is continuous. We have f (x) SPA (x),- f (x) = f ( -x) SPA ( -x)
'Vx E X, and therefore If (x) I S max (PA (x) ,PA (-x)) 'Vx E X. Then f is continuous at
0, because it is proved at (i) that x f------t max (PA (x) ,PA ( -x)) is continuous at 0. Using
the linearity off it follows that f is continuous on X.
Remark. If X is a linear topological space which contains a convex neighborhood of
the origin, strictly contained in X, then the dual of X is not the null space. Conversely,
if for a linear topological space X its dual is not the null space, then X has a convex
neighborhood ofthe origin strictly contained in X. For example, V = f- 1 ( ( -1, 1)) , where
f E X* is not zero.
If X is a locally convex space, we obtain that its dual is not the null space.
26. i) We have {x EX llxi (x)l < 1, ... , lx~ (x)l < 1} ~A and since the set from the
0
left side is open and contains the origin it follows that 0 EA. Let f E X* with the properties
If (x)l S 1 'Vx E A and f (x 0 ) = 1 (by exercise 25 there is at least one such f). We will
prove that n ker xT
n
i=1
~ ker f. Indeed, let x E nker xT. Then for any n E N the element
n
i=1
nx is in A, hence If (nx) I S 1, therefore If (x) I S 1/n and passing to the limit for n ----> oo
it follows that If (x)l s 0, i.e., f (x) = 0, x E kerf. Using exercise 16(i) of chapter 14, we
n
can find >. 1 E IR, ... ,An E lR such that f = I: A;xT. Since {xi, ... , x~} ~X* is a linearly
i=1
13.2 Solutions 395
independent system by a well known result from the linear algebra we obtain that we can
find {x 1, ... , Xn} ~ X such that xi (xi) = 8ii \11 :::;: i,j :::;: n. Form here it follows that
n
there is x E X (x = 2:::: sgn (.Xi) xi) such that xi (x) = sgn (.Xi), for any 1 :::;: i :::;: n. This
i=1
n n
means that x E A, hence f (x) :::;: 1, i.e., 2:::: .Xixi (x) :::;: :::;: 1.
1, so I: I.Ail
i=1 i=1
ii) We have Uo (el) = (e1, 2e1 + 3e2) e2 = 2e2 and Uo (e2) = (e2, 2e1 + 3e2) e2 = 3e2,
hence Uo tf:- A. Iff E (L (l2))* has the properties If (U)I :::;: 1 \IU E A and f (Uo) = 1,
then by (i) we can find A, J.L E lR such that f (U) =.X (Ue 1, e2) + J.L (Ue 2, e 2) \IU E L (l2),
I.XI + IJ.LI :::;: 1 and .X (Uoe1, e2) + J.L (Uoe2, e2) = 1. From this we obtain that 2.X + 3J.L = 1
and I.XI + IJ.LI :::;: 1, i.e., J.L = (1- 2.X) /3 and I.XI + 11- 2-XI /3 :::;: 1. If .X :::;: 0 we have
-.X+ (1- 2.X) /3:::;: 1, and then .X E [-2/5, 0]. IfO <.X:::;: 1/2 we have .X+ (1- 2.X) /3:::;:
1, .X :::;: 2, so 0 < .X :::;: 1/2. For .X > 1/2, we have .X+ (2.X- 1) /3 :::;: 1, .X :::;: 4/5, so
1/2 < .X:::;: 4/5. Hence .X E [-2/5, 4/5].
27. See [35, exercise G, chapter 2).

i) Let X E n(
r>1
r A) . Then for any n E N there is an an E A such that X = ( 1 + 1In) an.
Then an= xj (1 + 1/n) for every n EN and therefore an----) x. We obtain that x EA.
ii) From (i), n(
r>1
r A) ~ A. Suppose that Xo E A and Xo tf:-
r>1
r A) . Hence there is n(
r > 1 such that x 0 tf:_ ( r A) . Since r A is a convex set and 0 belongs to the interior of r A
then by exercise 25 we obtain that there is a linear and continuous functional f : X ----) lR
such that f (x) :::;: 1 \lx E r A and f (x 0 ) = 1. Then f (ra) :::;: 1 \Ia E A, and therefore
f (a) :::;: 1/r \Ia EA. Since x 0 E A then by the continuity off we obtain that f (x 0 ) :::;: 1/r.
We obtain that 1 :::;: 1/r, r :::;: 1, contradiction.
28. See [32, chapter 2], for more general results.

i) We have:
II fliP= 0 <* 1 1
If (tW dt = 0 <* f (t) = 0 J.L-a.e. <* f = 0 in Lp [0, 1].
For .X E lR and f E Lp [0, 1],
11-Xfllp = 1 1
I.Xf (tW dt =I .Alp 1 1
If (tW dt =I .Alp II fliP,
and for f and gin Lp [0, 1],
II!+ gllp = 1 1
If (t) + g (t)ip dt:::;: 11
(If (tW + lg (tW)dt = II fliP+ llgllp.
We observe that II·IIP is not a norm on Lp [0, 1].

ii) We have
Also
d(f,g) =II!- gllp = l-1lp 119- flip= d(g, f) \lf,g E Lp [0, 1],
and \If, g, hELP [0, 1] we have
d (!,g) = II!- gllp ::; II!- hllp + llh- gllp = d (!,h)+ d (h, g),
and therefore d is a metric on LP [0, 1]. We observe that dis translation invariant. Anal-
ogously with the case p 2: 1 one can prove that d is a complete metric and therefore
(Lp [0, 1], T) is an F-space.
iii) Let V c:::;; LP [0, 1] be a non-empty open and convex set. Using, if necessary, a
translation, we can suppose that 0 E V. Since Vis open there is c > 0 such that Bd (0, c) c:::;;
V. Let f E LP [0, 1]. Since p < 1, there is annE N such that II fliP nP-l <c. If we consider
h : [0, 1] ____, IR, h (x) = J~ If (tW dt, then his continuous, h (0) = 0, h (1) = II fliP
and therefore by the continuity of h we can find 0 = x 0 < x 1 < · · · < Xn = 1 such
that J:,~ 1 If (tW dt IIJIIP jn for each 1 ::; i ::; n. For any 1 < < n we define
g; : [0, 1] ____, IR,
g; (t) = { nf (t), t E (x;-1,x;],
0, t t/:. (x;-1,x;].
Then for any 1 ::; i ::; n we have llg;IIP = nP J:,~ 1 If (tW = II fliP nP- 1 < c and therefore
n n
g; E Bd (0, c) c:::;; V. But f (t) = (1/n) 'I:. g;(t) \It E (0, 1], and therefore f = (1/n) 'I:. g;
i=l i=l
in Lp [0, 1]. Since Vis convex we obtain that f E V and therefore LP [0, 1] = V.
If W c:::;; LP [0, 1] is an open non-empty set using exercise 1O(i) we obtain that co (W) c:::;;
Lp [0, 1] is an open and convex set and then co (W) = Lp [0, 1] .
iv) Consider now any locally convex Hausdorff space (X, O") and T : (LP [0, 1], T) ____,
(X, O") a linear and continuous operator. Using the local convexity of (X, O") we obtain
that there is a basis of neighborhoods B for 0 E X containing only convex sets. Consider
V E B. Since V is a neighborhood for 0, there is an open neighborhood W for 0 E X
such that W c:::;; V. Let D = co (W). Since V is convex and W c:::;; V we obtain that
co (W) c:::;; V. Since W c:::;; V is an open set, using exercise lO(i) we obtain that co (W)
is an open set. Since T : ( LP [0, 1] , T) ____, (X, O") is linear and continuous it follows that
r- 1 (co (W)) c:::;; LP [0, 1] is a non-empty open and convex set. Using (iii) we obtain that
r- 1 (co (W)) = LP [0, 1], i.e., T (LP [0, 1]) c:::;; co (W) and, since co(W) c:::;; V we obtain
that T (LP [0, 1]) c:::;; V. Then
T(Lp[0,1])c::;; nv={O},
VEB
since (X, O") is Hausdorff. Thus T = 0.
v) If we consider now X = lR with the usual topology then by (iv) we obtain that the
only linear and continuous functional on (LP [0, 1], T) is the zero functional.
Since the identity I : ( LP [0, 1] , T) ____, (LP [0, 1] , T) is a linear and continuous operator,
if, for a contradiction, (LP [0, 1], T) is a locally convex space, then by (iv) for (X, O") =
( LP [0, 1] , T) we obtain that I must be the null operator, which is false! Hence ( Lp [0, 1] , T)
is not a locally convex space.
29. See [44, example 1.44, chapter 1].

i) Let n E N. Then Vn is an open set, being a union of open sets, and therefore Kn is
00
closed. Since Kn c:::;; D (0, n) we obtain that Kn is a compact set. If z E 0 and z t/:. U Kn,
n=l
13.2 Solutions 397
then z E n Cxn n Vn· Let mE N be such that lzl :::; m. Then z E

00
n=l
=
n=l
00
U
w~O
D (w, 1/n)
for any n 2: m and therefore there is a sequence (wn)n?.m in Co such that Wn---+ z. Since
00
C 0 is closed we obtain that z tj. n, a contradiction! Thus U Kn = n. If z E Kn and

n=l
r =1/ (n (n + 1)), then for any w E D (z, r) we have lwl :::; lzl + lw- zl :::; n + 1.
If w E U D (t, 1/ (n + 1)), then there is t E Co such that lw- tl < 1/ (n + 1). Then
t~O
lz- tl :::; lz- wl + lw- tl < 1/n, and then z E U D (t, 1/n), z E Vn, contradiction.
t~O
Thus D (z, r) ~ Kn+l and therefore Kn ~Kn+l Vn EN. We obtain that
n= u ~u
00
n=l
Kn
00
n=l
K n+l ~
n=l
u00
K n,
00 0
U K n we obtain that
00 0
and therefore n= U K n· If K ~ n is a compact set since K ~

n=l n=l
m o
there are i 1 , ... , im EN such that K ~ U Ki 1 • Taking n = max ij, then K ~ Kn.
j=l l:SJ:Sm
ii) Since a continuous function on a compact set is bounded, we obtain that all the Pn
are well defined. For any n E N we have Pn (,\!) = 1"1 Pn (f) \/,\ E C, Vf E C (n),
and Pn (f +g) :::; Pn (f)+ Pn (g) \If, g E C (n). Thus Pn is a seminorm for every n E N.
Since Kn ~ Kn+I for each n E N, we obtain that Pn :::; Pn+l· Iff E C (n) is such that
00
Pn (f) = 0 \In E N then f is zero on every Kn and, since n = U Kn, we obtain that
n=l
f = 0. Thus, the family of seminorms (Pn)nEN is a total one (it separates the elements of
c (n)).
iii) Since Pn :::; Pn+I Vn E N we obtain that a basis of convex neighborhoods for the
origin of C (n) in the locally convex topology T generated by this family of seminorms is
given by the sets Wn.
iv) The fact that dis a distance follows from the fact that the family (Pn)nEN is a total
one. We prove now that the topology generated by dis T. It is sufficient to prove that Vr > 0
::Jn E N such that Wn ~ Bd (0, r), and Vn E N ::lr > 0 such that Bd (0, r) ~ Wn· Let
00 00
r > 0. Since L 1/2n < oo there ism E N such that L 1/2n < r /2. Let k E N be
n=l n=m+l
such that 1/k < r /2 and let n = max(k, m). Consider f E Wn· Then Pn (f) < 1/n and
then Pn (f) < r /2. We obtain that Pi (f) < r /2 \/1 :::; i :::; n and then
~ Pi (f) = ~ Pi (f) + ~ Pi (f)

d(f,O) = t:t2i(1+pi(f)) t:t2i(1+pi(f)) i~ 1 2i(1+pi(f))
n 1 oo 1
< ~ 2: 2i
i=l
+ 2: 2i < r.
i=n+l
Thus Wn ~ Bd (0, r). Consider now n EN, and let r = 1/ (2n (n + 1)). Iff E Bd (0, r),
then
and therefore Pn (f) I (1 + Pn (f)) < 1I (n + 1) . Since the function t f---+ t I (t + 1) is

increasing on (0, oo), and 11 (n + 1) = (1ln) I (1 + 1ln) we obtain that Pn (f) < 1ln,
that is, f E Wn- We have proved that Ed (0, r) ~ Wn. Therefore the topology Ton C (0)
coincides with the topology generated by d. Evidently d is translation invariant. We prove
now that d is complete. Consider (fk) kEN ~ ( C (0) , d) , a Cauchy sequence. Then for
each n E N the sequence (h lxJkEN ~ (C (Kn), ll·lloo) is Cauchy. We obtain that for
each n E N there is gn E C (Kn) such that (fkhEN converges uniformly to gn on Kn.
Since Kn ~ Kn+l for every n E N, we obtain that gn+l lxn= gn for every n E N, and
00
we can define g : 0 = U Kn __, C, g (x) = gn (x), if x E Kn- Then g E C (0) and

n=l
00
we must prove that d (fkl g) __, 0. Let c > 0. There is n E N such that L
1/2i < c/2.
i=n+l
Since (fk)kEN converges uniformly to g on Kn it results that there is m E N such that
Pn (fk- g) < cl2 'Vk 2m. Then Pi (fk- g) < c/2 'Vk 2m, 'Vi= 1, ... , n, and therefore
for any k 2 m we have
Thus d (fk, g)__, 0 and we obtain that (C (0), T) is an F-space.

v) Suppose that fn __,fin (C (0), d). Then since for any i EN we have
Pi Un - f) < d (j f)
2i (1 +Pi Un- f)) - n, ----tO,
it follows that for any i EN we have Pi Un- f) ----t 0, i.e., fn ----t f uniformly on every Ki.
If K ~ 0 is a compact set, then by (i) there is p E N such that K ~ KP and by above it
follows that fn __, f uniformly on Kp, thus on K also.
Suppose now that for any compact set K ~ 0 we have f n __, f uniformly on K.
oo n
Consider 0 < c < 1. There is n E N such that L 1/2i < c/2. For K = U Ki,
i=n+l i=l
which is compact, by hypothesis fn __, f uniformly on K, and therefore we can find
mE E N such that lfk (x)- f (x)l S cl2 'Vk 2 me, 'Vx E K. Then Pi (fk- f) S c/2
'Vk 2 mE, 'Vi= 1, n. Now, for any k 2 me we have
~ Pi (fk - f) ~ Pi (fk - f) c~ 1 c
d(fk,f) = {=:2i (1 + p;(fk- f))+ i~l 2i (1 +Pi (fk- f)) S 2 ~ 2i + 2 < c,
i.e., fn ----t fin (C (0), d).
vi) We prove now that ( C (0) , T) is not normable. Suppose, for a contradiction, that
c(
there is a norm 11·11 on 0) which generates the topology Ton c(
n) . Let c > 0. Since the
sets (Wn)nEN form a basis of neighborhoods for the origin in the T topology and B (0, c)
is a neighborhood of the origin in the topology T it follows that there is n E N such that
c
Wn ~ B (0, c) = {! E (D) I llfll < c} (1). We cannot have Kn = 0 because 0 is
open and Kn is compact. Let z0 E 0\Kn. Then there is f E C (0) such that f lxn= 0 and
f (z 0 ) = 1 (for example, one may take f (z) = dist (z, Kn) /dist (z0 , Kn) 'Vz E 0). For
any m E N we have Pn (mf) = 0 < 1ln and therefore mf E Wn 'Vm E N. Then by (1)
13.2 Solutions 399
mf E B (O,c) Vm EN, i.e., 11!11 < c/m Vm EN and passing to the limit form-+ oo
and using the fact that 11·11 is a norm it follows that f = 0. But f (z0 ) = 1, and we obtain a
contradiction.
30. See [44, example 1.45, chapter 1].
i) Evidently 1t (n) ~ C (Q) is a linear subspace. Since by exercise 29(iv) Tis metriz-
able on C (f2) in order to prove that 1-{ ( f2) ~ (C (n) , T) is closed it is sufficient to
prove that iff E C (n) and Un)nEN ~ 1t (n) with fn -+ f E C (n) in the T topol-
ogy then f E 1t (n). Using exercise 29(v) the fact that Un)nEN converges towards f in
the T topology is equivalent with the fact that fn -+ f uniformly on every compact set
K ~ n. Using the properties for holomorphic functions we obtain that f E 1t (Q). Thus
1t (n) ~ (C (n), T) is a closed linear subspace. We obtain that the metric d which gener-
ates the T topology on c( n) gives on 1-{ ( n) a structure of an F -space.
ii) Let A~ (1-l (n), T) be a closed bounded set. In order to prove that A is a compact
set, since T is metrizable it is sufficient to prove that A is sequentially compact. Let n E
N. Since A is bounded and Wn is a neighborhood for the origin (see exercise 29(iii)) it
follows that there is a A > 0 such that A ~ AWn, that is, Pn (f) :::::; Ajn '<If E A. We
obtain that A is uniformly bounded on every Kn· Let K ~ n be an arbitrary compact set.
Using exercise 29(i), we obtain that there is n E N such that K ~ Kn and therefore A is
uniformly bounded on K. From Montel's theorem it follows that the family A ~ 1t (n)
is a normal one, and thus for any sequence (!k)kEN ~ A there is a subsequence Unk)kEN
which converges uniformly on every compact subset of n. From (i) it follows that there is
f E 1t (n) such that fnk -+ f uniformly on every compact subset of n. Using exercise
29(v) we obtain that fnk -+fin the T topology. Since A~ (1-l (Q), T) is closed it follows
that fnk -+ f E A in the T topology and therefore A is a sequentially compact set.
iii) If we suppose that (1-l (n) , T) is normable since in a normed space the closed unit
ball is closed and bounded then by (ii) it follows that the closed unit ball in (1-i (Q), T)
is compact which by the Riesz theorem would imply that dime 1t (n) < oo. But ev-
ery polynomial is a holomorphic function, and the space of all polynomials is not finite-
dimensional.
i) For every n E N the map ll·lln : I( <C) -+ [0, oo) is a norm. Indeed, if llflln = 0,
f E I( <C), then f = 0 on D (0, n) and using the identity theorem for analytic functions we
obtain that f = 0. Evidently II A/lin = IAIIIJIIn and II/+ glln :S llflln + llglln '<lA E <C,
Vf,g E I(<C). We consider now {ll·lln In EN} as a family ofseminorms on I(<C) and
this family generates a Hausdorff locally convex topology on I( <C).
ii) Evidently for any~ E <C the function z f------> ~z is analytic from <C to <C and then fe E
I(<C) as a composition of entire functions. Also '<In EN we have Jt)(z) = J(n)(~z)~n
'<lz E <C.
iii) Let x* : I(<C) -+ <C be a linear and continuous functional, where on I(<C) we
consider the topology given at (i), and let f E I( <C). Since x* is linear and continuous, we
can find M > 0 and m E N such that lx* (g)l ::::; M llgllm '<lg E I(<C), that is lx* (g) I ::::;
M sup lg (z)l '<lg E I( <C) (1). For any n E N let gn E I( <C), gn (z) = zn '<lz E <C.
lzl~m
00
For f E I(<C) considered in the statement, let f (z) = I:; anzn on <C. We obtain that
n=O
CXl
I: an~nzn and therefore

CXl
ft. (z) = ft. (z) = I: an~n9n (z) 1::/~, z E C. We fix~ E C. For

n=O n=O
N
any N EN let sN = I: anC9n, SN E I(C). Then
n=O
L
CXl
sup IUt.- SN) (z)l = sup an (~zf

lzi<:::m izl<:::m n=N+l
If we denote w = z~ we obtain that

CXl
CXl
Since the series I: anwn has oo as its radius of convergence, we obtain that it converges
n=O
on a closed disc of radius 2': m 1~1, and therefore it converges uniformly on this disc. We
obtain that for any c: > 0 there is an N 6 E N such that
CXl
Lanwn < c 1::/w E D(O,m IW, 1::/p 2': NE.

n=p
From here it follows that
sup IUt.- sN) (z)l::; c 1::/N 2': N 6

lzl<:::m
CXl
and, using (1), we obtain that x* (it,) = I: x* (gn) an~n. Thus, for any~ E C we have
n=O
co
F (~) = x* (it,)= L x* (gn) anC·

n=O
co
Using again (1) we obtain that lx* (gn) I ::; M mn for every n E N. Since the series I: an~n
n=O
defines an analytic function, it converges absolutely on C. We obtain that the series which
defines F (0 is uniformly convergent on every bounded set ofC and therefore FE I(C).
We also have
p(n) (0) = n!anx* (gn) = f(n) (0) x* (gn) 1::/n 2': 0.
iv) Let x* E (I(C))* be such that x* (it,) = 0 1::/~ E C. Using (iii) we obtain that
co
x* (gn) = 0 for any n E N. But if g E I(C), g (z) = I: cnzn 1::/z E C, as in (iii) one can
n=O
co
easily see that x* (g) = I: cnx* (gn) , therefore x* (g)
= 0, and then x* = 0. This means
n=O
(see chapter 8) that the set Ut. I ~ E C} <;;; I(C) is fundamental in the locally convex space
I(C).
13.2 Solutions 401

Recall that if (xa,)aEA ~ ][{, then this family is summable if and only if the net
(sF) FEF(A) is convergent, where :F (A) = { F ~ A I F finite} is directed by inclusion and
sp = I: Xa 'v'F finite~ A. In this case we write I: Xa = lim sp, or simply limsp.
a:EF a:EA FEF(A) F
i) The fact that Pf3 : X --+ [0, oo) are seminorms is obvious. Suppose that X is Haus-
1 ifi = o:,
dorf'f. Let 0: E A. Let ea = (8ia)iEA' where 8ia = { 0 ifi =1- 0:. We have ea E X,
because Pf3 (ea) = Caf3 < oo 'v'/3 E B. Observe that ea =/:- 0. Since X is Hausdorff there is
f3 E B such that Pf3 ( ea) =1- 0, i.e., there is f3 E B such that Caf3 =1- 0 and, since Caf3 2: 0 we
obtain that Caf3 > 0, i.e., Vo: E A 3(3 E B such that Caf3 > 0.
Conversely, suppose that Vo: E A 3(3 E B such that Caf3 > 0. We want to show that
X is Hausdorff, i.e., 'v'x E X, x =1- 0, 3(3 E B such that Pf3 (x) =1- 0. Consider x E X,
x =1- 0, x = (xa)aEA· Since x =1- 0 there is an o: E A such that Xa =1- 0. For this o: E A, by
hypothesis there is (3 E B such that Caf3 > 0. Then Pf3 (x) = I: c1 f3lx,l 2: Caf3lxal > 0.
1EA
ii) Consider x* : (X, (Pf3)(3EB) --+ ][{, a linear and continuous functional. From our
hypothesis the family of seminorms (Pf3)(3EB is filtered: 'v'/31 , /32 E B 3(3 E B such that
Pf3uPf32 ::; Pf3· Then since x* is continuous we can find a > 0, f3 E B such that lx* (x)l ::;
apf3 (x) 'v'x E X (1). Foro: E A, ea E X. We denote Ua = x* (ea) Vo: E A. Then
lual = lx* (ea)l ::; apf3 (ea) = aCaf3, i.e., lual ::; aCaf3 'v'o: E A. Consider now x E X.
We know that Pf3 (x) = I: Caf3lxal < oo, and therefore lim Pf3 (x- Sp) = 0, where
a:EA FEF(A)
sp = I: Xaea 'v'F E :F (A). Using (1) we obtain that
a:EF
lx*(x)-x*(sp)l ::;apf3(x-sp) 'v'FE:F(A),
hence x* ( x) = lim x* (sF). But x* is linear and F finite, and therefore

FEF(A)
aEF aEF
Then
x* (x) = lim '"""UaXa
FEF(A) L..t
= '"""UaXa.
L..t
a:EF aEA
Conversely, from lual ::; acaf3 'v'o: E A we obtain for (xa)aEA E X that luaxal ::;
acaf3lxal Vo: E A. Since I: Caf3lxal is summable we obtain that I: luaxal is also
aEA a:EA
summable, i.e., I: UaXa is absolutely summable, and therefore summable. Let
aEA
x* (x) = L UaXa 'v'x = (xa)aEA EX.

a:EA
Then x* is clearly well defined and linear. By our hypothesis, 3a > 0, f3 E B such that
lx* (x)l ::; L luaxal::; L aCaf3lxal = ap(3 (x) 'v'x EX,

aEA a:EA
and then x* E X*.

If Caf3 > 0 V (a, fJ) E A x B then we can identify the space X* with the space
{ (ua)aEA ~ JKI 3{3 E A such that sup lual < oc}.

aEA Ca(3
Chapter 14
The weak topologies
Definition. Let X be a normed space or, more generally, a locally convex Hausdorff
space, and X* its dual. The weak topology on X is the locally convex topology generated
by the family of seminorms (Px•) x* EX* , where Px• : X ____, lR is defined by Px• (x) = lx* (x) I
VxEX.
Proposition. Let X be a normed space or, more generally, a locally convex Hausdorff
space. For n E N, xi, ... , x~ E X*, E > 0, define
W(O; x;:, ... , x~; c)= {x EX llxi(x)l < E, ... , lx~(x)l < E}.
Then the family of sets {W(O; xi, ... , x~; c) I xi, ... , x~ E X*, E > 0, n E N} is
a basis of neighborhoods for 0 in the weak topology. Also, for any x E X, the sets
W(x; xi, ... , x~; c) = x + W(O; xi, ... , x~; c) form a basis of neighborhoods for x in the
weak topology.
Definition. Let X be a normed space or, more generally, a locally convex Hausdorff
space, and X* its dual. The weak* topology on X* is the locally convex topology generated
by the family of seminorms (Px) xEX, where Px : X* ____, lR is defined by Px (x*) = Ix* ( x) I
\fx* EX*.
space, and X* its dual. For n EN, x 1, ... , Xn EX, E > 0, define
W(O; x1, ... , Xn; E)= {x* EX* llx*(xi)I < E, ... , lx*(xn)l < c}.
Then the family of sets {W(O; x 1 , ... , Xn; E) I x 1 , ... , Xn EX, E > 0, n EN} is a basis
of neighborhoods for 0 in the weak* topology. Also, for any x* E X*, the sets
W(x*; x 1 , ... , Xn; E) = x* + W(O; x 1 , ... , Xn; E) form a basis of neighborhoods for x* in
the weak* topology.
space, and X* its dual. Then the weak and weak* topologies are Hausdorff.
404 The weak topologies
Proposition. Given a normed or, more generally, a locally convex Hausdorff space X,
then:
i) a sequence Xn ----t x weak{=} x*(xn) ----t x*(x) Vx* EX*;
ii) a sequence x~ ____, x* weak*{=} x~(x) ----t x*(x) Vx EX;
iii) a net x 8 ____, x weak¢? x*(x 8 ) ____, x*(x) Vx* EX*;
iv) a net x;; ----t x* weak*{=} x;;(x) ----t x*(x) Vx EX.
The Alaoglu-Bourbaki Theorem. i) Let X be a normed space. Then Bx· c;;; X* is
weak* compact.
ii) Let X be a Banach space. Then X is a reflexive space if and only if the closed unit
ball B x is weak compact.
The Goldstine Theorem. Let X be a normed space and Kx :X____, X** the canonical
embedding into the bidual. Then Kx(Bx) is weak* dense in Bx**, and so Kx(X) is
weak* dense in X**.
The Mazur Theorem. Let X be a normed space or, more generally, a locally convex
Hausdorff space, X* its dual, and A c;;; X a convex set. Then A = Aweak. In particular, if
A is a closed convex set then A is weak closed.
The Eberlein-Smulian Theorem. Let X be a Banach space and consider a subset
A c;;; X. Then the following assertions are equivalent:
i) A is weak compact;
ii) A is weak sequentially compact, i.e., for each sequence (xn)nEN c;;; A there exist a
subsequence (xkJnEN and an element x E A such that Xkn ----t x weak.
The Helly Theorem. Let X be a normed space, n E N, c1, ... , en E K, xi, ... , x~ E X*
and M > 0. Then the following assertions are equivalent:
i) Vc > 0 :=ix£ EX such that llx£11 < M + E and xi(x£) = c1 , ... , x~(x£) =en;
ii) V-\ 1 , ... ,An E K we have
n n
i=l i=l
Definition. Let X, Y be Banach spaces. An operator U E L (X, Y) is called weak

. . . . . weak
compact 1f and only 1f U (Bx) c;;; Y 1s relatively weak compact (that 1s, U (Bx) =
-:::-::-:-=-~11·11.
U (B x) 1s weak compact).
The Gantmacher Theorem. Let X, Y be Banach spaces. An operator U E L (X, Y)
is weak compact if and only if its dual U* E L (Y*, X*) is weak compact.
Theorem. Let X, Y, Z, T be Banach spaces. If A: X____, Y, B: Y ____, Z, C: Z ____, T
are linear and continuous operators and B is weak compact, then the composition C B A is
a weak compact operator (the ideal property for weak compact operators).
The Krein Theorem. Let X be a Banach space and A C X a subset. Then the
i) A is relatively weak compact;
ii) co (A) is relatively weak compact;
iii) ec (A) is relatively weak compact;
iv) eco (A) is relatively weak compact.
14.1 Exercises 405
14.1 Exercises
Weak convergent sequences in c0
1. i) Let x
E c0 and (xn)nEN ~ c0 . Prove that Xn ____, x weak if and only if the sequence
(xn)nEN is norm bounded in c0 and Pk (xn) ____, Pk (x) 'Vk E N, where Pk : co ____, IK are the
canonical projections.
ii) Let cp: [1, 2] ____, IK be a continuous function and consider the sequences
(cp (njn) on the nth position). Prove that Xn ____, 0 weak and that (xn)nEN is norm convergent
if and only if cp = 0.
Weak* convergent sequences in l 1
2. i) Let x 0 E l1, (xn)nEN ~ h = c~. Prove that Xn ----> Xo weak* if and only if the
sequence (xn)nEN is norm bounded in h andpk (xn) ____, Pk (xo) 'Vk EN, where Pk: h ____, IK
are the canonical projections.
ii)Let(an)nEl\l ~ IK. Definex~ E c~,x~(x1,x2, ... ) = anXn 'V(x1,x2, .. ) E co. Prove
that the sequence (x~)nEN is weak* convergent if and only if (an)nEN E l 00 • In this case
prove that x~ ____, 0 weak*.
iii) Let (an)nEl\l ~ IK. Define x~ E c~, x~ (x1,x2, ... ) = a1x1 + a2x2 + · · · + anXn.
Prove that the sequence (x~)nEl\l is weak* convergent if and only if (an)nEN E l1. In this
00
case prove that x~ ____, x* weak*, where x*(x 1, x 2 , ... ) = I.:: anXn 'V(x 1, x 2, ... ) E c0 .
n=l
iv) Let (an)nEN ~ IK. Define x~ E c~, x~ (x1, x2, ... ) = anxl + an-1X2 + · · · + a1xn
'V (x 1, x 2, .. ) E c0 . Prove that (x~) nEN is weak* convergent if and only if (an) nEN E h. In
this case prove that x~ ____, 0 weak*.
v) Let cp: [0, 1] ____, IK be a continuous function, and consider
Prove that Xn ____, 0 weak* and that (Xn)nEN is norm convergent if and only if cp = 0.
vi) Let cp: [0, 1] ____, IK be a continuous function and U : c0 ____, c0 ,
Prove that U is linear and continuous and that U is compact if and only if cp = 0.
The weak sequential convergence coincides with the norm convergence in l 1
3. i) Prove that ( B 1= , weak*) is metrizable.

ii) Let x E Z1 and (xn)nEN <;;;; Z1 such that Xn ----+ x weak. ForE > 0, we define
Bm := n
n2:m
{x* E Bz= llx* (xn)- x* (x)l::; c/3} Vm;::: 1.
Prove that Bm is weak* closed in Zoo for all mEN, and that Bz= = U Bm.
m2':1
iii) If Xn ----+ x weak prove that Xn ----+ x in the norm topology of h.
iv) Schur's theorem. In h weak and norm convergence of sequences coincide.
v) Does the part (iv) remain true for nets? I.e., for (xb)JEL'l <;;;; Z1 with x 0 ----+ 0 weak,
does it follow that x 15 ----+ 0 in norm?
Weak convergent sequences in Zr (1 < p < oo)
4. Let 1 < p < oo.

i) Let x E Zp and (xn)nEN <;;;; Zp. Prove that Xn ----+ x weak if and only if the sequence
(xn)nEN is norm bounded in Zp and Pk (xn) ----+ Pk (x) Vk E N, where Pk : Zr ----+ lK are the
canonical projections.
ii) Let cp : [0, 1] ----+ lK be a continuous function and consider the sequences
Xn -- n -1/p ( cp (~)
n , cp (3.)
n , ... , cp (~)
n , 0, .. . ) E ZP \In E N.
Using (i) prove that Xn ----+ 0 weak and that ( xn)nEN is norm convergent if and only if cp = 0.
iii) Let cp: [0, 1] ----+ lK be a continuous function, 1 < q < oo be the conjugate ofp, and
t.
U: Zq ----+co,
[J ((a,)keN) ~ (n-'/' a,~ m) .eN

Prove that U is linear and continuous and that U is compact if and only if cp = 0.
A converse of the Schur theorem
5. Let 1 ::; p < oo. Prove that the following assertions are equivalent:
i) For any sequence (xn)nEN <;;;; Zp with the property that Xn ----+ 0 weak it follows that
Xn ----+0 in the norm of ZP.
ii) p = 1.
Examples of weak* convergent sequences in Zoo and Z~
6. i) For (an)nEN E Zoo let Xn = (0, 0, ... , 0, an+ll an+2, .. ) E Zoo \In E N (n times 0).
Prove that Xn ----+ 0 weak* in Z00 •
ii) Let (an)nEN be a sequence of scalars. Define x~ E Z~, x~ (x 1 , x 2 , ... ) = anXn. Prove
that (x~) nEN is weak* convergent in Z~ if and only if (an) nEN E c0 . In this case prove that
x~ ----+ 0 in norm.
iii) Let (an)nEN be a sequence of scalars. Define x~ E Z~, x~ (x1, x2, ... ) = a1x1 + · ·
· + anXn. Prove that the sequence (x~)nEN is weak* convergent if and only if (an)nEN E h.
00
In this case prove that x~ ----+ x* weak*, where x*(x 1 , x 2, ... ) = 2: anXn V(x 1, x 2, ... ) E Z 00 •
n=l
14.1 Exercises 407
Weak convergent sequences in C(T)
7. i) LetT be a compact Hausdorff space, f E C(T) and Un)nEN S: C(T). Then

fn--+ f weak if and only if sup llfnlloo < oo and fn (t)--+ f (t) 1::/t E T.
nEN
ii) Let [0, 1] --+ ][{be a continuous function and fn : [0, 1] --+ IK, n E N, be defined
1.p :
by fn(x) = i.p (xn). Using (i) prove that Un)nEN S: C [0, 1] is weak convergent if and only
if i.p (0) = i.p (1 ).
iii) Let (an)nEN be a sequence scalars and fn : [0, 1] --+ IK, n E N, be defined by
fn(x) = anxn (1- xn). Prove that (fn)nEN S: C [0, 1] is weak convergent if and only if
(an) nEN E Zoo, and that (!n) nEN S: C [0, 1] is norm convergent if and only if (an) nEN E Co.
8. Let T be a compact Hausdorff space and let (!n) nEN S: C (T), f E C (T) , such that
sup llfnll <oo and fn (t) --+ f (t) 1::/t E T. Prove that there is a sequence (gn)nEN S: C (T),
nEN
each gn being a convex combination of elements from (jk) kEN such that gn --+ f uniformly.
Pointwise convergence in C(T)
9. Let (T, p) be a compact metric space and Tp the topology of the pointwise conver-
gence on C (T).
i) Prove that the topology Tp is metrizable on each Tp compact subset of C (T).
ii) Prove that each Tp compact subset of C (T) which is uniformly bounded is weak
compact inC (T).
Fundamental sets and the weak convergence
10. i) Let X be a normed space, x EX and (xn)nEN S: X. Prove that Xn --+ x weak
if and only ifthe sequence (xn)nEN is bounded and there is a fundamental subset Y S: X*
(that is, Sp (Y) =X*) such that x* (xn) --+ x* (x) 1::/x* E Y.
ii) Let H be a Hilbert space, E S: Han orthonormal basis, x E Hand (xn)nEN S: H.
Using (i) prove that Xn --+ x weak if and only if the sequence (xn)nEN is bounded and
(xn, a) --+ (x, a) I::/a E E.
Weak convergent sequences in L 1 [0, 1]
11. Consider the space LI[O, 1] of scalar integrable functions defined on [0, 1], the mea-
sure used being the Lebesgue measure. Let f E L 1 [0, 1] and Un)nEN S: L 1 [0, 1]. Prove that
fn--+ f weak if and only if there is an M > 0 such that J;
lfn(t)l dt :s; M 1::/n EN, and
JEfn(t)dt--+ JEj(t)dt 1::/E S: [0, 1] Lebesgue measurable.
Weak convergent sequences in Lp[O, 1] (1 < p < oo)
12. For 1 < p < oo we consider the space Lp[O, 1] of scalar p-integrable functions
defined on [0, 1], the measure used being the Lebesgue measure.
i) Let f E Lp[O, 1] and Un)nEN S: Lp[O, 1]. Prove that fn --+ f weak if and only if
J; fn(t)dt --+ fox j(t)dt 1::/x E [0, 1] and there exists M > 0 such that f 01 lfn(tW dt :s; M
1::/n EN.
ii) Let (an)nEN <:;;; IK and (bn)nEN <:;;; [0, 1] such that (lanl b;;P) is bounded and
nEN
anbn-+ 0.
a) Using (i) prove that the sequence of functions Un)nEN, where fn = anX(o,bn)' is
weak null in Lp[O, 1].
b) Let 1 < q < oo be the conjugate of p. Prove that the operator U : Lq[O, 1] -+ c0 ,
U (f) = (an J~n f (x) dx) is linear and continuous and that U is compact if and only
nEN
if (lanl b;;P) E Co.
nEN
13. Let 1 < p < oo and fn : [0, 1] -+ IK, n EN, be a sequence of functions in Lp[O, 1]
with llfnll = 1 Vn E Nand such that: Vt E [0, 1] there is at most one n E N such that
fn(t) -1- 0. Prove that fn -+ 0 weak. What about the case p = 1?
Examples of weak and weak* continuous functions
14. LetT be a compact Hausdorff space. For each t E T we define the Dirac functional
bt : C(T) -+ IK, bt(f) = j(t) \If E C (T). Prove that the function <p : T -+ C(T)*,
zp(t) = bt, is continuous ifwe consider the weak* topology on C(T)*.
15. For a given normed space X prove that the canonical mapping Kx : X -+
Kx (X) <:;;;X** is a weak-to-weak* homeomorphism.
An algebraic property for infinite-dimensional linear spaces
16. i) Let X be a linear space, n EN, and j, JI, h, ... , fn: X-+ IK be linear function-
n ker J; <:;;;kerf. Prove that f
n
als such that is a linear combination of !I, h, ... , fn·
i=l
ii) Let X be a linear space with dimocX = oo, n E N, and JI, ... , fn : X -+ IK be
linear functionals. Prove that there is an x 0 EX, x 0 -1- 0, such that J;(x 0 ) = 0 Vi= 1, n.
Continuous and weak continuous functionals
17. i) Let X be a normed space and f : X -+ IK a linear functional. Prove that

f : (X, 11·11) -+ IK is continuous if and only iff : (X, weak) -+ lK is continuous.
ii) If rl is a topological space and f : rl -+ X a function, prove that f is weak
continuous (continuous from rl with values in (X, weak)) if and only if x* of : rl -+ IK is
continuous for every x* E X*.
The norm continuity and the weak continuity coincide for linear operators
18. Let X and Y be two normed spaces and T : X -+ Y a linear operator. Then T is
norm-to-norm continuous if and only if it is weak-to-weak continuous.
A linear weak* -to-weak* continuous operator is a dual operator
19. Let X and Y be two normed spaces and S : Y* -+ X* a linear operator. Prove that
Sis weak*-to-weak* continuous if and only ifthere is T E L(X, Y) such that T* = S.
14.1 Exercises 409
The weak topology restricted to a linear subspace
20. Let X be a normed space andY ~ X a linear subspace. Prove that the weak
topology on Y (given by its dual space Y*) is the restriction on Y ~ X of the weak
topology from X.
A separation result for the weak and weak* topologies
21. Let X be a real normed space.

i) Prove that if A ~ X is a convex weak compact set and C ~ X* is a weak* closed
convex cone with the property that Vx* E C 3x E A such that x* (x) ::; 0, then there exists
x 0 E A such that x* (x 0 ) ::; 0 Vx* E C.
ii) Prove that if A ~ X* is a convex weak* compact set and C ~ X is a weak closed
convex cone with the property that Vx E C 3x* E A such that x* (x) ::; 0, then there exists
x 0 E A such that x 0(x) ::; 0 Vx E C.
The weak topology and finite-dimensional normed spaces
22. If (X, 11·11) is a finite-dimensional normed space prove that the weak topology on
X coincide with the norm topology. Thus in this case Xn --+ x weak if and only if Xn --+ x
in norm.
23. Prove that if the weak topology on a normed space X is metrizable then X is
finite-dimensional.
The weak and the norm topology on infinite-dimensional normed spaces
24. If (X, 11·11) is an infinite-dimensional normed space prove that the weak topology is
smaller than the norm topology, that is there are sets which are open (respectively closed)
in the norm topology, and not open (respectively closed) in the weak topology.
For example, if (X, 11·11) is an infinite-dimensional normed space, then Sx weak = Bx.
25. i) If (X, II· II) is an infinite-dimensional normed space prove that the interior for
B(O, 1) with respect to the weak topology on X is the empty set.
Consequently, the open unit ball B(O, 1) is an open set in the norm topology, but it is
not open in the weak topology.
ii) Using (i) prove that if X is an infinite-dimensional normed space then (X, weak) is
of the first Baire category.
The weak topology need not be sequential
26 . 1). Let A~ l2 , A= {em+ men I m, n EN, 1 ::; m < n < oo } . Then 0 E -weak
A
but we do not have in A a sequence which converges towards 0 in the weak topology.
ii) Lets = {nen I n E N} ~ Co· Show that 0 E sweak but we do not have in A a
sequence which converges towards 0 in the weak topology.
The weak topology on infinite-dimensional normed spaces is never complete
27. Let X be an infinite-dimensional normed space.

i) Prove that there is a linear functional cp on X* which is not continuous.
ii) Using Helly's lemma and the Hahn-Banach theorem, build a weak Cauchy net in
X indexed by the finite-dimensional subspaces of X* with cp the only possible weak limit
point.
iii) Deduce that the weak topology on infinite-dimensional spaces is never complete,
i.e., we can find weak Cauchy nets which are not weak convergent.
Separately continuous bilinear operators on infinite-dimensional normed spaces

which are not continuous
28. i) Let H be an infinite-dimensional Hilbert space. Prove that the inner product
(·, ·) : ( H, weak) x ( H, weak) ---+ K is separately continuous but is not continuous as a
function of two variables.
ii) Let X be an infinite-dimensional normed space. Prove that the duality bracket
( ·, ·) : (X*, weak*) x (X, weak) ---+ K, (x*, x) = x* (x), is separately continuous but is not
continuous as a function of two variables.
iii) Let X be an infinite-dimensional normed space, and on L (X) we consider the
pointwise convergence topology, i.e., the locally convex topology given by the family of
seminorms (Px)xEX' where Px (U) = IIU (x)ll- Prove that the map E: L (X) x X---+ X
defined by E ( U, x) = U ( x) is separately continuous but is not continuous as a function
of two variables (on X we consider the norm topology and on L (X) the pointwise conver-
gence topology).
Metrizability for the weak and the weak* topologies and separable Banach spaces
29. Let (X, 11·11) be a separable normed space, and consider a dense subset (xn)nEN c:;;;
X\ {0}. We defined: Bx• x Bx· ______, JR+,
d(x* y*) = ~ l(x*- y*)(xn)l Vx* * E B •.

' ~ 2n llxnll ,y X
i) Prove that d is a metric on B x·.

ii) Prove that the identity I : ( B x•, weak*) ______, ( B x•, d) is a homeomorphism.
iii) Deduce that the weak* topology on B x• is metrizable.
30. Let X be a Banach space. Prove that ( B x, weak) is metrizable if and only if X* is
separable.
31. Let X be a Banach space. Prove that if ( B x, weak) is metrizable then X* has a
countable total set. (A subset A c:;;; X* is called total if for any x E X with the property
that x* (x) = 0 Vx* E A it follows that x = 0.)
32. Let X be a Banach space.
i) If X* has a countable total set prove that on every weak compact subset of X the
weak topology is metrizable.
ii) Prove that if X is reflexive and X* has a countable total set then X* is separable.
33. Let X be a Banach space such that ( B x· , weak*) is a compact metric space. Prove
that X is separable.
14.1 Exercises 411
Dual weak* -to-norm continuous operators are finite rank operators

34. Let X andY be normed spaces, and T: X--'> Y a bounded linear operator. Prove
that if T* : Y* --'> X* is weak* -to-norm continuous then T is a finite rank operator.
A weak* -to-weak* bicontinuous linear operator
35. Let X be a Banach space and Y ~ X a dense linear subspace.
i) Prove that the operator T : X* --'> Y*, T (x*) = x* IY is an isometric isomorphism.
ii) Prove that Tis a weak*-to-weak* homeomorphism if and only if X= Y.
A characterization for injective operators
36. Let X andY be two normed spaces and T : X --'> Y a linear bounded operator.
Then T is injective if and only if T* (Y*) ~ X* is weak* dense.
Conditions for a Banach space to be a dual space
37. Let X be a Banach space and let E ~ X*. Suppose that E separates the elements
of X and that Bx is compact in the topology of pointwise convergence on E. Prove that X
is the dual of a Banach space (X is isometrically isomorphic with (Sp(E))*).
Weak sequential convergence and compact operators on Hilbert spaces
3 8. Let H be a complex Hilbert space and T E L (H) .
i) Prove that Tis compact if and only if (xn)nEN ~ H, Xn --'> 0 weak, imply Txn --'> 0
in the norm topology of H.
ii) Prove that T is compact if and only if (xn)nEN ~ H, Xn --'> 0 weak, imply
(Txn, XnJ --'> 0.
A compact operator on a reflexive space attains its norm
39. Let X, Y be two Banach spaces, Y -f {0}. Prove that X is reflexive if and only if
for each compact operator A: X--'> Y there is an x EX, llxll ~ 1, such that I All = I Axil·
A characterization for compact operators between two Banach spaces
40. Let X, Y be two Banach spaces, and consider a bounded linear operator T
X Y. Prove that Tis compact if and only if T* is weak* -to-norm continuous on weak*
--'>
compact subsets of Y*.

Weak compact sets and norm closed and bounded sets
41. Let X be a normed space and K ~ X a weak compact subset. Then K ~ X is
norm closed and norm bounded.
42. i) Prove that Bco ~ c0 is norm closed and norm bounded and that it is not weak
compact.
ii) Prove that Bz 1 ~ h is norm closed, norm bounded, but it is not weak compact.
The summation operator is not weak compact
t t},cN
43. Prove that the summation operator I: : l 1 --'> [ 00 ,
l::( (ln)neN) ~(
is not a weak compact operator.
The failure of the Eberlein-Smulian theorem in the weak* topology
44. Let r be a non-empty set and denote by h (r) the set of all functions x : r ---+ ][{for
which 2::::: lxb)l < oo. Analogously to the case h we obtain that (ZI(r), II·III) is a Banach
1 Er
space, where llxiii = 2::::: lx('y)l Vx E h(r), and (h(r))* = loo(r), where loo(r) is the set
1 Er
of all functions 'P : r ---+ K, with II'PIIoo := sup I'Ph) I < oo. The action of 'P E loo(r) on
1 Er
x E h(r) is given by cp(x) = 2::::: cp('-y)x('-y).
,Er
Let now r = P(N), thus r is the set of all the subsets of N. For each n E N, let
8n : r ---+ ][{, 8n(A) = { ~: ~~ ~ ~ ~: Prove that 8n E Bloo(r) Vn E Nand that we cannot
find a weak* convergent subsequence for (8n)nEN'
45. Define x~ E l~, x~ (xi, x2, ... ) = Xn V (xi, x2, ... ) E l 00 • Prove that llx~ll = 1
Vn EN, but (x~)nEN does not have a weak* convergent subsequence.
Weak entire functions are entire functions
46. Let X be a complex Banach space and f : C ---+ X a function such that x* of :
C ---+C is entire, for each x* E X*.
i) Prove that f is continuous.
00
ii) Prove that there is a sequence (xn)n~o C X such that f (z) 2::::: XnZn for all
n=O
00
z E C, and 2::::: llxnll Rn < oo for every R > 0.

n=O
Thus, iff : C ---.X is 'weak entire' then f is entire.
14.2 Solutions
1. We observe that Xn ---+ x weak if and only if Xn - x ---+ 0 weak, and then we will
prove the equivalence from the exercise only for x = 0.
i) One implication is immediate. If Xn ---+ 0 weak using that a weak convergent se-
quence in a normed space is norm bounded we obtain that the set {llxnlloo In EN} ~ lR is
bounded. Since for each k E N the canonical projection Pk : co ____, ][{, Pk ( (o:n)nEN) = o:k
is linear and continuous it follows that Pk (xn) ---+ Pk (0) = 0 Vk E N.
Suppose now that the set {llxnlloo In EN} ~ lR is bounded and that Pk (xn) ____, 0
00
Vk EN. Let 'P E c0 =h. Then there is (.Xn)nEN E h such that 'fJ ((o:n)nEN) = 2::::: AnO:n,
n=I
00
Vo: = (o:n)nEN E co. Letc; > 0. Since (.Xn)nEN E h, 2::::: I.Xnl < oo,andthereforethereisan
n=I
00
NE; E N such that 2::::: I.Ani ~ Ej (2M), where M := 1 +sup llxnlloo· Since PI (xn) ____, 0,
n=Ne nEN
... , PNe (xn) ---+ 0 for n ---+ oo, there is annE; E N such that Vn 2: nE; we have
E E
lpi(xn)l ~ ( Ne ) ' ... , IPNe (xn)l ~ ( Ne ) ·
2 1 + Z:::::i=I I.Xil 2 1 + Z:::::i=I 1-Xil
14.2 Solutions 413
Consequently,
Ne =
14' (xn)l < L
i=l
I.AiiiPi (xn)l + L I.AiiiPi (xn)l
Ne =
< L I.Ail c Ne + L I.Ailllxnll
i=l 2 ( 1 + Li=l 1-\1) i=Ne+l
c c
< 2" + 2 MM = c Vn ~ n6 •
Thus, <p (xn) ~ 0 V<p E c0, i.e., Xn ~ 0 weak.

ii) We have llxnll = sup 14' (k/n)l ~ sup 14' (x)l < oo Vn E N. Also, for a fixed
n<::;k<::;2n xE[1,2]
k E N we have Pk (Xn) = 0 Vn ~ k + 1, and therefore Pk (xn) ~ 0. From (i) it follows that
Xn ~ Oweak. Supposenowthatxn ~ Oinnorm. ThenVc > O::lnc E NsuchthatVn ~ nc
it follows that sup 14' (k/n)l < c. Consider now a fixed 1 ~ x ~ 2. Then for n ~ n 6
n<::;k<::;2n
let k = [nx], the integer part of nx. Then k ~ nx < k + 1, so n ~ k ~ 2n and therefore
14' (k/n)l < c, i.e., 14' ([nx] /n)l < c. Resuming, we have proved that 14' ([nx] /n)l < c
Vn ~ n 6 and passing to the limit for n ~ oo, using that [nx] jn ~ x, and using the
continuity of <p, it follows that 14' (x)l ~c. Since c > 0 is arbitrary we deduce that =
applying the Uniform Roundedness Principle.
Suppose now that there is an M > 0 such that llxnll ~ M Vn ~ 0, and that lim x~ =
n--->=
x~ Vk ~ 1. Let x E co, x = (a1, a2, a3, ... ). Then Xo (x) = L= aixb, Xn (x) = L= aix~.
i=l i=l
For any c > 0 there is an N 6 E N such that lail ~ c/ (4M) Vi ~ N 6 • For this N 6 , there is
an n 6 E N such that
i
lXo- il< c . 1NV>
xn - 2Nc (llxll + 1) z = ' c> n- nc.
Then for n ~ n 6 we have

Ne =
lxn (x)- Xo (x)l ~ L la:illx~- x~l + L laillx~- x~l
i=l
Ne =
< llxlll: lx~- x~l + 4 ~ L (lx~l + lxtl)
i=l i=Ne+l
< llxll
c
~ 2Ne (11:11 + 1) + 4~ ( t'; lx~l +
c
t, lxtI)
< -+-2M=c.
2 4M
Thus Xn (x) ~ Xo (x) Vx E co, i.e., Xn ~ Xo weak*.
ii) By the Uniform Roundedness Principle a weak* convergent sequence is norm

bounded. Thus, if (x~)nEN is weak* convergent then sup llx~ll < oo. But llx~ll = lanl
nEN
Vn EN, from whence sup llanll < oo, i.e., (an)nEN E Zoo. Conversely, for (xn)nEN E Co, if
nEN
(an)nEN E Zoo then anXn----+ 0, i.e., X~ (x) ----+ 0 Vx E CQ.
iii) It is easy to see (see the part (iv) below) that llx~ I = la1l + .. · + Iani Vn E N. Now
we continue as above.
iv) If (x~)nEN is weak* convergent then sup llx~ll < oo. But
nEN
lx~ (x1, x2, ... )1 :::; (la1l + · · · + lanl) sup lxkl,
kEN
i.e., llx~ll:::; la1l + · · · + lanl· Since
x~ (sgn (an), ... , sgn (a1), 0, 0, ... ) la1l + · · · + lanl

< llx~llll(sgn(an), ... ,sgn(al),O,O, ... )II
< llx~ll,
it follows that llx~ll = la1l + · · · + lanl· Therefore

sup (la1l + · · · + lanl) =sup llx~ll < oo,
nEN nEN
00
i.e., the series L lanl converges, i.e., (an)nEN E h. Conversely, if (an)nEN E h then a
n=l
classical result in analysis (proved at exercise 14 of chapter 6) assures that V(xn)nEN E Co
it follows that
a1Xn + a2Xn-1 + · · · + an-1X2 + anx1 ----+ 0,
i.e., x~ (x 1, x 2, ... ) ----+ 0, x~ ----+ 0 weak*.
n
v) We have llxnll = (1/n) L lcp (k/n)l, and therefore (llxnll)nEN is bounded, since
k=l
f0
n 1
(1/n) L lcp (k/n)l ----+ lcp (x)l dx. Also, for any fixed k E N we have IPk (xn)l =
k=l
(1/n) lcp (k/n)l :::; (1/n) sup lcp (x)l Vn ~ k, hence Pk (xn) ----+ 0. Now we apply (i) and
xE[O,l)
we obtain that Xn ----+ 0 weak*. If (xn)nEN is norm convergent then (xn)nEN must converge
f
towards 0. Then llxnll ----+ 0, and then 01 lcp (x)l dx = 0, cp = 0.
vi) The idea is to use exercises 42 and 44 from chapter 5. Let x~ : c0 ----+ lK,
X~ ( (ak)kEN) = ;,
1
£; (k)
n
akcp ;, .
Then x~ E c~ = h is defined by the sequence
and then by (v) x~ ----+ 0 weak*. Using exercise 42 of chapter 5 it follows that U is linear
and continuous. Since llxnll = llx~ll Vn E N, if U is compact then by exercise 44 of
chapter 5 we have llx~ll----+ 0, i.e., llxnll ----+ 0, and using (v) it follows that cp = 0.
14.2 Solutions 415
3. See [19, chapter I, Schur's Theorem].

i) Since Z1 is separable using exercise 29 we obtain that there is a distance d on B 1=
which generates the weak* topology on Bz=.
ii)Foreveryx,y E Z1 andc: > 0, theset{x* E Bz= llx* (x)- x* (y)l <::; c:/3} is weak*
closed, because the function x- y: (Zcx:n weak*) ----t (IK, 1·1) is continuous, and B 1= c:;; Zoo
is weak* closed. We obtain that Bm is weak* closed in Z00 , for each m 2: 1.
If Xn ___, x weak then for each x* E Z{ = Zoo we have x* (xn) ----t x* (x), and conse-
quently for each x* E Bz=, x* (xn)- x* (x) ___, 0. Let c: > 0 and let x* E B 1=. There is an
m E N such that for each n 2: m, lx* (xn)- x* (x)l <::; c:/3, and consequently x* E Bm.
We obtain that Bz= = U Bm.
m~l
iii) If we consider (Bz=, d) we have a compact metric space because the metric d gen-
erates the weak* topology on B 1= and ( Bzoo, weak*) is a compact topological space, by the
Alaoglu-Bourbaki theorem. Using Baire's category theorem and (ii) we obtain that there
0
is m 0 E N such that Bmo #- 0, where the closure and the interior are taken with respect
to the weak* topology on Bt=· Since Bmo is weak* closed (in (Zoo, weak*), and then in
( B,=, weak*) also), we obtain that Bmo #- 0, and consequently we can find x~ E B 1=,
Y1, ... , Yk E h, T > 0 such that
We will show that there are p E N and o> 0 such that
00
LetpENsuchthat I: IYil <T/4,j=l,k.Forx*EB,=,if

i=p+l
I( X * - X0*) (e· )I < u

;,; - T . - -1
Z
' - -2(max{IIYjll 1 1 j=l,k}+l)'- ,p,
then
p
L ((x*)i- (x~)i) Yj <::; L

00
l(x*)i- (x~)iiiYjl
i=l i=l
00
+ L IY}I (llx~ll + llx*ll)

i=p+l
OL
00
< IY}I + !::2 <::; Omax IIYsll + 2:: <::; T, j = l,k,

i=l 4 s=l,k 2
thus x* E W(x~; y1, ... , Yk; T).

Since Xn ___, x weak we obtain that Pk (xn) ----t Pk (x) Vk E N, i.e., x~ ----t xk Vk E N,
p
with obvious notations. Thus there is an m > m 0 such that I: lx~- xk I <::; c:/3 Vn ;:::: m.
k=l
Then, for n ~ m (m depends on r::), we have
00 p 00
L lx~ - xk I = L lx~ - xk I + L lx~ - xk I

k=l k=l k=p+l
p p
L lx~- xkl- L (x~)k (x~- xk)

k=l k=l
00 p
+ L lx~- xkl + L (x~)k (x~- xk)

k=p+l k=l
p
< 2Lix~-xkl+lx*(xn-x)l,
k=l
where x* E zr is given by ((x~) 1 , ... ,(x0 )P,sgn(x~+l-xb+ 1 ), ... ) E Bt 00 • But

(x*- x 0) (ej) = 0, j = 1,p, and therefore
Thus x* (xn- x) < r::/3 Vn ~ mo, and consequently Vn ~ max(mo, m), llxn- xll <
2 (r::/3) + r::/3 = r::. We obtain that Xn---> x in the norm of Lt.
iv) It follows from (iii).
v) The answer is no! From exercise 24 it follows that if X is an infinite-dimensional
normed space then B X = sX weak. Since 0 E B X from the well known characterization
of the closure in topological spaces it follows that there is a net (x 6 ) 6Et> s-;;; X such that
llxJII = 1 V8 E 6 and XJ---> 0 weak.
z;
4. i) We can suppose that x = 0. We use the fact that = lq, 1/p + 1/q = 1, with
the usual identification. Since every weak convergent sequence is bounded, (xn)nEN s-;;; lp
is bounded, and since Pk : lp ---> lK are linear and continuous it follows that Pk (xn) ---> 0
Vk EN.
Suppose now that { llxniiP I n E N} is bounded and that Pk (xn) ---> 0 Vk E N. Let 'P E
z;.
00
There is a sequence (An)nEN E lq such that 'P ((an)nEN) = E O!nAn V(an)nEN E lp.
n=l
Let r:: > 0. Since (An)nEN E lq, there is Nc EN such that c=~+liAnlq) l/q s; r::j (2M)
where M := 1 +sup llxnllp· Since P1 (xn) ---> 0, ... , PN, (xn) ---> 0, there is nc EN such
nEN
N,
that IPt (xn)l :::; r::j (2£), ... , lPN, (xn)l :::; r::j (2£) Vn ~ nc, where L := E IAnl + 1.
n=l
14.2 Solutions 417
Consequently for every E > 0 there is n, E N such that

Nc
L
00
L L
00
lcp (xn)l :::; IAkPk (xn)l = l-\kiiPk (xn)l + l-\kiiPk (xn)l

k=1 k=1
(~~~ 1 l-\kl) E (
+ L l-\kl
00
q) 1/q (
L
00
lpk(xn)l
P) 1/p
< 2L
k=Nc+1 k=Nc+1
E E E E
< 2 + 2M llxnllp:::; 2 + 2MM = E Vn 2: nE.
We have proved that cp (xn) ____, 0 Vcp E z;, i.e., Xn ____, 0 weak.
ii) We have llxnll = ((lin) !;1lcp (klnW) 1/P, and therefore the sequence (ilxn ll)nEN
n
is bounded, since (1ln) ~ lcp (klnW ____,
k=1
J;
lcp (xW dx. Also for any fixed kEN we have
IPk (xn)l = (1ln) 11 P lcp (kln)l :::; (1ln) 11 P sup lcp (x)l \In 2: k, hence Pk (xn) ____, 0. Now
xE[0,1]
we apply (i). (See also the solution for the part (v) from exercise 2.)
iii) The idea is the same as the one for exercise 2(vi), i.e., to use exercises 42 and 44
from chapter 5. Let x~ : lq ____, IK.,
Then x~ E l~ = lp is defined by the sequence
Xn = n- 1 /P ( cp ( ~) , cp ( ~) , ... , cp (~) , 0, ... ) E lp
and since by (ii) Xn ____, 0 weak, this means that x~ ____, 0 weak*. By exercise 42 of chapter
5 it follows that U is linear and continuous. Since llxnll = llx~ll Vn E N, if U is compact
then by exercise 44 of chapter 5 we have llx~ I ____, 0, i.e., llxn II ____, 0, and using (ii) it follows
that cp = 0.
5. '(i) =? (ii)' Suppose, for a contradiction, that p # 1, i.e., 1 1 then en ____, 0 weak. Indeed, if x* E then x* is z;,
given by (~n) nEN E lq, 1I p + 1I q = 1, and then x* (en) = ~n ____, 0. Our hypothesis implies
now that en ____, 0 in the norm of lP, and this is false since lien liP = 1 Vn E N.
'(ii) =? (i)' This is the Schur theorem proved at exercise 3.
00
6. i) We have l~ = Zoo and let cp E l 1, cp = (-\k)kEN' ~ l-\kl < oo. Since

k=1
lakAkl :::; (sup ian
nEN
I) l-\kl Vk E N and the series f
k=1
Ak converges, by the comparison
00 00
test it follows that the series ~ akAk converges, and therefore ~ akAk ____, 0, i.e.,
k=1 k=n+1
00
Xn (cp) = ~ akAk ____, 0 for n ____, 00.

k=n+l
ii) Let x* E l~ such that x~ --+ .1:* weak*, i.e., .1:~ (x 1 , .1: 2, ... ) --+ x* (x 1 , x 2, ... )
V(x 1 ,.1: 2, .. ) E Z00 • In particular, .7:~(0,1,0,1, ... ) --+ .7:*(0,1,0,1, ... ), from whence
T;n(0,1,0,1, ... )--+ .7:*(0,1,0,1...) and x;n+ 1 (0,1,0,1, ... )--+ .7:*(0,1,0,1...). But
.1:;n (0, 1, 0, 1, ... ) = a2n and .1:;n+l (0, 1, 0, 1, ... ) = 0, hence a2n --+ 0. Analogously
a2n+l --+ 0. Then an --+ 0, i.e., (an)nEN E c0 . The converse is clear. We observe that
if (an)nEN E Co then 11.1:~11 = Iani --+ 0.
iii) Let .1:* E Z~ be such that x~ --+ .1:* weak*, i.e., .1:~ (x 1, .1: 2, .. ) --+ x* (x 1, .1: 2, ... )
V (x 1, x 2 , •.. ) E l 00 • In particular, for ( sgn (a 1) , sgn (a2 ) , ..• ) E Z00 ,
.1:~ (sgn (a 1), sgn (a 2), ... )--+ .1:* (sgn (a 1), sgn (a 2), ... ) =: s E IK.
But
a1sgn (al) + · · · + ansgn (an)

la1l + · · · + lanl·
00
Hence la 1 1 + la 21 + · · · + lanl --+ s, i.e., the series L an converges absolutely, that is,
n=l
00
(an) nEN E h. Conversely, suppose that L an converges absolutely. Let x* : l 00 --+ IK,
n=l
00
.7:*(TJ,T2,··) = L anTn. Then

n=l
and therefore .1:* is well defined, linear, and continuous. Then
.1:~ --+ .1:* weak*<=? x~ (x1,.1:2, ... )--+ .1:* (TJ,T2, ... ) V(TJ,T2, ... ) E Zoo
n oo
<=? LakTk--+ LakTk V(xl,x2,···) E loo,
k=l k=l
00
and the last relation is true since the series L akTk converges.
k=l
7. i) If fn--+ f weak then Un)nEN is bounded in C(T) and therefore sup llfnlloo < oo.
nEN
For each t E T we consider the Dirac functional bt (!) = f (t) Vf E C (T). Then 6t E
(C(T))* \ft E T, and thus 6t Un)--+ 6t (!) \ft E T. We obtain that fn (t)--+ f (t) \ft E T.
Suppose now that fn (t) --+ f (t) \ft E T and that sup llfnlloo = M < oo. Let tp E
nEN
(C (T)) *. Using the Riesz representation theorem we obtain a finite Borel regular measure
tL on T such that tp (!) = fr fdt-t \t'f E C(T). Since fn (t) --+ f (t) \t't E T, lfn (t)l :::; M
\fn E N, \ft E T, and lt-tl (T) < oo, by the Lebesgue dominated convergence theorem we
obtain that fr fndt-t--+ fr fdt-t, i.e., tp Un)--+ tp (!),and thus fn----+ f weak.
ii) Since tp is continuous it follows that llfnll :::; sup lr (.1:)l < oo Vn E N. Also,
xE[O,l]
wehave lim fn(T) =lim tp(.1:n) = { tp((01)) ifO:::; .7: < 1, If h (f ) c

n-----+oo n-----+oo zp if .1: = 1 _ t e sequence n nEN _
14.2 Solutions 419
C [0, 1] is weak convergent then there is f E C [0, 1] such that fn -+ f weak. By (i) and the
above calculations we must have f (x) = { ~ ~~~ ~~~: ~- < 1' Since f is continuous
we obtain that lp ( 0) = lp ( 1). The converse is clear.
iii) Suppose that Un)nEN is weak convergent. Then by (i) there is M > 0 such that
lfn (x)l :S M Vx E [0, 1], \In EN. In particular, lfn (1- 1/n)l :S M \In EN, i.e.,
M
lanl :S (1- 1/nt (1- (1- 1/nt) \In EN.
Since (1- 1/nt -+ 1/e it follows that the sequence (an)nEN is bounded, i.e., (an)nEN E
Z00 • Conversely, if (an)nEN E Zoo then since xn-+ 0 Vx E (0, 1) it follows that fn (x)-+ 0
Vx E (0, 1). Also fn (0) = fn (1) = 0 \In E N, and lfn (x)l :S 2 sup lakl Vx E [0, 1],
kEN
\In E N. Now we use (i) to deduce that fn -+ 0 weak.
Suppose that there is f E C [0, 1] such that fn -+ f in norm. Then Un)nEN is weak
convergent and by the above fn -+ 0 weak. Then f = 0, and then fn -+ 0 in norm, i.e.,
Vc > 0 ::lne: EN such that \In 2:: ne it follows that lfn (x)l < c Vx E [0, 1]. In particular,
Vc > 0 ::lne: EN such that \In 2:: ne: it follows that lfn (1- 1/n)l < c, that is,
c
lanl :S (1- 1/nt (1- (1- 1/nt) ·
From here we deduce that lim sup lanl :S (e 2 c) / (e- 1) Vc > 0, and therefore
lim sup lanl = 0, i.e., (an)nEN E co. The converse is clear since llfnll :S 2lanl \In EN.
n---+oo
From exercise 7 we obtain that fn -+ f E C (T) weak. We use now the Mazur theorem
to solve the exercise.
9. i) Let A <;;; ( C (T) , Tp) be a compact subset. For each k E N using the compactness
nk
ofTweobtainthattherearex 1,k, ... ,xnk.k E TsuchthatT <;;; UBP(xi,k;1/k). We
i=l
enumerate the set (xi,k)kEN, i=l,nk as a sequence (xn)nEN, and we obtain (xn)nEN <;;; T such
that: Vk EN, Vx E T, there is n EN such that p (xn, x) < 1/k. Let d: A x A-+ JR+,
~ Pn(f- g)
d(f,g)=~ 2 n( 1 + (!- )) Vj,gEA,
n=l Pn g
where Pn (f) = If (xn) I Vf E A. That the sequence (xn)nEN is dense in T implies that dis
a distance on A.
We will show now that the topology generated by d on A and the restriction of Tp on A
coincide. Without loss of generality we can suppose that 0 E A. Let c E ( 0, 1). Let m E N
00
be such that I: 1/2n :S c/2. Let

n=m+l
JEW (O;p1, ... ,pm; c/ (2- c))= {g E C (T) I pi(g) < c/ (2- c), i = 1, m}.
Then
d(f,O) S (
1)
~ 2n ~ + n];_l 2n
m
00
1< c,
and therefore W (O;p 1 , ... ,pm; c:j (2- c:)) ~ Bd (0, c:).
Let us consider now c: > 0 and y1 , ... , Ym E T. We must show that there is an r > 0
such that
Bd (0, r) n A~ W (O;pyp···,Pym; c:),
where Py, (f) = If (y;) IVf E C (T). For each f E C (T), we can find { iif), ... ,iW} ~ N
such that If (x;;n) - f (Yi) I < c:/4, j = 1, m. Since
A~ U W (!;pi\!)' ···,P;)!,l, PYl' ···,Pym;c:/4),
jEA
using the Tp compactness of A and the fact that the sets from the union are Tp open we
obtain that there are kEN and fi, ... , fk E A such that
Consider now the set W (o;p.(hl,

zl
... ,p.<hl, ... ,P.(h),
Zm 1.1
... ,P.(h); c:/4) . Using the definition
Zm
for d, we obtain that there is r > 0 such that
Bd (0, r) ~W (o;P.<hl,
Z1
... ,p.<hh
Zm
... ,P.(h),
z1
... ,P.(h); c:/4) ·
'l.m
Then for each f E Bd (0, r) n A we have
fEW (o;P<h),
Zl
... ,p.<hl,···,P.(hh···,P.(h);c:j4)
2m t 'tm
nA.
1
Since f E A there is 1 :S j :S k such that fEW (fi;p(tj), ... ,p(tj), Py

zl 'Lm
1 , ••• ,pYm; c:/4) .
Then for each 1 :S s :S m we have
PYs (f) = If (Ys)l S If (Ys)- fj (Ys)l + lfj (y.)- fi (x;:j)) I

+ Ifj (X ;:j)) - f (X ;:j)) I + If (X ;:j)) I
c
< 4- =c:
4 '
and we obtain that Bd (0, r) n A~ W (O;pyp ... ,pYm; c:).
We obtain that the neighborhood basis for 0 E A with respect to the two topologies
we have on A are equivalent. Analogously we obtain the same assertion for every element
f E A. Thus the two topologies we have on A coincide.
14.2 Solutions 421
ii) Let A <:;;; C (T), a Tp compact and uniformly bounded set. Using (i) we obtain the
fact that the Tp topology on A is metrizable. If we consider a sequence (gn)nEN <:;;; A then
by the compactness and the metrizability of (A, rp) we obtain that there are a subsequence
(nk) kEN of N and an element g E A such that gnk -+ g in the Tp topology, thus gnk -+ g
pointwise. Since A <:;;; C (T) is uniformly bounded we obtain the fact that (gnk)kEN is
uniformly bounded. Using exercise 7(i) we obtain that gnk -+ g weak in C (T) . Thus
A <:;;; C (T) is sequentially weak compact and by the Eberlein-Smulian theorem we obtain
that A <:;;; C (T) is weak compact.
10. i) If Xn -+ x weak then the sequence (xn)nEN is bounded and we can consider
Y = X*. Conversely, suppose that there are M > 0 and Y <:;;; X* with Sp (Y) = X* such
that llxnll :::; M \fn E Nand x* (xn) -+ x* (x) \fx* E Y. If we denote Z = Sp (Y), then
Z <:;;; X*, Z = X* and x* (xn) -+ x* (x) \fx* E Z. Consider x* E X*. Since Z = X*
we can find a sequence (z~)nEN <:;;; Z such that z~ -+ x* in X*. For every c > 0 there
is an nc: E N such that liz~- x*ll :::; c \fn 2 nc:. But z~, E Z, thus z~, (xn) -+ z~, (x),
and therefore there is an Nc: EN such that lz~, (xn)- z~, (x)l :::; c \fn 2 Nc:. Then, for
n 2 Nc:, we have
lx* (xn)- x* (x)l :::; lx* (xn)- z~, (xn)l + lz~, (xn)- z~, (x)l + lz~, (x)- x* (x)l
:::; llx*- z~, llllxnll + c + llx*- z~, llllxll :::; c (2M+ 1),
and therefore x* (xn) -+ x* (x). We obtain that Xn-+ x weak.

ii) We apply (i), Riesz's representation theorem, and that if E <:;;; H is an orthonormal
basis then E is fundamental.

If fn -+ f weak in L1[0, 1] we obtain that the sequence Un)nEN <:;;; L1 [0, 1] is bounded,
i.e., there is an M > 0 such that J01 lfn(t)1 dt :::; M \fn E N. Using the fact that
(LI[O, 1])* = L00 [0, 1], since XE E Loo[O, 1] VE <:;;; [0, 1] Lebesgue measurable we ob-
tain that XEUn)-+ XE(J), thus JEfn(t)dt-+ JEJ(t)dt \IE<:;;; [0, 1] Lebesgue measurable.
Suppose now that the sequence Un)nEN <:;;; L 1 [0, 1] is bounded and that JEfn(t)dt -+
JEf(t)dt \IE <:;;; [0, 1] Lebesgue measurable. We obtain that for each step function g :
[0, 1] -+ ][{, lim J01 g(t)fn(t)dt = J01 g(t)j(t)dt. We will prove that the set of all step
n->oo
functions is dense in Loo[O, 1], and then we apply exercise 10 to obtain that fn-+ f weak.
Let h E L00 [0, 1]. Suppose that h (t) E lR a.e. t E [0, 1].Without loss of generality we
can suppose that there is k > 0 such that -k < h(t) < k \ft E [0, 1]. Let c > 0 and choose
n EN such that 2k/n:::; c. Fori= 1, n, let
E; = {t E [0, 1]1 -k + (2kjn)(i- 1) :::; h(t) < -k + (2kjn) i}.

Since his measurable we obtain that E; <:;;; [0, 1] is Lebesgue measurable. Lett; E E;,
n
i = 1, n, and define g : [0, 1] -+ JR, g = 2:: h(t;)XEi· For each t E [0, 1] there is ani such
i=l
that tEE;. Then lg(t)- h(t)l = lh(t;)- h(t)l. Suppose, for example, that h(t;) 2 h(t),
and then
lg(t)- h(t)l = h(t;)- h(t) :::; -k + (2k/n) i + k- (2k/n) (i- 1) = (2k/n) :::; c.
We obtain that llg- hlloo :S: E, where g: [0, 1] ----+ lR is a step function. Now, if h: [0, 1] ----+
IK is bounded then h = u + iv with u, v : [0, 1] ----+ lR bounded. Then we can find two step
functions u1, v1: [0, 1]----+ lR such that llu- u1lloo :S: c/2 and llv- v1lloo :S: c/2, and then,
for h1 = u1 + iv1, we have llh- h1lloo :S: E, and h1 is a step function.

i) If fn ----+ f weak in Lp[O, 1] we obtain that the sequence Un)nEN is bounded, i.e., there
isM > 0 such that f 01 lfn(t)IP dt :S: M Vn EN. Since (Lp[O, 1])* = Lq[O, 1], 1 < q < oo,
1/p + 1/q = 1, and X[o,x] E Lq[O, 1] Vx E [0, 1], we obtain that X[o,xJUn) ----+ X[o,xJU)
Vx E [0, 1], that is, fox fn(t)dt----+ f; f(t)dt Vx E [0, 1].
Suppose now that fox fn(t)dt ----+ fox f(t)dt Vx E [0, 1] and that Un)nEN ~ Lp[O, 1] is
norm bounded. For every 0 :S: x < y :S: 1 we have
lim (1Y fn(t)dt -1x fn(t)dt)

n--->oo 0 0
lim 1Y fn(t)dt- lim 1x fn(t)dt

n~oo
0 n~oo
0
1y J(t)dt- 1x J(t)dt = 1y j(t)dt.
N
We obtain that for every g: [0, 1] ----+ IK, g = I: a;X[a;,b;]• we have
i=1
1
1
fn(t)g(t)----+ 1 1
J(t)g(t)dt.
Let us consider X ~ Lq[O, 1] as being the set of all function g with the above form: we
obtain that g(fn) ----+ g(f) Vg E X. Using exercise 10, if we prove that X ~ Lq[O, 1] is
dense we will have fn----+ f weak.
Since the set of all step functions is dense in Lq[O, 1] it is enough to prove that X is
N
dense in the set of all step functions in Lq[O, 1]. Let h E Lq[O, 1], h = I: a;XEi' N E N,
i=1
a; E IK, E; 11-measurable, i = 1, N, and consider E > 0. For each i = 1, N, since E; is
Lebesgue measurable from the regularity of the Lebesgue measure we obtain that there is
N
a set A; ~ [0, 1], A;= L.J If, where If, j = 1, N;, are pairwise disjoint intervals such that
j=1
r
We obtain that
1 ) 1/q
(
11xE,- XA.I'dt < ( N €
0 Li=1 Ia; I + 1
14.2 Solutions 423
N N;
Let g = L aiL x1 1. We obtain that
i=1 j=1 '
ii) a) Let a E IK, b E [0, 1]' and let f = ax(o,b)· Then II fliP = (fo lf(x)jP dx riP =
1
lal b11P and for x E [0, 1],

r r
Jo f(t)dt = Jo ax(o,b)dt = a~t((O,x) n (O,b)) =
{ axab ifO <X< b,
ifx;::: b.
We have llfnll = lanl bljP Vn E N. Also J; fn(t)dt = { anxb

an n
ifO <X< bn,
if X;::: bn,
Vx E [0, 1] , Vn E N, from whence
11x fn(t)dtl = { ~~:~ ~n ~~~ ~ ~n< bn ~ lanl bn---> 0.

Using the hypothesis and the part (i), the statement follows.
b) We use the same ideas as in the solutions for exercises 2(vi) and 4(iii). We omit the
details.
13. For each n EN we denote An= {t E [0, 1]1 fn(t) =/= 0}. Then An is ~t-measurable
for every n E N, and by hypothesis Ann Am = 0 form =/= n. If 1 0 Vx E [0, 1]. We
have
< r lfn(t)l dt = Jot lfn(t)IIX[o,xj(t)l dt = JAn{ lfn(t)l X[o,xj(t)dt

Jo
< (1" lfn(tW dt) (1n IX[O,xj(tW dt)

1
/P
1
/q
(1n X[o,xJ(t)dt) = (~t(An n

1
/q [O,x])) 1/q ~ (~t(An)) 1 /q,
where q is the conjugate ofp. We shall prove that lim ~t(An) = 0. Suppose that the relation
n->oo
is not true, and we obtain c > 0 and a subsequence (nkhEN of N such that fL (Ank) ;:::
c Vk E N. Denote by A = U Ank. Since the sets AnA are pairwise disjoint and fJ is
kEN
CXl
countably additive we obtain that JL(A) = 2:: JL (Ank) = oo, a contradiction!

k=l
Consider now the case p = 1. For n E N consider the function fn : [0, 1] --. JK,
n(n+1), tE (1/(n+1),1/n],
fn(t) = { O, t tf_ ( 1/ (n + 1), 1/n]. Then fn E LI[O, 1], llfnll 1 = 1 Vn E N
and An = (1/ (n + 1), 1/n] Vn E N, thus An n Am = 0 if m # n. Suppose that
fn --. 0 weak. Then for the linear and continuous functional x* : L 1 [0, 1] --. JK, x* (f) =
f01 f (x) dx we must have x* Un) --> 0. But x* Un) = f01 fn(t)dt = 1 Vn E N, and we
have a contradiction.
14. See [44, exercise 29, chapter3].

First solution. Evidently <5t E C(T)* Vt E T. Let t 0 E T and consider the set
W(<5t 0 ; fi, h, ... , fn; c)= {x* E C(T)* ll(x*- <5to)(fi)l < c, i = 1, n} ~ C(T)*.
If x* E W(<5t 0 ; !1, ... , fn; c) then lx*(fi)- fi(to)l < c, i = 1, n. Define U = nUi, where
n
i=l
U; = {t E T llfi(t)- fi(to)l < c}. Since j; is continuous, Ui ~Tis open V1::; i::; n,
and then it follows that U is open. Since t 0 E U; Vi= 1, n we obtain that t 0 E n Ui = U,
n
i=l
i.e., U is an open neighborhood of t 0 in the topology ofT. If we can prove that Vt E U
we have rp(t) = <5t E W(<5t 0 ; fi, .. .fn; c), the exercise will be solved. But ift E U then
l<5t(fi)- fi(to)l = lf;(t)- J;(to)l < c, i = l,n and then <5t E W(<5t 0 ; JI, .... fn; c).
Second solution. In order to show that rp : T--. C(T)* is continuous from the topology
ofT to the weak* topology on C(T)*, it is sufficient to prove that for each net (tT )TEE>., tT --.
tinT, we have rp(tT) --. rp(t) weak* in C(T)*, that is, rp(tT)(f)--. rp(t)(f) Vf E C(T).
This means that f (tT) --. f (t), and this is true because tT --. t in T and f : T --. lK is
continuous.
15. Since Kx is an isometry, Kx : X --. X** is injective, and therefore Kx : X --.

Kx (X) is bijective. Let x** E X**, x** E Kx (X). Then there is x E X such that
Kx (x) = x**, that is, x** = x. Consider a weak* neighborhood of x from the usual
basis, U = W (x; xi, ... , x~; c). We take then V = W (x; x;', ... , x~; c), neighborhood of
x E X in the weak topology of X. For every y E V, lx; (x- y)l < c, i = 1, n, thus
I(x - fj) (x;) I < c, i = 1, n, that is, K x (y) E U, and therefore K x is weak-to-weak*
continuous. In order to prove that K)/ : Kx (X) --.X is weak*-to-weak continuous we
consider a net (xb)JE6. in Kx (X), with XJ--. x weak*, XJ EX \:1<5 E 6, x EX. Then
XJ (x*) __. x(x*) Vx* EX*, that is, .r* (.rJ) __. x* (x) V.r* EX*, i.e., XJ __.X weak. We
obtain that K)/ (X:,) --. K)( 1 (x) weak.
16. i) See [18, Lemma, p. 10].

Induction on n E N. Let n = 1 and let j, g : X --. lK be linear functionals such
that ker g ~ kerf. If g = 0 then ker g = X, kerf = X, and therefore f = 0, i.e.,
f = ag \:Ia E K. Suppose now that there is x 0 EX such that g(x 0 ) # 0. For every x EX,
x-x 0 g(x) jg(x 0 ) E kcr g and then by hypothesis x-.r 0 g(x) j g(x 0 ) E kerf. We obtain that
14.2 Solutions 425
f(x- x 0 g(x)/g(x 0 )) = 0, and therefore f(x) = o:g(x) Vx EX, where a:= f(x 0 )/g(x0 )
does not depend on x.
Suppose the assertion true for n E N and suppose that n ker fi
n+l
i=l
~ ker f. Then
nn
i=l
ker (fi lker fn+l) ~ ker (f lker fn+l) .
Applying the hypothesis of induction for f lker fn+l' h lker fn+l''"' fn lker fn+l we obtain
n
that, on ker fn+b f is a linear combination of fl, h, ... , fn, i.e., f = I:; o:di on ker fn+l,
i=l
i.e.,
n+l
We apply what we have already showed and we obtain that f = I:; o:di·
i=l
n ker fi =
n
ii) Suppose that { 0}. Then for every linear functional f : X ---+ lK we have
i=l
{0} = n
n
i=l
ker fi ~ ker f.
Using (i) we obtain that f E Sp{h, ... , fn}, i.e., the dimension for the algebraic dual of X
is finite, therefore dimoc X < oo, a contradiction!
17. i) Obviously, iff is continuous it is weak continuous.

Suppose now that f is weak continuous. Then V = { x E X I If (x) I < 1} is a
neighborhood of 0 E X in the weak topology. Therefore there are xi, ... , x~ E X*, c > 0
such that W(O; xi, ... , x~; c) ~ V, i.e., lxi(x)l < c Vi = 1, n implies lf(x)l < 1. If
n kerx:, then tx E W(O;xi, ... ,x~;c) 'it ElK and therefore lf(tx)l < 1, Vt E JK,
n
x E
i=l
that is, lf(x)l < 1/ ltl Vt E lK\{0}, and for ltl---+ oo, lf(x)l ~ 0, i.e., f(x) = 0. We obtain
n ker Xi
n
that ~ ker j and using exercise 16 we deduce that j is a linear combination of
i=l
xi, ... , x~, that is, f EX*.
ii) If f : n ---+ X is weak continuous and x* E X*, since x* is weak continuous we
obtain that the composition x* 0 f : n ---+ lK is continuous.
Let now f : 0 ---+ X such that x* o f : 0 ---+ lK is continuous Vx* E X*. We want to
prove that f : 0 ---+ X is weak continuous and for that consider t 0 E 0 and
W(f(to); xr, ... , x~; c)= {x EX llx;(x- j(to))l < c, i = 1, n}.
We shall prove that

n
r 1 (W(f(to); xr, ... ,x~; c))= n(x; o f)- 1 (D(x; (!(to)), c)),
i=l
and then f- 1(W (! (t 0 ); xi, ... , x~; c)) is open in the topology of rl, being an intersection of
open sets, as the function x* o f : rl ----> ]]{ is continuous for every x* E X*.
Let t E f- 1(W(f(to); xi, ... , x~; c)), i.e., f(t) E W(f(to); xi, ... x~; c). Then
lxT(f(t)- f(to))l < c Vl ~ i ~ n, that is, lx:(f(t))- x:(f(to))l < c Vl ~ i :::; n,
i.e., equivalently, t E n(xT o f)- 1(D(x:(f(to)), c)) (D(z, c) is the open disc of center z
n
i=l
and radius c in the complex plane).
Remark. One can solve the same type of exercise working with the weak* topology
on X* instead of the weak topology on X.
18. Suppose that T : X ----> Y is continuous if we consider on X and Y the norm

topologies. Using exercise 17 we know that Tis weak-to-weak continuous if and only if
for every y* E Y*, y* o T : X ----> ]]{ is a weak continuous functional. By the same exercise,
this is equivalent to y* o T : X ----> ]]{being a continuous functional (with the norm topology
on X), which is true by our hypothesis.
Suppose now that T : X ----> Y is weak-to-weak continuous. Consider K y : Y ----> Y**
-----
and the family of linear and continuous functionals Tx : Y* ----> ]]{, x E B x, where Tx =
Ky(T(x)) = T (x). Observe that IITxll = IIT(x)ll \lx E Bx. We will prove that the family
(Tx)xEBx is pointwise bounded. Let y* E Y*. Using our hypothesis and exercise 17 we
obtain that y* o T : X ----> ]]{ is a continuous functional, and we have
T) (x)l :S lly* Tllllxll :S lly* Til 'Vx E Bx.

----
l(y* 0 0 0
Now by the definition of Tx we have Tx(y*) = T (x) (y*) = (y* o T) (x) from whence
sup ITx(y*) I :::; IIY* o Til < oo. From the Uniform Roundedness Principle (Y* is a Banach
xEBx
space) it follows that sup IITxll < oo, that is, sup IIT(x)ll < oo, i.e., T(Bx) ~ Y is
xEBx llxll9
bounded and therefore T : X ----> Y is norm-to-norm continuous.

We prove that ifT : X ----> Y is a linear bounded operator, then T* : Y* ----> X* is weak*-
to-weak* continuous. Using exercise 17 it is sufficient to show that o T* : Y* ----> ]]{isx
weak* continuous. By the same exercise it is sufficient to prove that o T* is continuous x
if we consider the norm topology on Y*, and this is obvious.
Now let S : Y* ----> X* be linear and weak* -to-weak* continuous. Then for each x E X
x
the function o S : Y* ----> ]]{ is weak* continuous. Using the form for the weak* continuous
linear functionals, we obtain that there is a unique Yx E Y such that o S = Yx· Define x
T : X ----> Y, T(x) = Yx· S being linear implies that Tis linear. Indeed, let x 1, x 2 E X,
--
a, f3 E ]]{, x = ax1 + f3x2. There are Y1, Y2 E Y such that £1 o S = Y1, i2 o S = Y2, and
x
an element y E Y such that o S = y. Then (ax 1 + (3x 2) o S = o:(£1 o S) + (3(£2 o S) =
x
ay 1 + (3y 2, therefore o S = ay1 + (3y 2, and then y = ay 1 + (3y2, that is, T( ax 1 + (3x 2) =
aT(x 1) + (3T(x 2), Tis linear. We have (S(y*))(x) = y*(T(x)) Vx EX, \ly* E Y. Since
By· ~ Y* is a weak* compact set we obtain that S(BY*) ~ X* is a weak* compact set
and therefore bounded in norm: there isM> 0 such that IIS(y*)ll ~ M \ly* E BY*. Then
for any x E X we have
IITxll = sup ly*(Tx)l = sup I(S(y*))(x)l :::; M llxll,

y*EBy• y*EBy•
14.2 Solutions 427
and therefore T E L(X, Y). The operator T* E L(Y*, X*) is defined by
T*y* = x* <=? x*(x) = y*(Tx) Vx EX.
Using that (S(y*))(x) = y*(T:r) Vx EX, Vy* E Y* we obtain that S = T*.
20. For xr' ... 'X~ E X* and c > 0, let Y'k = x'k 0 i, k = 1' ... 'n, where i : y ----+ X is
the inclusion. We obtain that Y'k E Y*. We observe that
W(O;yr, ... ,y~;c:) {y IIY'k (y)l < c:, k = 1, n}

EY
{yE Y IIT'k(Y)I < c:, k = 1,n}
Yn {x EX IIT'k(T)I < c:, k = 1,n}
YnW(O;xr, ... ,x~;c:).
Let now y~, ... , y~ E Y* and c: > 0, and let (T'k) 1 <k<n r;;; X* be, respectively, extensions for
(y'k) 1<k<n to the whole space X given by the Hahll-Banach theorem. As above we obtain
that W~O;yr, ... ,y~;c:) = Y n W(O;Tr, ... ,T~;c:). Therefore the two weak topologies
coincide on Y.
21. See [9, exercise 8 (a), chapter IV, section 1].

We will prove the following more general result. Let X, Y be a dual pair of real linear
spaces and ( ·, ·) the duality bracket. Suppose that A r;;; X is a convex weak compact set
and that C r;;; Y is a weak closed convex cone with the property that Vy E C ::JT E A such
that (T, y) :::; 0. Then there exists x 0 E A such that (To, y) :::; 0 Vy E C. Applying this
general result to the pair (X, X*) we obtain (i), and for the pair (X*, X) we obtain (ii).
Recall that if X, Y is a pair of real linear spaces with the duality bracket
( ·, ·) and P r;;; X is a convex cone, then for the polar of P we have that
P 0 = {y E Y I (x, y) :::; 0 Vx E P}. Indeed, let y E P 0 • Then by the definition for the
polar of a set, (.T, y) :::; 1 lifT E P. Let now x E PandA> 0. Since Pis a cone, ATE P,
fromwhence(Ax,y):::; 1,or(x,y):::; 1/AVA > O,henceforA----+ oo, (x,y):::; 0.
Conversely is trivial since if (T, y) :::; 0 Vx E P then (x, y) :::; 1 Vx E P, i.e., y E P 0 .
Let us suppose, for a contradiction, that the conclusion from the statement is not true.
Then Vx E A 3y E C such that (x,y) > 0. As C 0 = {.T EX I (x,y):::; 0 Vy E C} then
An C 0 = 0. But the polar for a set is weak closed, convex, and contains the origin 0.
Using a separation theorem, we can find f : X ----+ IR weak continuous and t E IR such
that f (a) > t > f (b) Va E A, Vb E C 0 . Since .f is weak continuous there exists y E Y
such that .f(x) = (x,y) V:r EX, so (a,y) > t > (b,y) Va E A, Vb E C 0 . Since 0 E C 0 ,
t > (0, y) = 0, i.e., t > 0. Then (b, yjt) < 1 Vb E C 0 , i.e., yjt E C 00 . Now by the
bipolar theorem, C 00 = co weak (C U { 0}). Since 0 E C and C is convex and weak closed
we have coweak (C) = C, i.e., C 00 = C, from whence yjt E C. But by hypothesis there
exists T E A such that (:r, yjt) :::; 0, that is, (T, y) :::; 0. We also have (a, y) > tVa E A
and since T E A, (.T, y) > t > 0, i.e., (x, y) > 0, a contradiction!
22. Since every weak neighborhood for an element .":Co E X. of the form
W(xo: x7, ... :r,;,: c:) = {x EX ll:r:,~(:r- :co) I< c:, i = 1, n}.
is open in the norm topology, and the sets of the form W (x 0 ; xi, .. , x~; c:) with n E N,
xi, ... , x~ E X*, c: > 0, form a basis of neighborhoods for x 0 E X in the weak topology, to
show that the two topologies coincide it is sufficient to show that for every open neighbor-
hood U of x 0 in the norm topology there is a neighborhood V of x 0 in the weak topology
of X such that V <;;; U. Since U is an open neighborhood of x 0 in the norm topology
thereisanr > OsuchthatB(x 0 ,r) <;;; U. Let{x 1 , ... ,xn} <;;; XbeabasisofX. We
can suppose that llxill = 1 V1 ~ i ~ n. For every 1 ~ i ~ n, we define e; : X ----+ JK,
n
e;(x) = ai Vx ajxj. Since {x 1 , ... , xn} <;;; X is a basis, e; is well defined and linear
= :Z:::::
j=l
for every 1 ~ i ~ n. Since X is finite-dimensional, e; E X*, i = 1, n. Let us consider
v = w (xo; er' ... , e~; r jn). For every X E V, le;(x- Xo)l < r/n, and therefore
n n n
llx- xoll = L e;(x- xa)xi ~ L le;(x- xo)lllxill < L !_
n
= r,
i=l i=l i=l
i.e., V <;;; B(x 0 , r) <;;; U.
23. See [ 18, chapter II].

Suppose that the weak topology on X is metrizable: there exists a metric don X which
generates the weak topology on X. Then { B (0, c:) I c: E Q + \ {0}}, the balls of center 0
and radius c: > 0 with respect to d form a basis of neighborhoods for 0 E X with respect to
the weak topology. For each c E Q+ \ {0} we can find xrp ... , x~(e:),e: EX*\ {0} and be: > 0
such that w (0; xr,E' ... 'x~(c),E; bE) <;;; B(O, c). The set { xr,E, ... 'x~(e:),c }e:E((Jl+ \{0} is countable
and we will consider it as a sequence (x~)nEN <;;; X*. For every x* E X* and b > 0, the
set W(O;x*;b) = {x EX I lx*(x)l < b} is a weak neighborhood ofO and therefore
there is an c: E Q+\{0} such that B(O;c:) <;;; W(O;x*;b). We obtain that we can find
{xk 1 , ... ,xkJ <;;; (xj)jENsuchthatW(O;xk,, ... ,xkn;be:) <;;; B(O,c:) <;;; W(O;x*;b). Wewill
n ker xki <;;; ker x*. Let x E n ker xki Then xk, (ax) = 0, i =
n n
show that 1, ... , n, \fa EN,
i=l i=l
and therefore ax E W(O; xk,, ... , xkn; be:) \fa E N. We obtain that ax E W(O; x*; b)
\fa E N and therefore Ix* (x) I < b j a \fa E N, so passing to the limit for a ----+ oo we deduce
that x* (x) = 0, i.e., x E ker x*. Using exercise l6(i) we obtain that x* E Sp{ xk,, ... , xk,}.
If we denote by Xn = Sp{ xi, ... , x~} \In E N, we have proved that X* = U Xn. For every
nEN
n E N the subspace Xn is closed. Since X* is a Banach space, applying Baire's theorem
we obtain that we can find n 0 E N, r > 0, and x~ E Xno such that B(x~, r) <;;; Xno· Using
exercise 15 of chapter 1 we obtain that X* = Xn 0 , i.e., dimocX* < oo, and therefore
dimoc X< oo.
Remark. One can solve the same type of exercise working with the weak* topology
on X* instead of the weak topology on X.

Since Bx is convex and closed in the norm topology and Sx <;;; Bx we obtain that
-weak -weak . -weak . .
Sx <;;; B x = B x. We will show now that B x <;;; S x . It IS sufficient to show that
. -weak
for every xo E X, with llxoll < 1, we have xo E Sx .
Let c: > 0, n E N, and xi, ... , x~ E X*. It is sufficient to show that V n S x =/=- 0, where
V = W(x 0 ;xi, ... ,:r~;c:). Using exercise 16(ii) we obtain that there is z E X\{0} such
14.2 Solutions 429
that x7(z) = 0 \i1 ::; i::; n. We define i.p: [0, oo)---> JR, ~.p(t) = llxo + tzll \it 2 0. Then
i.p is continuous, ~.p(O) = llxoll < 1, and lim ~.p(t) = oo since z # 0 Cllxo + tzll 2 t llzll -
t--+CXJ
llxo I ---> oo for t ---> oo ). From the Darboux property we obtain that there is t 0 2 0 such
that llxo + tozll = 1. Let w = Xo + toz. Then llwll = 1, and x;(w)- x;(x 0 ) = t 0 xi(z) = 0
\ii = 1, nand therefore w E V. Then wE Sx n V, and therefore Sx n V # 0.
25. See [42, exercise 40, chapter IV] or [46, exercise 22, chapter II].
i) Suppose that we can find x 0 , an interior point of B(O, 1) with respect to the
weak topology. Then we can find E > 0, n E N, and x;', ... , x~ E X* such that
x 0 E W(x 0 ; xi, ... , x~; E) ~ B(O, 1). Using exercise 16(ii) we obtain that there is an
y0 E X\ { 0} such that x; (Yo) = 0 \ii = 1, n. Then, for every t E JR, x 0 + ty0 E
W(x 0 ; x;', ... , x~; E) ~ B(O, 1), i.e., llxo + ty0ll < 1 \it E R But y0 # 0, and therefore
II xo + tyo II ---> oo for t ---> oo, a contradiction.
In the same way one can show that the interior forB x with respect to the weak topology
is 0.
ii) For any x E X there is n E N such that llxll ::; n, i.e., x E nBx. Thus X =
U (nBx). We have Bx weak= B)l·ll = Bx. Since by (i) the interior for Bx with respect
nEN
to the weak topology is 0 it follows that B x is a nowhere dense set with respect to the
weak topology and hence (X, weak) is of the first Baire category.
26. i) See [20, exercise 38, chapter V, section 7], the von Neumann example.
Since the sets of the form W(O; xi, ... , x~; E) = {x E l2 I lx;(x)l < E, i = 1, n} with
n E N, E > 0, x;', ... , x~ E l~ form a basis of neighborhoods for the origin, in order to prove
that 0 E Aweak it is sufficient to prove that A n W (0; x;', ... , x~; E) # 0 for any n E N,
xi, ... ,x~ E l~,E > 0. Letn E N,E > Oandx;', ... ,x~ E l2. UsingRiesz'srepresentation
theorem we can find (.Ai)kEN E l2, i = 1, n, such that xi (x) = ((xk)kEN, (.Ak)kENlt,
\ix = (xk)kEN E l 2 , for 1 ::; i ::; n. Since lim .A)., = 0, i = 1, n, there is sf E N such that
k--+oo
1>-~J < E/2 for 1 ::; i ::; n. Since lim sf.\)., = 0, i = 1, n, there is tc E N, tf: > sf, such
k-->oo
that isc>-~J < E/2 for 1::; i::; n. Then
that is, esE + sE:etE E An W(O; xi, ... , x~; E).

Suppose now that there is a sequence (xk)kEN ~ A such that .'Ek ---. 0 weak. Let
Xk = emk + rnkenk' 1 ::; rnk < nk < oo \ik E N. Since xk ---> 0 weak, the sequence
(xk)kEN is bounded, that is, the sequence (rnk)kEN is bounded. Using Cesaro's lemma we
can find a convergent subsequence (rnks) sEN. Therefore there is an s 0 E N and an n E N
such that rnk, = n \is 2 80 (we have mk., E :Z \i8 EN). Then
a contradiction, since (en, xkJ ---> 0 for s ---> oo.

ii) See [50, exercise 8.4.120].
Let W(O;xi, ... ,x~;E) = {xEcollxk(x)l <E, k= 1, ... ,n} be a weak neighbor-
hood for 0 E c0 . We have xj; E c~, k = 1, ... , n, and therefore we can find
( A?)). , ... , (A)n)). E h such that x'k ((xj) EN) = ~ A)k)Xj

j=l
V (xj) EN E co,
JEN JEN J J
k = 1, ... ,n. Letaj = IA?)I + · · · + IA}n)l Vj EN. Thenaj 2: 0\/j EN and~ aj <
oo.
j=l
Then we can find j E N such that jaj < E. Indeed, suppose that we cannot find such j.
00 00
Then aj 2: r::Jj Vj E N, and then I:: aJ 2: I:: r::fj =

oo, a contradiction. If jaj < E then
j=l j=l
lx'k (jej)l =!JAY) I .:::; jaj < E, k = 1, ... , n, and therefore jej E w (0; xr, ... , x~; c). This
implies that S n W (0; xi, ... , x~; c) f.0 E Sweak.
0, and then
Suppose now that we can find a subsequence (nk)kEN of N such that nkenk ---+ 0
weak in c0 . Choosing, if necessary, a subsequence for (nk)kEN, without loss of gener-
oo
ality we can suppose that I:: 1/nk <
oo (for example, we can choose a subsequence
k=l
(nkP)pEN of (nk)kEN such that nk" 2: 2P Vp E N and then nk"enkp ---+ 0 weak in c0
00 00
and I:; 1/nkp .:::; I:; 1/2P < oo). Then consider the sequence (An)nEN E h, An = 0 if
p=l p=l
n tt {nk IkE N}, An= 1/nk ifn = nk, kEN. (An)nEN gives an element x* E c0, and
therefore x* (nkenk) ---+ 0. But x* (nkenk) = 1 Vk EN, and we obtain a contradiction.
27. See [18, exercise 3 (ii), chapter II].

i) If X* were finite-dimensional X** would be finite-dimensional, and we obtain that X
is finite-dimensional, since X <---+ X**. Contradiction! Therefore X* is infinite-dimensional
and, using exercise 2 of chapter 3, we obtain that we can find cp : X* ---+ IK linear which is
not continuous.
ii) On the set of all finite-dimensional subspaces of X*, denoted by Fin( X*), we define
the following relation: Y .:::; Z ¢::? Y <:;;; Z. We obtain that (Fin(X*), .:::;) is a directed set,
since for Y, Z E Fin( X*), if W = Sp(Y U Z), then W E Fin( X*) andY .:::; W, Z .:::; W.
Let now Y E Fin(X*). Since 'P : X* ---+ IK is linear, 'P ly: Y ---+ IK is linear. Since Y
is finite-dimensiona~ ly: Y ---+ IK is linear and continuous. Using the Hahn-Banach
theorem, we obtain 'P IY : X* ---+ IK linear and continuous such that
~(y) = t.p(y) Vy E Y, ll~llx .. = II'P IYII·
Using Helly's lemma we obtain that Vr:: > 0 VY E Fin( X*) there is an Xy E X such that
iixyii.:::; ~~~~~ + c, y*(xy) = (~)(y*) 'Vy* E Y.
In this way we obtain a net (xy )YEFin(X*) <:;;; X such that
y*(xy) = t.p(y*) Vy* E Y, VY E Fin( X*).
We show that (xy )YEFin(X*) is a weak Cauchy net. Consider W(O; xi, ... , x~; r::) = {x E
X llxt(x)l < r::,i = 1,n}. DenotebyZ = Sp{xi, ... ,x~}, Z E Fin(X*). Then,forY1,
Y2 E Fin(X*), Y1, Y2 2: Z, we have Xy1 - Xy2 E W(O;xi, ... ,x~;r::). Indeed, ifY1 2: Z,
Y2 2: Z then Z <:;;; Y1, Z <:;;; Y2 , and therefore x*(xn) = t.p(x*) = x*(xy 2 ) Vx* E Z, that
is, x*(xn- xy 2 ) = 0 Vx* E Z, and then xn- xY2 E W(O; xi, ... , x~; r::).
14.2 Solutions 431
Suppose that there is an x E X such that (xy )YEFin(X*) ---+ x weak. Then
(x*(xy))YEFin(X*) ---+ x*(x) Vx* E X*. Let now x* E X* be fixed. We consider the
set ~ = {Y E Fin(X*) I x* E Y}. Then (~, :S) is a directed set and considering the
inclusion i: ~ ~ Fin(X*) we have: VYo E Fin(X*) 3Z0 = Sp(Y0 U {x*}) E ~such
that if Y 2 Z 0 then i(Y) 2 Yo. Therefore (xi(Z))ZEt. is a subnet of (xy )YEFin(X*) and
then (xi(Z))ZEt. ---+ x weak. We obtain that (x*(xi(Z)))zEt. ---+ x*(x) and since x* E Z
VZ E ~we obtain that x*(xi(Z)) = <p(x*) VZ E ~.and then <p(x*) = x*(x). Therefore if
(xy )YEFin(X*) is weak convergent towards x, we have x*(x) = <p(x*) Vx* E X*.
iii) If, for a contradiction, the weak topology is complete, then since the net
(xy )YEFin(X*) is weak Cauchy there is x E X such that (xy )YEFin(X*) ---+ x weak. By
(ii) we have <p(x*) = x*(x) Vx* EX*. Since x EX, the function x* ---+ x*(x) from X* to
][{ is continuous, i.e., <p : X* ---+ ][{ is continuous, which contradicts (i).

For every x E H we must show that (·, x) : (H, weak) ---+ ][{is continuous. Using
Riesz 's representation theorem, ( ·, x) E H*, and therefore ( ·, x) : H ---+ ][{ is weak con-
tinuous. For the function (x, ·) : H ---+ OC, we have (x, ·) = (·, x), and therefore (x, ·) :
(H, weak) ---+][{is continuous. We have proved that(·,·) : (H, weak) x (H, weak) ---+ ][{
is separately continuous.
Suppose now that ( ·, ·) : (H, weak) x ( H, weak) ---+ ][{ is continuous as a function of
two variables. Then the function is continuous at (0, 0) E H x H, and therefore there are
8 > 0, T > 0, xi, ... , x~ E H*, Yi, ... , y;,. E H*, such that
W(O;x;', ... ,x~;8) x W(O;y;', ... ,y;,.;T) ~ {(x,y) E H x H ll(x,y)l < 1}, (1)
with the usual notations. Using Riesz's theorem we can find x 1 , ... , Xn, y 1 , ... , Ym E H such
that x:; (x) = (x, xi), i = 1, ... , n, yj (x) = (x, y1 ), j = 1, ... , m, Vx E H. Then the
relation ( 1) becomes
{(x,y) ll(x,xi)l < 8, i = 1,n, I(Y,YJ)I < T, j = 1,m} ~ {(x,y) ll(x,y)l < 1}. (2)
Let X= Sp{x 1 , ... ,xn} andY= Sp{y 1 , ... ,ym}· Wewillprovethat
x.l X {y E H II(Y,YJ)I < T, j = 1, ... ,m} ~ {(x,y) E H X HI (x,y) = 0} (3)
Letx E X.landy E Hsuchthati(Y,YJ)I < T,j = 1, ... ,m. Then AxE X.l VA E OC,and
therefore I(Ax,xi)l = 0 < 8 i = 1, ... ,n. Using (2)we obtain that I(Ax,y)l < 1 VA E OC,
i.e., I(x, y) I :S 1/ IAI VA E OC\ {0}, and for A ---+ oo, (x, y) = 0, i.e., (3). We prove now
that
x.l X y.l ~ {(x, y) E H X HI (x, y) = 0}. (4)
Let x E X.l andy E y.l_ Then l(y, y1 ) I = 0 < T, j = 1, ... , m, and using (3) we obtain
that (x, y) = 0, i.e., (4).
We prove now that (X+ Y).l = {0}, and then H =X+ Y +(X+ Y).l =X+ Y, which
contradicts that the dimension of His infinite. Let x E (X+ Y).l, i.e., x ..l (X+ Y). Then
x ..l X and x ..l Y, i.e., (x, x) E X.l x y.l and, using (4), (x, x) = 0, i.e., x = 0.
ii) For every x* E X*, we must show that (x*, ·) : (X, weak) ---+ ][{is continuous, which
is obvious. For any x E X the function(·, x) : X* ---+ OC, x* ---+ x*(x) is obviously weak*
continuous, and therefore(·,·) :(X*, weak*) x (X, weak)---+][{ is separately continuous.
Suppose now that ( ·, ·) : (X*, weak*) x (X, weak) ----> ][{ is continuous as a function of
two variables. Then the function is continuous at (0, 0) E X* x X and therefore there are
8 > 0, T > 0, x1, ... , Xn EX, xi, ... , x:r, EX*, such that
W(O;x 1 , ... ,xn;8) x W(O;x;:, ... ,x:r,;T) s;;; {(x*,x) EX* x X ll(x*,x)l < 1}
Let p : X* ----> ~. p(x*) = max lx*(xi)l, and q : X
z=l,n
----> ~. q(x) = max lxj(x)
J=l,m
I· We will
prove that
1
lx*(x)l::; 87 p(x*)q(x) \fx* EX*, \fx EX. (5)
Let x EX, x* EX* and c > 0. Then
8x*
( ) E W (O;x1, ... ,xn; 8),
p x* +c
and using (5) we obtain that
I \p(:.~·+ c·q(~x+ c) I < 1'

that is, lx*(x)l ::; (1/8T) (p(x*) + c)(q(x) +c). For c ----> 0, c > 0, we obtain that
lx*(x)l ::; (1/8T)p(x*)q(x). Therefore (5) is true. Let x* E X* such that x*(xi) = 0
V1 ::; i ::; n, i.e., p(x*) = 0. Then by (5) it follows that x*(x) = 0 \fx E X. Thus we
obtain that the set {x 1, ... ,xn} is fundamental, i.e., Sp{x 1 , ... ,xn} = X, and then X is
finite-dimensional, a contradiction.
iii) The fact that E is separately continuous is obvious. Suppose now that E : L (X) x
X ----> X is continuous as a function of two variables. Then, as in (ii), we can find M > 0
and a finite system {x 1 , ... , xn} s;;; X such that
IIU (x)ll :S M sup IIU (xi)llllxll VUE L (X), \fx EX. (6)
l:C::i:C::n
Letx* EX* suchthatx*(xi) = OV1::; i::; n. Take any a E X\{0}. Thenfortheoperator
U (x) = x* (x) a we have U (xi) = 0 V1 ::; i ::; n, and hence by (6) we have U (x) = 0
\fx EX, i.e., x*(x) = 0 \fx EX. Then x* = 0, and therefore the set {x 1, ... , xn} is funda-
mental in X, i.e., Sp{ x 1, ... , xn} = X, and then X is finite-dimensional, a contradiction.
29. i) We first observe that if x*, y* E B x•, then
f
n=l
l(x:: y*)xn)l ::;
llxnll n=l
f
llx*;. y*llllxnll
llxnll
= llx* _ y*ll f
n=l
1
2n = llx* _ y*ll,
and therefore d is well defined. Let now x*, y* E B x• such that d( x*, y*) = 0. Then
(x* - y*)(xn) = 0 \fn E N, and using the continuity of x* and y* and the density of
(xn)nEN in X we obtain that (x*- y*)(x) = 0 \fx EX, that is, x* = y*. The other axioms
for a metric are easy to verify.
ii) Consider the identity I: (Bx·, weak*)----> (Bx·, d), and x~ E Bx·· We shall prove
that I is continuous at x 0. Let c > 0. There is anNE N such that 1/2N-l < c/2 and there
is an r > 0 such that
14.2 Solutions 433
We consider U = W(x 0; x 1 , ... , xN; r) n Bx·· For any x* E U, we have
d(x* ' x*)

0
--
and therefore I(U) t:;;: Bd(x0,c), that is, I is continuous at x 0. Since I is bijective,
(Bx·, weak*) is a compact topological space, and (Bx·, d) is a Hausdorff space, we obtain
that I is a homeomorphism.
iii) Indeed, using (ii) we obtain that the weak* topology on B x• is generated by d.
Remark. If (X, T) is a compact topological space and (Y, a) is a Hausdorff topological
space then any continuous bijective function f : (X, T) ----> (Y, a) is a homeomorphism.
Indeed, let f- 1 = g : (Y, a) ----> (X, T). For any closed set F t:;;: X since X is compact we
obtain that F is compact. Since f: (X, T) ----> (Y, a) is continuous, f(F) t:;;: Y is a compact
set. Since (Y, a) is Hausdorff we obtain that f (F) t:;;: Y is closed, and thus VF t:;;: X closed,
g- 1 (F) = f(F) t:;;: Y is closed, i.e., g is continuous.
30. Suppose that ( B x, weak) is a metric space. Similarly to the solution for exercise
23, we can find (x~)nEN ~X* and (cn)nEN t:;;: (0, oo) such that
{0} = n
00
n=l
(W (0; x~; En) n Bx).
We shall prove that Sp {x~ I n E N} is dense in X*, and we shall obtain that X* is sepa-
rable. Suppose that Sp {x~ In E N} 11 .11 of.X*, and consider x 0 EX*\ Sp {x~ In E N} 11 ·11 .
We obtain that b = d (x 0, Sp {x~ I n E N}) > 0 and by a corollary of the Hahn-Banach
theorem there is an x** EX**, llx**ll = 1/b, such that x** = 0 on Sp {x~ In EN} and
x** (x 0) = 1. Let U = W (0; x 0;b/2) n Bx. U is a neighborhood ofO in the weak topol-
ogy on B x. Since ( B x, weak) is a metric space there is an open ball with center at 0 (with
respect to the distance on Bx which generates the weak topology) included in U. Similarly
to the solution for exercise 23 it results that there is a finite set A t:;;: N such that
n
nEA
W (O;x~;cn) n Bx ~ U.
Since bx** E B x•• and from the Goldstine theorem K x ( B x) t:;;: B x•• is a weak* dense
set, there is an x 0 E B x such that
Xo E nw
nEA
(bx**; x~; En) n w (bx**; x~; b/2) 0
Then lxo (x~)- bx** (x~)l < En, that is, lx~ (xo)l < En 'v'n E A, and therefore x 0 E
n
nEA
w (0; x~; En). Since Xo E Bx we obtain that Xo E u. We have lxo (x~)- bx** (x;))l <
8/2, and therefore lx0(xa)- 81 < 8/2. We obtain that lx0(xo)l ~ 8 -lx 0(xo)- 81 > 8/2,
that is, x 0 tf: U, a contradiction!
Suppose now that X* is separable. Using exercise 29 we obtain that (Bx··, weak*)
is a metrizable space. Let d be the metric which generates the weak* topology on
Bx··· For x, y E Bx, we consider p (x, y) := d (Kx (x), Kx (y)). Since d is a
metric on Bx·· we obtain that p is a metric on Bx. One can easily see that Kx :
( B x, p) ----+ ( K x ( B x) , d) is a homeomorphism. Using exercise 15 we obtain that
K x : ( B x, weak) ----+ ( K x ( B x) , weak*) is a homeomorphism. Then, for the identity
I : B x ----+ B x, we have the decomposition
I: (Bx,p) ~ (Kx (Bx) ,d)= (Kx (Bx) ,weak*) (~ 1 (Bx,weak),
and therefore I is a homeomorphism, i.e., the topology generated by p on Bx is the weak

topology.

Using exercise 30 we obtain that X* is separable, i.e., there is (x~)nEN <:;;:X*, a count-
able dense set. We shall prove that A = { x~ I n E N} <:;;: X* is a total set. Let x E X
such that x~ (x) = 0 'in EN. Then for x EX** we have x(x~) = 0 'in EN. Using the
continuity of x on X* we obtain that x = 0 on A. But A = X*, and therefore x = 0, i.e.,
x=O.
32. i) Let A C X be a weak compact set and (x~)nEN C X* a total set. Define
d: A X A----+ IR,
~ lx~(x-y)i
d (x, y) = ~ 2n (llx~ll + 1).
For any x, y E A,
~ lx~ (x- y)i < ~ llx~ll (llxll + IIYII) < 2 M~~= 2M< 00
~ 2n (llx~ll + 1) - ~ 2n (llx~ll + 1) - ~ 2n '
where M = sup llxll. M < oo since any weak compact set is norm bounded. Therefore
xEA
d (x, y) E JR. If d (x, y) = 0 then X~ (x- y) = 0 'in E Nand using that (x~)nEN <:;;: x·
is a total set we obtain that x - y = 0, x = y. The other axioms for a metric are easy to
verify. Similarly to the solution for exercise 29 we obtain that the weak topology on A is
generated by d.
ii) See [20, exercise 36, chapter V, section 7].
Since X is a reflexive space, B x <:;;: X is a weak compact set. Since X* has a countable
total set, by (i) we obtain that the weak topology on Bx is metrizable and then, using
exercise 30, we obtain that X* is separable.
33. Let d be the metric which generates the weak* topology on Bx·. In any metric
space we have
{0} = n
00
n=l
B (0, 1/n),
14.2 Solutions 435
where B (0, 1/n) is the open ball of center 0 and radius 1/n with respect to d. For any
n EN there are X1,n, ... , Xkn,n EX, En > 0, such that
0E w (0; xl,n, ... 'Xkn,n; En) n Bx· s;;; B (0, 1/n).

We deduce that there is a sequence (xn)nEN S: X and a sequence (En)nEN s;;; (0, oo) such
that
00
n=l
Let now x* EX* such that x* (xn) = 0 Vn EN. Then

* 00
1 +~lx*ll ED (W (0; Xn; En) n Bx·)'

and therefore x* = 0. This means that the set { Xn I n E N} s;;; X is fundamental, i.e.,
Sp {Xn I n E N} s;;; X is a dense linear subspace, and this implies that X is separable.
34. Let T* : Y* ____, X* be the dual ofT, which, by our hypothesis, is continuous
if we consider the weak* topology on Y* and the norm topology on X*. Let us consider
B (0, 1) = { x* E X* I llx* II < 1 }. Then (T*)- 1 (B (0, 1)) s;;; Y* is an open set with respect
to the weak* topology which contains the zero functional on Y. We obtain that there are
y 1 , ... , Yn E Y and E > 0 such that T* (W (0; y 1 , ... , Yn; E)) S: B (0, 1) S: X*. (1) Therefore
Vy* E Y* such that IY* (yl)l < E, ... , IY* (Yn)l < E, we have T*y* E B (0, 1) S: X*, i.e.,
IIT*y* II < 1. Consider K y : Y ____, Y** and let
n
y* E nker(Ky(y;)).
i=l
Then Vm E N we have (my*) (y;) = (Ky(y;)) (my*) = mKy(y;) (y*) = 0, i = 1, n,

which implies my* E W (0; y 1 , ... , Yn; E), and then, by (1), liT* (my*) II < 1, and therefore
IIT*y*ll < 1/m Vm EN. Passing to the limit form____, oo we obtain that T*y* = 0. Then
Vx EX we have (T*y*) (x) = 0, that is, x(T*y*) = 0 Vx E X. In fact, we have proved
that n
n ker (j};) S: ker (x o T*) Vx E X.
i=l
Using exercise 16(i) we obtain that for any x EX there are a 1 , ... ,an E IK, which depend
n n
on x, such that x o T* = L a;j}i. Therefore x (T*y*) = L a/fii (y*) Vy* E Y*, that
i=l i=l
is, (T*y*) (x) = ~ a;y* (y;) Vy* E Y*, i.e., y* (Tx) = y* c~ a;y;) Vy* E Y*, Tx =
n
L a;y;, i.e., T(X) s;;; Sp {y1 , ... , Yn} s;;; Y, and therefore Tis a finite rank operator.
i=l

i) For every x* E X*,
IITx*IIY* = sup lx* (y)l :S sup lx* (x)l = llx*llx· ·

IIYII:Sl, yEY llxll:::;i, xEX
Therefore T is well defined, linear, and, from the above inequality, IITx* I y• ::;; llx* llx·
'1:/x* E X*. In fact, as Y c;;;; X is dense,
sup lx* (x)l = sup lx* (y)l,

llxll<::l, xEX IIYII'Sl, yEY
and therefore IITx* IIY* = llx* llx· '1:/.r* E X*. We obtain that T injective. Tis also sur-
jective, because every y* E Y* = L (Y, IK) can be uniquely extended to x* E L (Y, IK) =
L (X, IK) =X*, lK being a complete field.
ii) One implication is obvious. Suppose now that T : X* ---+ Y* is a weak* -to-weak*
homeomorphism. Let x E X. We will show that x E Y. Consider U = W (0; x; 1) =
{x* EX* llx* (x)l < 1} c;;;; X*. U is an open neighborhood of 0 E X* in the weak*
topology of X*. Since Tis a weak* -to-weak* homeomorphism we obtain that T (U) c;;;; Y*
is an open neighborhood ofT (0) = 0 E Y* in the weak* topology of Y*. Therefore there
are Y1, ... , Yn E Y and c > 0 such that
V = W (O;y1, ... ,yn;c.) = {y* E Y* lly* (y;)l < c, i = 1,n} <;;;; T(U).
n ker;i/i <;;;; kerx. n ker;i/i. Then ;i/i (x*) = 0, i = 1,n,

n n
We obtain that Indeed, let x* E
i=l i=l
and therefore x* (y;) = 0, i = 1, n. For every rn E N, (rnx*) (y;) = 0, i = l,n, and
therefore T (rnx*) E V. We obtain that T (rnx*) E T (U) '1:/rn EN and therefore rnx* E U
'1:/rn EN, i.e., lx* (x)l < 1/rn '1:/rn EN. We obtain thatx* (x) = 0 and therefore x* E kerx.
n
Applying exercise 16(i) we obtain that there are a 1 , ... , an E lK such that x= La; ;iii,
i=l
t.e.,
n
that is, x = I: a;y;, and then x E Y.
i=l
36. Suppose that T is injective. If T* (Y*) c;;;; X* is not weak* dense by a corollary
of the Hahn-Banach theorem we can find rp : (X*, weak*) ---+ lK linear and continuous
such that rp -=1- 0 and 'Pir·(Y•) = 0. Using the form for the linear and weak* continuous
functionals we obtain that there is an x E X, :r -=1- 0, such that rp(x*) = x*(x) '1:/x* EX*.
The fact that rp(T*y*) = 0 '1:/y* E Y* implies that (T*y*)(x) = 0 \:/y* E Y*, i.e., y*(Tx) =
0 '1:/y* E Y*, that is, Tx = 0. Since T is injective and linear we obtain that x = 0, a
contradiction!
Suppose now that T* (Y*) c;;;; X* is weak* dense. If, for a contradiction, there is an
x EX, x -=1- 0, such that Tx = 0 then y*(Tx) = 0 '1:/y* E Y*, and therefore (T*y*)(x) = 0
\:/y* E Y*. We have obtained that the linear and continuous functional (X*, weak*) ---+ x:
]](is equal to zero on the set T* (Y*) c;;;; X*, which is weak* dense. Then X* ---+ ]](is x:
x
the null functional, and therefore = 0, x = 0, a contradiction!

Any element .T E X generates an element x E X**. If we restrict x to Sp( E) we obtain
the canonical operator T : X ---+ ( Sp(E)) *, Tx = x lsp(E)' Then Tis linear and for any
14.2 Solutions 437
x E X we have the fact that
IITxll = llx lsp(EJ II s llxll = llxll ,
i.e., T is continuous, with IITII S 1. Suppose that Tx = 0. Then lsp(E)= 0, x

and then x* (x) = 0 'ix* E E, and by hypothesis this implies x = 0. Therefore
T : X --+ ( Sp(E)) * is a linear bounded injective operator. We shall prove that T is
also surjective and for that we will use the compactness hypothesis. We denote by Tp the
topology of pointwise convergence on E, i.e., the topology generated by the family of
T : (Ex' Tp) --+ ( ( Sp(E) r

seminorms (Px•)x*EE, Px• : X --+JR.+, Px•(x) = lx*(x)l 'ix E X. We shall prove that
'weak*) is continuous. Let Xo E Bx and (x&)&E~ be a net in
Bx such that X& --+ x 0 in the Tp topology. Equivalently, x*(x&) --+ x*(x 0 ) 'ix* E E, and
we obtain that x*(x&) --+ x*(x 0 ) 'ix* E Sp(E). Let now x* E Sp(E). Then forE > 0 there
is any* E Sp (E) such that IIY*- x*llx· < c/3, and therefore ly*(x&)- x*(x&)l < c/3
't/8 E 6 (llx&ll S 1). But y*(x&) --+ y*(xo) and therefore there is 8E E 6 such that
ly*(x&)- y*(xo)l < c/3 't/8 2: 80 • Then for any 8 2: 8E we have
lx*(x&)- x*(xo)l S lx*(x&)- y*(x&)l + ly*(x&)- y*(xo)l + ly*(xo)- x*(xo)l <E.
We have obtained that x*(x&) --+ x*(x 0 ) 'ix* E Sp(E), i.e., Tx& --+ Tx 0 weak* in
(sp(E))*, and this is what we wanted to show. (Bx,Tp) is compact by our hypothe-
sis, and therefore T(Bx) ~ ( ( Sp(E)) *,weak*) is a weak* compact set. Using the
Goldstine theorem, {x I x E Bx} ~ Bx·· is weak* dense. Then we obtain that
{xlsp(E) I x E Bx} ~ B(sp(E))* is weak* dense, that is, T(Bx) is weak* dense
in B(sp(EJ)*· Since T(Bx) is weak* compact and the weak* topology is Hausdorff,
we obtain that T( B x) is weak* closed in B (Sp(E) )* and, using the density we obtain
that T( B x) = B (Sp(E) )*. Since T is linear we obtain that T is surjective. Therefore
T : X --+ ( Sp(E)) *is a bijective linear and bounded operator. It remains to be proved that
IITxll = llxll 'ix E X. We have already proved that IITxll S llxll 'ix E X, and suppose
that we can find xo E X such that IITxoll < llxoll· Let r E (IITxoll, llxoll) and consider
y0 = x 0 jr. Then IITYoll = IITxoll jr < 1, therefore Tyo E B(sp(E))*• and then since
T(Bx) = B(sp(E))* and Tis bijective we obtain that r- 1 (Ty0 ) E Bx, that is, IIYoll S 1,
llxoll S r, and this contradicts our choice for r.
38. i) Suppose that Xn --+ 0 weak in H implies Txn --+ 0 in the norm topology of H.
We shall prove that Tis a compact operator. Consider (xn)nEN ~ BH. A Hilbert space is
always reflexive, and using the Eberlein-Smulian theorem there is a subsequence (nk)kEN
of N and x E H such that Xnk --+ x weak. Then Xnk - x --+ 0 weak and, using the
hypothesis, liT (xnk- x)ll--+ 0, i.e., Txnk --+ Tx, and therefore Tis compact.
Conversely, suppose that Tis compact. Let (xn)nEN ~ H, Xn --+ 0 weak in H. Then
the set {Xn I n E N} ~ H is bounded. Suppose that Txn does not converge towards
0 in the norm of H. Then there is an E > 0 and a subsequence (nk)kEN of N such that
IITxnk II 2: E 'ik E N. But Xnk --+ 0 weak and since T is norm-to-norm continuous,
using exercise 18, T : (H, weak) ---7 (H, weak) is continuous. We obtain that Txnk ---7 0
weak. But T is compact and therefore there is a subsequence ( nkp) pEN of (nk) kEN such
that Txnk p ---7 y E H in the norm of H. Since the weak topology is Hausdorff we obtain
that y = 0, i.e., IITxnk p II ---7 0, and therefore there is a p E N such that IITxnk p II < E,
contradiction.
ii) Suppose that T is a compact operator. Let (xn)nEN <:;:; H, Xn ---7 0 weak. Then
(xn)nEN is bounded. Also, by (i), Txn ---7 0. Then (Txn, Xn) ---7 0.
Conversely, suppose that Xn ---7 0 weak in H implies (Txn, Xn) ---7 0. Using the polar-
ization identity,
4 (Tx, y) = (T (x + y), x + y) - (T (x- y), x- y) + i (T (x + iy), x + iy)

-i (T (x- iy), x- iy)
for x, y E H, we obtain that if Xn ---7 0, Yn ---7 0 weak in H, then (Txn, Yn) ---7 0. But
T : ( H, weak) ---7 ( H, weak) is continuous (see exercise 18) and therefore for any sequence
(xn)nEN <:;:; H, Xn ---7 0 weak, we have Txn ---7 0 weak, and then (Txn, Txn) ---7 0, i.e.,
IITxnll ---7 0. The fact that Xn ---7 0 weak in H implies the fact that IITxnll ---7 0. Using (i)
we obtain that T is a compact operator.
39. Suppose that X is a reflexive space and let A : X ---7 Y be a compact operator.
There is a sequence (xn)nEN <:;:;X, llxnll :::; 1 \:In EN, such that IIAxnll ---7 IIAII· Since A
is compact we obtain that the set { Axn I n E N} <:;:; Y is relatively compact and therefore
there is a subsequence (nk)kEN of N such that Axnk ---7 y E Y in norm. Consider now
the set { Xnk I k E N}. This set is included in the closed unit ball of X, which is weak
compact, by our hypothesis. Applying the Eberlein-Smulian theorem we obtain that there
is a subsequence (xnk.)sEN <:;:; (xnkhEN and an x E Bx such that Xnk. ---7 x weak. Since
A : X ---7 Y is continuous, using exercise 18 we obtain that A is weak-to-weak continuous,
and therefore Axnk. ---7 Ax weak. But Axnk. ---7 y in norm, and then Axnk. ---7 y weak.
Since the weak topology is Hausdorff we obtain that y = Ax, i.e., Axnk. ---7 Ax in norm,
and therefore IIAxnk.ll ---7 I Axil , i.e., II All = IIYII = II Axil, with x E X, llxll :::; 1.
Conversely, suppose that for any compact operator A : X ---7 Y there is an x E X,
llxll :::; 1 such that IIAII = IIAxll· Since Y =1- {0}, there is y E Y with IIYII = 1. Consider
x* EX*. Let A: X ---7 Y, A(x) = x*(x)y, i.e., A= x* ®y is a rank 1 operator. Then A is
compact and therefore by hypothesis there is an x EX, llxll :::; 1, such that I All = IIAxll·
Since IIYII = 1 we obtain that llx*ll = lx*(x)l. We apply the James theorem (the difficult
part of the James theorem, see exercise 14 of chapter 3) and we obtain that X is reflexive.
40. See [18, exercise 4 (iv), chapter II].

Suppose that T* : Y* ---7 X* is weak* -to-norm continuous on the weak* compact sets
from Y*. Using the Alaoglu-Bourbaki theorem, By· <:;:; Y* is weak* compact, and then
since T* is weak*-to-norm continuous it follows that T* (By.) <:;:; X* is compact in the
norm topology. This means that T* is compact and we apply the Schauder theorem to
obtain that T : X ---7 Y is compact.
Conversely, let T : X ---7 Y be a linear, continuous, and compact operator. Let
E = T (X) <:;:; Y. Since T (Bx) is separable (its closure is a compact set) and
T (X) = U nT (Bx) we obtain that Eisa separable Banach space (with the norm from
nEN
14.2 Solutions 439
Y). The c~-restriction ofT, T: X -+ E, is a compact operator (T (x) = T (x) Vx E X).

Consider T* : E* -+ X*, which is also compact by the Schauder theorem. We shall prove
that T* : BE· -+X* is weak*-to-norrn continuous. Since E is separable using exercise 29
we obtain th~t the weak* topology on BE* is metriza_Ele. Since BE* and X* are both metric
spaces and T* is linear, it is sufficient to prove that T* is sequentially continuous at 0, i.e.,
if (y~)nEN ~ BE·, y~-+ 0 weak*, then T*y~-+ 0 in the norm o~X*. Let then (y~)nEN
~ BE* such that y~ -+ 0 weak*. Suppose, for a contradiction, that T* y~ does not converge
towards 0 in the norm of X*. Passing if necessary to a subsequence we may suppose that
there is an c: > 0 such that IIT*y~ II 2: c: Vn E N. Since T* : _§* -+ X* is a bounded
linear operator, it is weak* -to-weak* continuous, and therefore T*y~ -+ 0 weak*. Since
the closure ofT* (BE*) ~ X* is a compact set there is a subsequence (nk) kEN of N and
an x* EX* such that IIT*y~k - x*ll -+ 0. Then T*y~k -+ x* weak* and since the weak*
topology is Hausdorff it follows that x* = 0. Therefore IIT*y~k II -+ 0, which contradicts
our choice for c:.
Consider now T* : Y* -+ X*. We want to show that T* is weak* -to-norm continuous
on the weak* compact subsets of Y*, and, as the weak* compacts sets are bounded it is
sufficient to show that T* : By· -+X* is weak*-to-norm continuous. Let (y6) 8EA ~ By·
be a net such that Y6 -+ y~ E By· weak*. Define iJ6, iJo : E -+ OC, iJ6 (y) = y6 (y),
Yo (y) = y~ (y) 'i_Y EE. Then Yo
EBE·, iJ6 EBE• Vo E ~- Cle~l~ iJ6 --:_y£_ weak* in E*
and using that T* is weak*-to-norrn continuous we obtain that T*y6 -+ T*y~ in the norm
of X*. But T*ij* = T*y* Vy* E By· (if i/' is defined as above). Indeed, let x E X and
y* E By •. Since Tis the co-restriction ofT we have Tx = Tx. Using the definition fori/'
we obtain that i/'(Tx) = y*(Tx), and therefore (r•iJ*) (x) = (T*y*) (x). We obtain that
T*yJ -+ T*y~ in the norm of X*.
41. See [18, p. 17].

For any x* E X*, x* : (X, weak) -+ (OC, 1·1) is continuous. Since K ~X is a weak
compact set we obtain that x* ( K) ~ (OC, 1·1) is a compact set (continuous functions between
topological spaces map compact sets into compact sets), and therefore bounded. For x E X
we have x E X**, llxllx = llxllx••, where xis defined by the relation x(x*) = x*(x)
Vx* E X*. We have obtained that the set (x)xEK ~ L(X*, OC) is pointwise bounded. We
apply the Uniform Roundedness Principle and we obtain that the set (x)xEK ~ L(X*, OC)
is uniformly bounded, i.e., there is an M > 0 such that llxllx·· :::; M Vx E K. Since
llxllx = llxllx·· Vx E X we obtain that llxll :S M Vx E K, i.e., K is bounded in norm.
Since K ~ X is weak compact and the weak topology is Hausdorff, we obtain that K ~ X
is weak closed.
We prove now that any weak closed set A ~ X is closed with respect to the norm
topology on X. Indeed, let x 0 E :A 11 ·11 • For every c: > 0 and for every xi, ... , x~ E X*, the
set W(xo; xi, ... , x~; c:) is open in (X, 11·11) and xo E W(x 0 ; xi, ... , x~, c:). We obtain that
W(x 0 ; xi, ... , x~; c:) n A-=/:- 0, and then x 0 E Aweak =A, since A~ X is weak closed.
42. See [18, p. 17].

i) Obviously Bc0 is norm closed and norm bounded. Suppose that Bco is weak compact.
We consider the sequence (an)nEN ~ Bc0 , an = e 1 +···+en Vn E N, where (en)nEN is
the standard basis in c0 • Then there is a subnet (a'P(o))oE~ of (an)nEN and a E Bco such
that a'P(o) ---> a weak. Then for any n E N we have Pn(a'P(o)) ---t Pn(a), where Pn E cZ,
Pn (XI, x 2 , ... , Xn, ... ) = Xn. By the definition for a subnet, N has the following
property: \:In E N 380 E l1 such that <p(8) 2: n '</8 2: 80 • Then Vn E N 380 E l1 such
that Pn (a 'P( J)) = 1 V8 2: 80 . Taking the limit with respect to 8 E l1, 8 2: 80 we obtain that
Pn(a) = 1 Vn EN, therefore a= (1, 1, 1, ... ),a~ c0 , contradiction!
ii) Suppose that B~t ~ h is weak compact. Consider the standard basis (en)nEN, en E
B~t Vn E N. We prove then that en ---> 0 weak. Suppose, for a contradiction, that the
assertion is not true, and we obtain k E N, c: > 0, xi, ... , xZ, E Zi such that Vn E N there
is an m 2: n such that em ~ W (0; xi, ... , xZ,; c:). Therefore we can construct a subsequence
(ekn )nEN of (en)nEN such that Vn E N, ekn ~ W (0; xi, ... , xZ,; c: ). Since ( ekn )nEN ~ B~t and
B~t is supposed weak compact, there is a a subnet (e'P(o))oE~ of(ekn)nEN and e E B~t such
thate'P(o)---> eweak. Then..\(e'P(o))---> ..\(e) for any..\ E co~ Zoo= li. But..\(e'P(o)) = A'P(o)
'</8 E l1, where ..\ = (.AI, ..\ 2, ... , An, ... ), and since ..\ E c0 we have A'P(o) ---> 0. Then
..\(e) = 0 V..\ E c0 . Taking..\ = en E Co we obtain that e = 0. Therefore V8 E l1 we
have e'P(o) ~ W(O; xi, ... , xZ,; c:), and e<p(o) ---> 0 weak. This is contradictory, and therefore
en ---> 0 weak. Using the Mazur theorem we obtain that there is a sequence (an)nEN of
convex combinations of elements from (en) nEN such that an ---> 0 in the norm topology of
h. But llanlh = 1 Vn EN, and we obtain a contradiction.
43. See [18, exercise 6 (i), chapter VII] or [39, chapter 7, 7.6.3].
It is proved in the solution of exercise 22(i) of chapter 5 that L: : h ---> l 00 is linear
and continuous, with IlL: II = 1. For any n E N, L: (en) = (0, 0, ... , 0, 1, 1, 1, ... ) (n- 1
occurrences of 0) and in order to prove that L: is not weak compact we will prove that the
set {L: (en) In EN} ~Zoo is not relatively compact in the weak topology of l 00 • Suppose,
for a contradiction, that it is relatively compact. Then by the Eberlein-Smulian theorem
we can find x E Zoo and a subsequence (nk)kEN ofN such that E(enk)---> x weak. But
L: (enk) ---> 0 weak* in Zoo and therefore x = 0. We obtain that E (enk) ---> 0 weak in l 00 •
Using the Mazur theorem we obtain that there is a sequence (Yn)nEN ~ Z00 , each Yn being
a convex combination of elements from {L: ( enk) I k E N} , such that Yn ---> 0 in the norm
of Zoo. But IIYnlloo = 1 Vn EN, and we obtain a contradiction.
44. See [18, exercise 1, chapter III).

Obviously ll8nlloo = 1 Vn E N, and then 8n E Bloo(f) Vn E N. Suppose that we
can find a subsequence (kn)nEN ~ Nand 8 E Zoo(f) such that 8kn ---> 8 weak*. Then
8kn (x) ---> 8(x) Vx E h (f). Put A ~ N, A = { ko, k2, k4, ... }, and define x : r ---> IK,
1 if B =A
x(B) = { 0 if B -=1- A: Then x E h(f) and therefore the sequence (8kn(x))nEN ~ ][(
converges. But
8kn(x) = L 8kJB)x(B) = 8kn(A) = { ~ ifkn E A,

if kn ~A,
B<;N
and therefore 8kn (x) = { ~ ifn is even,

if n is odd. Evidently (8kn (x))nEN ~ lK is not a convergent
sequence.
14.2 Solutions 441

Let n E N be fixed. We have
lx~(xl,x2,···)1 = lxnl :S suplxkl V(xl,X2,···) E lex,

kEN
hence llx~ll ::; 1. Also,
Suppose that there exists a subsequence (nk hEN of N such that ( x~J kEN converges
weak* towards x* E l':xo. Then lim x~ (x) = x* (x) \fx E loo. Consider x = (xn)nEN,
k---+oo k
where Xn = { 1
2 ~ff nv:-
1
n ~ {{n 1' n 3 ' ns' ·· · }} '
n1,n3,ns, ....
Then x E loo, and therefore the sequence
* ( ))
( xnk B *() { 1 ifnE{n1,n3,ns, ... }, d b.
x kEN converges. ut xn x = 2 "f d { } an we o tam a
1 n'F n1,n3,ns,... ,
contradiction.
46. i) See [44, theorem 3.31 (i), chapter 3].

We prove, for example, that f is continuous at 0 E <C. Consider D, the closed unit disc
in <C, and r, the unit circle. Let x* E X*. For 0 < lzl < 1,
_1 r
(x* 0 f) (0 d~
27ri}r (~-z)~
~ (~ r (x* 0 f)(~) d~- ~ r (x* 0 f)(~) d~)
z 27rz lr ~- z 27rz lr ~
1
- ((x* of) (z)- (x* of) (0)).
z
Let Mx· = sup I(x* o f) (z) I < oo, since x* of is continuous and D is a compact set. Then
zED
for 0 < lzl < 1/2 we have I~- zl 2: 1/2 \f~ E r, and then
_1 { (x* of) (0 d~l < 2Mx*·
1
27ri } r ( ~ - z) ~ -
We obtain that the set {x* ((f(z)- f(O)) /z) I 0 < lzl < 1/2} is bounded
\fx* E X*. Using the Uniform Boundedness Principle it follows that the set
{((! (z)- f (0)) /z) I 0 < lzl < 1/2} is norm bounded in X and then there is an M > 0
such that ll((f(z)-f(O))/z)ll :S M\10 < lzl < 1/2, i.e., llf(z)-f(O)II::; Mllzll
\10 < lzl < 1/2, hence is f is continuous at 0.
00 00
ii) For every x* E X*, (x* of) (z) = :La~· zn \fz E <C. Since the series :La~· zn
n=O n=O
has its radius of convergence equal to infinity, and therefore bigger than 1, we obtain that
00
L Ia~· I < oo \fx* E X*. Thus we can define the operator T : X* ----+ Z., T (x*) =
n=O
(a~·)n>o. Obviously Tis linear. Let M = sup II! (z)ll- Then M < oo (f is continuous),
- lzl9
and sup l(x* of) (z)l ::; M llx*ll \fx* E X*. Using Cauchy's estimates, \fx* E X* and
lzl9
\fn E N we have
( (x* 0 f)(n) (o)) 1 M llx*ll

Ia~' I= n.1 :S--;; sup l(x* of) (z)l::;
2 lzl$2 2
n .
Then
IITx* II = f
n=O
Ia~· I ~ f
n=O
M ~I:* II = 2M llx* II ,
and therefore T E L (X*, l 1 ).

More than that, we shall prove that T : X* ---+ h = c0is a weak* -to-weak* continuous
operator. Indeed, let ( x;;) 6 EL'l. ~ X* be a net such that x;; ---+ 0 E X* weak*. Then Vz E D 2 ,
we have (xj of) (z) ---+ 0 E C. We shall prove that (x:S of)' (z) ---+ 0 E <C Vz E D 3 ; 2 and,
by induction, that (xj o f)(n) (z) ---+ 0 E <C Vz E D(n+ 2 )/(n+l) \:In E N (we have written
Dr for the closed disc in <C of center 0 and radius r, and fr for the circles). Since xj ---+ 0
weak* we obtain that there is anN > 0 such that llx:SII ~ N \:115 E 6. Since f 2 ~ <Cis a
compact set and f is continuous we obtain that f (r 2 ) ~ X is a compact set. Let E > 0.
Then there are (1, ... , (k E f 2 such that
k
j(f2) ~ U B(f((m),E).
m=l
Since (x:S of) ((m)---+ 0, m = 1, ... , k, there is a 15E E 6 such that

l(x; of) ((m)l < E, m = 1, ... , k, \:115 ~ 15c.
Consider 15 ~ 15E. For each~ E r 2 there is an m such that f (0 EB (! ((m) , E) . Then
l(x; 0 f) (01 ~ l(xj 0 f)(~)- (xj 0 f) ((m)l + l(xj of) ((m)l
~ llx:\111!(0- f((m)l +E ~ (N + 1)E.
Then for a fixed z E D 3 ; 2 and for any 15 ~ 15E we have:
j(x:lof)'(z)l=l~ f (x:Sof)~Od~~~s(N+1)E,
27fz } 12 (~- z)
and therefore (x;; o f)' (z) ---+ 0 Vz E D 3 ; 2 . It is easy to see now that, by induction, we
obtain for any n ~ 0 that (xj o f)(n) (z) ---+ 0 Vz E D(n+ 2 )/(n+l)· Therefore for any fixed
n ~ 0, lim a~6 = 0. Also, since the net (x:S) EL'l. ~ X* is norm bounded we obtain that the
oEL'l. o
net
(Tx;)oEL'l. = { ( a~8 ) n:O:O } oEL'l. ~ l1
is norm bounded. Similarly to the solution for exercise 2 we obtain that Txj ---+ 0 weak*
in h and therefore T is a weak* -to-weak* continuous operator.
Using exercise 19, we obtain that there is a bounded linear operatorS : c0 ---+ X such
that S* = T. Let Xn = Sen \:In E N. We obtain that
a~· = (Tx*)n = (Tx*) (en)= x* (Sen)= x* (xn) Vn EN,
I: x* (xn) zn. Let R > 0 and consider

(X)
and therefore Vx* E X* and Vz E <C, (x* of) (z) =

n=O
0 < r < R. Let MR = sup II! (z)ll· Then Vx* E Bx·, sup l(x* of) (z)l ~MR. Using
lzi:SR lzi:SR
again Cauchy's estimates, for any x* E Bx· and for any n EN we have
lx* (xn)l =I ((x* o f)(n) (o)) / (n!)l ~ MR/Rn.

14.2 Solutions 443
Since MR depends only on f and R we obtain that llxnll ::; MR/ Rn Vn EN. Then
00
Since Rjr > 1 the series I: llxnll rn

converges. Since R > 0 was arbitrary we obtain
00
n=O
00
that I: llxn I Rn < oo VR > 0. From here it follows that the series I: XnZn is absolutely
n=O n=O
convergent in X for all z E CC, hence convergent in X (X is a Banach space). We have
00 00
thus f (z) = I: XnZn Vz E CC. We also have I: llxnll Rn < oo VR > 0.

n=O n=O
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List of Symbols
N set of natural numbers. X = lp, with 1 ::; p ::; oo, or Co, Pn : X --> K
the canonical projections, ix.
Z set of integers.
IR set of real numbers. Lp (J.I), Lp (f1), 1 ::; p::; oo, II·IIP' X.
IC set of complex numbers. q conJugate of 1 ::; p < oo, satisfying 1/p +
K = IR or !C. 1/q = 1.
11-a.e. = a.e., almost everywhere.
IR+ = [0, oo).
Kn forn EN.
HP (JI])), Np, 1 ::; p < oo, Hardy space, 248.
~(z), ~(z), lzl, z, real and imaginary part,
AP (0), Ap, 1 ::; p < oo, Bergman space, 248.
C [a, b], C (T), space of continuous functions
modulus and conjugate of z E IC.
f : T --> K, where T is a compact Hausdorff space,
sgn(z)={ lzl/z, ~fz#O, forzEK. X.
0, 1fz = 0,
[a,b] {xEIRia:s;x:s;b},fora,b E JR, L(X, Y) = {U : X --> Y I U linear and
continuous}, L (X) = L (X, X), 36.
a::; b.
[a, b) {x E 1R I a::; x < b}, for a, b E IR, K (X, Y) = {U E L (X, Y) I U is compact},
a< b. K (X) = K (X, X), 108.
A( H)= {U E L(H) I U is self-adjoint}, where
(xn)nEN <:::;X, Xn E X '<In EN.
His a Hilbert space, 305.
CA = {x EX I x ¢:A} complement of a subset
A<::;X. A+ (H) = {U E A( H) I U ~ 0}, where His a
0 empty set.
Hilbert space, 305.
kerU = {x EX I U (x) = O}thekemelofU E
[f ~ a] = {x E S I f (x) ~ a} for f : S --> JR.
XA, characteristic function of a subset A C S
L(X,Y).
defined by XA (s) = 1 if s E Sand XA (s) = -0 if U (X) = {y E Y I 3x E X such that y =
U (x)} range ofU E L (X, Y).
s ¢: s.
JI]) = {;; E IC liz I < 1} the open unit disc in the I or Ix :X--> X, I (x) = x, identity operator.
complex plane. M"', M>. multiplication operator, 309.
PA, Minkowski functional, 369.
Bx closed unit ball {x EX lllxll::; 1} in a
normed space, 3. X* = L (X, K), dual of X, x* E X*, 68.
X** = L (X*, K), bidual of X, x** E X**, 68.
Sx closed unit sphere {x EX lllxll = 1} in a
normed space, 3. Kx : X -->X**, Kx (x) = x, the canonical
embedding into bidual, 68.
B(x,E:) = {yEXIIIy-xll<c},theopen
ball of center x and radius E: in a normed space X, x: x
X* --> K, (x*) = x* (x), 68.
3. Px•, Px, 403.
B(x,E:) = {y EX lilY- xll::; c}, the closed W(O;xi, ... ,x~;c) = {x E X I lxi(x)l <
ball of center x and radius E: in a normed space X, 3. E:, ... , lx~(x)l < c}, W(x; xi, ... ,x~; c), 403.
X/Y, quotient space, 4. W(O;x1, ... ,xn;c) = {x* E X* I lx*(xl)l <
( ·, ·), inner product, 243. E:, ... , lx*(xn)l < c}, W(x*;x1, ... ,xn;c), 403.
lp, 1::; P::; oo, II·IIP' ix. IIUII =sup{IIU(x)lllllxll::; 1}normofU,36.
z;, 1::; p::; oo, n EN, ix. U*, dual of U for normed spaces, adjoint for
Hilbert spaces, 36.
eo, c the space of null convergent scalar se-
quences and the space of convergent scalar se- u ~ 0, u ::; v, 305.
quences, ix. lUI, u+, u_, modulus, positive and negative part
of an operator, 306.
448
.JiJ, square root of a positive operator, 306. c (n), space of continuous functions f : n -->
sup U;, inf U;, 305. IC, where n <;;; IC is a non-empty open set, 376.
iEI iEI Tp, pointwise convergence topology, 109.
fie restriction of a function. lP (X), 1 ::; p::; oo, 165.
LIM Banach Limit, 180. Co (X), 155.
x l_ y, (x, y) = 0 in an inner product space H. Wp (X), 1 :::: p < CXJ, 115.
Al_ = {x E HI (x,a) = 0, \/a E A} orthogo-
nal complement in an inner product space H, 244. A, A, A', Fr (A) = A- A, interior, closure,
derivative, border of a subset in a topological space.
PrA orthogonal projection in a Hilbert space,
dim!K X dimension of a linear space X.
271.
Let A be a subset in a linear space
Sc, space of convergent scalar series, 7.
Sp (A) linear hull of A.
coo, space of scalar sequences with finite support,
9. co (A) convex hull of A.
Mn (IK), space of n x n scalar matrices. ec (A) balanced hull of A.
eco (A) absolutely convex hull of A.
tr (A) trace for A E Mn (K).
R [0, 1], space of Riemann integrable functions Let A be a subset in a linear topological space
f: [0, 1] -> IR, 153. co (A) closed convex hull of A.
Lip" [0, 1], 0 < a ::; 1, space of a-Lipschitz
ec (A) closed balanced hull of A.
eco (A) closed absolutely convex hull of A.
functions f: [0, 1]-> IK, 214.
b], k E N U { oo }, space of functions f : d (x, A) = dist (x, A) distance from a point to a
Ck [a,
non-empty subset in a metric space, 86.
[a, b] -> lK which are of class Ck, 214.
d (A, B) = dist (A, B) distance between two
I(C), space of entire functions, 376.
non-empty subsets in a metric space, 86.
1-f. (0), space ofholomorphic functions f : n -->
IC, where n <;;; IC is a non-empty open set, 376. (-;;:;),(x:Gj, (L,M) angles in a Hilbert space,
277.
Index
Philips, 42, 197.

A
F
Additive,
Formula,
functional, 68.
Fourier, 244.
operator, 372.
Parseval, 244.
Angle in a Hilbert space, 277.
Functional,
B positive homogeneous, 3.
Ball, subadditive, 3.
closed, 3. sublinear, 3.
open, 3. supra-linear, 3.
Banach limit, 180.
G
Basis,
Gram determinant, 274.
orthonormal, 244.
Schauder, 4. H
Bergman kernel, 248. Hilbertian product, 243.
Bessel inequality, 244. I
Bidual, 68. Ideal property,
Bounded pointwise, 147. for compact operators, 108.
c for weak compact operators, 404.
Canonical embedding into the bidual, 68. Infimum for a family of operators, 305.
Cauchy-Buniakowski-Schwarz inequality, 243. Inner product,
Closure, 4. space, 243.
Convergence, associated with a positive operator, 313.
pointwise, 372. Interior, 4.
weak, 403. Isometrically isomorphic, 36.
weak*, 403. Isometry, 36.
convex cone, 368. Isomorphism, 36.
D K
Dual, 68. Kernel
Distance = metric, Bergman, 249.
associated with a norm, 4. L
from an element to a subset, 86. Lemma,
between two sets, 86. Auerbach, 69.
Cantor, 155.
E
Kakutani, 383.
c:-net, 107.
Riesz, 86.
Equicontinuous family of functions, 107.
Equivalent norms, 4. M
Extension, Metric associated with a norm, 4.
Hahn-Banach, 175. Minkowski,
450
functional, 369. dense, 4.

seminorm, 369. first Baire category, 213.
fundamental, 195.
N
nowhere dense, 213.
Norm,
orthogonal, 244.
associated with an inner product, 243.
orthonormal, 244.
quotient, 4.
second Baire category, 213.
0 total, 407.
Operator, Space,
adjoint, 36. Banach, 3.
compact, 107. Bergman, 248.
composition, 37. Frechet, 369.
dual, 36. Hardy, 248.
finite rank, 108. Hilbert, 243.
Hardy, 38, 111. linear topological, 368.
Hilbert, 39. locally convex, 369.
inversion, 246. normed, 3.
linear and continuous, 36. quotient linear, 4.
modulus, 306. separable, 4.
multiplication, 111. Spectral radius, 306.
negative part, 306. Square root of a positive operator, 306.
norm, 36. Subspace,
positive, 305. initial, 306.
positive part, 306. final, 306.
Riemann-Liouville modified, 39. Supremum for a family of operators, 305.
Schur, 39.
self-adjoint, 305.
T
Theorem,
summation, 111.
Alaoglu-Bourbaki, 404.
Volterra, 111.
Arzela-Ascoli, 107.
weak compact, 404.
Baire category, 213.
Orthogonal complement, 244.
Banach-Steinhaus, 147.
p closed graph, 213.
Parallelogram law, 243. Eberlein-Smulian, 404.
Partial isometry, 306. Gantmacher, 404.
Polar decomposition, 306. Goldstine, 404.
Projection =projector, Grothendieck, 108.
canonical, ix. Hahn-Banach, 175.
orthogonal, 271. Helly, 404.
inverse mapping, 213.
R
James, 70.
Relative compactness in lp, c0 , 107.
von Neumann, 243.
Relatively compact, 107.
Krein, 404.
s Mazur, 108,404.
Seminorm, 3. open mapping, 213.
Sequence, orthogonal projection, 271.
Cauchy, 3. Pythagoras, 244.
convergent, 3. Riesz, 89.
Series, Riesz representation, 244.
convergent, 4. Schauder, 108.
absolutely convergent, 4. Schur, 406.
Set, Stone, 384.
absorbing, 368. Weierstrass convergence, 305.
balanced, 368. Totally bounded, 107.
bounded, 368. Topology,
convex, 368. generated by a family of seminorms, 369.
451
linear, 368. Uniform boundedness principle, 147.

locally convex, 369. Unit,
pointwise convergence, 372. ball, 3.
weak, 404. sphere, 3.
weak*, 404.
u w
Uniformly bounded, 147. Weak Cauchy series, 113.
1. A.A. Harms and D.R. Wyman: Mathematics and Physics of Neutron Radiography. 1986
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25. G. Ciilugiireanu, S. Breaz, C. Modoi, C. Pelea and D. Viilcan: Exercises in Abelian Group
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26. C. Costara and D. Popa: Exercises in Functional Analysis. 2003 ISBN 1-4020-1560-7
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Exercises in Functional Analysis

Kluwer Texts in the Mathematical Sciences

A Graduate-Level Book Series

SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.

ISBN 978-90-481-6399-1 ISBN 978-94-017-0223-2 (eBook)

Printed on acid-free paper

All Rights Reserved

Part 1: Normed spaces ........ . 1

Chapter 1. Open, closed, and bounded sets in normed spaces 3

Part II: Hilbert spaces . 241

Chapter 10. Hilbert spaces, general theory . 243

Part III: General topological spaces . 366

Chapter 13. Linear topological and locally convex spaces . 368

C. Costara and D. Popa

For 1 :<::; p < oo we denote

llxlloo =sup lxnl Vx = (xn)nEN E Zoo.

If T is a compact Hausdorff space we denote

C(T) = {!: T ~][{If continuous}.

llflloo =sup If (x)l Vj E C (T).

Let (8, ~. J.L) be a measure space. For 1 ::; p < oo we denote

.Cp (J.L) = { f : 8 ~][{I f is J.L-measurable and is IJIP df..l < oo}.

llflloo = inf {M > 0 llfl ::; M, J.L-a.e.} Vf E .Coo (J.L)

Open, closed, and bounded sets in normed spaces

Definition. Let X be a linear space. A map p : X ____, lR is called:

r = {D ~X I Vx ED :Jc: > 0 such that B(x,c:) ~ D}.

Definition. Let X be a normed space. A series 2::: Xn in X is called:

i) convergent if and only if the sequence ( 't xk) nEN is convergent.

The closed unit sphere in a normed space of dimension 2 2 is path connected

Finite additivity and countable additivity for norms

Vn EN and 'P (llx + f 1 Ynll) = 'P (llxll) + f 1 'P (llYn II).

The minimum of two norms

6. Prove that the parallelepiped P = {(xn)nEN E l2 I lxnl < 1 Vn E N} is an open set

The set of all polynomials in C[-1, 1]

8. Is the set of all polynomials open in C [-1, 1]?

Closed linear subspaces in lp and Lp

9. Let I <: p < oo and Gp ~ { (xn)nEN E l, n~< Xn ~ 0}

Algebraic sets which are closed

be a bounded set in lP.

Y, n E N, is a sequence of linear operators. Prove that the sets

A = {x E X I Tnx does not converge towards Tx}

Closed convex sets

A dense linear subspace in Zoo

M: XM (k) = { ~: ~: Z: Vk EN. Prove that Sp {XM I ME P (N)} <;;; Z00 is dense.

The closure of ZP and c0 in Zoo

A characterization for the closed convex sets in JRn

Closed and open sets in the space Mn

The Banach space of all the scalar convergent series

and for any x = (xn)nEN ESc, define llxll =sup I

iii)ProvethatU: Sc-+ c0 , U((xn)nEN) = (f xk)

A Cantor type of characterization for a Banach space

Differences between norms and metrics

A tree type of property for the completeness

A stability property for finite linearly independent systems

35. Let n E N, X is a normed space and x 1 , x 2 , ... , Xn are n linearly independent

The projection onto finite-dimensional linear subspaces in a normed space

A property for the set of all polynomials of degree at most k

Finite-dimensional linear subspaces in function spaces

39. i) Let n E N, X be a set, and V be a linear subspace of dimension n in the real

A norm on an infinite-dimensional linear spaces is never unique

llx + Yll = n~~ 1 lx;i I + mE- 1

linear space we can construct an inner product.

2. See [40, exercise 1.56].

3. Let x, y E S x. We have the following cases:

(1) ~(t +a)- ~(t)- ~(a)~ -~(0),

( fl. I): : : : : : fn. I)