Laplace’s equation

∇2 u = 0
If expressed in two-dimensional polar coordinates (see section 4), a solution is
! "! "
u(ρ, ϕ) = Aρn + Bρ−n C exp(inϕ) + D exp(−inϕ)
where A, B, C, D are constants and n is a real integer.

If expressed in three-dimensional polar coordinates (see section 4) a solution is

! " ! "
u(r, θ , ϕ) = Arl + Br−(l +1) Plm C sin mϕ + D cos mϕ
where l and m are integers with l ≥ |m| ≥ 0; A, B, C, D are constants;
# $| m |
d
Plm (cos θ ) = sin|m| θ Pl (cos θ )
d(cos θ )
is the associated Legendre polynomial.

Pl0 (1) = 1.

If expressed in cylindrical polar coordinates (see section 4), a solution is

! "! "
u(ρ, ϕ, z) = Jm (nρ) A cos mϕ + B sin mϕ C exp(nz) + D exp(−nz)
where m and n are integers; A, B, C, D are constants.

Spherical harmonics
The normalized solutions Ylm (θ , ϕ) of the equation
# % & $
1 ∂ ∂ 1 ∂2
sin θ + Ylm + l (l + 1)Ylm = 0
sin θ ∂θ ∂θ sin2 θ ∂ϕ2
are called spherical harmonics, and have values given by
' (
2l + 1 (l − |m|)! m m
m
Yl (θ , ϕ) = Pl (cos θ ) e imϕ
× (−1) for m ≥ 0
4π (l + |m|)! 1 for m < 0
) ) )
0 1 0 3 ±1 3
i.e., Y0 = , Y1 = cos θ, Y1 = ∓ sin θ e±iϕ , etc.
4π 4π 8π

Orthogonality
Z
Yl∗m Ylm! dΩ = δ ll ! δmm!
!

4π

12. Calculus of Variations

Z b
% &
∂F d ∂F dy
The condition for I = F ( y, y #, x) dx to have a stationary value is = # , where y =
#
. This is the
a ∂y dx ∂y dx
Euler–Lagrange equation.

17