Art and Culture – Ancient and Medieval

Areas

Philosophical Systems in India

Architecture and Literature and its Development

Science and Technology Through The Ages

Literature

2013 – Sangam

2016 – Kannada and Telugu

Now likely will be asked in Hindi Literature and Scripts of India as no questions in these area

Script – Written form of a language

Oldest script of Indian subcontinent – Bramhi and Kharosti

Bramhi – Considered mother of all Indian scripts (Urdu is written in Persian or Nastaliq
script)

Sanskrit, Tamil, Kannada, Telugu and Malayalam – Initial languages – all derived from
Brahmi

All considered as Abugida script – all Indian scripts – consonants are written separately but
vowels are written as diacritics (matra) if the word does not start with it – Gaya in Hindi Aa
is written as a matra

In Abugida each letter represents a consonant, while vowels are written with obligatory
diacritics (called Matra in Sanskrit), except when a vowel commence a word.

Indus script

- earlier to Brahmi but has many questions of its own

- Used pictographic symbols

 - Extremely short

- Not clear if symbols constitute script used to create a language

Brahmi Script

- Initially many scholars said that it is derived from Indusi script or Semitic script
(mesopotomian Script first found in Syria)

- Insufficient evidence to show that Brahmi was derived from any external script

- So some theorists state that it was an indigenous script which developed in Indian
subcontinent but insufficient evidence has been found to mark its chronological
evolution

- Most important sources – Rock edicts of Asoka – James Princep deciphered the script
in 1837

Kharosti Script

- Popular in Gandhara region (north west part of Indian subcontinent (Pakistan and part
of Afghanistan)

- Sister script of Brahmi

- James Princep – 1837

- FLurished between 3rd century BCE to 3rd Century CE

- Initially Sanskrit, Pali, and Prakrit written in both Brahmi and Kharosti

- Kharosti script – written from right to left

Gupta script

- 3rd century AD to 6th Century AD

- Sanskrit language became the primary language

- Gupta script was meant for writing Sanskrit

- The script originated from the Brahmi script

- Three main scripts evolved in Gupta patronage among other scripts – Nagari (first to
develop), Sharadha (second to develop), Siddham Script (last of the initial ones)
 - Nagari script -> Devanagari -> Gurumukhi script (in medieval period – for Punjabi)

- Sharadha script (8th Century AD) -> Kashmiri scripts (used for Kashmiri Sanskrit) ->
Still survives with Kashmiri Pandits who use it for their religious ceremonies

- Siddham -> Assami, Oriya, Bengali scripts

- Temple architecture – Nagara (Gupta), Dravidam (South) both developed in city,

Wazer – away from city

- Gurumukhi is inspired from Sarada and Devanagiri script but later in the medieval
period (1500 to 1600AD) Guru Angad standardised this script

South Indian Scripts

Tamil

- Though Sanskrit is older than Tamil, it is the first language to get classical status

- Tamil initially written in the Vatteluttu Script which was derived from the Brahmi (1 st
century AD to 3rd Century AD)

- So Tamil follows Abugida system

- Next script – Kadamba (4th Century to 6th Century AD)

Telugu and Kannada

- Kadamba is initial the script of Telugu and Kannada

- It developed under the Kadamba Rulers of Karnataka around 4 th century AD and

continued till 6th Century AD

Grantha Script (Malayalam)

- Script in which Malayalam is written

- Initially used by Tamil Speakers but later adopted by People of Kerala for
Manupravalam language

- Later it came to be known as Malayalam

- It is also used for Sinhala language of Sri Lanka

Gurumukhi
 - First work – Guru Grandh Sahib

- Written by Guru Arjan Dev – 5th Sikh Guru

- Guru Angad 4th Sikh Guru

- Gurumukhi is inspired from Sarada and Devanagiri script but later in the medieval
period (1500 to 1600AD) Guru Angad standardised this script

Devanagiri Script

- Inspired from the Nagiri Script of Guptas

- First seen around 10th Century AD in its pure form

- Considered as the most scientific script of the world – What one sees in script is what
one pronounces and grammar rules are the easiest to understand

- More than 120 languages are written in the Devanagiri Script and no other script can
boast such a claim

Hindi Literature (Kannada, Telugu, Tamil and Malayalam already asked)

Early Vedic Period – 1500 to 1000 BC and Later Vedic Period – 1000 to 600 BC = Vedas
were not written then. They were composed in Sruti tradition- oral form – in Sanskrit
Language. They were only compiled and written down from 3rd Century AD onwards.

Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, Austric, Sino Tibetan = Language families in India – Divisions are
based on the differences and similarities in their phonetics – all languages in a language
family has similar sounds

Indo Aryan – Hindi, Sanskrit, Oriya, Bengali, Marathi

Dravidian – Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam

Sino- Tibetam – Minto, Manipuri

Austric – Bodo, Santhali,

Indo-Aryan is a sub branch of the Indo European language

Hindi – belongs to Indo Aryan Family

Hindi to English – Jungle, Trignometry, Geometry, Shampoo, Dacoit, Loot

Sanskrit – Considered as Mother of Hindi Language

But evolution of Hindi went through many stages

Sanskrit -> Pali/Prakrit -> Apabramsa -> Hindustani/Hindavi/Khariboli -> Hindi (Refined
version of HHK)

First Sanskrit developed but its deviated forms eventually culminated in the modern Hindi

The fact that this transition was gradual makes it difficult to identify precisely when Hindi
developed but certain theories do exist.

9th Century – Siddhs initially spoke HHK

10th Century – Hindi evolved in its refined form – four forms

Prithviraja Raso by Chandra Bardai

The emergence of Hindi in its earliest form can be traced back to tenth century AD when it
was written in Devanagiri script.

It is very difficult to ascertain that when exactly Hindi as a language came into picture. But
the traces of Hindi is obvious in the language of Siddha saints of 8 th and 9th century AD. We
can also get glimpse of Hindi in the language of Jain poets.

The Evolution of Hindi can be divided into four periods. The first being Adi Kal (11th century
AD) in this period Raso Sahitya was written, in Rajasthan. The best example is the Prithvi
Raj Raso written by Chanda Bardai.

The second period is the Bhakti Kal (1300 AD to 1650 AD). Bhakti saints were the main
proponents of Hindi, and it included Kabir, Surdas, Tulsidas, Mirabai etc. THe works written
in this period include Ramacharit Manas and the classic work Padmaavat in 1540 by Malik
Muhammad Jayasi.

The third period marked a new phase which has come to be known as Riti kala (1650-1750).
It was the period when intellectual literature of Hindi was written. Generally the works
looked to be secular but many a times also highlighted their spiritualism. The works were
short stories and the like with no major single literature work of note.
The current period is the Adhunik Kal (1750 – Present). This period is divided into four sub
periods. The first being Bharatendu Yug (1846-1884), influence of Bharatendu Harishchand
can be seen in this period. He is considered as the father of modern of modern Hindi
literature. Next is Trivedi Yug (1880 – 1930). Named after Mahavir Prasad Trivedi and sees a
moral and reformist literature. Next is the Chayavad Yug (1938 – 70). This is the Mahadevi
Verma, Jayashankar Prasad, Suryakanth Tripathi Nirala are three main authors of this period.
This period saw the rise of a literature akin to the Romanticist style in the English literature.
The contemporary literature has come to be known as Pragativad with some major poets
being H Rai Bachan, Dinkar, Bhagwati Charan Sharma, Narendra Verma.

Hindi is the third most widely spoken language around the world and has around 600 million
speakers who use it as first language. Article 343 recognises Hindi as one of the official
languages of India.

Architecture

2013 – 1 questions – write about the features of the Chola temple architecture

2014 – 2 questions – Gandhara culture owes as much to the Roman as to Greek and How
Indus Valley civilization has influenced the present culture

2015 – Indian civilization is different from the Greek, Mesopotamian and Egyptian
civilization that it has survived without a breakdown to the contemporary period. Critically
analyse

2016 – Symbolic appreciation of those appear on stupas and their moral relevance

2017 – On Gupta numismatic Art

Architecture – Ancient/Medieval and Modern

Ancient – Indus Valley, Maurya, Post Maurya, Gupta, South Indian Architecture

Medieval – Delhi Sultanate, Mughal Period

Modern – British Architecture

Deconstruction of Topics
Indus Valley Civilization

- Town Planning

- Seals

Maurya Perios

- Caves

- Pillars

- Stupas

Post Maurya

- Gandhara

- Mathura

- Amaravati

Gupta

- Nagara Temple

South India

- Dravida/Chola Temple

Indus Valley Civilisation

Seals

- Used for facilitating trade

- No evidence to show it substituted coinage, but as identification tools

 - Most important artefact in obtaining most information with respect to the Indus
Valley Civilisation

- They were generally prepared from steatite – soft stone found near river beds

- Most of them are rectangular though circular and square seals have also been found

- Elaborate carvings and marks on seals – provide information

- Pashupati seal – person with two horns, yogic posture and animals – knowledge of
meditation and indication as to religious beliefs, one animals looks like Bulls which
indicates it was known to them – Proto Shiva. Unicorn seal indicates a horse with a
horn

- 4000 seals have been discovered with half of them being animals – concept of
cohabilitation and accommodation with the nature beings

- Seal with Peepal leaves, mathematical symbols

- Use of scripts from right to left – showed how they wrote

- Use of seals as amulets – presence of shamanic practices - Tantricism

- Animals like rhinoceros, tiger, elephant etc have also been found

Maurya

Caves

Evolution of the Caves in India

- Evolution began before the Mauryas

- Pre historic Caves – Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh – natural caves – prehistoric

paintings are in this cave

- First of the man made cave in the Indian subcontinent – appeared in the Mauryan
period – 3rd and 4th century BC

- Start with name, then structure and then purpose

- Lomar Rishi Caves in Barabar Hill Gaya, Sudama Cave in Nagarjuna Hill Gaya,
Dhauli Cave in Dhauli Odisha
 - These caves were polished from inside and their entrances were decorated and
entrance of these caves were decorated in semi circular facade shape

- It was meant as a shelter for the monks of the Ajivika sect

- Created by Asoka and his grandson Dasarath

Post Maurya Period

- Different types of cave came into picture

- Purpose – Chaitya (Prayer hall for monks) and Vihara (Residence for monks)

- Structure wise three types of caves were found – Apsidal Vault Caves with Pillars
(Ajanta, Bhaju, Karla), Apsidal Vault Caves without caves (Thana, Nadasar),
Quadrangular hall flat roof cave

Gupta

- Considered as the climax of the cave architecture in India

- Stylistic excellence of cave making

- Ajanta, Ellora, Bagh, Nashik, Junagarh, Udayagiri – Khandagiri

- In Ajanta one can find even two storied caves. Ajanta has 29 caves (consisting of 4
Chaityas and 25 Viharas). Ajanta is the abode of many forms of artistic expression
related to Buddhism. This includes Frescoe Mural paintings and various sculptures
related to Buddhism (image of Bodhisatva holding a lotus, flying apsara).

- In Ellora there 34 caves housing members all three dominant religions of that time
(Buddhism, Jainism, and Hinduism). This cave system has three storied caves and
courtyards. Most famously the cave system also has the Kailasnath Temple, built by a
Rashtrakuta King, which is considered an architectural wonder of India. The temple is
a monolithic temple. The temple was carved from the top and not bottom.

- Udayagiri and Khandagiri caves of Orissa shows evidence of Jainism and Hinduism
as seen in Jaina Sculptures and the Varaha avatar motifs of Vishnu. Sculptures
depicting the classical dance Odissi can also be seen.

Evolution of Temple Architecture

 First started in North India under the Gupta Rulers. It started a little later in South India under
the Pallava Rulers and reached its zenith under the Chola rulers.

Temple Architecture in India

- Initially Square shaped temple with a Flat Roof Structure and a low platform – no
stairs to reach the Garbagriha – was on level ground – Example Temple No 17 in
Sanchi

- In the next phase – the temple continued to be flat roofed and square but the building
came to be double flooried and on a up raised platform. The phase also saw indepth
pillars – Example: Parbati Temple in Nachanakutara, M.P

- The third stage saw a continuation of majority of second stage features along with the
addition of a curvilinear tower known as shikhara. This stage marked the beginning of
the Nagara school of temple architecture. – many temples continued to be flat roofed
but all were square shaped temples with upraised platform for the deity. The period
also saw intricate indepth pillars and temples beyond two storeys. – Example Deogarh
Temple

Nagara Temple

- Temple created in the Nagar part of the Gupta cities were called Nagara temples in
the 5th century AD

Shikhara – at top had Amalaka

and Kalash

Garbagriha Mandap

Jagati

- The circular path around the Garbagriha which devotees traversed is known as the
Parikrama path or the ambulatory path

- Generally the temples had no boundary walls

- No water tanks were generally constructued

- Presence of curvilinear towers known as Shikhars

- Presence of covered ambulatory passageway around the garbagriha

- The temple compounds followed a crucified ground plan (looking like a cross shape
from the top)

- Gateways are not really important

- The deity was placed in the Panchayatan style (One central deity and four minor
deities side)

- Three variations of the Nagara style developed – Odisha style, Chandela/Khajuraho

style, Solanki style

- Referred to as a sub variant because a lot of their style from the Gupta age Nagara
temples

A) Odisha

- First sub style of Nagara – most temples were by the Ganga dynasty

- The shikhara in this temple was modified from Nagara – the shikhara was almost
vertical till the top where it suddenly starts curving – came to be known as the Deul
Shikhara

- The temples had boundary walls

- The prayer hall came to be called Jagmohan

- Decoration on the exterior walls

Example – Sun Temple, Konark; Jagganath, Puri; Lingaraj Temple in Bhubhaneswar

B) Chandelas/Khajuraho

- Khajuraho is in Madhya Pradesh

- Decoration on both interior and exterior walls

- Carvings are erotic in nature inspired from kamasutra

- Has a relatively very high platform among all of the Nagara and its sub styles

- The temple has multiple shikharas

 Example – Khandaria Maha Dev Temple, Chausath Yogini Temple

C) Solanki

- Very minimal decorative work on the walls

- Majority of the temples were build to face East direction

- Presence of water tanks

- The water tanks are stepped tank and on every step of tank small temples are present

Example:Dilwara Jain Temple in Mt Abu, Modhera Sun Temple in Gujarat

Evolution of Temples in South India

- It began under Pallava rulers in the 7th Centaury AD

- First stage – Rock cut cave temples was created – called as Mandap

Different from North Indian temples – the first of which were independent structures

- Second Stage – Mandap was refined and carved from outside and polished from
inside – came to be known as Rath. Example: Rath temple in Mahabalipuram.
Dharmaraj Rath, Daupadi Rath, Arjuan Rath, Nakul Rath, Bhim Rath, Sahdev Rath

- Third Stage – final stage of temple making in South India – First real structural
artificial temples and the tower of the temple was known as Vimana. Example: Shore
Temple in Mahabalipuram, Kailashnath Temple in Kancheepuram

- This knowledge of temple making spread to all parts of South India and saw further
refinements in the last stage

- The Dravida style is the result of effort by Chola rulers

Features of South Indian Temples

- Have boundary walls

- Entrance is called as the gopuram and are elaborate big gateways

- Main towers of the temple are called Vimanas – a sloping pyramidal structure. Some
temples also had gateways with their own Vimanas

- The vimanas were topped with Octagonal cupolas

 - Presence of water tanks

- Presence of animal figurines at the entrance of the garbagriha – known as Dwarapals

- Use of a narrow passage before the Garbagriha called Antaral – to which only the
priests can enter – the devotees cannot enter the garbagriha

- They also followed crucified ground plan

Example: Brahideswara Temple in Thanjavur – by Rajaraja I Chola in 1011 AD – first

temple to get UNESCO heritage status – first grand temple and the tallest temple in India at
the time of independence

Regional Variations of Dravida

Two subregional variations of Dravida Style

Vijayanagar Style

- Very large Gopurams

- Introduced a new form of shrine system alongside Garbagriha’s central shrines –

Amman Shrines – dedicated to the chief wife of the main God

- Kalyan Mandapams where marriage was conducted also seen for the first time in
Vijayanagar style

- Andhra and Karnataka – Vithal Swamy Temple, Hampi

Nayaka Style

- In the Madurai region

- Many gopurams can be seen on the temple

- Created huge corridors, known as Parakrama, which connected all parts of the temple

- Madurai Meenakshi Temple

Vithara Style

- Chalukya Rlers of Karnataka

- 600 AD
Indo - Islamic Architecture

Delhi Sultanate

- Initially – Qutub Din Aibak and the members of the slave dynasty converted Hindu
and Jain structures into Islamic Architecture - Example Arha din Ka Jhopra – Ajmer
(A Jain Premise)

- The slave dynasty constructed towers and minarets – Example Qutub Minar

- Allauddin Khilji - introduced Arc and Dome method of construction – Example: Alai
Darwaza

- Introduction of Brick, lime and mortar for construction

- Use of Grey Sandstone and Battar technique (slanted walls which added stability to
structure) of construction by Tuglaq rulers

- No human representation in the buildings

- Use of geometric patterns and calligraphy to decorate the buildings

- The Sayyid rulers introduced blue enamelled tiles in India

- Introduction of double dome structures (influenced Indo British architecture as well) –

a large outer dome and an inner dome with a hollow in middle – this created a
beautiful and resilient structure. Introduced by the Lodis

Mughals

- Incorporated most of the architectural stlyles of the Delhi Sultanates

- Introduced the concept of chahar bagh (four identical gardens) architecture. Four
gardens around the building. Example: first one is the Humayun’s tomb

- Wide use of Jali work – Perforated windows

- Introduction of pietra dura method of decoration – inlaying of previous, semi precious

stones and coloured marbles on the walls – Nur Jahan – used for the first time in the
tomb of Itmal Ud Daulah – Nur’s father

- Arabesque method of decoration – Vegetal pattern characterised by continuous stem

and identical leafy structures on both sides of stem
 - Use of fountains, water tanks, canals and drainage systems in the premises – source of
water for the gardens, aesthetic beauty and cooling purposes

Indian Philosophical System

Two major themes of all philosophies in India – Questions – How Universe came into being
and What is the best course for one’s salvation

Science and Technology

2012 – one question on the ancient science of metallurgy

2013 – one essay and science and technology

Prior to 2012 has asked questions regularly

Cultural Material – Great Scientists of India – Read from there

“We owe a lot to the Indians, who taught us how to count, without which no worthwhile
scientific discovery could have been made”.

First – Indus Valley Civilization – High levels of townplanning indicating advanced

knowledge of mathematics – even brick size, canals, storage, structures

Second – Exchange of Scientific knowledge from India to China (Bibliography of Sui

Dynasty mentions Indian books) and to the Arabs, and through them, to the Greeks (Books
on medicine and surgery translated by Arabs).

Mathematics and Astronomy

Arithmetic (Patti Ganith and Angh Ganith)

Zero

Decimal System

Algebra (Bij Ganit)

Geometry (Jyamiti or Rekha Ganit)

Trignometry

Astronomy (Khagol Shastra)

Mathematicians

Budhayana – Sulva Sutra – 800 BC – first person to estimate the value of Pi (22/7); first
person to develop the concept which is now known as Pythagoras theorem
Aryabhatta – Aryabhatiya – Decimal system, number theory, trigonometry and algebra; Arya
SIddhantinka – Helio centricism, tides, eclipses, Sidereal periods

Daivajna Varahamihira – 500 to 580 AD – Astronomer, Astrologer and Mathematician, in

Court of the legendary king Vikramaditya – Brahat Samhita – Earthquake cloud theory

Brahmagupta – 7th Century AD – first person to mention zero as a number for the first time,
first person to come up with the idea of positive (fortune) and negative numbers (debt)

Mahaviracharya – 8th Century AD – Jain monk – Ganit Sara Sangraha – solving quadratic
equation, method of finding LCM

Bhaskaracharya – 12th Century AD – Siddhanta Siromani – Four parts – Leelavati

(Arithmetic), Bijganit (Algebra), Goladhyaya (Spheres) and Grahganit (Astrology) – James
Taylor translated Leelavati in the 19th century – cyclic method of solving algebra mentioned
in this book

Medicine

Ashwini Kumar (treat people in Vedic period)

Atharvaveda (also known as Brahma veda) which provides cures of 99 diseases – written by
Atharva rishi, Angirah and Agnivesh

Dhanvantiri (God of medicine)

Sushruta – Sushruta Samhita – Plastic Surgery mainly Rhinoplasty (Nose correction) and
Opthalmic surgery (mainly catharacts) – also mentioned all the surgical tools he used – how
to preserve a dead body

Charak – Chief Vaidya of Kanishk – 70AD – Charak Samhita – Cure of 1100 diseases –
metabolism, obstetrics, physical abnormalities etc. – considered as the father of Ayurveda

Metallurgy

Methods of extraction of metals

Indus Valley Civilization – Bronze, Copper

Gupta – Mehrauli Iron Pillars – Garudadhwaj – Chandragupta II – Despite its age has not
been rusted
Nagarjuna – Rasaratnakar – examined alchemy and in the course of which metallurgy was
examined in great depth – alchemy = changing the property of one metal into that of another
valuable metal – explained properties of many metals and alloys including the method for
extraction of many form of metals found in India