Performance Evaluation of AC Machines for

Propulsion in a Range Extended Electric Auto

Rickshaw
Yong Jiang and Mahesh Krishnamurthy
Electric Drives& Energy Conversion Laboratory
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Illinois Institute of Technology
3301 S Dearborn Street, Chicago, IL60616USA
EML: kmahesh@ece.iit.edu; URL: http://drives.ece.iit.edu

Abstract-Auto rickshaws are a special form of three-wheeled
motorcycle, which are extensively used in Asian cities. Due to the
high population density and narrow and crowed roads in many
Asian cities, these three-wheeled auto rickshaws with small size
and narrow body become an important means of transport for
urban resident. However, the conventional auto rickshaws with
two or four strokes gasoline engines present serious pollution
problem in the cities. Thus, the conventional gasoline auto
rickshaws are forbidden in some cities by the local government.
This has led to the conceptualization of an all-electric auto
rickshaw. Electric power auto rickshaws use the electrical
machines for propulsion instead of the gasoline engines. This
paper aims to analyze and compare the performance of four
different electrical machines: squirrel cage induction machine
(IM), interior permanent magnet synchronous motor (IPM),
synchronous reluctance machine (SynRM), surface mounted
permanent magnet synchronous motor (SPMSM). The
suitability of the electric machine for the application depends on
the constraints such as output torque, power density, efficiency,
power factor and so on. The analysis and comparison are based
on finite element method (FEM) and provides information for
making a suitable selection.
Keywords: Auto rickshaws, IM, IPM, SynRM, SPMSM, FEM.
I. INTRODUCTION
Auto rickshaws are three-wheeled motorcycles and are a
common mode of transport in many Asian cities. In some
Asian cities, these vehicles are mainly used as taxis of goods
and people for short distance transportation [1]. However,
these conventional auto rickshaws present a serious pollution
problem due to the usage of inefficient two or four strokes
gasoline engines. The shortage of fossil fuel resources and
increasing awareness of ecological protection are strong
motivations to develop more efficient alternatives. Use of an
electrical machine instead of the internal combustion engine
for propulsion is a promising solution due to its inherently
high efficiency, high torque capability, low pollution and
acoustic noise without sacrificing driving comfort.
Furthermore, low speeds and relatively short distance that
they cover in a day make auto rickshaws great candidates for
electrification [1], [2].
Because of constraints in efficiency, torque, weight,
volume and speed, the selection of electrical machines for
auto rickshaws is a particular challenge. In order to make a
reasonable decision, four frequently-used electrical machine
types which are induction machine, synchronous reluctance
machine, interior permanent magnet machine and surface
mounted permanent magnet synchronous machine are
analyzed by means of simulation models and compared with
their efficiency, power density, power factor, back-emf,
torque ripple and their applicability in auto rickshaws.
In this paper, full operation ranges for the four different
types of electrical machines have been investigated for
traction application in auto rickshaws. Figure 1 shows the
torque-speed curve of the required propulsion machine for
electric auto rickshaws [3].
II. MACHINE MODEL FOR AUTO RICKSHAWS
The four different types of electrical machine studied in
this paper are shown in Figure 2. In order to compare the
power densities, an induction machine is used to as a basis
reference model. Other three types of models studied in this
paper have the same stator and winding as the basis reference
induction machine model. In addition, the widths of air gap
are identical in four types of electrical machines, which
means that the rotors have the same size. The power rating of
the basis reference IM is 4.4 Kw, rated speed of 1900 rpm,
rated torque of 22 N-m, 3-phases, 4 poles and 36 stator slots.
To obtain the accurate result and simplify the model, the
following assumptions have been made for analysis:
z The teeth of stator and permanent magnets are stiff;
z The permanent magnets are not demagnetized by the
flux produced by stator currents;
z The flux density in z-axis direction is zero, which
means there are no end effects. So a 2D model can be
used to simulate these four models;
z The material of iron core is isotropic in terms of
permeability [4].
III. FUNDAMENTALS OF TORQUE PRODUCTION IN FOUR
TYPES OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES
In order to demonstrate the inherent torque producing
capability of four different types of electrical machines, it is
imperative to compare other three types of electrical
machines with that of a squirrel cage induction machine

978-1-4673-1408-4/12/$31.00 ©2012 IEEE

which is the basis reference model in this paper. From the synchronous machine (SPMSM) and an interior permanent
previous section, one can see that the stator structure and magnet synchronous machine (IPM)could be written
stator winding are identical in each case. respectively
3p (3)
T = ψ i SPMSM f qs
22
and
3p (4)
TIPM = [ψ f iqs + ( Lds − Lqs )ids iqs ]
22
Where ψ f is flux linkage due to permanent magnet.

IV. CONTROL ALGORITHM

A. Current Limit Circle, Voltage Limit Ellipse and Constant

Torque Curve
Fig. 1. The torque-speed profile of the propulsion machine required for In order to analyze and compare the torque produced by
electric auto rickshaws different types of motors, the same operating condition
should be applied to fours motors.In this paper, the circle
diagram based on d-q axis is used to analyze the full speed
range with respect to the limitation of current and voltage.
The current is limited by the capacity of inverter Imax. The
limitation of current could be expressed by the following
equation.
ids2 + iqs2 ≤ I max
2 (5)
Where Ids and Iqs are the d and q axis current respectively. On
the d-q coordinate system, this equation is represented as the
inside of a circle with Imax radius. Since four motors have the
same stator and windings, they have identical current limit
circles. Due to the capacity of the inverter and the limitation
(a) Induction machine with squirrel cage (b) Synchronous reluctance machine
of DC-link voltage, there exists the limitation of phase
voltage Vphase-max. This constraint can be represented as
following equation.
vds2 + vqs2 ≤ VPhase
2
− max
(6)
Where Vds and Vqs are d and q axis voltage. Ignoring the
stator resistance, the voltage equation could be expressed as
vds = −ωr Lqs iqs (7)
and
vqs = ωrψ f + ωr Lds ids (8)
Where Lds, Lqs are d and q axis inductance respectively.ψ f is
(c) SPMSM (d) IPM
Fig. 2. The cross section of four different types of electrical machines for flux linkage of permanent magnet and ωr is electrical speed
electric auto rickshaws of motor.
Using d-q axis coordinate system, the instantaneous torque Substituting equations (7) and (8) into equation (6), the
produced by an induction machine (IM) with squirrel cage constraint of phase voltage could be represented with respect
could be expressed that to d and q axis current as following equation [6].
3 p L2m (1) ( L2qs iqs2 + (ψ f + Ldsids )2 )ωr2 ≤ VPhase
2
−max
(9)
TIM = idsiqs
2 2 Lr The constraint of phase voltage is represented by the inside
Where p is number of poles, Lm is mutual inductance, Lr is of a ellipse with center point located at ψ f . With the
(− ,0)
self-inductance of rotor winding, id is the d-axis current of Lds
stator, iq is the q-axis current of stator [5]. speed of motor increasing, the ellipse will shrink to its center.
The torque produced by a synchronous reluctance machine From equation (9), it can be seen that voltage
(SynRM) can be expressed as constraintchanges to a circle if the Lds is equal to Lqs. This
3p (2) situation occurs in the SPMSM. In addition, as for the
T = ( L − L )i i
SynRM ds qs ds qs
22 SynRM, the center of ellipse will be (0, 0) since there is no
Where Lds is d-axis inductance, Lqs is q-axis inductance. existence of permanent magnet in synchronous reluctance
Likewise, based on the d-q axis theory, the instantaneous machine.
torque produced by a surface mounted permanent magnet
 Based on the aforementioned constraint equations and
torque equations from section III, current limit circle, voltage
limit ellipse and constant torque curve could be drawn in
figure. Figures 3, 4 and 5 show the current limit circle,
voltage limit ellipses (or circles) and constant torque curves
of SynRM, SPMSM, IPM respectively.
Fig. 3. Operating range for SynRM
Fig. 4. Operating range for SPMSM
Fig. 5. Operating range for IPM
B. Maximum torque per ample, Maximum torque per voltage and
Operation range
For a given torque, the minimum current is required on the
MTPA line. From operating range diagram, it can be seen that
the minimum current is the shortest distance from the origin
of d-q current coordinate to the torque curves. The MTPA
line can be expressed by following equation.
ψf ψ 2f
ids = − 2 (10)
2( Lds − Lqs ) 4( Lds − Lqs )2
It can be seen from equation (10) that the MTPA line of
SynRM is a straight line with ids=-iqs since there is no flux
linkage produced by the permanent magnet, which means
ψ f = 0 in the SynRM. In addition, according to torque
equation (2)of SynRM, it can be deduced that ids need to be
negative value for motoring model due to the d-axis
inductance Lds less than q-axis inductance Lqs. Hence, the
MTPA line of SynRM is a 45 degree slope straight line which
lies in the second quadrant. Figure 3 shows the MTPA line of
SynRM. Likewise, the MTPA of SPMSM is a straight line
which coincides with the positive part of q-axis, that is ids
=0.Figure 4 shows the MTPA line of SPMSM. As for IPM,
the MTPA is a curve which bends toward negative part of d-
axis with the magnitude of stator current increasing. Figure 5
shows the MTPA line of IPM.
For a given torque, the minimum flux linkage is required
on the MTPV line. From figure 3-5, it can be seen that the
minimum flux per torque line, called MTPV line, consists of
tangent points between torque curves and voltage ellipse. If
the stator resistance is neglected, then the flux linkage of d
and q axis could be expressed as follows.
λd = ψ f + Ldsids (11)
λq = Lqsiqs (12)
According to equations (11), (12) and torque equation (4),
the flux linkage magnitude on the constant torque line could
be presented as follows.
| λ |2 = (ψ f + Ldsids )2 + ( Lqsiqs )2
L2qsT 2 (13)
= 2
+ (ψ f + Lds ids )2
9p
[ψ + ( Lds − Lqs )ids ]2
4 4 f
The flux linkage magnitude in equation (13) which is a
function of d-axis current ids will increase as the increasing of
d-axis current magnitude due to the second term. Also, it will
increase towards infinity as the d-axis current approach to the
asymptote ψf since the denominator of the first term
ids =
Lqs − Lds
goes to zero. Hence, the operation points on the MTPV line
could be derived from the differentiation of equation (13)
with regards to d-axis current[7].
d | λ |2 2L2ds L2qsT 2 ( Lds − Lqs ) (14)
= 2
+ 2Lds (ψ f + Ldsids ) = 0
dids 9p
[ψ + ( Lds − Lqs )ids ]3
4 4 f
The operation region is divided by the MTPA line, the
current limit line and MTPV line into three sections. The
characteristic of electrical machine operated in the three
sections can be summarized as follows [7].
Section 1: When the machine operating point lies in this
section, more current is required than when it lies on the
MTPA line for a given torque. Moreover, the machine
operation points in the section need a higher DC-link voltage
and flux linkage magnitude than those on the MTPA line.
Hence, the machine operates on the MTPA line when the
+ iqs
speed is below its base speed.
Section 2: When the machine operating point lies in this
section, more current is required than when on the MTPA line
for a given torque. However, lower DC-link voltage and flux
linkage magnitude are required because those operating
points are close to the MTPV line. If the speed of the machine
needs to be higher than base speed, field weakening control is
required. The d and q axis current will be changed from the This SynRM has a volume of 1.29 dm3 and a power density
MTPA line toward the MTPV line in this section. of 3.43 kW/dm3. Figure 6 shows the speed-torque curve. The
base speed of IM 1900 rpm is the lowest in the four compared
Section 3: When the machine operating point lies in this
electrical machines. However, the output power of IM is
section, higher current and DC-linkage voltage are required
highest in the range of filed weakening operation. Thus, IM
than those in the section 2. Hence, the machine should be
has a large speed operation range.
avoided to operate in this section.
B. Synchronous Reluctance Machine
V. SIMULATION RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Synchronous reluctance machine has a three-phase stator
winding which is the exactly same as induction machine’s.
A. Induction Machine However, there are no windings, permanent magnets or
Squirrel cage induction machine is a type of technically brushes on the rotor. In the past, synchronous reluctance
mature machine. Also, induction motors are considered as machine was recognized as an inferior topology compared
one of promising potential candidate for the electric with other types of AC machines because of its lower output
propulsion of auto rickshaws due to their ruggedness, torque and large torque pulsation. Recently, since researchers
durability, simple structure, low cost, low maintenance and have spent a lot of energy on this type of machine design, the
ability to operate in hostile environments. The copper loss is larger inductance difference and inductance ratio between d
the major loss in the induction machine. Since the lower and q-axis could be achieved, which makes significant
excitation current required for field weakening operation, the improvement on the performance of synchronous reluctance
copper loss is decreased. Induction machine could be machine. In addition, with vector control strategy
operated in a wild speed range and have a relatively high development, the synchronous reluctance machine will
efficiency at high speed. However, the copper losses and become an attractive alternative to permanent magnet
induced current in the rotor decrease the efficiency below the machine and inductance machine in some adjusting speed
base speed. Heat in the rotor is a result of copper losses, applications. Due to its simple structure and ruggedness, it is
which makes induction machine need cooling component and also suitable for auto rickshaw drive system.
restricts overload capacity. Moreover, in order to decrease the The synchronous reluctance machine in this paper has the
magnetization current, the air gap should be as small as following key parameters.
possible [8]. TABLE II
The induction machine in this paper has the following key PARAMETERS OF SynRM FOR ELECTRIC AUTO
parameters. RICKSHAW
TABLE I Outer stator diameter 7.085 inch
PARAMETERS OF IM FOR ELECTRIC AUTO Inner rotor diameter 3.8085 inch
RICKSHAW Axial length of lamination 2 inch
Outer stator diameter 7.085 inch Air gap width 0.01575 inch
Inner rotor diameter 3.8085 inch Mass without shaft 1.81 kg
Axial length of lamination 2 inch Moment of inertia 0.0023373 kg-m2
Air gap width 0.01575 inch Number of pole pairs 2
Mass without shaft 2.08 kg Rated torque 23.07N-m
Moment of inertia 0.0026181 kg-m2 Rated speed 2090 rpm
Number of pole pairs 2
Number of rotor bars 33
Rated torque 22.21 N-m
Rated speed 1900 rpm
Torque (N-m)

Fig. 7. The torque-speed profile of synchronous reluctance machine for

Fig. 6. The torque-speed profile of induction machine for electric auto
rickshaws
electric auto rickshaws
This SynRM has a volume of 1.29 dm3 and a power density
of 3.91 kW/dm3. The speed-torque curve is shown in Figure 7.
Although there is no permanent magnet, the SynRM has
relatively high power density and large constant torque
operation range. In addition, from the view of field
weakening operation range, the SynRM has relatively large
field weakening capability. Thus, the SynRM is attractive
counterpart for electrical auto rickshaw driving system.
C. Surface mounted Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine
Surface mounted permanent magnet synchronous machine
is wildly used in variable-speed applications due to its
advantages such as high power density, high efficiency and
easy control. Normally, the rotor is covered by a thin stainless
steel can to prevent the magnets from detaching under the
centrifugal force of rotation, especially operation above base
speed. Because the rotor does not have a magnetic saliency,
the torque due to the asymmetric of reluctance is zero and the
torque due to reaction between the magnets on the rotor and
excitation current on the stator is proportion to the q-axis
current. Thus, the MTPA line coincides with the q-axis in d-q
coordinate system. Although the SPMSM has a relatively
simple construction, it presents a particular disadvantage in
the fact that eddy current losses occurs on the surface of the
stainless steel coat covered the outside of the rotor. Moreover,
due to the permanent magnets sticking to the surface of the
rotor by epoxy resin, the demagnetization could happen in the
environment of high temperature or large negative direct axis
stator current.
The surface mounted permanent magnet synchronous
machine in this paper has the following key parameters.
TABLE III
PARAMETERS OF SPMSM FOR ELECTRIC AUTO
RICKSHAW
Outer stator diameter 7.085 inch
Inner rotor diameter 3.8085 inch
Axial length of lamination 2 inch
Air gap width 0.01575 inch
Mass without shaft 2.36 kg
Moment of inertia 0.0030645kg-m2
Number of pole pairs 2 Inner rotor diameter
Rated torque 18.5 N-m
Rated speed 2220 rpm
Fig. 8. The torque-speed profile of surface mounted permanent magnet
synchronous machine for electric auto rickshaws
This SPMSM has a volume of 1.29 dm3 and a power density
of 3.33 kW/dm3. The speed-torque curve is shown in Figure 8.
From the speed-torque curve, one can see that the base speed
2220 rpm is highest in the four compared electrical machines
and thus it has a large constant torque range. In addition, the
torque is significantly larger than required torque of auto
rickshaw in the high speed region, which means this SPMSM
has a large field weakening operation range. However, the
maximum torque of SPMSM is the lowest in four compared
machines. Moreover, the amount of permanent magnet
material used in the machine is the most, which makes the
cost the highest.
D. Interior Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine
Interior permanent magnet synchronous machine has been
widely used in drive train system of electrical vehicle due to
high power density, high efficiency, and wide constant power
speed range.IPM could provide better overload capability.
The torque produced by IPM can be divided into two parts,
reaction torque and reluctance torque, which make IPM
higher torque compared to its SPMSM counterpart. Both of
these torque components are a function of the alignment
between stator and rotor. IPM could operate at very high
speed since the permanent magnets are inserted into the rotor
core. The iron losses are the dominant losses in the IPM [8].
Normally the major part of iron losses occurs in the stator, so
good thermal diffusion design could improve the performance
of IPM. Recently, the cost of overall rare-earth significantly
rising makes manufacturing price going up too much. In
addition, the usage of permanent magnets limits its
application environment. To prevent irreversible
demagnetization, large negative direct axis stator current and
high temperature operation environment need to be avoided.
The interior permanent magnet synchronous machine in
this paper has the following key parameters.
TABLE IV
PARAMETERS OF IPM FOR ELECTRIC AUTO
RICKSHAW
Outer stator diameter 7.085 inch
3.8085 inch
Axial length of lamination 2 inch
Air gap width 0.01575 inch
Mass without shaft 2.37 kg
Moment of inertia 0.0031504 kg-m2
Number of pole pairs 2
Rated torque 25.48 N-m
Rated speed 2000 rpm
Fig. 9. The torque-speed profile of interior permanent magnet synchronous
machine for electric auto rickshaws
 This IPM has a volume of 1.29 dm3and a power density of windings of four compared electrical machines were kept
4.14 kW/dm3. The IPM is designed by the FEA software. The identical. The results indicate the IPM as the most suitable
speed-torque curve calculated by the FEA software is shown electrical machine for use in auto rickshaw due to high power
in Figure 9. From the speed-torque curve, one can see that the density, high torque in low speed, large operation range and
IPM designed in this paper could satisfy the mechanical high efficiency in the full operation range. Moreover, based
requirements of electrical auto rickshaw. The base speed of on the aforementioned simulation results, the IM and SynRM
IPM 2000 rpm is higher than the turning point speed 1600 have a good potential to instead of the IPM for use in auto
rpm. Also, below the base speed, the torque produced by IPM rickshaw since these two machine have reasonable efficiency
is far higher than the torque required for propulsion of the and cost are lower than permanent magnet electrical machines.
auto rickshaw, which means high torque at low speeds for
staring and uphill climb. In the high speed region, the curve VII. REFERENCES
approaches the requirement curve, but still a little bit higher
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Figure 10 shows the efficiency comparison of four 2307.
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Efficiency(%)

1-5.

Fig. 10. The efficiency comparison of four machines from low speed to high
speed

Figure 10 shows the compared results of four electrical

machines efficiency at 1000 rpm, 2000 rpm, 3000 rpm,
4000rpm and 5000rpm. Due to permanent magnets, the IPM
and SPMSM have high efficiency in general. However, in the
range of filed weakening, the efficiency of IM significantly
increased while others decrease. The reason is that IM do not
need negative direct axis stator current to weaken the flux in
the air gap while other three machines do.

VI. CONCLUSION

In order to determine the most suitable electrical machine

for electric auto rickshaw, four types of AC machines were
compared. To assure a good comparability, the stators and