Classical Mechanics Study Guide

CLASSICAL
MECHANICS
L
θ1 M
L
θ2
M
CONTENTS
0 Introduction 3
1 Lagrangian Mechanics 6
1 Quick Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3 Problems and Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4 Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2 Statics 38
1 Quick Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4 Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3 Newtonian Mechanics 42
1 Quick Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4 Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4 Conservation Laws 46
1 Quick Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4 Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5 Oscillations 50
1 Quick Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4 Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6 Central Forces 54
1 Quick Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
1
4 Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
7 Non-Inertial Reference Frames 58

1 Quick Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4 Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
8 Angular Momentum 62
1 Quick Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4 Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
9 Non-Inertial Reference Frames 66

1 Quick Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4 Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
10 Hamiltonian Mechanics 70
1 Quick Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4 Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2
0
INTRODUCTION
HOW TO USE THIS TEMPLATE
l The title page says what the overarching topic of the study guide is, and the chapters are
subtopics presented in a pedagogically sensible order (as opposed to logical or historical
order). Each chapter is split into four sections:
1. quick reference
2. notes
3. problems and solutions
4. resources.
The way in which they depend on one another is shown in the diagram below through the
arrows. The red numbered arrows indicate the order in which they should be initially ap-
proached (more on this below).
2
1 2 3
1
4
l Section four (resources) undergirds the other three sections – it’s the material the other
sections draw upon. Its purpose is for bookkeeping (literally) – to keep track of where the
3
information is coming from in case you need to refer back to them later. Ideally, the resource
listings are as specific as possible (identify chapters / page numbers).
l Section two (notes) is meant to be written as you’re reading the resources from section four.
The notes are divided by self-contained (as much as possible) bullet points with bold, all-
caps titles at the beginning. This makes the material easier to refer to for future reference.
Bullet points also help to avoid "fluff."
ä You shouldn’t be merely copying over the information from the resources into this sec-
tion. You should explain the material in your own words without even looking at the
resources. This makes the note-taking an exercise of active-recall, rather than merely
passively copying what was presented in the resources. Such a practice reinforces what
you are beginning to understand, and helps you identify the areas you haven’t quite un-
derstood yet. Recognition and recollection are very different – while you may be able
to recognize the information in the resources, that doesn’t guarantee that you are able
to recall it on your own, which arguably is the essence of learning. This technique is
called "the Feynman method."
ä When writing these notes, follow Einstein’s advice: "Everything should be made as
simple as possible, but no simpler."
l You should move on from section two to section three (problems and solutions) as quickly as
possible, for the same reasoning as the justification above for section two: it reinforces what
you know, and helps you identify what you don’t understand yet. It’s a task of active recall,
rather than passive recognition.
ä You learn to do by doing. If you’re going to have a test consisting of solving problems,
then spend most of your studying solving problems, not rereading a textbook or notes.
l Section one (quick reference) is a summary of everything you’ve learned from taking notes
and from solving problems in bite-sized pieces, neatly wrapped up in beautiful tcolorboxes.
These boxes are the tools in your toolbox for solving more problems later. Good things to
put in the boxes include related equations grouped together, problem-solving strategies, and
common misconceptions.
OTHER TIPS
l As in this template, keep chapters in separate files and import to main using \input. Com-
ment out the \input statements in main of all the chapters except for the one you’re currently
working on for faster compile time, and to make scrolling through the PDF preview easier as
well.
l Have a separate project of class "standalone" in which to make Tik Z figures one at a time,
and then just copy them into this project. That way you only need to compile that one figure
as you’re creating it.
l This template (specifically, the sectioning system) is geared for mathematical / physical sci-
ences. Adjust the sectioning for different topics as needed.
4
l Use Ctrl + f within the code to replace all \input\{TikZ... statements with the same thing
but with a % in front of it to comment out all Tik Z figures for faster compile time while editing
things other than the figures.
l Click on the portion of the PDF preview you want to edit to be taken to it in the code. That
way you don’t have to scavenge through all the different files.
5
1
LAGRANGIAN
MECHANICS
1 QUICK REFERENCE
THE LAGRANGIAN USING THE EULER-LAGRANGE
EQUATION
L=T–V 1. Identify the generalized coordi-

nates qi , one for each degree of
freedom (i is a degree of free-
dom).
THE PRINCIPLE OF STATIONARY 2. Find the position vectors rj (the

ACTION index j refers to a distinct body)
by computing the conventional
Z t coordinates in terms of the qi .
2 l

S= L q(t), q(t), t dt
t1 3. Using the rj , compute T and V,
δS = 0 then take the difference (T – V)
to find the Lagrangian L of the
system.
4. Plug L into each E-L equation

(one for each index i) to gener-
THE EULER LAGRANGE EQUA-
ate as many equations of motion
TION
(second-order ordinary differen-
tial equations)
∂L d ∂L
= l
5. Solve the equations of motion
∂qi dt ∂ qi
with initial conditions.
6
WAYS L CAN BE CHANGED WITH- CYCLIC COORDINATES
OUT AFFECTING THE EQUATIONS
OF MOTION ∂L ∂L
= 0 =⇒ = const.
l
∂qi ∂ qi
L → αL
L→L+C
d
L → L + g(q, t)
dt
USING LAGRANGE MULTIPLIERS TO SOLVE FOR HOLONOMIC CONSTRAINTS

A holonomic constraint is a constraint that only involves position (and possibly time), but not
velocity.
1. Use conventional coordinates.
2. Identify the constraint equations Gi (rj ) = 0.
3. Calculate the Lagrangian of the system and add on

X
L→L+ λi Gi .
i

X
L→L+ λi Gi .
i
5. Plug this new Lagrangian into the E-L equation to generate equations of motion.
6. These equations of motion, in conjunction with the all the with all the equations Gi (rj ) =
0, is enough to solve for positions of all the bodies in the form of the vectors rj , as λi ,
which are proportional to the constraints (which could be time-dependant).
7
USING LAGRANGE MULTIPLIERS THE HAMILTONIAN
TO SOLVE FOR NON-HOLONOMIC
CONSTRAINTS l The Hamiltonian is defined as
X ∂L
Non-holonomic constraints are H≡ q – L.
l
∂ qi i
l
velocity-dependant. i
1. Identify the constraint equations
l
l It is conserved in time if
Gi (qj , qj , t) = 0.
∂L
2. Require that = 0.
∂t
X
δS + λi Gi (δ qj ) = 0,
i
WHEN H = T+V
and then solve for the λi , which
are proportional to the forces of 1. T must be a homogeneous func-
l
constraint. tion of degree two in q (in each

l
qi ) or equivalently, there can be

not time-dependant constraints,
and
2. The potential must not be

velocity-dependant.
EFFECTIVE POTENTIAL
THE CENTER OF MASS FRAME
The effective potential takes advan-
l The center of mass of a system tage of the conservation of angular
is P momentum in central-force problems
mr to turn a three DoF problem into a one
R = Pi i i .
i mi DoF problem.
l If the system is closed (there 1 2 2 2 l
l
are no external forces to accel- E=T+V= µ(r + r φ ) + V(r)

2
erate the center of mass), then a
frame moving with a velocity of 1 2 2 l
M2
µr φ =
P 2 1µr2
mv
v0 = Pi i i 1 2 M2
i mi
l
µr + + V(r) .
2 2µr2
with respect to the frame in
| {z }
only r-dependant
which the vi were measured
would see the center mass sta- M2
+ V(r) + V ≡ Veff
tionary. 2µr2
1 2 l
=⇒ E = µr + Veff (r)
2
8
KEPLER’S LAWS OF PLANETARY
MOTION
1. The orbits of planets around the

Sun are ellipses, with the Sun at
one focus of ellipse
2. A planet sweeps our equal ar-

eas of the ellipse (relative to the
Sun) in equal times
3.
T1 2
3
R1
=
T2 R2
Kepler formulated his first two laws in

1609 and the third in 1619 based on
measurements made by Tycho Brahe.
In 1687, Isaac Newton used his Uni-
versal Law of Gravitation to explain
mathematically why the plants be-
haved this way.
9
2 NOTES
l THE PRINCIPLE OF STATIONARY ACTION: Consider a free particle moving from one point
q1 at time t1 reaching another point q2 at time t2 , as shown below.
In principle, the particle could take any of the blue paths shown in the figure, but when left
to its own devices, nature will always take the red path, because this is the path that makes
the so-called "action" stationary, meaning that random, yet sufficiently small deviations in
the path make negligible difference to the action of the path. This requirement of stationary
action is Hamilton’s Principle. In other words, if you only know the start point and the end
point of a trajectory, you can use Hamilton’s principle to deduce the trajectory that the parti-
cle took to get from the first point to the second.
The action S is defined as Z t

2 l

S≡ L q(t), q(t), t dt,
t1
where the function L is the Lagrangian, equal to T – V, where T is the kinetic energy of
the system, and V is the potential energy (not to be confused with, but often called just the
"potential").
l DERIVATION OF THE EULER-LAGRANGE EQUATION: Hamilton’s Principle says that tra-

jectories in nature make the action S stationary. If the trajectory that makes the action sta-
tionary is (t), then if we add on an arbitrary function γ(t) multiplied by a very small constant
to q(t), then the action S will not change significantly (by definition of stationary). The action
of the altered trajectory is
Z t
2
0
S =
l l

L q(t) + γ(t), q(t) + γ(t), t dt,
t1
and the "variation" of the action from nature’s trajectory q(t) is
δS = S0 – S
Z t
2 l l
l

= L q(t) + γ(t), q(t) + γ(t), t – L q(t), q(t), t dt.
t1
10
Since the variation from nature’s trajectory q(t) is γ(t), so that q0 = q+γ, we can understand
this variation γ(t) as δq, an arbitrary function of very small magnitude. Remember that we
are already given the initial position q1 = q(t1 ) and the final position q2 = q(t2 ), so we are
not allowed to have any variation δq at these points. That is, γ(t1 ) = γ(t2 ) = 0. Since this
variation δq is so small (because is small), we can Taylor expand the integrand and ignore
quadratic terms and higher, giving
Z t
2 ∂L ∂L l
δS = δq + δ q dt l
t1 ∂q ∂q
Z t
2 ∂L ∂L d
= δq + l δq dt.
t1 ∂q ∂ q dt
Now we can use integration by parts to learn more about δS:
Z t
2 ∂L ∂L d
δS = δq + l δq dt.
t1 ∂q ∂ q dt
|{z} | {z }
u dv
By integration by parts, we can rewrite

Z t Z t
2 t 2
u dv = uv t2 – v du.
t1 1 t1
Applying this to our integral gives

t2 Z t
∂L 2 ∂L d ∂L
δS = δq + l – δq dt. l
∂q t1 t1 ∂q dt ∂ q
Recall that at times t1 and t2 , the variation δq is zero, so the first term on the left-hand side
is equal to zero. We then have
Z t
2 ∂L d ∂L
δS = – δq dt. l
t1 ∂q dt ∂ q
Now Hamilton’s Principle states that if q(t) is natures preferred path, then δS = 0. Now since
the factor in the integrand δq is arbitrary, the factor to the left of it in the integrand must be
equal to zero for all t. Therefore
∂L d ∂L
= . l
∂q dt ∂ q
This is the Euler-Lagrange (E-L) equation. In the calculation above, there was only one q,
for one degree of freedom. If there were N degrees of freedom, you would have to add them
all into the action S, and then require that the action is stationary. This would then lead to N
Euler-Lagrange equations:
∂L d ∂L
= , i ∈ [1, N].
l
∂qi dt ∂ qi
l WAYS L CAN BE CHANGED WITHOUT AFFECTING THE EQUATIONS OF MOTION:
11
1. Multiply by a constant:
L → αL
2. Add a constant:
L→L+C
3. Add a total time derivative of an arbitrary function:
d
L→L+ g(q, t).
dt
This works because when you plug this new Lagrangian into the action integral, you
only add onto the action
t t
g(q + δq, t)t2 – g(q, t)t2 ,
1 1
which is zero since δq(t1 ) = δq(t2 ) = 0. Adding on zero to the action doesn’t change
whether q makes S stationary or not, so the resulting equations of motion are un-
changed, no matter what the function g was.
l USING THE EULER-LAGRANGE EQUATION:
1. Identify the generalized coordinates qi , one for each degree of freedom (i is a degree
of freedom).
2. Find the position vectors rj (the index j refers to a distinct body) by computing the con-
ventional coordinates in terms of the qi .
3. Using the rj , compute T and V, then take the difference (T – V) to find the Lagrangian L
of the system.
4. Plug L into each E-L equation (one for each index i) to generate as many equations of
motion (second-order ordinary differential equations) as there are degrees of freedom.
5. Solve the equations of motion with initial conditions.
l THE EULER-LAGRANGE EQUATION IS MORE GENERAL THAN NEWTON’S SECOND

LAW: When T = T(v) and V = V(r), then the E-L equations reduce to F = ma as follows: the
Lagrangian is
1
L = mv2 – V(r).
2
Also, (conservative) forces and potentials are related by
F = –∇V.
Let
∂V
∂r
be shorthand for
∂V ∂V ∂V
, , ,
∂x ∂y ∂z
just as ∇V is shorthand for the above expression. So
∂V
F=– .
∂r
12
Since L = T – V, and in this case only V is a function of r, we can write
∂L
F= .
∂r
Next, we can compute
∂T ∂T
l=
∂ r ∂v
= mv.
Since in this case only T = T(v), we can just as well write
∂L
l= mv.
∂r
Now taking the time derivative of this gives ma. Therefore

d ∂L ∂L
l = =⇒ F = ma,
dt ∂ r ∂r
under the conditions that the potential is not velocity-dependant, and the kinetic energy is not
position-dependant. But even when these conditions are not satisfied, the E-L equations are
still valid. The other advantage to the E-L equations are that you only need to use as many
variables as there are degrees of freedom (they don’t have to be Cartesian coordinates, they
can be any generalized coordinates), which can greatly simplify many problems, such as the
double-pendulum problem.
l INERTIAL REFERENCE FRAMES AND GALILEAN INVARIANCE: Imagine you are float-
ing in space and see someone else floating past you at a constant velocity to your right. But
from that other person’s perspective, you have moving at the same speed to their left. How
can you tell who is moving and who is staying still? Maybe one person is moving to left at
half speed, and the other is moving to the right at half speed? There is no way to tell. But
now suppose that the other person is accelerating past you. Again, from their perspective,
you are accelerating past them. But in this case, there is a way to tell who is accelerating
and who isn’t – if you are accelerating, you would feel a force. If you hold a pendulum and
the equilibrium of the pendulum is at a non-zero angle due to a "fictitious force", then you
are accelerating. Your reference frame is then non-inertial. If the pendulum hangs straight
down, then you are moving at a constant velocity, and your reference frame is said to be
"inertial".
The way to convert between two different inertial reference frames (with a relative veloc-
ity between them of v) is through the Galilean transformations:
r0 = r – vt
t0 = t
13
S S0 P
r
r0
vt
Galilean Invariance refers to the fact that the laws of physics are the same in all inertial ref-
erence frames (e.g., no fictitious forces such as the Coriolis force or the centrifugal force).
Equivalently, while the Lagrangian may be different in different inertial reference frames,
when you plug the different Lagrangians into the same E-L equations, you end up with the
same equations of motion. For a free particle (i.e. no forces, not in a potential) Galilean in-
variance of the equations of motion imply that applying a Galilean transform to a Lagrangian
is equivalent to adding a total time derivative to the Lagrangian. Going through this process,
we find that Hamilton’s principle is valid under Galilean transforms only if the Lagrangian of a
free particle is some multiple of its velocity squared. The convention is to make the constant
m/2, so that the Lagrangian is the kinetic energy (if the particle is in a potential, then you
subtract the potential to account for the force).
As a check that this really works if L = mv2 /2, apply a Galilean transform:
1 2 1
L= mv → m(v + v0 )2
2 2
1
= m(v2 + v20 + 2v · v0 )
2
1 2 d 1
= mv + (m r · v0 + mv20 t) .
2 |dt {z 2 }
doesn’t change dynamics
l WHEN QUANTUM MECHANICS BECOMES CLASSICAL MECHANICS: The Heisenberg

uncertainty principle can be stated either as
∆x∆p ≥ h– /2
or
∆E∆t ≥ h– /2
(xp and Et have the same units). Since we chose by convention that the Lagrangian has
units of energy, the action has units of Et. So quantum becomes "classical" when
Z t
2
S= L dt h– .
t1
l NOETHER’S THEOREM, GENERALIZED MOMENTA AND FORCES: Suppose a coordi-

nate q does not show up in the expression for out Lagrangian L. Then it follows that
∂L
= 0.
∂q
14
In this case, q is called a "cyclic" coordinate. This is a kind of "symmetry"; that is, L doesn’t
care about this particular q – it doesn’t change depending on q. From the E-L equation, we
know that
∂L d ∂L
= . l
∂q dt ∂ q
This implies that if q is cyclic, then
d ∂L
=0 l
dt ∂ q
∂L
=⇒ is constant in time.
l
∂q
Noether’s Theorem states that every symmetry in a system has a corresponding conserva-
tion law. The above quantity which is called a "generalized momentum", or the "momentum
conjugate to q," even if it doesn’t happen to be constant in time (q doesn’t have to be cyclic
for it to have a momentum conjugate). The traditional momentum p = mv is called the
"mechanical momentum." Similarly
∂L
∂q
is called a "generalized force."
l HOMOGENEITY OF SPACE IMPLIES MOMENTUM CONSERVATION: In a closed system,
shifting the entire system as a whole to some new position will not change the Lagrangian
(equivalently, the Lagrangian is invariant of your choice of origin of your coordinate system –
space has no preferred position). If you do not have a closed system (say a ball in the grav-
itational field of the Earth, but you don’t include the Earth in your Lagrangian – that’s what
makes the system not closed) then moving the ball parallel to the gravitational field lines
will change the Lagrangian (specifically, it will change V). If you include the Earth (suppose
that the Earth and the ball are in empty space with no other surrounding planets or stars),
then moving both the ball and the Earth (but not moving them relative to each other) will not
change the Lagrangian.
By Noether’s theorem, this symmetry leads directly to a conservation law. The conserva-
tion is of momentum, and is derived mathematically in the following way. Start by displacing
all position vectors ri of a closed system by a very small displacement vector . The change
in the Lagrangian is then
∆L = L(r1 + , r2 + , ... , v1 , v2 , ... ) – L(r1 , r2 , ... , v1 , v2 , ... ).
Since is small, we can apply a Taylor expansion to the left-most term on the right-hand side
of the above equation and get
X ∂L
∆L = ·
∂ri
i
X ∂L
=· .
∂ri
i
Since we have determined that ∆L = 0 due to the homogeneity of space, we have
X ∂L
· = 0.
∂ri
i
15
Since is arbitrary, this can be true for all only if
X ∂L
= 0.
∂ri
i
Now by the E-L equation, we have

∂L d ∂L
= ,
∂ri dt ∂vi
so we can make this substitution to find

X d ∂L d X ∂L
= = 0.
dt ∂vi dt ∂vi
i i
Therefore the expression

X ∂L
=0
∂vi
i
is conserved in time. This expression is the total generalized momentum. If the Lagrangian
has the form
X1
L= m v2 – V(ri ),
2 i i
i
i.e., the potential is not velocity dependant, then the total mechanical momentum is con-
served (because it is the same thing as the generalized momentum in this case). Again, this
is only true so long as the system is closed, so it has no external forces on it.
l CENTER OF MASS FRAME: In a closed system, as shown above, the total momentum is
conserved because the Lagrangian is invariant under changes in frame of reference. How-
ever, the total momentum is not invariant under changes in frame of reference. Suppose a
frame K0 moving with a velocity v0 with respect to a frame K. In frame K, the particles will
have velocities vi , and in frame K0 the particles will have velocities vi0 . These velocities are
related by a Galilean transformation, giving
vi0 = vi – v0 .
The total momentum will then differ in this moving frame as
P0 = mi vi0 =
X X X
mi vi – mi v0
i
| i {z } i
P
=⇒ P0 = P –
X
mi v0 .
i
Now if X
mi v0 = P,
i
16
then the total momentum P0 in the frame K0 will be zero. In this case, K0 is called the center
of mass frame. The velocity v0 this frame must move with respect to K to have a zero net
momentum can be found as X
mi v0 = P
i
X X
=⇒ mi v0 = mi vi
i i
P
mv
=⇒ v0 = Pi i i .
i mi
Similarly, the center of mass of the system is
P
mr
R = Pi i i ,
i mi
and in the frame of reference K0 , R is stationary.
l ISOTROPY OF SPACE AND CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM: Just as the

displacement of a closed system doesn’t change the system’s Lagrangian due to the ho-
mogeneity of space, a rotation of closed system doesn’t change the system’s Lagrangian
due to the isotropy of space. Just as space has no preferred location, space also has no
preferred direction. And just as Noether’s theorem predicts that the first leads to the con-
servation of momentum, the second leads to the conservation of angular momentum. We
can prove this mathematically in the following way. Suppose we rotate the system by a small
angle δφ, meaning all position and velocity vectors are rotated by δφ. We can define a vector
associated with this rotation by the right-hand rule, as shown below.
δ φ̂
δφ

With this vector δφ = δφ δ φ̂ defined, the transformation of the position and velocity vectors
of the system can be seen to be
ri → δri , δri = δφ × ri
vi → δvi , δvi = δφ × vi
Now using the fact the the angle δφ is small, we can simplify the change in the Lagrangian
∆L with a Taylor expansion. That is,
X ∂L ∂L

∆L = · δri + · δvi .
∂ri ∂vi
i
17
Now the partial derivative in left-most term in the summand can be substituted via the E-L
equation as
∂L d ∂L
= .
∂ri dt ∂vi
Now as long as the potential is not velocity-dependant, we can can say the the right-hand
side is the time derivative of the mechanical momentum; that is,
∂L
= pi ,
∂vi
so that
∂L l
= pi .
∂ri
(Even if this weren’t true, there would still be a conserved quantity – it just won’t end up
being the traditional angular momentum.) Similarly, the partial derivative in the second term
of the summand in the equation for ∆L can be substituted with pi as well. In addition, let’s
substitute in δri = δφ × ri and δvi = δφ × vi as determined earlier. We then have
X l

∆L = pi · δφ × ri + pi · δφ × vi .
i
The two terms in the summand above are called "triple products”, which generally have
the form a · (b × c). A useful property of triple products to apply here is "invariance under
cyclic permutations", meaning that you can cycle through the vectors and the product is
uncharged, so long as they are still in the same order:
a · (b × c) = c · (a × b) = b · (c × a).
Applying this property to our expression for ∆L, we can factor out δφ to find
X
l
∆L = δφ · ri × pi + vi × pi .
i
The summand has the form of an expansion of the product rule, so we can write
d X
∆L = δφ · ri × pi .
dt
i
Remember that the whole point of this in the first place was that the Lagrangian shouldn’t
change when we rotate our system, so we should have ∆L = 0, giving
d X
δφ · ri × pi = 0.
dt
i
Recall that δφ is arbitrary, so the only way this can always be equal to zero for all δφ is if
d X
ri × pi = 0
dt
i
18
X
=⇒ ri × pi → constant.
i
The above quantity which is conserved is the angular momentum, which is often denoted L,
but to avoid confusion with the Lagrangian which uses the same letter, it will be denoted
X
M= ri × pi .
i
Like the conservation of momentum, angular momentum is conserved equally in any iner-
tial reference frame. Additionally, the values themselves of both kinds of momenta depend
on which reference frame you measure them from. Unlike momentum, however, your mea-
surement of angular momentum depends on where you place the origin of your coordinate
system. So while for momentum, the physics is easier when you choose a center of mass
frame, for angular momentum, not only do you want to use a center of mass frame, but you
also want to put the center of mass at the origin so simplify things further.
l MOMENTUM AND ANGULAR MOMENTUM CONSERVATION IN EXTERNAL FIELDS:

The conservation of momentum and angular momentum is contingent upon the systems
in question being closed, meaning there are no external forces, or equivalently no external
potential fields. However, some components of momentum and angular momentum can be
conserved, even in an external field. For example, while moving a ball parallel to gravita-
tional field lines changes its Lagrangian, moving it perpendicular to the field lines doesn’t
change the Lagrangian. Also, spinning with an axis of rotation parallel to the gravitational
field lines doesn’t change the Lagrangian, though if the axis of rotation is perpendicular to
the field lines, then angular momentum is not conserved. Keep in mind that it’s not always
"either conserved or not", but there could be a one component conserved, while the other
components aren’t.
l HOMOGENEITY OF TIME AND THE CONSERVATION OF THE HAMILTONIAN: Suppose

a Lagrangian is not explicitly time-dependant (it is symmetrical in time – time is a cyclic
coordinate). This is generally the case since the laws of physics are the same today as they
were five years ago, etc. Then
∂L
= 0.
∂t
According to Noether’s Theorem, some quantity in the system is conserved as a result. In
general,
dL ∂L X ∂L ∂L l ll
= + q + q .
∂qi i ∂ qi i
l
dt ∂t
i
Since in this case t is a cyclic coordinate, this reduces down to

dL X ∂L ∂Ll ll
= q + q .
∂qi i ∂ qi i
l
dt
i
Now notice that term boxed below

dL X ∂L l∂L ll
= qi + q
∂ qi i
l
dt ∂qi
i
19
can be replaced by
d ∂L
l
dt ∂ qi
via the E-L equation. We then have

dL X d ∂L ∂L l ll
= q + q .
dt ∂ qi i ∂ qi i
l l
dt
i
The summand on the right-hand side is the expanded product rule of

d ∂L l
q .
dt ∂ qi i
l
Plugging this is, we then have

dL d X ∂L l
= q
∂ qi i
l
dt dt
i

d X ∂L l
=⇒ q – L = 0.
∂ qi i
l
dt
i
Therefore
X ∂L l
H≡ q – L,
∂ qi i
l
i
called the Hamiltonian, is conserved if
∂L
= 0.
∂t
l WHEN H=T+V: If a function is homogeneous with degree k in (with respect to) the variable
xi , then
f(x1 , ... αxi ... xN ) = αk f(x1 , ... αxi ... xN ).
Euler’s theorem on homogeneous functions states that if f is a homogeneous function of
degree k in all its variables xi , then
X ∂f
x = kf(x).
∂xi i
i
With this framework in place, the two requirements for the Hamiltonian to just be equal to
the energy of the system are
l l
1. T must be a homogeneous function of degree two in q (in each qi ) or equivalently, there

can be not time-dependant constraints, and
2. the potential must not be velocity-dependant.
If these two conditions are met, then

X ∂T l
q = 2T
∂ qi i
l
20
by Euler’s theorem on homogeneous functions (using the first condition), and by the second
condition
∂L ∂T
= , l l
∂ qi ∂ qi
l
since V doesn’t depend on the qi . Based on these two results, we then have
X ∂L l
H= q –L
∂ qi i
l
i
X ∂T l
= q –L
∂ qi i
l
| i {z }
2T
= 2T – (T – V) = T + V.
l USING THE HAMILTONIAN AS A SHORTCUT TO SOLVE FOR q(t) FOR ONE DEGREE
OF FREEDOM: As established above, if the Lagrangian isn’t explicitly dependant on time,
then the Hamiltonian is conserved (also above is established when the Hamiltonian is equal
to the total energy of the system). The Lagrangian method of solving for q(t) is to calculate
the Lagrangian of the system, and plug it into the E-L equation to find the equation of motion,
and then solve the second order differential equation for q(t). With the Hamiltonian method,
you can use the conservation law to generate a first order, rather than second order differ-
ential equation as follows.
Recall that
X ∂L l
H= q – L.
∂ qi i
l
i
In this one-dimensional problem, this is just
∂L l
H= q – L.
l
∂q
Now if that the Lagrangian has the form

X1
L= m r2 – V(r),
2 ii
i
(that is, there are no time dependant constraints / the kinetic energy is second order homo-
geneous, and also V is not velocity dependant) then H = E (see above for details). Now let’s
take the constraints into account (which makes this a one-degree-of-freedom problem) but
rewriting L in terms of q instead of the ri . We can write
d ∂r
ri (q) = i q
l l
ri =
dt ∂q
∂ri 2
X1
l
=⇒ T = m q
2 i ∂q
i
21
2
1 2Xl ∂ri
= q mi .
2 ∂q
i
Now for convenience, define
∂ri 2

~ ≡
X
m(q) mi .
∂q
i
We then have
1~ 2 l
T= mq .
2
We don’t have to worry about rewriting V, we can just write V(q) instead of V(r). The La-
grangian in terms of q is then
1~ 2 l
L= m q – V(q).
2
Again, we could plug this into the E-L equation and then solve second-order differential
equation, or we could instead use the fact the the Hamiltonian is conserved and solve just
a first-order differential equation. Since in this case the Hamiltonian is equal to the total
energy, we have
1~ 2 l
E= m q + V(q)
2
l
is constant in time. Now we can solve for q to get our first-order differential equation:
s
dq 2
=± ~ E – V(q) .
dt m(q)
You will have to decide which sign to use when solving a problem based on initial conditions.
If we choose a positive sign and proceed with separation of variables and integration, we
have
Z s ~
1 m(q)
t= √ dq + C.
2 E – V(q)
Similar to solving a second-order differential equation, our solution has two free parameters
that depend on initial conditions, namely the energy E and the integration constant C.
l SETTING UP THE TWO-BODY PROBLEM: Consider two masses in isolated space (so it’s
a closed system), and there is some interaction between the two masses.
m1
r
r1
m2
r2
22
The task is to find out what will happen to these two masses under this interaction between
them – how they will move in time. As we have learned above, these kinds of problems are
easiest to solve when the center of mass is at the origin of our coordinate system, and when
the center of mass is stationary (so the net momentum is zero). The position of the center
of mass R is
m r + m2 r2
R= 1 1 .
m1 + m2
If we want this to be at the origin, then we require that R = 0, or m1 r1 + m2 r2 = 0. Now
instead of keeping track of r1 and r2 separately, we can keep track of just r. Based on the
figure above, we have
r = r2 – r1 .
Now combining this with what we have from out choice of coordinates: m1 r1 + m2 r2 = 0, we
can find
m2 r
r1 = –
m1 + m 2
m1 r
r2 =
m1 + m 2
Now suppose that the potential field associated with the interaction between the two masses
is V = V(r), so not only is it not velocity-dependant, but also it only depends on vector
between the two masses. The resulting force is called a "central force." Now the Lagrangian
is
1 1
L = m1 r21 + m2 r22 – V(r).
l l
2 2
We can write this entirely in terms of r by using our equations for r1 and r2 above. Substitut-
ing those in, we can find that
1
L = µr2 – V(r),
l
2
where
m1 m2
µ≡
m1 + m2
is called the "reduced mass." The benefit of writing the Lagrangian in terms of r only is that
this is now the one-dimensional problem that we already solved above.
The discussions above about momentum and angular momentum (about the field center)
apply to this problem. The fact that angular momentum M = r × p is conserved in this prob-
lem makes things simpler. Since M is constant and is also always perpendicular to r, we
can conclude that r lies in a plane. We can then use cylindrical coordinates to write the
Lagrangian:
1
L = µ(r2 + r2 φ2 ) – V(r),
l
l
2
where φ is the angle r makes with some axis in the plane. Now the E-L equation for φ tells
us
d ∂L ∂L
=l = 0,
dt ∂ φ ∂φ
23
since φ is a cyclic coordinate. This means that
∂L
= µr2 φ → constant.
l
∂φ
l
Now µ doesn’t change, so more specifically, r2 φ is constant. This expression is geometrically

equivalent to rate at which area is swept through in this plane by r. So
dφ dA
r2 = → constant.
dt dt
Kepler observed this fact well before Newton ever came up with F = ma, in what is called
Kepler’s second law. In the figure below, the mass of Sun m2 is so much bigger than that of
the Earth (m1 ), that r is approximately equal to just r1 , the position vector of the Earth.
November
October
December September
August
January July
Sun
June
February May
March April
Kepler’s second law says that all the blue areas and all the black areas are equal in area,
which is also a result of F = ma.
l
As a side note, since M is constant, this means that φ can never change sign; for exam-
ple, the Earth can never start to orbit the Sun in the opposite direction.
l EFFECTIVE POTENTIAL: The total energy of the system above is

1 2 2 2
l
l
E=T+V= µ(r + r φ ) + V(r).

2
Also, the magnitude of M is equal to r times to component of momentum perpendicular to it,
l
namely µrφ. Now the term

1 2 2 l
M2
µr φ = .
2 1µr2
Then the energy is
1 2 l M2
µr + + V(r) .
2 2µr2
| {z }
only r-dependant
24
The grouped terms is called the effective potential. It is useful to define because now we
have
1
E = µr2 + Veff (r),
l
2
so the kinetic energy is second-order homogeneous, and the potential is not velocity-dependant
(so long as it’s true that M is constant). This means that the Hamiltonian, which is conserved,
is equal to the total energy, and we can apply the method we used above to solve a similar
one-dimensional problem.
l SOLVING THE TWO-BODY PROBLEM: To solve the two-body problem with the E-L equa-
tions, we won’t be using Veff , but instead we will use the Lagrangian in terms of L =
l
l
L(r, r, φ, φ), so we will have to use two E – L equations to get two coupled equations of
motion in terms of r and φ. Recall that the trick we used to get to this point was to realize
that since the angular momentum is conserved, the motion takes place in a plane, so we
can use cylindrical coordinates. The Lagrangian is
1 2
µ(r + φ2 r2 ) – V(r) .
l
l
L=
2 |{z}
not Veff
Now we plug this into our two E-L equations:

∂L d ∂L
= l
∂r dt ∂ r

∂L d ∂L
= l
∂φ dt ∂ φ
This gives a coupled set of equations of motion:

∂V
µrφ2 –
l
ll
= µr
∂r
d
µφr2 = 0.
l
dt
l
As for the second equation of motion, set the initial condition to be µφr2 = M, where M is
constant (since its time derivative is zero). Then we can solve
M2
φ2
l
= 24
µ r
and plug into the first equation of motion to get
M2 ∂V ll
– = µr,
µr3 ∂r
which is now decoupled from φ, so we can solve this for r(t). If you want, you can then
convert r back into r1 and r2 after you’ve solved it.
l MOVEMENT ALONG POTENTIAL CURVE FOR A DEFINED, CONSERVED TOTAL EN-

ERGY: Consider the figure below.
25
Total energy
Classically
V forbidden
region
T cannot
be nega-
tive
Notice that due to the potential energy exceeding the total energy, there are some regions
on the potential curve that the system cannot reside at (like a ball being kicked up a hill but
not fast enough to make it to the top). The point xtop and xbottom are unstable and stable
equilibria, respectively. They are also called turning points, since the magnitude of velocity
can change sign when crossing these points. The region close to the point xbottom is called
a potential well, and if the total energy is small enough – smaller than in the figure so that
a particle placed in the well doesn’t fly out of it – then the particle can undergo oscillatory
motion. Suppose the particle goes back and forth between the points x1 just to the left of
xbottom , and x2 just to the right of xbottom . These two points are related to the total energy of
the system. Then the period of this oscillation is
Z x s ~
1 2 m(x)
T(E) = √ dx,
2 x1 E – V(x)
which is a function of the total energy. Note that no Taylor expansions were used that reduce
this to simple harmonic motion – this works even for more complicated potential wells. For
example, you can use this to find the period of a pendulum even when the amplitude is large,
and the small angle approximation breaks down.
One caveat for using this integral for finding the time it takes for a particle to go from one
point to another given as specific energy E – there sometimes are two possibilities as to the
path the particle takes, one for each of the two possibilities for the sign of the initial velocity
(i.e., sometimes a particle can go from left to right, or if the initial speed has an opposite
sign, it can go to the left, then turn around, then go to the right, in which case it takes more
time to get to the final point.
l LAGRANGE MULTIPLIERS AND FORCES OF CONSTRAINT: Suppose you have a func-

tion f(r), and you want to find its extrema (i.e. maxima, minima, and saddle points). To do so,
you simply solve for the r such that ∇f = 0. Now suppose that you want to find the extrema
26
of f, but you also require g(r) = C. This requirement is a constrain on f which means you look
for the extrema on a path traced out by g over f, illustrated below.
Notice in the contour plot in the second image, the extreme point of f along g = C occurs
when ∇f and ∇g are parallel (or antiparallel). So to solve for this point (x, y), you must solve
the system of equations
∇f = λ∇g,
where λ is some scalar factor, called the "Lagrange multiplier." In solving this system of
equations, you will solve for x, y, and λ.
This is applicable to Lagrangians because when trying to find the extrema of the action
integral, sometimes you want to include constraints. Note that if you pick the right gener-
alized coordinates, you will not have to include constraints since there are only as many
generalized coordinates as degrees of freedom. For example, for a pendulum, if you work
with θ as a generalized coordinate, you do not need to worry about Lagrange multipliers. If
you want to work with conventional coordinates x and y, however, you have to add in the
constraint x2 + y2 = `2 , where ` is the length of the pendulum. On the other hand, suppose
you don’t mind working with just θ, but you want to know the tension in the string of the pen-
dulum. In this case, you should use the conventional coordinates x and y and use Lagrange
multipliers to find the "force of constraint" λ, which in this case is tension.
Recall that in the derivation of the E-L equation, we found that the variation of the action
δS due to a small, random deviation δq from nature’s path q is
Z t
2 ∂L d ∂L
δS = – l δq dt = 0.
t1 ∂q dt ∂ q
With conventional coordinates ri , this is the same as

Z t X
2 ∂L d ∂L
δS = – · δri dt = 0.
l
t1 ∂ri dt ∂ ri
i
Now δq was arbitrary, so we determined that the only way δS could be zero for all δq is if
the integrand were identically zero, from which the E-L arises. The conventional coordinate
variations δri to each ith body is not totally arbitrary however; due to the constraints involved,
27
the δri are related to one another. This means that we cannot extract the E-L equations
from this integral. To see how Lagrange multipliers help us in this situation, we can use the
pendulum example.
For a pendulum, our constraint equation is

G(x, y) = x2 + y2 – `2 = 0,
and the action variation integral is
Z Z
∂L d ∂L ∂L d ∂L
δS = – l δx dt + – δy dt = 0.
l
∂x dt ∂ x ∂y dt ∂ y
Since we require that G = 0 for all x and y, there can never be any variation to G (the
idea of variation is we deviate from the natural path to see how this changes some other
function, but constraints don’t allow this – the constraint function is strictly always equal to
zero), meaning that
∂G ∂G
δG = δx + δy = 0.
∂x ∂y
This equation defines how δx and δy are related (this relation is the reason we couldn’t
extract the E-L equations from this integral). Now since δG = 0, we can add on λG (λ is the
Lagrange multiplier – some arbitrary constant or time-dependant function) to the action, and
it won’t change the variation to the action δS. So plugging
L → L + λG,
into the equation for the variation of the action (and factoring out δx and δy), we have
Z Z
∂L d ∂L ∂G ∂L d ∂L ∂G
δS = – l +λ δx dt + – l +λ δy dt = 0.
∂x dt ∂ x ∂x ∂y dt ∂ y ∂x
The benefit of adding this into the action that we can set

∂L d ∂L ∂G
– l +λ = 0,
∂x dt ∂ x ∂x
since λ is arbitrary (you can always pick λ to make this true). The action variation the
becomes just Z
∂L d ∂L ∂G
δS = – l +λ δy dt = 0.
∂y dt ∂ y ∂y
Now since we don’t have to worry about how changing δy affects δx due to the constraint
(because now δx is not included in the integral), with respect to the action variation, δy is
arbitrary. It follows then that
∂L d ∂L ∂G
– l +λ = 0.
∂y dt ∂ y ∂y
Using this equation, and its corresponding equation in x, we can now find the equations of
motion in terms of x, y, and λ, and then solve these equations of motion for these variables.
The solution for λ (again, this could be constant, but it could also be a function of time) is
proportional to the force of constraint – in this case the tension in the pendulum. For multiple
constraints, you can go through the same process, using as many Lagrange multipliers λi
as there are constraints.
28
l USING LAGRANGE MULTIPLIERS TO FIND FORCES OF HOLONOMIC CONSTRAINTS:
In practice, to use Lagrange multipliers to solve for forces of constraint (which is really what
it’s most useful for – you can use it to solve for the equations of motion, but it’s easier just to
use generalized coordinates so you don’t have to use Lagrange multipliers), the process is
1. Use conventional coordinates.

2. Identify the constraint equations Gi (rj ) = 0.
X
L→L+ λi Gi .
i
4. Plug this new Lagrangian into the E-L equation to generate equations of motion.
5. These equations of motion, in conjunction with the all the with all the equations Gi (rj ) =
0, is enough to solve for positions of all the bodies in the form of the vectors rj , as well
as all the forces of constraint λi .
Again, you could have solved for the rj by using generalized coordinates, which is easier
because you only have to deal with as many variables and there are degrees of freedom,
but the advantage to this method is that you also were able to learn more about the forces
of constraint, which are proportional to the λi .
l NON-HOLONOMIC CONSTRAINTS: The section above about constraints only dealt with
holonomic constraints, meaning the constraints only dealt with positions and time, but no
velocities are involved. If velocities are involved in a constraint, then it is called a non-
holonomic constraint.
x
y
For example, a constraint of rolling without slipping (see figure above) is an example of a
non-holonomic constraint, because velocities are involved in the following way:
l
l
x = Rφ sin θ
l
l
y = Rφ cos θ.
29
In this case,
P the procedure outline above for finding the forces of constraint (in which we use
L → L + i λi Gi and proceed with the E-L equations) is valid, but complicated. Instead, add

λ1 δx – δφR sin θ and λ2 δy – δφR cos θ
to the variation of the action δS = 0.
3 PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS

l COUPLED SPRINGS AND MASSES: Find the equations of motion for x1 and x2 in the
system shown in the figure below.
m1 m2
k1 k2 k3
x1 x2
SOLUTION: There are two degrees of freedom in this system, which can be represented by
the coordinates x1 and x2 . Now we can calculate the kinetic energy to be
1 1
m1 x21 + m2 x22 ,
l l
T=
2 2
and the kinetic energy is
1 1 1
V= k1 x21 + k2 (x2 – x1 )2 + k3 x22 .
2 2 2
The Lagrangian of the system is then
1 1 1 1 1
m1 x21 + m2 x22 – k1 x21 – k2 (x2 – x1 )2 – k3 x22 .
l l
L=
2 2 2 2 2
Now for each degree of freedom xi we will compute the left and right-hand sides of the E-L
equation, and equate them, giving the equations of motion. Starting with x1 :
∂L
= –k1 x1 + k2 (x2 – x1 )
∂x1

d ∂L ll
l = m1 x1 ,
dt ∂ x1
30
so the first equation of motion is
ll
m1 x1 = –k1 x1 + k2 (x2 – x1 ).
Doing the same thing for x2 gives

ll
m1 x2 = –k3 x2 – k2 (x2 – x1 ).
These are coupled differential equations, so to solve them is an eigenvalue problem.
l NONLINEAR PENDULUM PHASE DIAGRAMS:
1. Write the Lagrangian of a pendulum (a rigid pendulum with all its mass concentrated at
the bottom of it) in terms of θ. Then redefine terms to nondimensionalize it.
2. Plot the nondimensionalized potential as a function of θ. Under what conditions is the
period of the pendulum infinite?
3. Draw three different trajectories of the pendulum in phase space for three different
energies.
4. Find the period of the pendulum when it oscillates using a Taylor expansion (calculate
the first two terms).
SOLUTION:
1.
1
m(`θ)2 , V(θ) = mg`(1 – cos θ)
l
T=
2
1
=⇒ L = m(`θ)2 – V(θ) = mg`(1 – cos θ).
l
2
To nondimensionalize this, measure energy in units of mg` by defining
~ L
L= .
mg`
p
In addition, measure time in units of `/g by defining
p
τ = t · g/`.
Then the Lagrangian is

~ 1
L = θ2 – (1 – cos θ),
l
2
l
where θ is understood to be dθ/dτ .

2. The potential is graphed below.
31
Ṽ(θ)
2
θ
π
When the total energy is 2 (in units of mg`), then when the maximum potential is
reached, there is no force acting on the pendulum to move it (only if the energy is
exactly 2, otherwise it will fall again). This happens when θ = π.
3. The total nondimensionalized energy is
~ 1
E = θ2 + (1 – cos θ).
l
2
First let’s plot the trajectory when the total energy is very small (E 2). Using a Taylor
expansion and neglecting high order terms than quadratic, we have

~ 1 1 2 1 2l
E= θ + θ .
2 2 2
p
In phase space, this is just a circle with a radius of 2E:
~
l
32
~
This circular trajectory is unique to simple harmonic motion. Recall that when E, the
pendulum goes to the top and gets stuck there. This is the boundary between oscillation
and rotation. If we plot this boundary (called the "separatrix") in phase space, we plot
1 2
l
2= θ + (1 – cos θ).
2
We can calculate where this trajectory intersects the axes to get an idea of what it looks
like. We have l
θ = 0 when θ = ±2,
and l
θ=0 when θ = ±π.

Plotting this looks more like an ellipse than a circle.
-π π θ
-2
~
When E > 2, then the pendulum goes around in circles without ever changing direction.
l
If we solve for θ, we have

√ q~
l
θ = ± 2 (E – 1) + cos θ.
~ l
Since E > 2, this expression for θ never goes to zero. The trajectory in phase space is
shown below (it is periodic since it has the form of the square root of cosine).
33
l
-π π θ
-2
~
4. So long as E < 2, the pendulum will oscillate rather than spin. In this case, it will
go from an angle of zero to the maximum angle θ0 , back to zero, then to the same
maximum angle on the other side –θ0 , then back to zero. Using this symmetry, we can
just calculate how long it takes the pendulum to go from zero to the maximum angle,
l
then multiply by four. Using the expression we found for θ above, we can separate
variables and integrate to find the period T to be
Z θ
0 dθ
T=4 .
~
q
0 2 E + (cos θ – 1)
Using a Taylor expansion on cosine, this becomes

Z θ
0 dθ
T=4 .
~ 2 4
q
0 2 E – θ2! + θ4! – ...

Now if we want just the first two terms of this integral, let’s consider θ4 to be small, and
all terms after it to be negligible. Then when we do this integral, it turns out to be
θ02

T = 2π 1 + + ... .
16
p
Remember that this time is in units of `/g. Notice that the period increases when the
amplitude gets bigger.
34
l MINIMAL SURFACE OF REVOLUTION: Consider the surface of revolution below.
y(x)
Use calculus of variations to find the curve y(x) from a point (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) such that,
when revolved about the x-axis gives the smallest possible surface area A.
SOLUTION: To begin, let’s find A in terms of y(x). That would be

Z x q
2
A = 2π y 1 + (y0 )2 dx.
x1
So we have Z
A= F(y, y0 ) dx.
Minimizing this is analogous to finding the extrema of the action of a particle

Z
l
S = L(x, x, t) dt,
so we can apply the E-L equations to our "Lagrangian" F. Notice that

∂F
= 0,
∂x
which is analogous to having
∂L
= 0.
∂t
In this case, the Hamiltonian is conserved. The corresponding "Hamiltonian" for F is
∂F
y – F,
∂y0
and its conservation is
d ∂F
y –F =0
dx ∂y0
∂F
=⇒ y – F → constant.
∂y0
35
Plugging our Lagrangian F into this equation, we get the differential equation
y
p = C,
1 + (y0 )2
where C is a constant. We can then solve this differential equation to find y(x). The solution
will be in terms of cosh(x), which is called a catenary. The resulting surface of revolution is
called a catenoid.
l BEAD ON A ROTATING WIRE HOOP: In the image below, a hoop of negligible moment of
inertia with a bead of mass m in it is spinning.
R
θ
1. Compute the Lagrangian and the Hamiltonian of the system. Is the Hamiltonian equal to
the mechanical energy? Is either the Hamiltonian or the mechanical energy conserved?
2. Find the equations of motion.
3. Find the equilibrium points and determine their stability.
SOLUTION:
1. The kinetic energy of the system is
1 1
mR2 θ2 + mω 2 R2 sin2 θ,
l
T=
2 2
and the potential energy is
V = –mgR cos θ.
That makes the Lagrangian
1 1
mR2 θ2 + mω 2 R2 sin2 θ + mgR cos θ.
l
L=T–V=
2 2
The Hamiltonian is
∂L l
H= l θ–L
∂θ
1 1
mR2 θ2 – mω 2 R2 sin2 θ – mgR cos θ.
l
=
2 2
36
This is not equal to the mechanical energy, but is less than the energy by an amount
1
mω 2 R2 sin2 θ.
2
Notice that this is the one term that refers to the spinning of the hoop, because it has
a factor of ω in it. This is external energy applied outside of the system to keep the
hoop spinning. The Hamiltonian and mechanical energy are not equal because T is not
l
second order homogeneous in θ, meaning
T(θ, αθ, t) 6= α2 T(θ, θ, t).

l l
This is a result of the time-dependant constraint of the hoop spinning. If it were not still-
ing, the bead would simply be constrained to go around the hoop, but since the hoop
spins in time, it is a time-dependant constraint. This illustrates the equivalency of time-
dependant constraints and failure of the Lagrangian to be second order homogeneous
l
in θ.
The Hamiltonian is conserved since

∂L
= 0,
∂t
but the mechanical energy is not conserved.
2. Plugging L into the E-L equation for θ gives

ll
2 g
θ = ω cos θ – sin θ.
R
ll
3. The requirement of equilibrium is θ = 0, which occurs when
sin θ = 0 =⇒ θ = 0, π

g –1 g
cos θ = 2 =⇒ θ = ± cos
ω R ω2R
To determine the stability of each angle θ, perform a small perturbation x about each
equilibrium point θ0 . In other words, plug in θ → θ0 + x. Using Taylor expansions
(because x is small) will give differential equations for x in form of
ll
x + Cx = 0.
If C > 0, then θ0 is stable; if C < 0, then θ0 is unstable.
4 RESOURCES
l Introduction to Classical Mechanics — David Morin
ä Chapter 6
37
2
STATICS
1 QUICK REFERENCE
SOME EQUATIONS SOME EQUATIONS
dp dp
F= F=
dt dt
F = –∇V F = –∇V
dp dp
F= F=
dt dt
F = –∇V F = –∇V
ll l
ll l ll l
l l q q α α
38
2 NOTES
l Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Etiam lobortis facilisis sem. Nullam
nec mi et neque pharetra sollicitudin. Praesent imperdiet mi nec ante. Donec ullamcorper,
felis non sodales commodo, lectus velit ultrices augue, a dignissim nibh lectus placerat pede.
Vivamus nunc nunc, molestie ut, ultricies vel, semper in, velit. Ut porttitor. Praesent in
sapien. Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Duis fringilla tristique
neque. Sed interdum libero ut metus. Pellentesque placerat. Nam rutrum augue a leo.
Morbi sed elit sit amet ante lobortis sollicitudin. Praesent blandit blandit mauris. Praesent
lectus tellus, aliquet aliquam, luctus a, egestas a, turpis. Mauris lacinia lorem sit amet ipsum.
Nunc quis urna dictum turpis accumsan semper.
ä Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Etiam lobortis facilisis sem.
Nullam nec mi et neque pharetra sollicitudin. Praesent imperdiet mi nec ante. Donec
ullamcorper, felis non sodales commodo, lectus velit ultrices augue, a dignissim nibh
lectus placerat pede. Vivamus nunc nunc, molestie ut, ultricies vel, semper in, velit.
Ut porttitor. Praesent in sapien. Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing
elit. Duis fringilla tristique neque. Sed interdum libero ut metus. Pellentesque placerat.
Nam rutrum augue a leo. Morbi sed elit sit amet ante lobortis sollicitudin. Praesent
blandit blandit mauris. Praesent lectus tellus, aliquet aliquam, luctus a, egestas a,
turpis. Mauris lacinia lorem sit amet ipsum. Nunc quis urna dictum turpis accumsan
semper.
semper.
39

40
4 RESOURCES
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41
3
NEWTONIAN
MECHANICS
1 QUICK REFERENCE
dp dp
F= F=
dt dt
F = –∇V F = –∇V
dp dp
F= F=
dt dt
F = –∇V F = –∇V
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Etiam lobortis facilisis sem. Nullam nec
mi et neque pharetra sollicitudin. Praesent imperdiet mi nec ante. Donec ullamcorper, felis non
sodales commodo, lectus velit ultrices augue, a dignissim nibh lectus placerat pede. Vivamus
nunc nunc, molestie ut, ultricies vel, semper in, velit. Ut porttitor. Praesent in sapien. Lorem
ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Duis fringilla tristique neque. Sed interdum
libero ut metus. Pellentesque placerat. Nam rutrum augue a leo. Morbi sed elit sit amet ante
lobortis sollicitudin. Praesent blandit blandit mauris. Praesent lectus tellus, aliquet aliquam, luctus
a, egestas a, turpis. Mauris lacinia lorem sit amet ipsum. Nunc quis urna dictum turpis accumsan
semper.
42
2 NOTES
semper.
semper.
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4
CONSERVATION
LAWS
1 QUICK REFERENCE
dp dp
F= F=
dt dt
F = –∇V F = –∇V
dp dp
F= F=
dt dt
F = –∇V F = –∇V
semper.
46
2 NOTES
semper.
semper.
47

48
4 RESOURCES
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49
5
OSCILLATIONS
1 QUICK REFERENCE
dp dp
F= F=
dt dt
F = –∇V F = –∇V
dp dp
F= F=
dt dt
F = –∇V F = –∇V
semper.
50
2 NOTES
semper.
semper.
51

52
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6
CENTRAL FORCES
1 QUICK REFERENCE
dp dp
F= F=
dt dt
F = –∇V F = –∇V
dp dp
F= F=
dt dt
F = –∇V F = –∇V
semper.
54
2 NOTES
semper.
semper.
55

56
4 RESOURCES
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57
7
CONSERVATION
LAWS
1 QUICK REFERENCE
dp dp
F= F=
dt dt
F = –∇V F = –∇V
dp dp
F= F=
dt dt
F = –∇V F = –∇V
semper.
58
2 NOTES
semper.
semper.
59

60
4 RESOURCES
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8
ANGULAR
MOMENTUM
1 QUICK REFERENCE
dp dp
F= F=
dt dt
F = –∇V F = –∇V
dp dp
F= F=
dt dt
F = –∇V F = –∇V
semper.
62
2 NOTES
semper.
semper.
63

64
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9
NON-INERTIAL
REFERENCE
FRAMES
1 QUICK REFERENCE
dp dp
F= F=
dt dt
F = –∇V F = –∇V
dp dp
F= F=
dt dt
F = –∇V F = –∇V
semper.
66
2 NOTES
semper.
semper.
67

68
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10
HAMILTONIAN
MECHANICS
1 QUICK REFERENCE
dp dp
F= F=
dt dt
F = –∇V F = –∇V
dp dp
F= F=
dt dt
F = –∇V F = –∇V
semper.
70
2 NOTES
semper.
semper.
71

72
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73

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CLASSICAL

7 Non-Inertial Reference Frames 58

9 Non-Inertial Reference Frames 66

L=T–V 1. Identify the generalized coordi-

THE PRINCIPLE OF STATIONARY 2. Find the position vectors rj (the

4. Plug L into each E-L equation

USING LAGRANGE MULTIPLIERS TO SOLVE FOR HOLONOMIC CONSTRAINTS

1. Use conventional coordinates.

2. Identify the constraint equations Gi (rj ) = 0.

3. Calculate the Lagrangian of the system and add on

4. Calculate the Lagrangian of the system and add on

constraint. tion of degree two in q (in each

qi ) or equivalently, there can be

2. The potential must not be

are no external forces to accel- E=T+V= µ(r + r φ ) + V(r)

1. The orbits of planets around the

2. A planet sweeps our equal ar-

Kepler formulated his first two laws in

The action S is defined as Z t

l DERIVATION OF THE EULER-LAGRANGE EQUATION: Hamilton’s Principle says that tra-

and the "variation" of the action from nature’s trajectory q(t) is

By integration by parts, we can rewrite

Applying this to our integral gives

l WAYS L CAN BE CHANGED WITHOUT AFFECTING THE EQUATIONS OF MOTION:

l USING THE EULER-LAGRANGE EQUATION:

l THE EULER-LAGRANGE EQUATION IS MORE GENERAL THAN NEWTON’S SECOND

l WHEN QUANTUM MECHANICS BECOMES CLASSICAL MECHANICS: The Heisenberg

l NOETHER’S THEOREM, GENERALIZED MOMENTA AND FORCES: Suppose a coordi-

Now by the E-L equation, we have

so we can make this substitution to find

Therefore the expression

The total momentum will then differ in this moving frame as

and in the frame of reference K0 , R is stationary.

l ISOTROPY OF SPACE AND CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM: Just as the

l MOMENTUM AND ANGULAR MOMENTUM CONSERVATION IN EXTERNAL FIELDS:

l HOMOGENEITY OF TIME AND THE CONSERVATION OF THE HAMILTONIAN: Suppose

Now notice that term boxed below

The summand on the right-hand side is the expanded product rule of

Plugging this is, we then have

1. T must be a homogeneous function of degree two in q (in each qi ) or equivalently, there

If these two conditions are met, then

Now if that the Lagrangian has the form

Now µ doesn’t change, so more specifically, r2 φ is constant. This expression is geometrically

l EFFECTIVE POTENTIAL: The total energy of the system above is

E=T+V= µ(r + r φ ) + V(r).

namely µrφ. Now the term

Now we plug this into our two E-L equations:

This gives a coupled set of equations of motion:

l MOVEMENT ALONG POTENTIAL CURVE FOR A DEFINED, CONSERVED TOTAL EN-

l LAGRANGE MULTIPLIERS AND FORCES OF CONSTRAINT: Suppose you have a func-

With conventional coordinates ri , this is the same as

For a pendulum, our constraint equation is

1. Use conventional coordinates.

to the variation of the action δS = 0.

3 PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS

Doing the same thing for x2 gives

These are coupled differential equations, so to solve them is an eigenvalue problem.

l NONLINEAR PENDULUM PHASE DIAGRAMS:

Then the Lagrangian is

where θ is understood to be dθ/dτ .

θ=0 when θ = ±π.

If we solve for θ, we have

Using a Taylor expansion on cosine, this becomes