Review 1 - ‫ תקופת הראשונים‬in France, Ashkenaz, Spain

Vocabulary: Rhine river valley, ‫קהילות שו"ם‬, Ashkenaz, piyutim, rationalism, mysticism,
dhimmi, Berbers, Cairo geniza, conversos, marranos

Personalities:

‫( רבינו גרשום מאור הגולה‬960-1040, b. Metz, yeshiva in Mainz) - Composed ‫זכור ברית‬
'‫אהרהם וכו‬, instituted that the woman must agree to divorce and bans against marrying
multiple wives and opening mail. ‫ מאור הגולה‬means "light of the exile", for he was the
rebbe of all Ashkenazi ‫( ראשונים‬his students taught ‫)רש"י‬.

‫( רש"י‬1040-1105, b. Troyes, and yeshiva there) - Studied in Worms and Mainz with the students
of ‫רבינו גרשום‬. Composed the authoritative commentaries on almost all of the ‫ תנ"ך‬and ‫ש"ס‬
‫בבלי‬.

'‫( בעלי תוס‬12th-14th centuries) - The several generations of Ashkenazi ‫ ראשונים‬following ‫ רש"י‬,
beginning with his grandchildren and ‫תלמידים‬. Most lived in France, and then Ashkenaz after the
expulsion from France in 1306 (see below).

‫( רמב"ם‬1138-1204, b. Cordoba, Spain, yeshiva in Fustat/Cairo, Egypt) - World-famous ‫גדול בתורה‬

‫ופסק הלכה‬, as well as doctor and philosopher. He had access to the Arabic translations of Greek
philosophy (mostly Aristotle) in Cordoba and incorporated their ideas into his philosophy, which
is rationalism. Most famous works include ‫( פירוש המשנה‬Arabic, first explanation of the whole
‫)ש"ס משניות‬, the ‫( משנה תורה‬Hebrew, unique in its structure (reorganized ‫ תורה שבעל פה‬and
didn't quote sources), language, philosophy, and purpose), and ‫( מורה נבוכים‬Arabic, very
controversial because of non-literal explanations of ‫ חומש‬and de-emphasizing miracles).

‫( רמב"ן‬1194-1270 b. Girona, France, and exiled to Akko) - Leader and ‫גדול בתורה ופסק הלכה‬, as
well as a doctor. Showed much respect for earlier generations and was a strong supporter of
mysticism and the ‫קבלה‬. Disagreed with the ‫רמב"ם‬, but respected him and defended his
reputation. Main defender in the Disputation of 1263. Works include ‫ חידושים על ש"ס‬, ‫פירוש על‬
‫התורה‬, ‫ספר מלחמות‬, and ‫תורת האדם‬.

‫( יהודה הלוי‬1075-1141, b. Toledo, Spain)- Poet of all types of poetry, philosopher.

History:

Crusades (First Crusade in 1096) - Series of "religiously-motivated" wars intended to recapture

Jerusalem from the Arabs. Bands of soldiers traveled across Europe, destroying and killing
everything they decided to in their path. The killed out almost all of the ‫( קהילות שו"ם‬with the
exception of Speyer). ‫ אב הרחמים‬was composed in memory of these martyrs.

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Rindfleish massacres (1298) - Nobleman named Rindfleisch accused the Jews of stealing "holy
bread" and stabbing it until blood came out (called a host-desecration libel). Estimated 20,000
Jews killed in these riots/massacres.

Black Death (1348) - Extremely contagious plague that wiped out 1/3 of the European
population. Jews were accused of poisoning wells, as they were less affected by the disease
(they lived separately and were in general cleaner).

Disputation (1242, Paris) - Nicholas Donin convinces the pope to accuse the Talmud of heresy
and foolishness. Rov Yechiel of Paris defends the Talmud. Resulted in forty wagons of ‫ספורים‬
burned (‫ מהר"ם‬wrote ‫ שאלי שרופה באש‬after seeing the destruction).

In 1306 the Jews were expelled from France, and again for good (until the 17th century) in
1394. Jews also left Ashkenaz around this time because of persecution (mainly the massacres
caused by Rindfleisch and the Black Death). They travelled to Poland, where there was
favorable legal protection. This migration marks the transition from the ‫ ראשונים‬to the ‫אחרונים‬
in Ashkenaz.

France and Spain had monarchies (central governments), whereas Ashkenaz was a collection of
semi-independent provinces with much less central control. In the countries with centralized
government, they were better able to protect the Jews from the bands of Crusaders, but on the
other hand they were also able to expel the Jews on a national scale.

Disputation (1263, Barcelona) - Pablo Christiani tries to prove the truth of Christianity from the
Talmud. The ‫ רמב"ן‬defends Judaism. Results in the permanent of ‫ רמב"ן‬by the Christian group of
Dominicans.

Spanish Inquisition (1478) - Collection of state-sponsored forced conversion and exile to

"purify" the practice of Christianity in Spain. Many Jews converted and were known as
conversos, and others continued to practice Judaism secretly, the marranos.

There were large massacres of Jews in Spain in 1391, started by antisemitic priest Ferrand
Martinez. Many were killed or converted to avoid persecution. To prevent the faithful Jews
from influencing the conversos, the Spanish government expelled all Jews in 1492. They travel
to Portugal, but are expelled from there shortly and travel to North Africa, Syria, Israel. These
exiles establish the Sefardi communities and mark the transition from the ‫ ראשונים‬to the ‫אחרונים‬
in ‫ספרד‬.

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 Review 2 - Medieval Europe and Early Poland

Vocabulary: Printing press, movable-type, Hapsburgs, Bomberg printing house, ‫מיאון‬

Personalities:

‫( ר' יעקב פולק‬1460-1530, Poland) - traveled to Germany to study in the yeshivos of the
'‫ תוס‬and brought back a system of ‫( פלפול‬see below) to Poland. He ran the major
yeshiva in Poland and started serious Torah study there (before him the country was
not educated). He ruled that ‫ מיאון‬is permitted (against R' Yehuda Mintz), which caused
in to be put in ‫ חרם‬and have to leave Prague (where he was Rov) and travel back to
Poland. He also argued against R' Avraham Mintz in a controversial ‫ דין תורה‬in Venice.

‫( ר' שלום שכנא‬1495-1559, Krakow, Rov of Lublin) - student of ‫ר' יעקב‬. He was a very
original thinker who sometimes argued with the ‫ ראשונים‬and had many students and a
long-lasting influence in Poland. His son-in-law and student was the ‫רמ"א‬.

‫( ר' משה איסרליש‬the ‫רמ"א‬, 1530-1572) - Rov of Krakow and highly-respected posek, as
well as Rosh Yeshiva in Krakow (he was very wealthy and supported all of his students).
After his first wife (daughter of ‫ )ר' שלום שכנא‬died he built a famous shul. He was also a
philosopher (The ‫ מהרש"ל‬criticizes him for it) and wrote a commentary on ‫ אסתר‬called ‫מחיר יין‬
and an explanation of the ‫ בית המקדש‬called ‫תורת העולה‬. See below for ‫ דרכי משה‬and the ‫מפה‬.

History:

Printing press (1440) - a collection of three inventions (the printing press, movable-type, and
oil-based ink) that made it possible to print large numbers of books accurately and
inexpensively. There were three results: more books available to more people, higher quality of
printing and fewer mistakes, and basically anyone could publish anything they wanted.

Jewish printing began with the first printed ‫ ש"ס‬in Spain in 1475 (without '‫)תוס‬. The most
influential printer of Jewish books was a Christian Daniel Bomberg, in Venice. In 1520 he printed
the template for all future publications of ‫( ש"ס‬standardized page numbers) and also printed
the first ‫מקראות גדולות‬. The printing press standardized the ‫ גרסא‬of many Hebrew ‫ ספרים‬and
made ‫ ספרים‬much more available.

Holy Roman Empire (the "First Reich", approx. 1000-1800) - not "Holy" not "Roman" and not an
"Empire." It was an alliance of territories in Europe held together by political allegiances and
strategic marriages. The most famous ruling family of the Empire was the Hapsburgs, who
protected the Jews in exchange for financial support and military funding.

Protestant Reformation - a religious reform movement against the Catholic Church (which was

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extremely powerful in Europe) in the 1500s. It was started by Martin Luther, who protested the
corruption of the church and sale of "indulgences," when he published (with the printing press!)
his arguments against the Church. It resulted in a more religiously diverse Europe which led to
more tolerance for the Jews. The Counter-reformation was a response effort to reform the
Catholic Church "from within" instead of rebelling against it. The counter-reformation executed
or expelled many people of other religions, including Jews.

Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) - a war fought in the Holy Roman Empire between the Catholic
and Protestant parts of the Empire. The Jews were unharmed (some of them supported the
Hapsburgs financially), and the ‫ תוס' יום טוב‬writes about how they were miraculously saved.

Jews in Poland in the 1400s were mostly uneducated and there wasn't serious learning there. '‫ר‬
‫ יעקב‬established a yeshiva and popularized a method of learning called "‫חילוקים‬." It is a type of
‫ פלפול‬based on building complicated explanations of the '‫ גמ‬without justifying them or proving
them from other ‫סוגיות‬. Many early ‫ אחרונים‬like the ‫ של"ה‬and ‫ מהרש"ל‬were against it, as they
claimed it artificially distorted the truth of Torah. ‫ ר' יעקב‬and ‫ ר' שלום שכנא‬didn't write down
their halachic decisions because they didn't want future generations to automatically agree with
their positions.

‫ ר' יוסק קארו‬in 1550 published the ‫בית יוסף‬, an well-respected commentary on the ‫טור‬. The ‫רמ"א‬
was trying to do the same thing, so instead of competing he instead combines the ‫ טור‬and the
‫ בית יוסף‬into one work called the ‫דרכי משה‬.

‫ ר' יוסף קארו‬published in 1555 a summary of the halachic decisions in the ‫ בית יוסף‬called ‫שלחן‬
‫( ערוך‬in which he decides how to rule by a majority of the opinions of ‫ רמב"ם רי"ף ורא"ש‬, who
were mostly from Spain). The ‫ רמ"א‬wrote a gloss (commentary) on ‫ שלחן ערוך‬called the ‫( מפה‬the
"tablecloth" to the "set table") in which he argues many times and justifies the practice of the
‫אשכנזים‬. He places more value on the opinion of '‫תוס‬, the ‫אחרונים‬, and ‫מנהג‬.

There are three reasons the ‫ ש"ע ורמ"א‬became authorative for the Jewish people: they combine
‫ ספרדי‬and ‫ אשכנזי‬practice in one ‫ספר‬, they were able to be widely printed because of the
printing press, and shortly after publication there were a collection of massaces that made it
necessary to have a written record of Jewish law (because there weren't many ‫ רבנים‬or
communities left).

‫"( ועד ארבע ארצות‬Vaad Arba Aratzos", 1551-1764) - was the central body of authority for Polish
Jewry, and many famous ‫ אחרונים‬were part of it. It controlled the four lands: Greater Poland
(with capital Posen), Little Poland (Krakow and Lublin), Ruthenia, and Volhynia (the first two are
mostly in Poland and the second two in Ukraine). It started when the Polish kings Sigmund I and
II asks the Jews to collect their own taxes and gave them political and economic freedom (these
kings were friendly to the Jews and made Poland a good place to live).

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 Review 3 - Poland from 1450 to 1650
Vocabulary: Philosophy, Cossacks, Tartars, Polish Commonwealth
Personalities:
R’ Shlomo Luria )the ‫מהרש"ל‬, Lublin, 1510-1574) – studied under R’ Shalom Shachna,
although ‫ מהרש"ל‬eventually created a rival yeshiva also in Lublin. He argued strongly
against pilpul, and also studied grammar and kabbalah. He was humble (had a personal
‫ )מוכיח‬and a tremendous ‫ קנאי‬for truth. The ‫ חכמת שלמה‬was a gloss on the Talmud that
corrected many of the mistakes in manuscripts, and ‫ ים של שלמה‬was a halachic work
organized according to the ‫( 'גמ‬not the ‫ )!טור‬in which he summarizes the topic before
given the halacha. He had a debate with ‫ רמ"א‬about the value of studying philosophy.
R’ Yehuda Leib ben Betzalel (the ‫מהר"ל‬, rov in Prague, 1520-1609) – mostly self-taught,
became a very famous ‫ גדול‬of the time and rov. He had innovative opinions about
chinuch (including that children should not learn the parsha, not learn gemara until
earlier because Pirkei Avos 5:21 and their mental immaturity, the importance of Mishna
learning even for adults). He was well-respected even by the governments (statue of
him and meeting with King Rudolph).
R’ Mordechai Yaffe (the ‫לבוש‬, Prague and Posen, 1530-1612) – was expelled from
Prague and travelled to Italy (where he studied astronomy and philosophy). Wrote 10
‫ ספרים‬known together by ‫( לבוש מלכות‬they were on ‫שלחן ערוך‬, commentary on ‫ רש"י‬,
commentary on ‫מורה נבוכים‬, commentary on ‫הלכות קידוש החודש‬, commentary on ‫)רקנטי‬.
He wanted to write a halachic work that was longer/more detailed than ‫ שלחן ערוך‬but
shorter than ‫בית יוסף‬. He was a ‫ תלמיד‬of and very influenced by the ‫ רמ"א‬.
R’ Yehoshua Falk (the ‫סמ"ע‬, 1555-1614) – was a student of ‫ רמ"א‬and ‫מהרש"ל‬, was
supported by father-in-law for 25 years in his yeshiva in ‫ לבוב‬and writes the ‫פרישה‬
‫ודרישה‬, two commentaries on the ‫( טור‬he wrote them for five reasons: the ‫ בית יוסף‬was
too long, it didn’t explain all the ‫ חידושים‬of the ‫טור‬, there were too many ‫ צ"ע‬, didn’t
explain all the details, and R’ Falk disagreed with some of the decisions). He made many
‫ תקנות‬as part of the ‫ ועד‬that created modern standards of kashrus, etc. He permitted
the Get of Vienna (see below), and his wife Bela was a well-known ‫ צדקת‬who knew
much Torah.
R’ Shmuel Aidels (the ‫מהרש"א‬, Krakow, yeshiva in Lublin, rov in Ostroh, 1555-1631) –
supported by mother-in-law Aidel for 20 years in yeshiva. He was unafraid to rebuke his
generation and argued against pilpul. His approach to halacha is all about being ‫מוכרח‬
(logically-sound) and was the most important commentary on the Gemara since the
Rishonim. He was the first to write a systematic commentary on the aggadata of Shas.
The Chazon Ish famously said that the ‫ מהרש"א‬was what ‫ חז"ל‬had in mind when they
said that hard work in learning causes a person to become more refined and spiritual.
History:

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The Get of Vienna was a rabbinic controversy that erupted after a 16 year old gave a get
to his wife when he was very sick. The local rabbanim, including R’ Yehoshua Falk,
convinced him to give a get without any conditions and that his wife would remarry him
if he got better. He did, and they didn’t remarry. The Maharam M’Lublin argued that
the get is invalid since the man clearly didn’t want to give it if he got better. Many
poskim, included the ‫( מהרש"א‬see his very last comment on ‫ )מס' גיטין‬disagreed. The
issue was brought before the ‫ ועד ארבע ארצות‬and debated for many hundreds of years.
There was a sefer published by Azaryah Ha’adomim called ‫ עינים מאור‬which attached
many aggadic and historical statements of Chazal and claimed they were wrong/foolish.
There were two very influential ‫ בעלי אגדה‬who met the challenge to defend Chazal: the
‫( מהרש"א‬in ‫ )חידושי אגדות‬and ‫( מהר"ל‬in ‫)ספר באר הגולה‬. The approach of the ‫ מהר"ל‬was
‫נסתר בלשון נגלה‬, which means that he explained deep kabbalistic ideas using language
that regular people can understand (both deep and simple at the same time). The
approach of the ‫ מהרש"ל‬was often very ‫פשט‬-based (I’ll explain what this means), and
he had a system of interpretating all the different parts of aggada.
The Chacham Tzvi and R’ Yaakov Emden mention in a teshuva (about whether a Golem
can be counted in a minyan), that their ancestor R’ Eliyahu Baal Shem (student of
‫ )מהרש"ל‬supposedly created a Golem creature. In 1909, R’ Yudel Rosenberg published a
long-lost manuscript called ‫ נפלאות מהר"ל‬in which he tells many stories about the
Golem of the ‫ מהר"ל‬and other wonders.
The Cossacks were mercenaries in charge of protecting Poland from being invaded by
their long-time enemies, the Tartars. They were treated as second-class citizens, and
many times rebelled against the Polish commonwealth (which was wealthier, and
Catholic rather than Eastern Orthodox).
Bogdan Chmielnicki (usually pronounced something like ‫ )חמילנאצקי‬was an unsuccessful
Cossack officer in the Polish army who despised Catholics and had an unsatisfied ego.
He deserted the Polish army and joined a host of soldiers, criminals, and peasants. He
made an alliance with his former enemies the Tartars (who had better cavalry) and
began a rebellion against Poland.
On his way across Poland, he massacred many Jews for two reasons: they were the
landlords in charge of exploiting the Cossack peasants (and therefore the face of the
enemy), and they were unprotected foreigners with a different religion. The Jews of the
countryside fled to towns for protection, but the fortified towns became death-traps
for them (in Nemirov the Cossacks snuck in and killed the Jews, and in Tulchin the local
Polish nobility traded the Jews for their own safety).
These massacres are known as ‫גזירות ת"ח ות"ט‬, after the years 1648-1649 in which they
occurred. They were particularly bloody because they were simultaneously a war
between (1) Ukraine and Poland, (2) the peasants and the nobility, (3) the Tartars and
the Poles, and (4) the Eastern and Western Christians (with the Jews caught in the

2
middle).
There were five effects of the Jewish world (you should be able to describe how):

⦁ The destruction and resettlement of Polish Jewry (100,000 Jews killed and 300
communities destroyed).

⦁ Establishment of ‫ שלחן ערוך‬with ‫ ט"ז‬and ‫ ש"ך‬as the main commentators.

⦁ Showed that the Spanish Inquisition and exile of the ‫ ספרדים‬wasn’t necessarily
their fault.

⦁ Increased the spread and popularity of kabbalah.

⦁ Caused people to believe it was a time of redemption and ‫ משיח‬was coming.

The ‫ אחרונים‬of Poland we have studied:

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 Review 4 - The Sephardi Early Achronim
Vocabulary: Alhambra Decree, Chacham Bashi
Personalities:
Don Yitzchak Abarbanel (Portugal, Spain, Naples, Venice, 1437-1507) - was the
treasurer three different times to three European monarchs, after losing all his wealth
and becoming peniless each time. We know about his life because of his biographical
introductions to his seforim. His first leadership role was to raise money and coordinate
the redemption of Moroccan Jewish captives. His first sefer was on "science," but he
began writing very lengthy and influential seforim on Tanach after realizing that he
hadn't been spending enough time on Torah learning (the Malbim says his sefer is
based on the Abarbanel). He respected the Rambam but blamed the study of
philosophy as the cause of the expulsion.
R' Dovid ben Shlomo ibn Avi Zimra (Spain, Cairo, Tzfas, 1479–1573) - was the Chacham
Bashi in Cairo (the chief Rabbi of the Ottoman Empire) for 40 years. We have about
2500 of his 1000 teshuvos, and these are how we know much about his life. He
answered the "great question of the Sephardi exiles" in Cairo (see below). He was very
wealthy and after political trouble with the Ottoman Empire in Yerushalayim settled in
Tzfas, where he was in the chabura of R' Yosef Karo. He ruled the Ethiopian Jews to be
from the tribe of Dan and was the basis for the 20th century teshuva of Chacham
Ovadia Yosef.
R' Yosef Karo (Spain, Tzfas, 1488-1575) - was one of the giants of all time. He was
already very well-respected when he began writing the Beis Yosef in the Ottoman
Empire. The Beis Yosef is a completion of the Tur (which itself was supposed to be a
halachic code that was a compromise between the Rif and the Rambam), meaning the
Beis Yosef is a "me'asef" and brings the entire sugya, from the gemara to the Rishonim
and also important teshuvos. The Shulchan Aruch was only ever supposed to be an
index to the Beis Yosef. R' Shlomo Alkabetz records in a letter that R' Yosef Karo had a
personal "Maggid" (angel) that told him Torah insights and commanded him and his
chabura to move to Israel.
R' Yitzchak Luria (Yerushalayim, Cairo, Tzfas, 1534-1572) - is referred to as the "Arizal"
because he was the "lion" of a school of chachamim and mekubalim in Tzfas (the
Rambam is also referred to by an animal phrase: "Nesher HaGadol", the "great eagle").
He was a student of the Radvaz and R' Betzalel Ashkenazi (the Shita Mekubetzes) in
Cairo, where he became proficient in the Zohar and the kabbalah. He moved to Tzfas
and developed a group of talmidim, where he lectured in both "nigleh" and "nistar" and
heavily influenced the development of kabbalah.
R' Chaim Vital (Tzfas, 1542-1620) - was the main and preferred student of the Arizal
(who said R' Chaim Vital was "untainted by the sin of Adam"). He was in charge of
collecting and organizing notes on the kabbalah of the Arizal, which were eventually
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published as the sefer Eitz Chaim without the knowledge/consent of R' Chaim Vital. This
was the way that "Lurianic Kabbalah" (the kabbalah of the Arizal) was introduced to the
world.
Shlomo Molcho (born Diego Perez, Spain 1500-1532) - a member of the Portuguese
court, and second-generation converso, who was inspired by Dovid Reuveni (a fraud
claiming to be a representive of the Kingdom of Chavur which had 300,000 Jews from
the lost sh'vatim) to give himself a bris milah. He fleed the religious persecution in
Portugal and became a well-respected student and mekubal of one of the Sephardi
gedolei hador. After accurately dreaming about a flood in Rome and earthquake in
Portugal, he reunites with Dovid Reuveni and meets with Charles V (Holy Roman
Emperor) to organize a united Jewish-Christian alliance against the Arab Ottoman
Empire. He was sentenced to death by burning at the stake and died ‫על קידוש השם‬.
History:
The Jews who lived in Spain were integrated into the surrounding Spanish culture and
economy. Many Jews converted to Christianity, sometimes because they believed it was
true but most of the time because of tremendous pressure from society and the
government (the grandfather of the Abarbanel converted, as did the Maharlabach for
one year).
In 1492, King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella signed the Alhambra decree, which was the
Edict of Expulsion that granted a few months for all practicing Jews to leave Spain. The
primary stated reason was to prevent them from influencing the conversos. Another
reason was that the Jews were wealthy and the monarchy wanted to take control of
their money. Another reasons was that the head priest of the Spanish Inquisition
convinced the King and Queen to purify the practice of Christianity in Spain. The
Abarbanel tried to bribe the King but was unsuccessful when the priest intervened.
Many Jews converted, and the rest went to Portugal, where they were expelled just a
few years later. Many were welcomed by the Ottoman Empire, which was a tolerant
Muslim Empire that conquered the East Roman Empire just a few decades before the
expulsion (they welcomed Jews because practically the Jews helped the economy). The
Spanish Inquisition continued very actively for a few decades until the 1530s, trying to
discover the marranos and execute/expell them. It officially ended only in the 1800s.
The "great question of the Sephardi exiles" was the question of how to integrate many
thousands of Spanish Jews who were exiled from Spain and Portugal into the new
communities that they joined. Should they adopt the practices of their new homes, or
maintain their customs? Should there be separate shuls and schools? Should the
existing communities be "updated" to match the practices of the incoming Sephardim?
You should know how the Radvaz answered these questions in Cairo and be able to
quote teshuvos of his to support your answer (we discussed 10 of his teshuvos in class).
The Mahari Berav, R' Yosef Berav, was the most respected Talmid Chacham of Tzfas (he
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was one of the many Sephardi Acharonim who were expelled from Spain and moved to
Tzfas). He reinstituted *official* semicha and ordained 4 rabbanim, including R' Yosef
Karo (who ordained the Alshich who ordained R' Chaim Vital. Semicha died with him).
One of the four was the Maharlabach (R' Levi ibn Chaviv), the chief Rabbi of
Yerushalayim, who became a very sharp and critical opponent of the Mahari Berav's
attempt to restart semicha and eventually the Sanhedrin. They argued whether or not it
was possible to give malkus (lashes) to conversos in order to give them atonement.
The Maharlabach said he was most proud of his success defeating the Mahari Berav's
attempt to restart semicha and his attempts to minimize the impact and influence of
Shlomo Molcho in Yerushalayim (both of these were likely connected to bringing
mashiach, and Maharlabach was likely worried that the Ottoman empire would become
suspicious and crush the Jewish community in Israel in response to any "mashiach
activity").
The system of philosophy and rationalism of the Rambam was a challenge to the
mekubalim (who were centered in Provence, Southern France and Girona, Spain) during
the period of the rishonim. They responded by banning/burning the works of the
Rambam and forming their own more formal, organized system of machshava. The
Raavad was a major opponent of the Rambam, as was R' Yitzchak Saggi Nahor (his son),
who explained aspects of the "Sefiros." Another prominent mekubal of the Rishonim
was the Ramban, who published his commentary on the Chumash that explained much
of the Torah using mysticism and kabbalah (he often didn't explain much, but his
students wrote other commentaries on the Torah that clarified the ideas of the
Ramban, including Rabeinu Bachya and the Rakanti).
Kabbalah was spread by the expulsion of 1492 for two reasons. First, the chachamim of
Spain and their seforim were spread around Europe, Africa, and Israel because of the
expulsion. Second, people thought the difficulties of the time were the beginning of the
time of mashiach, so there was an emphasis on mystical Torah study and the
mashiach/geulah.
There was a school of Sephardi chachamim/mekubalim who were based in Tzfas, which
included Radvaz, R' Moshe Cordovero (the Ramak, who created the first system of
kabbalah called "Cordoveran kabbalah," which was mostly replaced by the kabbalah of
the Arizal), R' Shlomo Alkabetz (Lecha Dodi), the Alshich, the Arizal, R' Chaim Vital, etc.
They developed and spread many of the ideas of the kabbalah.

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 Review 5 - The Modern Era: Shabsai Tzvi and Russian Jewry
Vocabulary: Donme, Tzar, Empire, Partition of Poland, Pale of Settlement, Cantonists,
Communism
Personalities:
Shabsai Tzvi (1626-1676, Ottoman Empire) - claimed to be the mashiach and tricked
many of the Jews of Europe. He was very charismatic, clever, and convincing. His
relationships with R' Rafael (in Cairo, who saved Yerushalayim from financial ruin),
Nathan of Gaza (who was clever enough to come up with kabbalistic explanations of
Shabsai's bizarre behaviors), and Sarah (his wife who survived Tach v'Tat and had a
reputation as a zonah) increased his popularity and influence. After the Ottoman Sultan
suspected him of starting a rebellion, he is imprisoned and sets up a royal court in
prison to receive visitors and tribute. After eventually converting to Islam to avoid the
death sentence he dies in jail.
Nathan of Gaza (1643-1680, Gaza) - declared himself to be the "prophet" of Shabsai
Tzvi. He convinced Shabsai Tzvi that Shabsai was indeed the mashiach and distributed
many letters and seforim throughout Europe describing all of the miracles that Shabsai
Tzvi performed and the beginning of the redemption in the land of Israel. He was a
mekubal and the Ramchal speaks respectfully about his scholarship.
Jacob Frank (1726-1791, Poland) - was a leader who claimed to be a reincarnation of
Shabsai Tzvi, with the philosophy that "the most important obligation of every person is
the transgression of every boundary." He convinced many Jews to convert to
Christianity and made an alliance with the local Bishop. His tendency to act like a lunatic
eventually leads him to be imprisoned, which increases his influence.
R' Yaakov Emden (1697-1776, Holy Roman Empire) - was an influential posek and talmid
chacham. He held no official post during the second half of his life and ran a printing
press in his home. His mission was to reveal all of the secret followers of Shabsai Tzvi
and oust them from the positions as rabbanim and communal leaders. This leads him to
accuse R' Yonasan Eibshitz, and their conflict continued many years and caused the
European Jewish communities to split. (R' Yaakov Emden is known for some of his
unusual halachic work, including a teshuva about the permissibility of a pilegesh).
R' Yonasan Eibshitz (1690-1764) - was a talmid chacham, posek, and eventually the Rov
of a collection of communities in Hamburg (where R' Yaakov Emden lived). He was an
expert in halacha (chiddushim on Shulchan Aruch), kabbalah (wrote many well-regarded
amulets), and d'rush (Ya'aros D'vash).
Vladimir Lenin (1870-1924, Russia) - was a Russian revolutionary, politician, and the first
and founding head of the Soviet Union until his death. Under his leadership, the Soviet
Union became a socialist state governed by the Communist party. He was against the
antisemitism of the Russian Tzars and believed antisemitism contradicts the "equality"

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that communism tries to create.
Joseph Stalin (1878-1953) - was the second leader and dictator of the Soviet Union after
Lenin. He was an expert at using propoganda to mislead the people and
imprison/intimidate/execute anyone who opposed him. He even planned to deport the
Jews of the Soviet Union to Siberia (likely to be executed) but died before the plan was
complete.
History:
The Shabsai Tzvi disaster was likely caused by two factors: Kabbalah had spread
throughout Europe, especially Poland, and was being practiced by the public (which
caused people to anticipate mashiach). Secondly, the massacres of Tach v'Tat had
occured less than two decades earlier, so many thought that these were the ‫חבלי משיח‬.
After Shabsai Tzvi converted to Islam, most of his following realized their mistake and
erased as many records of believing in him as they could. Nevertheless, the event had
an enormous impact on the Jewish world. Some of its effects include:
1. A community of Jews converted to Islam and continued to follow him (Donme)
2. Future false mashichim would imitate him, most notably Jacob Frank
3. Made the Jewish world much more nervous about predicting mashiach
4. The Jews were shamed and embarrassed in the eyes of the world
5. Caused a more cautious approach to studying and spreading the Kabbalah
The Jewish experience in Russia is divided into three eras: the Russian Empire
(1721-1917), the Soviet Union (1922-1991), and former Soviet Union countries (1991-
present). You should know how the Jews were treated/viewed in each of these periods.
The Russian Empire was founded in 1721 and began expanding westward into Eastern
Europe. After the Partition of Poland in 1772 between the Russian Empire and the
Hapsburg powers, Russia became the country in the world with the most Jews within its
borders. The Tzars were almost all antisemitic and viewed the Jews with suspicion and
distrust (many suspected that Jews supported Napoleon, who tried unsuccessfully to
conquer Russia).
Official policy towards Jews in the Russian Empire was designed to cause them to
convert, assimilate, and leave. Notable examples include confining all Jews to the Pale
of Settlement (where they were forbidden to hold jobs in incorporated cities or buy/sell
alcohol), heavily taxing Jewish clothing, setting the minimum age for marriage to 18,
limit Jewish printing, and drafting young Jewish boys to the Russian army for 25 years.
The Russian government also appointed its own rabbanim, roshei yeshiva, and
community leaders. These decrees crippled the traditional Jewish communal structure
and caused many people to leave yiddishkeit. Some of them joined the Haskalah,

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secular Zionism, Communism, etc.
The Tzar during World War I was too weak to run the country properly. Poor
management and a devastating famine led to the working class beginning a revolution
(the Russian Revolution) led by figures such as Lenin, Stalin, and Trotsky (many of whom
were Jewish). They believed in communism, which is the idea that all of the politics and
economy of a country should be controlled by the state (which itself was run by a elite
group of people). This began the Soviet Union.
The policy towards Jews in the Soviet Union was designed to eliminate anything
distinctly Jewish and make everyone the same. This was in order to convince people to
care about the future of only the Soviet Union, which contained much territory and
many different ethnic groups. Some examples include forcing everyone to speak
Russian, imprisoning religious and political leaders, and banning all forms or expression
of religion.
The Soviet Union disbanded in 1991 and many countries were formed from the land
and peoples who lived there. Generally, Jews in post-Soviet Union countries were
better treated and afforded more freedom of religion than in the Soviet Union.
Countries joined the West (Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia), allied themselves with Russian
(Belarus), or were caught in between (Ukraine). The current conflict in Ukraine has
caused significant migration out of the country, and the world faces the question of
where to send these refugees, many of whom are Jewish.

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 Review 6 - The Jewish Experience in Iran and Chassidus
Vocabulary: Babylonian Empire, Persian Empire, Cyrus Cylinder, Shah, theocracy,
"Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist", counter-revolution, Nusach Ari
Personalities:
Mohammed Reza Pahlavi (Iran, 1919-1980) - referred to as "the Shah", he was the final
sultan of Iran until his overthrow in the Iranian revolution. He tried to forcibly
modernize and westernize Iran, establishing close connections with Western powers
like the United States and silencing anyone who disagreed with him using the secret
police force (SAVAK).
Ruholla Khomeini (Iran, 1900-1989) - Iranian political and religious leader who was the
first Supreme Leader of Iran. Founded the Islamic Republic of Iran with the Iranian
Revolution, during which he transformed the secular monarchy lead by the Shah into a
Shia theocracy.
Baruch Spinoza (Netherlands, 1632-1677) - Dutch philosopher who introduced "Biblical
criticism" (reading the Bible as if it were only a history book) and the idea that
"everything is Hashem." Was placed in cherem because of his views.
R' Yisroel ben Eliezer (Baal Shem Tov, 1598 -1660) - founder of Chassidus, was a young
orphan who served as a teacher's assistance, shochet, laborer, gabbai. Lived in isolation
in the Carpathian mountains and revealed himself as a tzaddik at the age of 36. He then
traveled around the Jewish towns in Poland/Ukraine and attracted a large following.
R' Dov Ber of Mezeritch (Maggid of Mezeritch, 1704-1772) - the primary student of the
Baal Shem Tov, he was a maggid who settled in Mezeritch and founded the center of
chassidic study and inspiration in his generation. He was the architect who built,
shaped, and spread chassidus by teaching an impressive group of individuals who would
travel throughout Europe spreading chassidus.
R' Elimelech of Lizhensk (1717-1787) - author of Noam Elimelech, an early sefer of
chassidus describing the role of the tzaddik. He was a student of the Maggid.
R' Yaakov Yitzchok Horowitz (Chozeh of Lublin, 1745-1815) - the founder of the counter-
revolution in chassidus (see below). He was a student of R' Elimelech.
R' Menachem Mendel Morgenstern (Kotzker Rebbe, 1787-1859) - most famous student
of R' Simcha Bunim of P'shish'cha. He lived in isolation the last 20 years of his life, and
most famous students included the Avnei Nezer and Chiddushei haRim. He was famous
for his "one-liners."
History:
After the Assyrian Empire (‫ )אשור‬conquered the Northern Kingdom (‫ )ממלכת ישראל‬and
exiled them, the Southern Kingdom (‫ )ממלכת יהודה‬consisted of two tribes (‫)יהודה ובנימין‬.

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Nevuchadnezzar, who was the king of Bavel, conquered the Southern Kingdom around
600 BCE. The last king of Israel was Tzidkiyahu. Nevuchadnezzar destroyed the first Beis
Hamikdash, took the vessels to his palace, and exiled the Jews. He also took many of the
best of the Jewish nobility to serve in his court (see sefer Daniel).
About 70 years after the first Beis Hamikdash was destroyed, the empire of Bavel was
invaded and conquered by the Persian Empire, who was ruled by Cyrus (‫)כורש המלך‬. The
Jews who had been exiled to Bavel were now part of the Persian Empire, which is the
beginning of the Jewish experience in Iran (this is the longest continuous community of
Jews that exists in the world).
Cyrus declared that all of the nations were allowed to return to their lands and temples
to practice their own religions. This decree was discovered, printed on a clay cylinder
which is known as the Cyrus Cylinder. The decree is also recorded in sefer Ezra. The
Targum Sheni on Megillas Esther also describes practical day-to-day life in the Persian
Empire at the time of the Purim story.
The Jews in Iran during the 1950s and 1960s were relatively comfortable under the
leadership of Shah Pahlavi. The economic success of the country (built on oil exports)
brought wealth and stability, and the "White revolution" (a series of aggressive reforms
instituted by the Shah to modernize Iran that included mandating secular education,
allowing women to vote, healthcare laws, social security, etc.) made Iran an open place
for Jews to live.
However, several factors coincided that together caused the Iranian Revolution in 1979,
during which the Shah was overthrown and the westernized government of Iran was
replaced with a government ruled by Islamic law. These factors were the westernization
of Iran, the extravagance and corruption of the Shah's government, steep inflation, the
exile of Khomeini to France, and American interference in Iranian politics to protect
western oil interests. Part of why the revolution was successful is that Khomeini and the
Muslim leaders portrayed Islam as more "modern and liberal" than the traditional
government of the Shah.
As a consequence, large portions of the Iranian Jewish community began to leave the
country. Fear of religious persecution, economic hardship and insecurity, extreme anti-
Zionism (which often became anti-Semitism), violence, and the Iran-Iraq war
(1980-1988). The official policy of the Iranian government towards Jews was tolerance,
but in practice this wasn't usually the case.
You should be able to explain how Jewish life practically changed, and the attitude of
the government changed towards Jews, as a result of both the Persian conquest of
Bavel and the Iranian Revolution of 1979.
Chassidus began with the Baal Shem Tov, and was spread by the Maggid of Mezeritch
(see above). Some of his students included:

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- R’ Elimelech of Lizhensk
- R’ Zusia of Onipoli
- R’ Shneur Zalman of Liadi (Alter Rebbe of Chabad)
- R’ Yisroel of Kozhnitz (the maggid)
- R’ Nachum of Chernobel (Ma’or Einayim)
- R’ Levi Yitzchok of Berdetichev (Kedushas Levi)
- R’ Pinchas HaLevi Horowitz (Hafla'ah and sefer Hamakneh) and R’ Shmelke of
Nikolsberg
Chassidus was confined to Eastern Europe, in which the Jewish communities were more
isolated, less well-educated, more dense/populous, less-tolerated, more culturally-
separate from the surrounding nations, and more superstitious/mystical. Some early
tenets of chassidus include:
- Omnipresence of Hashem
- Importance of Adam in the universe and his influence, even upon Hashem
- Evil always contains good within it
- Prayer is the primary key to a relationship with Hashem
- Mikva is a prerequisite to spiritual purification
- Joy is a required background to Jewish life
- Mitzvos must be performed with kavana and intense emotion
- Talmud Torah and mitzvos must be performed with only the purest intentions
- The tzaddik binds the Jewish people together and serves as a link between Hashem
and the rest of the nation
- Primacy of kabbalah and the Zohar at the front of Jewish life
The group of students of the Maggid who lived in Poland/Ukraine (most importantly R'
Levi Yitzchok of Berditchev, R' Nachum of Chernobyl, and R' Elimelech) focused on
"d'vekus," the emotional and spiritual attachment to Hashem, primarly through tefilah
and his relationship to the tzaddik. The students of the Maggid in Lithuania and Russia
(most importantly the Alter Rebbe R' Shneur Zalman) focused on "bitul," the intellectual
recognition of a person's nothingness in the face of Hashem and his rebbe.
An important "historical question" is whether chassidus was a revolution (something
truly new), or a natural continuation of the previous trends in Judaism. R' Berel Wein
writes “None of these ideas were new. Their emphasis and combination created a new

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program that was almost revolutionary" (this is his argument; you should be prepared
to take your own position on this question and support it with evidence).
Every revolution seeks to establish something new, and a "counter-revolution" happens
when the revolution becomes too old or institutionalized. The counter-revolution of
chassidus began with the Chozeh of Lublin, who rejected the meaningless traditions of
the chassidic courts and hereditary control of power. He focused on intensifying and
spreading chassidus and placed a much greater emphasis of Torah study.
The height of the counter-revolution was at P'shish'cha, which was a school of "elite"
chassidus (meant for only the few people who were capable of practicing it properly)
that demanded high standards of honesty, Torah study, and authenticity.