Journal of the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers 44 (2013) 270–278

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Journal of the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers

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Photocatalytic activity of a nitrogen-doped TiO2 modified zeolite in the

degradation of Reactive Yellow 125 azo dye
Elida Cristina Ilinoiu a, Rodica Pode a,*, Florica Manea a, Liliana Andreea Colar a, Agnes Jakab a,
Corina Orha b, Cornelia Ratiu b,c, Carmen Lazau b, Paula Sfarloaga b
a
Department of Applied Chemistry and Engineering of Inorganic Compounds and Environment, ‘‘Politehnica’’ University of Timisoara Victoriei Sq. 2, 300006 Timisoara, Romania
b
Department of Condensed Matter, National Institute of Research-Development for Electrochemistry and Condensed Matter Timisoara, Plautius Andronescu 1, 300224 Timisoara,
Romania
c
National Institute for Research and Development in Microtechnologies, Bucharest, Romania

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: In this study, the hybrid material based on natural zeolite modified with nitrogen-doped TiO2
Received 7 May 2012 photocatalyst (Z-TiO2-N) was synthesized by solid-state reaction under microwave-assisted hydrother-
Received in revised form 16 July 2012 mal conditions. The surface characterization of hybrid material has been investigated by X-ray
Accepted 2 September 2012
diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM)/energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis, and FT-IR
Available online 27 December 2012
spectroscopy. The photocatalytic activity of Z-TiO2-N photocatalyst under UV and VIS irradiation was
determined for the degradation of Reactive Yellow 125 (RY 125) dye solution. Also, UV–VIS diffuse
Keywords:
reflectance (DRUV–VIS) spectroscopy was used to determine the light absorption properties of the
Nitrogen-doped TiO2-modified zeolite
Photocatalysis
hybrid material. The operational conditions using photocatalyst dose of 1 g/L at pH 3 were established as
UV irradiation optimal conditions for photocatalytic application in RY 125 dye solution degradation. The experimental
VIS irradiation studies revealed that the degradation efficiency expressed in terms of discoloration, aromatic ring-
RY 125 dye opening and mineralization depended strongly on the initial RY 125 dye solution concentrations. The
photocatalyst exhibited a good performance for discoloration and aromatic-ring opening processes at all
studied concentrations (25, 50 and 100 mg/L) but an effective mineralization was reached only for
25 mg/L RY 125 dye solution. Also, the degradation of low concentrations of RY 125 dye solution was
achieved using Z-TiO2-N catalyst under VIS irradiation.
ß 2012 Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction coagulation [7,8], adsorption [9–11], advanced oxidation processes

Industrial dyestuffs including textile dyes represent a major
threat for environment [1]. The most typical characteristic is their
color, which is responsible for a non-esthetic visual pollution [2,3].
In this way, the presence of dyes in wastewaters is visible even at
low concentrations. Another characteristic of these effluents
consists of their variable composition, which are in general
represented by relatively low biological oxygen demand (BOD) and
high chemical oxygen demand (COD) values. Due to their complex
structure, most of dyes are recalcitrant [4] and possible carcino-
genic, especially azo dyes through their aromatic amines resulted
as degradation products [5,6]. All these characteristics make dyes
to be ineffectively treated by biological methods.
In order to handle the dye removal from water, various methods
have been investigated. Among biodegradation, methods like
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +40 256 403070; fax: +40 256 403060.
E-mail address: rodica.pode@chim.upt.ro (R. Pode).
(AOPs) [12,13] and membrane filtrations [14] have been employed.
All these processes exhibit some specific advantages or drawbacks.
Advanced oxidation processes can be regarded as a potential
alternative to decolorate and reduce recalcitrant wastewater loads
from textile dyeing industry [5] based on the generation of some
very reactive species, such as hydroxyl radicals (OH), which
oxidize quickly and non-selectively a broad range of pollutants
[15–17].
Among AOPs, heterogeneous photocatalysis is considered to be
one of the most emerging oxidation technology due to the lack of
limitations in mass transfer, the ability to be carried out under
ambient conditions (atmospheric oxygen is used as oxidant), and
may lead to complete mineralization of organic carbon to CO2. The
most common semiconductor catalyst used in this process is
titanium dioxide (TiO2) because it is inexpensive, wide-available,
non-toxic and water insoluble [18].
The oxidation process involving TiO2 consists of the absorption
of an energy photon that is equal to or grater than its band gap
width, and an electron (e) is promoted from the valence band (VB)

1876-1070/$ – see front matter ß 2012 Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jtice.2012.09.006
 E.C. Ilinoiu et al. / Journal of the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers 44 (2013) 270–278
to the conduction band (CB) generating an electron vacancy or hole
(h+) in the valence band. The electron and the hole can migrate to
the catalyst’s surface, where they participate in redox reactions
with different species adsorbed on the catalyst surface. Holes can
oxidize the dye and/or react with surface-bound H2O or HO to
produce the hydroxyl radical (OH). The photo-generated electrons
could reduce the dye or react with electron acceptors, such as O2
adsorbed on the catalyst surface or dissolved in water, which is
reduced to superoxide radical anion O2. The hydroxyl radicals
(OH) and superoxide radical anion O2 are supposed to be the
primary oxidizing species in the photocatalytic oxidation process
[18,19]. The process economics can be improved by using sunlight
instead of UV light for the semiconductor photo-excitation.
Methods of the TiO2 absorption spectrum shifting to the main
part of solar spectrum (l > 360 nm) have been also investigated
[20–24]. It has been found that one of the most feasible and the
simplest is nitrogen doping [25,26], which is based on a changed
mechanism that prevents the electron/hole recombination on the
semiconductor.
There are several limitations to use ‘‘bare’’ TiO2 in photo-
catalytic reactors. The fast aggregation of TiO2 in suspension leads
to effective surface area decrease and further its catalytic efficiency
reduction. In addition, a filtration step after photocatalytic reaction
is required because of TiO2 suspension. Attempts have been made
to immobilize TiO2 on different supports like glass beds [27], silica
[28], activated carbon [29], biodegradable polymer [30] and
zeolites [31].
Combining TiO2 with the adsorption properties of organic
molecules onto some adequate adsorbents, e.g., clays, zeolites with
large surface areas, a synergism is gained, which leads to an
enhancement of the reaction rate. Among the mentioned supports,
zeolites are supposed to provide an effective separation of
photogenerated electrons and holes due to the electric field of
their framework [19,32].
This study aimed to obtain a hybrid materials based on the
natural zeolite modified with nitrogen-doped TiO2 (Z-TiO2-N)
suitable for photocatalysis application under VIS irradiation.
Reactive Yellow 125 azo dye was chosen a target pollutant, taking
into account its negative impact potential on environment. To the
best of our knowledge, there is no information about the obtaining
and application of this kind of catalyst for dye degradation. The
catalyst was characterized structurally and the photocatalytic
activity was determined for RY 125 azo dye degradation under
both UV and VIS irradiation.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Chemicals
Reactive Yellow 125 (RY 125) (commercial grade) with a
molecular weight of 681.5 g/mol was supplied by a local textile
Fig. 1. Molecular structure of Reactive Yellow 125 dye.
271
company (Timisoara city, Romania). It was used without further
purification. The molecular structure of this dye is presented in
Fig. 1.
The chemicals used for synthesis, i.e., titanium (IV) isoprop-
oxide (TTIP, 98%), ethanol, urea, hydrochloric acid (HCl), sodium
nitrate (NaNO3) and nitric acid (HNO3), were purchased from
ALDRICH Company. The dye solution pH was adjusted with 0.1 N
H2SO4 and 0.1 N NaOH of analytical grade.
Romanian zeolitic mineral from Mirsid, used as support for TiO2
loading, was supplied by CEMACON Company, Romania. The
mineral was powdered and sieved with a Multilab sieve shaker.
The diameter of grains size selected to carry out the experiments
ranged between 0.8 and 1.2 mm with the mass composition:
62.20% SiO2, 11.65% Al2O3, 1.30% Fe2O3, 3.74% CaO, 0.67% MgO,
3.30% K2O, 0.72% Na2O, 0.28% TiO2.
2.2. Preparation of nitrogen-doped TiO2
Nitrogen-doped TiO2 (N-doped TiO2) nanocrystals were syn-
thesized by sol–gel method. An amount of ethanol (30 mL) was
mixed under stirring with 5 mL of titanium isopropoxide (TiO2
precursor), which was added dropwisely. After a few minutes of
stirring, distilled water was added. After pH adjusting at 8 using
ammonia solution, 0.0463 g urea (N precursor) was added. After
1 h of continuous stirring the obtained material was filtered,
washed several times and dried at 60 8C for 1 h. The resulted solid
was calcinated at 400 8C for 2 h.
2.3. Preparation of photocatalyst
The preparation of the chemically modified zeolite presumes
two stages to reach acid form (H form) by using 2 M HCl solution
and sodium form (Na form) with 2 M NaNO3 solution for a more
efficient ion-exchange. Consequently, Na forms of clinoptilolite are
expected to remove easily other cations in ion-exchange applica-
tions. For this reason, Na forms are the forms most frequently
prepared for clinoptilolite functionalization [33].
The hybrid material based on natural zeolite modified with
nitrogen-doped TiO2 (Z-TiO2-N) was prepared by solid-state
reaction under microwave-assisted hydrothermal conditions.
The microwave synthesis was performed in a microwave reaction
system Multiwave 300, produced by Anton Paar at 2.45 GHz for a
continuous power of 1000 W. The temperature measurements are
recorded with an IR sensor depending on autoclave solution
content. Therefore, an amount of 5 g of natural zeolite as Na-form
was mixed with 40 mL distilled water and N-doped TiO2
nanocrystals (2 wt%) under continuous stirring for 4 h. The
obtained solutions were introduced into a Teflon autoclave with
a 50% degree of fullness, for 30 min to 180 8C, under microwave
radiations. After autoclaving, the Z-TiO2-N hybrid material was
washed with distilled water and dried at 60 8C for 5 h.
272 E.C. Ilinoiu et al. / Journal of the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers 44 (2013) 270–278
2.4. Characterization of the photocatalyst
The crystalline structure of the prepared samples was
determined by X-ray diffraction (XRD) using PANalytical
X’PertPRO MPD Difractometer with Cu tube. The morphological
characterization of the catalyst was carried out by scanning
electron microscopy (SEM) coupled with the energy dispersive
X-ray (EDX) analysis using Inspect S PANalytical model, and by
Fourier transform infrared spectrometry (FT-IR) using a JASCO
FT/IR-430 spectrometer. The light absorption properties of the
hybrid materials were studied by UV–VIS diffuse reflectance
(DRUV–VIS) spectroscopy, performed under ambient conditions
using Lambda 950 Perkin Elmer in the wavelength ranged
between 200 and 430 nm. The blank board was used as the
reference.
2.5. Photocatalytic experiments
All experiments regarding adsorption and photocatalysis
processes were carried out under magnetic stirring at 20 8C into
a RS-1 photo-catalytic reactor (Heraeus, Germany), which consists
of a submerged lamp surrounded by a quartz shield. Solutions of
RY 125 dye at different concentrations (prepared from an initial
stock solution of 10 g/L) were placed in the photoreactor and
irradiated with an UV light set between 280 and 360 nm when UV
photocatalytic process was employed and a VIS light was set
between 460 and 510 nm in the case of VIS photocatalytic process,
for 240 min. A system of water recirculation maintained a constant
temperature of 20 8C for the whole period of photocatalytic
experiments.
The catalyst dose ranging between 0.5 and 2 g/L was placed into
400 mL RY 125 solution. Prior to irradiation, the suspension was
stirred continuously in the dark for 30 min to reach the steady-
state conditions. Samples were periodically collected from the
reactor to evaluate the degree of RY 125 adsorption on the catalyst.
The concentration of the dye in the bulk solution at the end point of
the adsorption step was considered as the initial concentration
value for the investigation of the photocatalytic process. At regular
time intervals of irradiation, samples were collected and filtered
through a Milipore filter (pore size of 0.45 mm) in order to remove
the zeolite from the aqueous solution. The concentration of RY 125
solutions was measured with a Varian Cary 100 UV-VIS
spectrophotometer.
The assessment of the photocatalysis performance was carried
out as discoloration, aromatic ring-opening and mineralization
efficiencies. The discoloration and aromatic ring-opening efficien-
cies were determined based on the absorbance recorded at 388 nm
and 225 nm, respectively. The absorbances were selected from
UV–VIS spectrum profile (see Section 3.2.1). Total organic carbon
(TOC) parameter measured with Shimadzu TOC analyzer was used
to assess the mineralization process. The experiments were
conducted at the pH values of 3, 6 and 9, respectively. The pH
of dye solutions was adjusted by adding diluted HCl and NaOH
solutions (analytical grade), using an Inolab pH-meter.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Characterization of the catalyst
3.1.1. XRD analysis of the photocatalyst
In Fig. 2 are shown XRD spectra for natural zeolite (a) and Z-
TiO2-N photocatalyst (b) and for comparison, the inset presents
XRD spectrum for titanium dioxide doped with 2% N that was used
for photocatalyst synthesis.
The specific peaks corresponding to anatase TiO2 form recorded
at 2u  25.28, 37.878, 48.018, 53.818 [34,35] were identified for
Fig. 2. XRD spectrum for natural zeolite (a) and Z-TiO2-N photocatalyst (b); inset:
XRD spectrum of TiO2-N.
TiO2-N. The peaks recorded at 2u  108, 22.58, 308 correspond to
the presence of clinoptilolite as major component of the natural
zeolite [36], and also smaller amounts of illite, quartz and albite
were identified [37]. The presence of anatase form of TiO2 was
evidenced by the peak recorded at 2u = 25.28. No significant
changes of the main peaks characteristics of the natural zeolite
were noticed, which informed about the stability of the zeolite in
the hydrothermal synthesis conditions under microwave field.
Also, no phase transition of TiO2 occurred at the temperature of
180 8C for 30 min.
3.1.2. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive X-
ray (EDX) analysis results
The comparative SEM images and EDX spectra of the natural
zeolite modified as Na form, Z-TiO2-N photocatalyst and TiO2-N are
presented in Fig. 3.
The SEM image of natural zeolite shown in Fig. 3a presents the
lamellar texture of clinoptilolite, according to the literature data
[38] and EDX spectrum (inset of Fig. 3a) evidenced its major
elements. The results of morphological analysis for Z-TiO2-N
photocatalyst are in accordance with XRD, the lamelar structure of
zeolite being observed also from SEM image (Fig. 3b). No changes
of the form and dimensions of TiO2 particles were noticed (see
Fig. 3c), which are distributed randomized and form cluster
agglomerate groups on the surface and in site of zeolite channels,
but not into the pores. EDX spectrum (inset of Fig. 3b) allowed
evidencing N and TiO2 on the natural zeolite. For comparison, SEM
image and EDX spectrum of TiO2-N synthesized by sol–gel method
and used to functionalize the natural zeolite are shown in Fig. 3c.
TiO2-N exhibited a very good stability during the hydrothermal
treatment under microwave field, which allows obtaining Z-TiO2-
N photocatalyst.
3.1.3. FT-IR spectroscopy results
Fig. 4 presents the FT-IR spectrum of Z-TiO2-N in comparison
with Z-Na to evidence the possible bonds of TiO2 with the zeolite.
The stretching vibration of Ti–O–Si and Ti–O–Al groups is noticed
by the absorption band ranged from 945 to 905 cm1 [39]. The
similar tetrahedral loadings bands from 450 to 900 cm1 recorded
for both materials informed that the zeolite network was not
affected by the presence of TiO2-N.
3.1.4. DRUV–VIS spectroscopy
DRUV–VIS patterns are examined to determine the light
absorption quantification and absorption wavelength range
correlated with band gap energy. The reflectance was converted
 E.C. Ilinoiu et al. / Journal of the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers 44 (2013) 270–278 273

By comparative analysis of the absorption spectra for Z-Na and

Z-TiO2-N (Fig. 5), it can be noticed more intense absorption in UV
and a slight shifting of the absorption band to the visible range for
Z-TiO2-N, which allows to design it for further photocatalytic use
under UV and VIS irradiation.
The further experiments will be carried out to determine the
photocatalytic activity under UV and VIS irradiation of Z-TiO2-N for
the degradation of RY 125 dye solution.

3.2. UV photocatalytic degradation

3.2.1. UV–VIS spectra profile of RY 125 dye solution

The UV–VIS spectra profiles of RY 125 solution containing Z-
TiO2-N catalyst recorded during UV irradiation are presented in
Fig. 6. The spectrum of the dye before irradiation exhibits two
major absorption peaks, due to the different units and groups
present in the dye molecule, which absorb the light in different
regions: one in the visible region at 388 nm and the second one at
225 nm in the UV region. Based on the literature data [24,40], the
absorption in the UV region can be attributed to aromatic (benzene
and naphthalene) rings, whereas the peak observed in the VIS
region can be assigned to azo linkage containing chromophore
group.
It can be noticed that after 30 min adsorption of the dye on the
catalyst, a small decrease in absorbance of both peaks appeared.
When irradiation is employed, a rapid discoloration of the dye
solution occurs, as well as a significant decrease of the absorbance
recorded at 255 nm that is associated to aromatic ring-opening.
Both peaks became plat at the final time of irradiation, respectively
at 240 min, although the remaining absorbance intensity can be
attributed to the organic intermediaries resulted during the
photocatalytic process. It has to be mentioned that the discolor-
ation and aromatic ring-opening of the dye solution does not
assume a complete azo-dye degradation and mineralization.
Monitoring total organic carbon (TOC) parameter is required to
assess the mineralization degree.

3.2.2. pH influence
pH is one of the main factors that influences the rate of
degradation of some organic compounds in the photocatalytic
process [40]. Fig. 6 presents the discoloration and aromatic ring-
opening efficiencies of 100 mg/L RY 125 solution at different pH
values, i.e., pH 3, 6, and 9. It is obviously that the best discoloration
and aromatic ring-opening efficiencies are reached at pH 3, which
was selected as optimum pH for further experiments.
First of all, pH influence is related to the ionization state of the
catalyst surface including TiO2 and zeolite behavior in alkaline
and acidic media [3], as well as to that of the dye structure and
forms, e.g., acids and amines. pH changes can influence the
adsorption of the dye molecules onto the catalyst surface, an
important step for the photocatalytic oxidation. Based on the
results of the prior step of adsorption for 30 min required to reach
the steady-state, it can be noticed a low extent of the dye is
adsorbed on the Z-TiO2-N surface, with a maximum of adsorption
degree at pH 3. 10.2 mg dye/g catalyst was adsorbed at pH 3 in
comparison with 1.5 mg dye/g catalyst at pHs 6 and 9. This can be
explained by the repulsion decrease between the RY 125 anionic
azo dye, which contains the sulphonate groups as anionic form
Fig. 3. SEM images and EDX spectra (inset) of: Z-Na (a), Z-TiO2-N (b) and TiO2-N (c). within the whole range of investigated pH and the negatively
charged catalyst. This fact indicates that the photocatalytic
into absorbance using Kubelka–Munk (Eq. (1)): reaction occurred both on the catalyst surface and through
reaction of the dye with the photogenerated holes or hydroxyl
ð1  RÞ2 radicals in the bulk solution in the proximity of the catalyst
FðRÞ ¼ (1) surface.
2R
Also, taking into account the general mechanism of photo-
where R represents the reflectance. catalytic oxidation process, the generation of hydroxyl radicals can
274 E.C. Ilinoiu et al. / Journal of the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers 44 (2013) 270–278
Fig. 4. FT-IR spectra of: (a) Z-TiO2-N and (b) Z-Na.
Fig. 5. DRUV–VIS spectra of Z-Na (a) and Z-TiO2-N (b).
Fig. 6. Changes of UV–VIS spectra of RY 125 dye solutions containing Z-TiO2-N
catalyst during UV irradiation: (1) initial RY 125 solution; (2) after 30 min
adsorption; (3) after 50 min irradiation; (4) after 120 min irradiation; (5) after
240 min irradiation; 100 mg/L initial dye concentration; 1 g/L catalyst loading;
reaction temperature 20 8C; solution pH = 3.
be favored during the reaction of positive holes with hydroxyl
anions (OH).
From Fig. 7, it is noticed that at pH 3 and in comparison with
aromatic ring-opening, the discoloration process reaches its
maximum efficiency value in a shorter time of irradiation, and
no further changes in efficiency is observed after 150 min of
irradiation. At low pH value, the positive holes are considered the
major oxidative species that could form hydroxyl radicals (HO)
and interact with azo linkage, which is particularly susceptible to
be electrophilic attacked by hydroxyl radicals through decreasing
the electron densities at azo group [23]. Also, dissolved O2 itself can
accept conduction band electron and generate O2, which in turn
can be protonated to form HO2, favored by the acidic pH. At pH
values of 6 and 9, the efficiency of aromatic ring-opening is
exceeded by the discoloration efficiency only after 120 min
irradiation for pH 6, and after 180 min for pH 9. The discoloration
reaches its maximum efficiency after the formation of some
intermediary species, which require a longer time of reaction to be
further degraded. Also, the mineralization efficiency reaches the
Fig. 7. Efficiencies of RY 125 solution discoloration and aromatic ring-opening at pH
3, 6 and 9 during UV irradiation; initial dye concentration is 100 mg/L; 1 g/L catalyst
loading; reaction temperature 20 8C. & – aromatic ring-opening, pH 3; & –
decolorisation, pH 3; ~ – aromatic ring-opening, pH 6; D – decolorisation, pH 6;  –
aromatic ring-opening, pH 9; o – decolorisation, pH 9.
 E.C. Ilinoiu et al. / Journal of the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers 44 (2013) 270–278
Table 1
TOC efficiencies and mineralization coefficients for 100 mg/L RY 125 dye solution at
different pH values.
pH value hTOC (%)
3 35.79
6 20.18
9 12.77
highest value of 35.79% at pH 3 compared to 20.18% at pH 6 and
respective, 12.77% at pH 9 (see Table 1).
The effective mineralization performance was assessed as the
ratio between the TOC and the aromatic ring-opening efficiency
(hTOC/h225 nm). The value of this ratio close to 1 indicates that the
effective mineralization was achieved. In our study, the highest
ratio value of 0.59 is obtained for pH 3, which informed that the
mineralization process is not effectively under the studied
conditions.
3.2.3. Effect of the catalyst dose
In order to determine the optimum catalyst loading, the
degradation of RY 125 dye was investigated using different
catalyst concentrations in the range of 0.5–2 g/L. The results are
presented in Fig. 8, and it can be observed that increasing the
catalyst dose from 0.5 to 2 g/L lead to increasing the dye
discoloration efficiency from 70.75% to 89.62%. This may be
attributed to the enhanced generation of HO from the photo-
catalyst surface based on increasing the photocatalyst amount in
the reaction solution. It must be noticed that the same final
discoloration efficiency after 240 min irradiation was reached for
1 and 2 g/L photocatalyst, and the dye discoloration rate was
higher for 1 g/L photocatalyst.
A similar behavior is noticed in the case of aromatic ring-
opening efficiency, where the efficiency increases with the
catalyst dose increasing up to 1 g/L. At higher catalyst dose of
2 g/L the efficiency decreases to 63.11% versus 77.92% reached
at 1 g/L photocatalyst. This behavior might be due to the
enhancement of light reflectance by the catalyst and decreas-
ing the light penetration [4]. A similar behavior under the
condition of the catalyst excess was reported in other studies
[18]. Based on these results, the catalyst dose of 1 g/L was
chosen as optimum for an efficient photodegradation of RY 125
dye solution.
Fig. 8. Influence of catalyst dose on discoloration and aromatic ring-opening
efficiency under UV irradiation; 50 mg/L initial RY 125 dye concentration; reaction
temperature 20 8C; solution pH = 3; & – aromatic ring-opening, 2 g Z-TiO2-N/L; & –
decolorisation, 2 g Z-TiO2-N/L; ~ – aromatic ring-opening, 1 g Z-TiO2-N/L; D –
decolorisation, 1 g Z-TiO2-N/L;  – aromatic ring-opening, 0.5 g Z-TiO2-N/L; o –
decolorisation, 0.5 g Z-TiO2-N/L.
275
hTOC/h225 nm
0.59
0.43
0.29
Fig. 9. Influence of initial dye concentration on discoloration and aromatic ring-
opening efficiency under UV irradiation; 1 g/L catalyst loading; reaction
temperature 20 8C; solution pH = 3; & – aromatic ring-opening, 100 mg/L
RY125; & – decolorisation, 100 mg/L RY125; ~ – aromatic ring-opening, 50 mg/
L RY125; D – decolorisation, 50 mg/L RY125;  – aromatic ring-opening, 25 mg/L
RY125; o – decolorisation, 25 mg/L RY125.
3.2.4. Effect of the initial dye concentration
The photodegradation efficiency depends on the initial dye
concentration based on two main aspects. The amount of dye
adsorbed on the catalytic surface increases with the dye
concentration in relation with the available surface, which
enhances the catalytic efficiency of the photocatalyst. On the
other hand, higher concentration of the dye affects negatively the
UV light penetrability in the dye solution. Also, the dye molecules
may absorb a significant amount of light required for the catalyst
surface irradiation, which diminishes the catalytic activity [41].
The influence of various initial dye concentrations on the
photocatalytic discoloration and degradation has been investigat-
ed in the concentration range of 25–100 mg/L RY 125 dye. The
results are presented in Fig. 9, which are in accordance with other
literature data [3,4]. The increasing dye concentration leads to
decreasing degradation efficiency.
Also, TOC monitoring for all initial dye concentrations showed
that the best mineralization efficiency is obtained for 25 mg/L RY
125 (Table 2).
Based on the values of the ratio between mineralization and
degradation efficiency, the ratio value of 0.83 informs about an
effective mineralization process in the case of low dye concentra-
tion, in comparison with higher dye concentrations.
3.2.5. Photodegradation kinetics
The dependencies of the dye aromatic ring opening, discolor-
ation and mineralization rate on the irradiation time have been
described by the Langmuir–Hinshelwood kinetic model [42]
described by Eq. (2), which can be simplified to a pseudo-first-
order equation, as presented in Eq. (3):
dC kKC
r¼ ¼ (2)
dt 1 þ KC
 
C0
ln ¼ kKt ¼ kapp t (3)
Ct
Table 2
TOC efficiencies and mineralization coefficients for different initial RY 125 dye
concentrations.
Initial RY 125 dye concentration (mg/L) hTOC (%) hTOC/h225 nm
100 35.79 0.59
50 48.00 0.61
25 76.29 0.83
276 E.C. Ilinoiu et al. / Journal of the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers 44 (2013) 270–278

Fig. 11. The photodegradation efficiencies of RY 125 dye solution under UV and VIS
irradiation. & – aromatic ring-opening by UV irradiation; & – decolorisation by UV
irradiation;  – aromatic ring-opening by VIS irradiation; o – decolorisation by VIS
irradiation.

Fig. 10. The pseudo-first-order kinetics of 25 mg/L RY 125 photodegradation on Z-

TiO2-N, pH = 3.
where r is the rate of dye degradation, discoloration and
mineralization (mg/L/min), C0 is the initial dye concentration
(mg/L), Ct is the concentration of the dye at time t (mg/L), t is the
irradiation time (min), k is the reaction rate constant (min1) and
kapp is the apparent rate constant (min1).
The apparent rate constant for each dye degradation, discolor-
ation and mineralization, kapp, was calculated from the intercept of
the plot of ln(C0/Ct) against time, t (Fig. 10).
The kinetics results presented in Tables 3 and 4 showed that the
rates of the aromatic ring-opening, discoloration and mineraliza-
tion processes depend on pH and dye initial concentration.
For all the experiments, the discoloration occurred the fastest,
and the mineralization process was the slowest. Though, the rate of
the mineralization process was better for low dye concentration
than for higher dye concentrations.
3.3. VIS photocatalytic degradation
Because ultraviolet photons are limited in both solar light and
indoor illumination, the VIS irradiation was performed in order to
assess the effectiveness of the Z-TiO2-N in the photocatalytic
degradation of RY 125 dye solution.
Table 3
Apparent rate constants for discoloration, aromatic ring-opening and mineraliza-
tion (100 mg/L RY 125 dye solution).
Fig. 11 illustrates the photodegradation efficiency under VIS in
comparison with UV light, and it can be observed that the results
are comparable.
For an initial dye concentration of 25 mg/L, at pH 3 after
240 min irradiation time, the aromatic-ring opening efficiency of
91.64% and the discoloration efficiency of 91.60% were reached
under UV irradiation, and the aromatic-ring opening efficiency of
85.91% and the discoloration efficiency of 94.85% were achieved
under VIS irradiation.
The photocatalytic activity of the Z-TiO2-N hybrid material was
compared with Z-Na and TiO2-N for 25 mg/L RY 125 dye solution
in terms of degradation efficiency, and the results are gathered in
Table 5. It can be noticed a synergic effect of the hybrid material for
the photocatalytic degradation of RY 125 dye solution taking into
account the content of 2 wt%, TiO2.
Though, a significant difference between the two irradiation
domains was noticed for the photodegradation rate. The dye
photodegradation process under UV irradiation occurred faster
than VIS irradiation, the rate constants are gathered in Table 6.
Degradation efficiency under VIS light is achieved not only by
the catalyst absorption band shifting into the visible region,
capable to generate pairs of electrons–holes, which can participate
directly in the photocatalytic reactions, but also by the so-called
‘‘photosensitized oxidation’’ mechanism, which provides a differ-
ent pathway versus that involved under UV light irradiation
[19,43]. The photocatalytic oxidation is superior to the photo-
sensitizing oxidation mechanism, but the later can help in
improving the overall efficiency and can also provide a synergism
effect when VIS light is involved. This aspect is proved by the

pH kapp,225 nm R2 kapp,388 nm R2 kapp,TOC R2 Table 5

value (min1) (min1) (min1) Degradation and discoloration efficiencies for different types of catalysts.

3 0.0053 0.9844 0.0110 0.9894 0.0015 0.9872 Catalyst type h225 nm (%) h388 nm (%)
6 0.0043 0.9689 0.0044 0.9914 0.0011 0.9634
TiO2-N 92.23 98.10
9 0.0038 0.9823 0.0025 0.9973 0.0002 0.9956
Z-TiO2-N 85.91 94.85
Z-Na 35.85 36.03
Table 4
Apparent rate constants for discoloration, aromatic ring-opening and mineraliza-
tion (pH = 3). Table 6
2 2 2
Apparent rate constants for UV and VIS degradation processes at pH 3 for 25 mg/L
RY initial kapp,225 nm R kapp,388 nm R kapp,TOC R
RY 125 dye solution.
concentration (min1) (min1) (min1)
(mg/L) Irradiation kapp,225 nm R2 kapp,388 nm R2
type (min1) (min1)
100 0.0053 0.9844 0.0110 0.9894 0.0015 0.9872
50 0.0078 0.9851 0.0164 0.9917 0.0023 0.9761 UV 0.0196 0.9896 0.0239 0.9410
25 0.0196 0.9896 0.0239 0.9410 0.0060 0.9785 VIS 0.0071 0.9852 0.0126 0.9385
 E.C. Ilinoiu et al. / Journal of the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers 44 (2013) 270–278
apparent rate constants determined as kapp, 225 nm = 0.0034 min1
and kapp, 388 nm = 0.0029 min1 for photolysis process application
in the degradation of 25 mg/L RY 125 dye solution in the absence
of the photocatalyst under VIS irradiation.
These results revealed that Z-TiO2-N exhibited useful char-
acteristics for application in the photocatalytic degradation of RY
125 dye solution at medium levels of concentrations under solar
irradiation.
4. Conclusions
The hybrid material based on natural zeolite modified with
nitrogen-doped TiO2 photocatalyst was successfully synthesized
by solid-state reaction under microwave-assisted hydrothermal
conditions. The presence of crystalline pure anatase form of TiO2
doped with nitrogen onto zeolite was proved by XRD and nitrogen
presence was confirmed by EDX analysis. The DRUV–VIS spectra
indicated that hybrid materials exhibited the absorption bands
slightly shifted to the visible range. The photocatalytic activity of
the zeolite modified with nitrogen-doped TiO2 photocatalyst
under UV and VIS irradiation was determined for the degradation
of RY 125 dye solution. The solution pH value of 3 and the
photocatalyst dose of 1 g/L were established as optimal conditions
for photocatalysis application in the degradation of RY 125 dye
solution. All experimental studies including kinetics revealed that
the degradation efficiency expressed in terms of discoloration,
aromatic ring-opening and mineralization depended strongly on
the initial RY 125 dye solution concentrations. The photocatalyst
exhibited a good performance for discoloration and aromatic ring-
opening processes at all studied concentrations (25, 50 and
100 mg/L) but an effective mineralization was reached only for
25 mg/L RY 125 dye solution. The results of photocatalyst activity
under VIS irradiation revealed a practical utility of the hybrid
material based on natural zeolite modified with nitrogen-doped
TiO2 photocatalyst for the degradation of low concentrations of RY
125 dye solution.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the strategic grant POSDRU 2009
project ID 50783 of the Ministry of Labor, Family and Social
Protection, Romania, co-financed by the European Social Fund –
Investing in People, and by the Sectorial Operational Programme
Human Resources Development (SOP HRD), financed from the
European Social Fund and by the Romanian Government under the
contract number POSDRU/89/1.5/S/63700.
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