Algal Research 55 (2021) 102273

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Algal Research
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/algal

Trends in the use of marine ingredients in anti-aging cosmetics

Diana I.S.P. Resende a, b, *, Marta Ferreira c, Catarina Magalhães c, J.M. Sousa Lobo c,
Emília Sousa a, b, Isabel F. Almeida c, *
a
CIIMAR – Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação Marinha e Ambiental, Avenida General Norton de Matos, S/N, 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal
b
Laboratório de Química Orgânica e Farmacêutica, Departamento de Ciências Químicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, Portugal
c
UCIBIO/REQUIMTE, MedTec-Laboratório de Tecnologia Farmacêutica, Departamento de Ciências do Medicamento, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto,
Portugal

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The evolution in the skin care industry has been driven by the recent interest shown by consumers in novel
Algae bioactive compounds from natural sources, instead of synthetic ingredients, and fostered the efforts to develop
Cosmetics biologically active ingredients from natural organisms, resulting in the emergence of new and improved skin care
Anti-aging
products. Although plant-derived extracts are usually among the main constituents of the cosmetic formulations
Marine ingredients
containing natural ingredients, with the advance of the biotechnological field observed in the marine industry, an
increase in the use of marine ingredients for this purpose has been noticed over the last years. In this study, the
trends in the use of marine ingredients in a panel of anti-aging formulations commercialized in the Portuguese
market was analysed, by comparing the composition of the products marketed in 2011 with products launched or
reformulated in 2018. While in 2011, only 6% of the 190 anti-aging cosmetics was from marine origin, a
noticeable growth was observed in 2018, where these ingredients were used in 33% of the new 103 studied anti-
aging products. Algae were undoubtedly the most used marine ingredient in these anti-aging formulations,
probably due to their biodiversity, easy cultivation, and growth modulation, with red algae being the most used
in both of the analysed periods. On the other hand, the use of marine bacteria has suffered a decrease from 2011
to 2018. This study analyses the emerging use of marine ingredients in anti-aging products to provide researchers
and the cosmetic industry a perspective of the trends in marine ingredients to develop new and improved for­
mulations to fight the inevitable skin aging.

1. Introduction
Skin, as the largest organ in the body, is widely exposed to the outer
environment, suffering from both intrinsic and extrinsic aging processes
[1,2]. While intrinsic or chronological skin aging results from the pas­
sage of time and is influenced by genetic factors, extrinsic skin aging
mainly results from exposure to heat, smoking, pollutants or UV radia­
tion (photoaging) [3]. Chronical exposure to these factors often results
in wrinkles, skin dryness, loss of elasticity, laxity, and rough-textured
appearance [3,4] due to the reduction of collagen, elastic fibres, and
hyaluronic acid [5]. The primary mechanism by which UV radiation
initiates molecular responses in human skin is via photochemical gen­
eration of reactive oxygen species (ROS), produced through cellular
oxidative metabolism, causing damage to DNA, proteins, and lipids and
reducing antioxidant levels in the skin [5,6].
As a response to the new society paradigms regarding youth and
beauty, new products are continuously placed in the market that are
intended for the enhancement of both health and beauty of skin [7–9].
Biologically active ingredients such as vitamins, phytochemicals, en­
zymes, antioxidants, essential oils, and extracts are added to antiaging
cosmetic products [10]. Ingredients from natural sources are increas­
ingly preferred by costumers due to the numerous beneficial effects
advertised against synthetic counterparts.
While the potential of marine-derived natural products as a prom­
ising source for active compounds with anti-aging effects remained
relatively undiscovered until recently, the development of new tech­
nologies and harvesting techniques revealed a wide range of new
bioactive molecules [8–17]. Oceans cover more than 70% of the world’s
surface and, by hosting a multitude of habitats and sometimes extreme
environments, are a valuable source of unique chemical compounds
with potential for industrial application as cosmetic ingredients
[4,9,18]. A recent review focusing on new chemical entities with

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: dresende@ff.up.pt (D.I.S.P. Resende), ifalmeida@ff.up.pt (I.F. Almeida).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.algal.2021.102273
Received 1 December 2020; Received in revised form 4 March 2021; Accepted 4 March 2021
Available online 21 March 2021
2211-9264/© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
D.I.S.P. Resende et al.
cosmetic potential from marine natural resources concluded that mi­
crobial biotechnology should be crucial in finding a sustainable way to
harvest bioactive metabolites to obtain good quantities of high-valued
compounds as cosmetic ingredients [19]. Among the oceans wide
biodiversity, bacteria and algae constitute a major source of active in­
gredients [18].Marine organisms, including plankton, sponges, fish,
crustaceans (e.g., brine shrimp), sea anemones, sea stars, tunicates, soft
corals, etc. [8], have been reported to have skin care benefits through
antioxidant, moisturizing, and anti-aging effects [8,18]. A high demand
from the cosmetic industry for these bioactive compounds led to the
development of improved techniques towards their production.
Although several reviews have explored the impact of algae in the
cosmetic field [14–17,20,21], there is still a gap on knowledge on how
marine ingredients are effectively being used by the industry and how
their use is translated into the highly innovative cosmetic market.
Hence, the aim of the present study was to identify the trends in the use
of marine ingredients in anti-aging products, by comparing the
composition of the products marketed in 2011 with products launched
or reformulated in 2018. The scientific and marketing evidence for their
application as active ingredients in anti-aging cosmetics was also
compiled.
2. Materials and methods
Data were collected from anti-aging formulations marketed in main
stores and pharmacies in the Portuguese market from international
cosmetic industries. Anti-aging cosmetics were selected if they exhibited
in the label one of the following words: anti-wrinkle (s); anti-age/anti-
aging; wrinkles repair; regenerator; aging; anti-slackening; firming. All
the information available in the product’s label was collected, along
with the information available on the manufacturer’s websites. Data
collection started in 2011 and was updated with products launched or
whose composition were renewed in 2018. Cosmetics for applications on
the face, neck and eye contour were included, comprising more than 40
multinational brands. Following these criteria, 293 products were
selected, namely 190 and 103 respectively, from 2011 and 2018. The
analysis focused on the use of marine ingredients among the selected
products.
The anti-aging benefits of each marine ingredient were searched on
the following on-line databases: PubMed, Google Scholar, Scopus, Spe­
cialChem, Cochrane and KOSMET, using the following keywords: “ma­
rine ingredient INCI [International Nomenclature of Cosmetic
Ingredients] name” AND (“skin” OR “topical”) AND aging. Given the
lack of peer reviewed articles for some of the ingredients, the
Laminaria digitata
Kappaphycus alvarezii
Chondrus crispus
Plankton
Algal extract
Spirulina maxima
Thermus thermophillus fermente
Ascophyllum nodosum
Artemia
Chlamydomonas
(pseudo)Alteromonas ferment
Hydrolyzed Ulva lactuca
Lithothamion calcareum
Porphyridium cruentum
0.00 1.00
2011
Fig. 1. Occurrence of marine ingredients in anti-aging cosmetics commercialized in the Portuguese market. A comparison between 2018 and 2011 (%).
Algal Research 55 (2021) 102273
manufacturers’ technical data forms and brochures were also analysed.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Trends in the use of marine ingredients in anti-aging cosmetics
The preliminary analysis of the presence of marine ingredients in all
of the studied 293 anti-aging cosmetics, in a total of 40 brands, indicates
a clear increase in the use of these ingredients from 2011 to 2018.
Although in 2011 only 6% of the 190 anti-aging cosmetics were from
marine origin, a noticeable growth was observed in 2018, where these
ingredients were present in 33% of the new 103 studied anti-aging
products. With developments in the fields of molecular biology, bioin­
formatics, and genomics, new techniques to increase the efficiency of
cultivation or isolation of these ingredients from the marine environ­
ment have become known in recent years, which may have contributed
to the observed market growth.
Fig. 1 allows to analyse in particular which marine ingredients were
used in the studied anti-aging cosmetics commercialized over this seven
year time span. It is possible to conclude that all of the marine in­
gredients used in 2011 continued to be used in 2018; and the “top 3” of
marine ingredients comprise extracts from Laminaria digitata, Kappa­
phycus alvarezii, and Chondrus crispus. Laminaria digitata (used in 6.8%)
and Kappaphycus alvarezii (used in 4.85%) correspond to novelties in
2018, while Chondrus crispus was already used in 2011 (with an increase
of use from 1.05 to 4.85% in 2018). Although, in general, manufacturers
specify the species of the marine ingredient, sometimes, a mixture of
extracts is designated. For instance, “algal extracts” are usually desig­
nated in several cosmetic formulations and a decrease in their use can be
found over this time span (from 2.63 to 1.94%). The European Com­
mission database for information on cosmetic ingredients contained in
cosmetics (CosIng) [22] lists this ingredient as “an extract of various
species of algae; extract of the seaweed, Fucus vesiculosus, Fucaceae”.
A categorization of the source of the marine ingredients (Fig. 2) al­
lows understanding that the large majority of them are algae (64% in
2011 vs 76% in 2018), while other marine organisms and bacteria are
the least used as ingredients in the studied anti-aging cosmetics. This
categorization considered algae [macroalgae (green, brown and red)
and microalgae], bacteria (Thermus thermophiles, and Alteromonas), and
other marine organisms (plankton and artemia/brine shrimp). Given the
biodiversity of algae, easy cultivation, and growth modulation, they can
be considered among the top marine resources in detriment of other
marine organisms and bacteria, which are not so easily obtained. A clear
evolution in the use of different algae types is also noticed. While in
2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00
2018
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D.I.S.P. Resende et al. Algal Research 55 (2021) 102273

2011

Algae
Bacteria, 27% 64% Undefined; 46%

Red Algae,
Marine Organisms, 9% 18%

2018

Bacteria Red Algae Brown Algae

9% 32% 23%

Algae
Marine Organisms 76%
15% Green Algae
Undefined 3%
6% Microalgae
12%

Fig. 2. Categorization of the marine ingredients present in anti-aging cosmetics commercialized in the Portuguese market. A comparison between 2011 and 2018.

2011 only the most common (red algae, 18%) were used, along with the Brown, red, and green macroalgae [15] account for approximately
“algae extract”, categorized in Fig. 2 as “undefined”, in 2018 several 59%, 40% and less than 1%, respectively, of the total macroalgae
types of algae [red (32%), brown (23%), and green (6%)] were used as cultivated in the world [35]. However, although green algae represent
ingredients. less than 1% of the total macroalgae cultivated in the world, 3% of the
studied cosmetic formulations commercialized in 2018 contained this
variety of algae, in the form hydrolysed Ulva lactuca extract. One of the
3.2. Scientific evidence of anti-aging efficacy of marine ingredients
main constituents of green algae belonging to the genus Ulva is ulvan, a
water-soluble sulfated polysaccharide that is extracted from algae cell
3.2.1. Macro- and microalgae
walls (Fig. 3), with moisturizing, protective, antitumor, and antioxidant
The systemic classification of algae is primarily based on the
properties [21].
composition of their photosynthetic pigments and their taxonomic di­
Other biologically active constituents (Fig. 3) include chlorophylls
vision is not consensual since this field is under constant and rapid
(a, b, c, d), lipopeptides, tripeptides (with arginine, glycine, aspartic
revision. Although the general term “algae” usually refers to eukaryotic
acid), carotenoids (lutein, β-carotene, fucoxanthin, astaxanthin) or even
organisms, it also includes prokaryotic organisms — cyanobacteria, also
fatty acids, which display a wide range of properties including anti­
known as blue-green algae, included in the Cyanophyta division.
bacterial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, colorant, deodorizing, tissue
Regarding eukaryotic algae, Chlorophyta is a taxon of green algae, with
growth stimulating, chelating, gelling, moisturizing, and protective
some freshwater green algae included in the Charophyta as well [23].
properties [21].
Regarding red algae, they belong to Rhodophyta division [24] and
Skin anti-aging effects of green algae are summarized in Table 1 and
brown algae are included in the Ochrophyta division [25]. Considering
the marine ingredients responsible for these effects are highlighted.
their size, a distinction can be made between macro- and microalgae.
Several Ulva sp. extracts (in combination with other components)
Macroalgae (seaweeds) are defined as benthic eukaryotic algae of at
exhibited a wide range of properties, such as anti-wrinkle [36], hya­
least 1 mm in length [26] and are cultivated mainly in large open ponds
luronan production [37], antioxidant, anti-elastase and collagen syn­
or lagoons in Asia, to produce food and additives for food, pharmaceu­
thesis stimulation [36]. A cream containing a mixture of Ulva lactuca,
ticals, cosmetics, and chemical industry [27]. Contrary to macroalgae,
Spirulina maxima, and Lola implexa (green algae) with other compounds
microalgae are small unicellular or simple multicellular species and are
(hyaluronic acid, hydrolysed wheat protein, and glycerin 5%) was able
found in various environments [13,15]. While the growth rate of algae is
to enhance the skin hydration and skin firmness of human skin [38].
relatively rapid, it is possible to control the production of their bioactive
However, neither the hydrating nor the firming effects were attributed
compounds by altering and harnessing the physiological culturing
specifically to the marine ingredients. While film-forming hydrophobic
conditions [28,29]. This topic is of interest from a biotechnology
compounds (dimethicone, cyclomethicone, phenyl trimeticone, ethyl­
perspective and has been reviewed for microalgae [30]. Examples
hexyl palmitate, and isohexadecane) were responsible for the hydrating
include manipulation of the cultivation conditions via deoxidization and
effect, creating a semi-occlusive effect, and therefore increasing the skin
genetic engineering of different types of algae (e.g., Chlorella, Dunaliella)
hydration, the firming effects were attributed to hydrophilic film-
[31], with the aim of improved production of bioactive compounds such
forming agents, which cause skin tensile effects. Oligosaccharides
as antioxidants (astaxanthin, β-carotene, ascorbic acid, and tocopherol)
from U. lactuca were used for investigation of skin anti-aging effects and
[32,33], chlorophylls [32], lipids [34], and fatty acids [32].

3
D.I.S.P. Resende et al.
Fig. 3. Main bioactive constituents of green algae.
the underlying mechanism in SAMP8 mice [39]. The excellent anti-
aging effects were attributed to the presence of a high content of
fucose in these oligosaccharides, since other fucose-containing poly­
saccharides have shown to have free-radical scavenging activity and to
inhibit cell proliferation [40]. Other anti-aging properties include the
reduction of oxidative damage, reduction of inflammatory factor levels,
and regulation of apoptosis-related genes [39]. In another study con­
cerning a dermatological and/or cosmetic composition used for the
regeneration of the skin, the effects of the combination of a function­
alized clay and two specific lipopeptides from Ulva lactuca were reported
to be significantly higher than those obtained in the presence of the
single use of the functionalized clay. A synergy of action by the com­
bination of at least one functionalized clay and at least one lipopeptide
was shown, on the procollagen production type I and production of
hyaluronic acid [41].
Contrary to green algae, brown algae account for approximately 59%
of the total macroalgae cultivated in the world [20]. Although more
available to manufacturers, the use of brown algae in the cosmetic in­
dustry is lower than green algae. In 2018, 23% of the studied cosmetic
formulations comprised brown algae extracts (Laminaria digitata and
Ascophyllum nodosum extracts), while in 2011 none of the formulations
contained this type of algae. The brown colour presented by these spe­
cies results from the dominance of the pigment fucoxanthin, which
masks the other pigments (chlorophyll a and c, β-carotene and other
carotenoids) and, as reserve substances, oils and polysaccharides
[16,82].The main polysaccharide found in the brown seaweeds is alginic
acid, while laminarans (up to 32%–35% dry weight) and fucoidans
appear as sulfated polysaccharides (Fig. 4) [17]. Fucoidans from
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Algal Research 55 (2021) 102273
Ascophyllum nodosum have been shown to exhibit anti-aging related
properties, including prevention of elastic fibre degradation by mini­
mizing human leukocyte elastase activity [42], stimulation of dermal
fibroblast proliferation [43], acceleration of collagen processing by
cultured fibroblasts [43], and antioxidant properties [44–47] (Table 1).
Phlorotannins, phloroglucinol-based polyphenols extracted from
brown algae, are also considered important secondary metabolites with
a wide range of functional bioactivities, such as anti-melanogenesis,
anti-aging, and antioxidant, with a wide application on pharmaceu­
tical, nutraceutical, and cosmetic industries [47,83]. Contrary to
phlorotannins obtained from plants, which are derived from gallic acid
or flavones, the ones obtained from brown algae are oligomers and
polymers of phloroglucinol (1,3,5-trihydroxybenzene) [16]. A
phlorotannin-rich natural extract from Ascophyllum nodosum was stud­
ied for its inhibitory activity against oxidative stress, inflammation, and
senescence [48]. Results showed potent antioxidant, anti-inflammatory,
and pro-sirtuin1 (SIRT1) activities, with ability to prevent ROS pro­
duction and cytokine release and to stimulate SIRT1 [48], a NAD-based
deacetylase that maintains longevity by removing acetyl group in nu­
clear histones, transcription factors, and other DNA repairing proteins.
Other studies aimed to understand the potential of brown seaweeds in
cosmetic applications, attributed to phlorotannins present in Asco­
phyllum nodosum extracts anti-elastase effects [49], inhibition of tyros­
inase [44], and protection of skin cells from UVB-induced mutation and
prevention of chronic inflammation [50]. Hence, these compounds are
of interest as active ingredients in cosmetic formulations, like in sun­
screen or anti-aging creams.
Laminaria digitata, the most used marine ingredient among all the
D.I.S.P. Resende et al. Algal Research 55 (2021) 102273

Table 1
Skin anti-aging effects of algae, marine organisms and marine bacteria.
Marine ingredient Test product Anti-aging effects/active ingredients Type of Ref.
(INCI) study

Macroalgae
Green algae
Hydrolyzed Ulva Ulva lactuca mixed with Spirulina maxima and Lola Hydrating: film-forming hydrophobic compounds (dimethicone, In vivo [38]
lactuca extract implexa cyclomethicone, phenyl trimeticone, ethylhexyl palmitate and
isohexadecane), creating a semi-occlusive effect, increasing the skin
hydration
Firming effects: hydrophilic film-forming agents cause skin tensile
effects
Ulva lactuca oligosaccharides with a high content Skin anti-aging effects in SAMP8 mice In vivo [28]
of fucose
Ulva lactuca lipopeptide mixed with clays Procollagen production and production of hyaluronic acid by Ex vivo [41]
combination of at least one functionalized clay and at least one of the
studied lipopeptides
Brown algae
Ascophyllum nodosum Ascophyllum nodosum extract Fucoidan-rich extract minimizes human leukocyte elastase activity, In vitro/ex [42]
extract protecting human skin elastic fibre network vivo
Low molecular weight fucoidan extract stimulates dermal fibroblast In vitro [43]
proliferation and accelerates collagen processing by cultured
fibroblasts
Ascophyllum nodosum or sulfated polysaccharides Antioxidant activity In vitro [44–47]
(fucoidan) extracts
Ascophyllum nodosum acetone extract Inhibition of tyrosinase In vitro [44]
Ascophyllum nodosum extract rich in phlorotannins Prevents ROS production and cytokine release In vitro [48]
Inhibition of elastase In vitro [49]
Protects skin cells from UVB-induced mutation and prevents chronic In vitro/Ex [50]
inflammation vivo
Laminaria digitata Diverse Laminaria digitata extracts Antioxidant activity In vitro [51–53]
extract Laminaria digitata extract-containing formulations Protects cellular DNA In vivo [49,53,54]
Growth stimulation of new cells
Activates collagen synthesis
Slows down skin aging processes
Firms the skin’s structure
Red algae
Chondrus crispus Chondrus crispus methanolic extract Antioxidant activity attributed to mycosporine-like amino acids In vitro [55,56]
extract Antioxidant activity attributed to a high phenolic content In vitro [57]
Kappaphycus alvarezii Kappaphycus alvarezii methanolic extract Antioxidant activity of treated cotton textile masks attributed to In vitro [58]
extract phenolic compounds
Kappaphycus alvarezii methanolic and aqueous Antioxidant activity attributed to phenolic compounds In vitro [59,60]
extracts
Kappaphycus alvarezii aqueous extract Hyaluronidase inhibition In vitro [60]

Microalgae
Spirulina maxima Ulva lactuca mixed with Spirulina maxima and Lola Hydrating: film-forming hydrophobic compounds (dimethicone, In vivo [38]
implexa cyclomethicone, phenyl trimeticone, ethylhexyl palmitate and
isohexadecane), creating a semi-occlusive effect, increasing the skin
hydration
Firming effects: hydrophilic film-forming agents cause skin tensile
effects
Spirulina extract Antioxidant activity In vitro [61]
Inhibits UV-induced carcinogenesis and keratinocyte apoptosis in skin
Anti-photoaging effect on skin
Spirulina crude protein Increases human fibroblast viability by activation of the epidermal In vitro [62]
growth factor receptor/mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling
pathway
Mixture of Aloe vera and Spirulina fusiformis Effective in generating the best appearance of rabbit skin tissue In vivo [63]
Porphyridium Extracellular polysaccharides of Porphyridium Antioxidant activity In vitro [64]
cruentum extract cruentum degraded by hermetical microwave low-molecular-weight sulfated fragments exerted an inhibitory effect
on oxidative damage
Sulfated polysaccharides of Porphyridium cruentum High inhibition of hyaluronidase and elastase In vitro [65]
Chlamydomonas Chlamydomonas reinhardtii ethanolic extract Antioxidant activity In vitro [66]
reinhardtii extract Attributed to a high sulfated polysaccharides content
Antioxidant activity In vitro [67]
Sulfated polysaccharides: free radical scavenging ability
Anti-elastase, anti-collagenase and anti-hyaluronidase activities
Chlamydomonas reinhardtii methanolic extract Antioxidant activity In vitro [68]
attributed to the presence of flavonoids and phenols

Other marine organisms

Plankton extract Chloroform-methanol extracts of biomass of the Antioxidant In vitro [69]
oceanic surface film (neuston) containing plankton
Skin care composition comprising, among others, a Improves health and physical appearance of skin Not tested [70]
plankton extract from about 0.1% to about 5% by
weight
Artemia extract In vivo [71]
(continued on next page)

5
D.I.S.P. Resende et al. Algal Research 55 (2021) 102273

Table 1 (continued )
Marine ingredient Test product Anti-aging effects/active ingredients Type of Ref.
(INCI) study

Cosmetic formulation containing Artemia extract Prevention skin aging effects: skin care, wrinkle removing, increasing
and fresh milk, olive oil, wych-hazel extract, and in skin elasticity
hydrolyzed soy protein Tightens skin (particularly increases skin elasticity, smoothes winkles
and improves moistening strength), delaying skin aging
Cosmetic formulation containing Artemia extract Repairs and protects skin cells against stress, improving the barrier Ex vivo [72]
function of the skin, and improving and preventing skin aging and
rough skin.
Regenerates, stimulates and protects skin cells Not tested [73]
Prevents skin aging and rough skin In vivo [72]
Restores physiological levels of heat shock proteins (HSP) and protect In vivo [74]
aging skins against solar radiation
Artemia extract was from napauliies and partially Induces fibroblast proliferation, collagen synthesis and reduce cell In vitro [75]
purified senescence
Artemia extract Stimulates HSP70, proteins implicated in the fight against cellular Unknown [76,77]
stress, and increases skin defences as well as resistance to UV and heat
stress
Enhances cellular protection against UV aggressions and DNA damage Unknown [78]
Anti-inflammatory action by decreasing the level of inflammatory Unknown [79]
cytokines

Marine bacteria
Thermus thermophilus Thermus thermophilus fermentation medium Prevents or treats damages associated with UV and IR free radicals, to In vitro [80]
ferment repair skin damage, minimizing wrinkles and improving skin integrity,
and deeply moisturizing, nourishing, and improving elasticity
Enzymes from Thermus thermophilus Scavenging of free radicals caused by UV damage at high temperature In vitro [10]
Alteromonas ferment Facial cream formulated with carnosine, Tightens the skin and provides elasticity, flexibility, and moisturization In vivo [81]
Alteromonas ferment extract, crosspolymer
hyaluronic acid, and a tripeptide

INCI - International Nomenclature of Cosmetic Ingredients.

Fig. 4. Main bioactive constituents of brown algae.

studied cosmetic formulations is a versatile ingredient that is especially cosmetic manufacturers carry out in vitro studies to allow a compre­
useful for moisturizing the skin or to reduce cellulite [21]. Although hensive view of the anti-aging activity of those ingredients on the skin
some scientific publications report the antioxidant effects of the extracts [49,54]. These entities usually advertise several anti-aging properties:
[51–53], only a limited amount of marine ingredient suppliers or protection of cellular DNA, growth stimulation of new cells, activation of

6
D.I.S.P. Resende et al.
collagen synthesis, slowing down skin aging processes, and firming the
skin’s structure, among others. However, Laminaria digitata is probably
used in these cosmetic formulations for its thickening, gelling, and
colloidal stabilizer properties, due to its high alginate content.
The fact that red algae accounts for over 40% of the global cultivated
seaweed production is well represented in the number of the studied
cosmetic formulations that contain this type of algae as ingredient.
Although in 2011 only 18% of the marine formulations contained red
algae, in 2018 a noticeable growth was observed, and 32% of the ana­
lysed cosmetics of marine origin included this ingredient. Their photo­
synthetic pigments are chlorophyll a, carotenoids (lutein, zeaxanthin,
β-carotene)m and phycobilins (R-phycocyanin and R-phycoerythrin)
water-soluble pigments localized in the phycobilisomes, which give red
algae their distinctive colour. [21,84]. Other constituents include
mycosporine-like amino acids [56], agar [21], and sulfated poly­
saccharides (carrageenans and porphyrans) [17] (Fig. 5).
Carrageenans (Fig. 5) are hydrocolloids made up of linear chains of
galactose, with alternating α-D-1,3 and β-D-1,4 galactose residues that
are sulfated at up to 40% of the total weight, and their composition in
red seaweeds differs from one species to another [21]. The carrageenan
composition in red seaweeds differs in the chemical structure and
properties from one species to another, and therefore in their uses.
Although they can be classified as mu, nu, lambda, kappa, iota, theta,
and xi forms according to the extent of sulfate substitution and structural
considerations, the carrageenans of commercial interest are designed
iota, kappa, and lambda. A mixture of kappa and lambda carrageenans is
present in Chondrus crispus [85]. Due to the ability to increase the vis­
cosity of the solutions and play the role of gelling agents and stabilizers,
carrageenans are widely used in various sticks, creams, soaps, sham­
poos, lotions, foams, and gels. The efficiency of carrageenans in cosmetic
preparations has been often claimed with a large variety of biological
activities: tonifying, cleaning, hydrating, revitalizing, and antioxidant
[86]. Despite Chondrus crispus extract being the third main ingredient
used in the studied cosmetic formulations, scientific evidence of its anti-
aging properties is scarce. Antioxidant effects of C. crispus extract were
attributed to mycosporine-like amino acids [55,56] and polyphenols
[57] constituents. Nevertheless, their main application in anti-aging
cosmetic formulations is probably attributed to their gelling, thick­
ening, and stabilizing effects [15] despite their antioxidant effects.
Other less explored red algae species like Kappaphycus alvarezii or
Lithothamion calcareum have also exhibited promising anti-aging prop­
erties. An interesting example of the application of the red seaweed
K. alvarezii in the cosmetic industry was recently described, through the
use of its extract in textile face masks for anti-aging applications [58],
with good antioxidant, antifungal, antiviral, anticancer, and antibacte­
rial properties. Additionally, the air permeability, wickability, and water
Fig. 5. Main bioactive constituents of red algae.
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Algal Research 55 (2021) 102273
permeable properties were slightly reduced for red seaweed treated
textile face mask fabrics compared with the untreated face mask [58].
Other studies exploring the antioxidant [59,87] and hyaluronidase in­
hibition [60] properties of K. alvarezii extracts were also reported.
Lithothamion calcareum extract is often used as an important source of
calcium in cosmetics, food and natural medicine. Calcium plays a key
role in the biology of the epidermis, since it controls enzymatic activity,
gene expression, and keratinocyte differentiation. In cellular aging, the
calcium gradient, which allows the proper regulation of these processes,
is lost, so it will be beneficial to supply calcium to the epidermis [88]. To
the best of our knowledge, extensive studies on the anti-aging properties
of Lithothamnion calcareum extract are yet to be performed. However,
some cosmetics containing this extract are already being commercial­
ized, claiming an enhanced balance of the epidermis and antioxidant
and anti-inflammatory properties [88]. Other cosmetic applications
include its use as exfoliant/peeling agent [89,90] or DNA protection and
infrared filter [91].
The use of microalgae in anti-aging cosmetic formulations was only
observed recently, and was quite pronounced in 2018 with 12% of the
studied formulations containing microalgae. Carbohydrates, including
polysaccharides, are usually the major components of microalgae ex­
tracts [92], and their anti-aging effects are usually associated with
antioxidant activity [64,93] or inhibition of the degradation of the main
components of the extracellular matrix [65].
Studies regarding the anti-aging properties of spirulina, a biomass of
cyanobacteria, are widely available [61–63,94]. Spirulina has a high
protein concentration, is rich in polysaccharides and pigments, among
them the B-complex vitamins and the β-carotene (provitamin A) [94]. It
can improve the skin barrier function due to its high content of amino
acids and polysaccharides that regenerate the skin barrier and reduce
transepidermal water loss [94]. Spirulina has been reported to have
antioxidant properties, and to inhibit UV-induced carcinogenesis and
keratinocyte apoptosis in skin [61]. Spirulina has an anti-photoaging
effect on skin, preventing UVB-induced photoaging in human dermal
fibroblasts by regulating UVB-induced DNA damage, cell cycle arrest,
senescence, and matrix metalloproteinase expression [61]. Additionally,
it was reported that spirulina crude protein increases human fibroblast
viability by activation of the epidermal growth factor receptor/mitogen-
activated protein kinase signaling pathway, and may be used as a cos­
meceutical for potential applications in protecting human skin [62]. The
appearance of rabbit skin tissue after supplementation of a mixture of
Aloe vera and Spirulina fusiformis was effective in generating the best
appearance of rabbit skin tissue [63].
An extract of Porphyridium cruentum containing low molecular-
weight polysaccharide fragments exhibited higher antioxidant activity,
better protecting mouse cells and tissues from oxidative damage by
D.I.S.P. Resende et al.
inhibiting lipid peroxidation than the high molecular-weight poly­
saccharide fragments. However, no scavenging activity and no inhibi­
tion of oxidative damage in cells and tissues was found for the crude high
molecular sulfated polysaccharides from Porphyridium cruentum [64].
Another study concerning the activity of polysaccharides from Por­
phyridium cruentum over degenerative mechanisms of the skin revealed a
high inhibition of hyaluronidase and elastase enzymatic activity [65].
Although manufacturers do not specify the species of the Chlamy­
domonas extract used in the studied cosmetic formulations (the INCI
description for “Chlamydomonas Extract” is “the extract of various spe­
cies of the alga, Chlamydomonas, Chlamydomonadaceae”) [22], several
studies regarding the anti-aging properties were conducted over the past
years with Chlamydomonas species. Particularly for Chlamydomonas
reinhardtii, studies on the antioxidant potential of this species revealed
that sulfated polysaccharides exhibited efficient antioxidant activity in a
dose-dependent manner, with its antioxidant and free radical scav­
enging ability showing to be concentration-dependent [66]. The anti­
oxidant and anti-aging potential of C. reinhardtii sulfated
polysaccharides was also shown in another study, with efficient free
radical scavenging ability and profound chain terminating potential in a
dose-dependent manner being reported. Furthermore, in vitro anti-skin
aging properties of these sulfated polysaccharides were explored
revealing efficient inhibition of elastase, collagenase, and hyaluronidase
enzyme activities [67]. Another related study attributed the 2,2-
Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity and
antioxidant potency to the presence of a high content of flavonoids and
phenols in a C. reinhardtii methanolic extract [68].
3.2.2. Other marine organisms
The seas are populated by marine organisms, the majority of which
are totally unknown. Although there is still a limited amount of
knowledge about them, the already known potential regarding cosmetic
application gives us a glimpse of the countless number of benefits for the
skin [4,9,18]. However, due to reduced biomass availability of these
marine organisms and difficulties on their production/cultivation at
larger scales, their high potential is not translated in the number of anti-
aging cosmetic formulations that were commercialized in 2011 (9%)
and 2018 (15%). A slight increase in their use was noticed, probably due
to the development of newer and improved techniques for the produc­
tion of these organisms. The richness in terms of bioactive compounds
observed in zooplankton should be highly related to the ingestion of
microalgae with enhanced properties, which is translated in the number
of studies and examples of antioxidant properties of several plankton
and artemia extracts. The use of live food organisms, such as
zooplankton, especially for nutrition enrichment at fish feeding is easily
achieved through an alteration of the nutrient composition of their food
[95,96]. Additionally, this manipulation of the zooplankton feeding can
also be beneficially exploited for the isolation of specific compounds
with bioactive potential [97].
Marine plankton, containing amino acids, essential fats, vitamins,
key minerals, trace elements, antioxidants, electrolytes, nucleic acids,
and enzymes, is recognized to possess all raw materials that are neces­
sary for cellular regeneration [9]. Although scarce, research has been
developed to study their antioxidant properties [69] or even their use in
skin care compositions to improve the health and physical appearance of
skin [70].
Contrary to plankton, extracts of brine shrimp Artemia have been
largely explored probably due to easy cultivation, for their anti-aging
properties, finding uses in sunscreens and anti-aging products. Several
formulations containing these marine organisms were patented, mainly
by the cosmetic industry, as anti-wrinkle [71,98] and anti-stress agents
[72], for regeneration and stimulation of skin cells [73], for preventing
aging and roughness of skin [72], restoring physiological levels of heat
shock proteins (HSP) and protecting aging skins against solar radiation
[74]. As an example, a skin protecting composite (comprising fresh milk,
olive oil, wych-hazel extract, hydrolyzed soy protein, and Artemia
8
Algal Research 55 (2021) 102273
extract) was announced to be part of a cosmetic product (anti-wrinkling
cream or lotion), which has the functions of tightening skin (particularly
increasing skin elasticity, smoothing winkles, and improving moistening
strength), and therefore delaying skin aging [71]. Academic studies
reported the effects of Artemia extract on the cell proliferation, senes­
cence, and collagen synthesis by human fibroblasts in normal and aging
induced conditions revealing induction of fibroblast proliferation,
collagen synthesis, and reduction of cell senescence, attesting the anti-
aging effect of this ingredient for further cosmetic applications [75].
Studies on both cultured human epidermal cells and ex vivo skin showed
that Artemia extract stimulates HSP70, proteins implicated in the fight
against cellular stress, increases skin defences as well as resistance to UV
and heat stress [76–78], and provides an anti-inflammatory action by
decreasing the level of inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1α, IL-8, and
TNFα [79].
3.2.3. Marine bacteria
Bacteria are typically the most abundant and diverse biota of all
marine ecosystems. Several species are exploited for biotechnological
applications with some of them exhibiting photo-protective, anti-aging,
antimicrobial, antioxidant and moisturizing activities, and therefore of
interest for the cosmetic industry [99]. Some of the main components of
marine bacteria are alkaloids, peptides, proteins, lipids, mycosporines
and mycosporine-like amino acids, glycosides, and isoprenoids [18].
Interestingly, marine bacteria were the only marine ingredient where
there was a noticed decrease from 2011 (27%) to 2018 (15%) in their
use in the studied cosmetic formulations commercialized in the Portu­
guese market. Although marine biotechnology has evolved over the last
years, studies on the anti-aging properties of marine bacteria are scarce.
One example using marine bacteria isolated from the deep sea, which
produces specific enzymes to catalyse removal reactions of free radicals
caused by UV damage at high temperatures was patented by the
cosmetic industry [80]. This product is aimed to prevent or treat dam­
ages associated with against UV and IR free radicals, to repair skin
damage, minimizing wrinkles and improving skin integrity, and deeply
moisturizing, nourishing, and improving elasticity [80]. Another related
study reports that specific enzymes from Thermus thermophilus catalyse
the scavenging of free radicals caused by UV damage at high tempera­
ture and can be used on damaged skin exposed to UV radiation and heat
[10]. Anti-aging effects were also attributed to Alteromonas species. In
an open-label intra-individual study to assess the anti-aging efficacy of a
cosmetic product, good results were obtained concerning redefining
effects, with a significant decrease in sagging jawline, validated by the
subjects which reported that the skin was visibly tightened and more
elastic, flexible, and moisturized [81].
4. Conclusions
This study provides an original and updated overview on the evo­
lution of the use of marine ingredients in a panel of anti-aging formu­
lations commercialized in the Portuguese market between 2011 and
2018. Noteworthy, all cosmetic products placed on the market in one
country of European Union can be marketed in the remaining Member
States. Therefore, the study’s reach surpasses the Portuguese market. A
clear increased tendency was observed in the use of these ingredients,
since 33% of the 103 studied new anti-aging products in 2018 were of
marine origin. The awareness of consumers on the type of products
purchased is growing, with an increase in the search for natural and
organic cosmetics, which is transposed to the cosmetic industry offer.
Although there is no legal definition for the term “natural cosmetics” at a
European level, several agencies around the world such as Soil Associ­
ation, BDIH and ECOCERT, certify cosmetics as natural or organic ac­
cording to the Cosmetic Organic and Natural Standard (COSMOS)
standard [100]. The international guideline ISO 16128-2:2017 also
provides definition and criteria for natural and organic cosmetic in­
gredients and products [101]. To be classified as natural, the product
D.I.S.P. Resende et al.
needs to contain natural ingredients while for organic certification, a
minimum percentage of ingredients from organic production is
required. Another relevant question is the fact that vegan consumers
might reject cosmetics containing marine ingredients obtained from
animals, such as chitosan obtained from crustaceous. This is a key issue
to be address when developing new products with natural/organic/
vegan claims.
Marine ingredients are slowly occupying the place that botanicals
ingredients have led for a long time, with a great diversity among several
categories. Macroalgae, among all the identified marine ingredients in
the studied anti-aging formulations, are the prime marine ingredient
used probably due to the easiness of the cultivation allied with the
development of newer and improved techniques, which is clearly
translated in the amount of studies and scientific evidences available in
the literature. It is also worth to highlight that among algae, red algae
represent the main type of algae used in these cosmetic formulations. On
the other hand, marine organisms and bacteria have suffered a decrease
in their use. In fact, the “top 3” of all the identified marine ingredients in
the studied anti-aging formulations comprise the extracts Laminaria
digitata, Kappaphycus alvarezii, and Chondrus crispus.
The large majority of the anti-aging studies are simple in-vitro anti­
oxidant studies or studies on the inhibition of dermal enzymes, followed
by some ex-vivo studies. Generally, the use of molecular assays is scarce,
being the large majority of the screening done by phenotypic assays. Of
notice, some of these effects are not confirmed in vivo. Still, the most
studied marine ingredients towards their anti-aging properties are the
ones that are easily cultivated, which is also usually translated into their
application on cosmetic formulations. Ulva lactuca, Ascophyllum nodo­
sum, Chondrus crispus, Artemia, and Spirulina proved to be the most
efficient towards anti-aging. Examples of the isolation of a secondary
metabolite from a marine ingredient and further evaluation of their anti-
aging properties are also scarce, since usually either extracts or even
mixtures containing several ingredients are tested instead of the isolated
metabolite, making it difficult to assign an effect to a certain metabolite.
Antioxidants may act at different levels regarding the prevention/
minimization of skin cutaneous oxidative stress. Three types of mecha­
nisms of action can be observed: preventive, interception, and repair.
Many marine ingredients with antioxidant properties described in this
review present more than one action mechanism, with the ability to
prevent and intercept reactive species or repair the damage performed
by these species. The multifunctionality of natural products could be
considered a strength in the development of ingredients with anti-aging
potential in which multiple pathways are involved.
Although several studies have reported promising results on anti-
aging properties of marine ingredients, a large amount of these in­
gredients do not present true market impact and therefore, this knowl­
edge is not translating into their commercial use.
The use of marine ingredients in anti-aging cosmetic formulations
presents a great potential for the cosmetic industry, with a noticeable
growing tendency over the last years. However, additional studies into
their anti-aging properties must be promoted and extended to ensure
their effectiveness and safety for cosmetic application.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by national funds through FCT - Foun­
dation for Science and Technology within the scope of UIDB/04423/
2020, UIDP/04423/2020, and under the project PTDC/SAUPUB/
28736/2017 (reference POCI-01-0145-FEDER-028736), cofinanced by
COMPETE 2020, Portugal 2020 and the European Union through the
9
Algal Research 55 (2021) 102273
ERDF and by FCT through national funds, as well as CHIR­
ALBIOACTIVE-PI-3RL-IINFACTS-2019.
Statement of informed consent
No conflicts, informed consent, or human or animal rights are
applicable to this study.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Diana I. S. P. Resende: Writing- Original draft preparation, and final
manuscript; Marta Ferreira: Data collection from 2018; Catarina Mag­
alhães: Data collection from 2011; José Sousa Lobo: Supervision; Isabel
Almeida: Conceptualization, Reviewing and Editing; Emília Sousa: Su­
pervision, Reviewing and Editing.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.algal.2021.102273.
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