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    PCN ULTRASONIC

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    PCN Ultrasonic

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    Anu Anoop

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    Be ee Ue oy eS gat? ou hs, ULTRASONIC INSPECTION * Table of Contents Basic Principles .... . nase eeee, eeoees UTL Introduction to the basic concent. unt ‘The naturé of sound... tlt The Acoustic Spectrum 2... pe uta ‘The Propagation of Sound ......+-+..+++ UTZ ‘The Ultrasonic Beam, Side lobes . ‘The ultrasonic pulse Puli fength Resolution Pus repetion frequency RE) : 2 UTS Modes of propagation. W126 Boundary waves . Factois affecting the propogation of ltasound ... cies UTRR Aconsticimpedance .....e0!eeesse Couplant ose ung Attenuation .... ee sscseetecdanteesdtceesseeee UTED ‘The decibel (4B). 2p UTLAG Sound Generation... poo Urs "The piezd electric effect... lees —— oa Ut. Reflection, refraction & Snell's Law svettanesncetiseesseeteccen pssees UTB2 Mode conversion, cyroseateaneesetel cece UTES Diffraction : un Critical angles ub Equipinent eee ure Probes. — 2 UTA Probe frequency, bundwith & damping 2 UTA Probe selection OPES “The ultrasonic flaw detector ..... UTA Calibration blocks and their uses ures MW/VV/A2 calibration block ures 0° compression prove uses UTS Sttear probe uses eee eer UTA) ‘AA? caltationblock/DINS4/12 or Kine bck eens UTAD ‘Compression probe uses Wheto Shear probe wees oo... urM10 Institute of welding (LO.W.VAS block *. _ UTEI0 ‘Equipment checks : . 2 UTHIL 0° Probe Scanning... Catibration : ee To calibrate a 0° probe to a range of Ot 10mm .,...-+ Calibration exercises Accurate measurement ee ‘Multiple back wall method .2....c.esseseseveeeeerees Defect detection a Sensitivity 0... Graphs and DAC curves Scanning patterns 0° probe Sizing methods 0° probe - Angle Probe Scanning - Calibration - Angle probes test sensitivity \ i AAA RRR AA AKA : 2. UT62 ‘Scanning patterns ... fof UT6S ¢ Skip factors ‘The ratio of the sides of the triangles in the three most common probe angles ‘The irradiation factor Plotting systems C c c Sizing methods angle probes “Testing ‘Techniques... A,B & C scanning systems Pulse echo systems ‘Through ansmission testing. The Tandem technique .........-- Immersion testing Ultrasonic Thickness Surveyin; ee Acceptireject criteria .. a Reporting: ...... : Ultrasonic Wrought Plate Testing ‘Téchnique Defects in-plate material ....... Ultrasonic Weld Testing Technique ae Defect signal interpretation ....,...2+++teeseeees Ultrasonic Testing of Forgings. -......+ General Technique Defects in forgings ‘Accept and seject criteria. oa : - UTIL Reporting, soe... eee unis Ultrasinic Testing of Castings UT General e - UTA Techhique uriza Defects in castings «+... . seo tteeseecaneeet UTIZ2 ‘Accept and reject criteria... ; : 5 seceeeee UTIDS Reporting see UTIZS Brilish Standards ++ Appendix A ‘Beitish Standards relating to ultrasonic t€8ting ...-+..e..ecee0+ ccecceeteees APRACL Formulae a ern eneaseheee +++ Appendix 8 Formulae dsed in ultrasonic testing APEB-1 Table of Acoustical Velocities ......s++seseareeseee +» Appendix € Table of acoustical velocities in different matérials ... APPC-1 Table of Acoustic Iimpedances .....s+-++s-sectereeees + Appendix D ‘Table of acoustic impedances for‘different materials ......2...1.. cectesis APPDAL Attenuation Factor soe earn - Appendix E Example method for determining the attenuation factor of a material APPEAL Example Calculations .....0-sescesreeseeaseeee «s+ Appendix F Example calculations used in ultrasonics «.. APPEL Pehl REE | asicrencrrns ose 1: Mose ail law faetors ay more recent ‘play trays ch 29 plana or LED tree Nowe2: Th eto a ALi ‘me reat of sound gray taflectng back of the front ‘efce of he speciren together wth heii of {he cri and he ial ileal erged none ‘Hana eno. ere ann Introduction to the basic concept ™ “Te mi, emmon mbna wa a ultnoni ean i the pulse echo technique |. This mab on of he henontnod ta poupd waver tuvel i right Ine and! ao ‘aloe yan obit ploced intl pth ‘The mechanism is just the same a8 audible sound waves bouncing off a brick wall and’ esahe ein ceived. The svengh af he eto conroled by We Ss of e wal ics te me lage Yarvec sending aid sseng he eka te weaned. ‘ottbe an dcermive he dane toe wall ‘Given the qed inroumosaion we can pass sound waves trough solid mara cases coho! fom the task wall of the meter a det presen he ‘ictal hen he sound easy would be rete beck fiom it and give an cco caer 4 Steels > Frequency 4 168 20KHz © S00KHz ‘he ailiy to xppont sound depends‘on te elastciy ind ity‘ the mean ince these properties will vary, from one material to another, some-materials will jass Timeldistance Manwal contact testing range ae annaanaaa aA AA Infrasonic | Sonic (audible) | Ultrasonic MHz SMH “€-Normal test range-> UTI-2 fase ‘rem (0% intenly edge = 122 ‘THE PROPAGATION OF SOUND —_————— The Ultrasonic Beam ‘ead zone ear ge "Viana eres tain ect (100% intensity) tere (ae ome {os intensiy) ‘The dead zone Seen on the CRT as an extension of the initial pulse, the dead zone isthe ringing tim? ‘of the eeytal and is minimised by the dazoping mediums behind the crystal. Flaws. or ‘other reflectors, lying in the dead zone region of the bean will aot be detected. ‘The ead zone can be seen af the start of the trace on a CRT displaying A-scan, but ony wishing crystal pres, “The dead zone inereaies when the'probe frequency decreases. ‘The near or fresnel zone In this rogion of the beam, the sound intonsity is variable owing to. wave interference, therefore, reflectors or flaws lying in this zone may appear smaller or larger than theit actual size. The signal eights displayed on whe CRY are unpredictable sai is desirable to keep the near zone length to-2 minimum aa Te wat ze leigh canbe excl ung he towing formas **) RAL D Df on th(mm) = Por EAL ed Near zone length (mm) as aaa Where: Dsserystal diameter (num) Jes wavelength (man) f= probe frequency (Hz) = test material velocity (mm/s) Itcan be seen from the formula that the near zone can be decreased by decreasing the crystal diameter or decreasing the probe frequency. ‘The far or fraunhoffer zone Beyond the sear zone the far zone exists. In the far zone the beam diverges resulting in ‘decay in sound intensity a8 the distance from the crystal is inereased, just as « besa of light from a torch gets weaker the further it wavels, ‘The amount of beam divergence depends upon the crystal size ap the wavelength as shown in the following formal: el SKA y, Kxe sing= 4A or Kxe Where: 8 the half angle = crystal dianieter (mm) K ‘constant ‘robe frequency (Hz) ‘A {= wavelength (mm) = material velocity (eum/s) meron UT2-1 Te may be sé foi the above beam spread formula, that the bein divergence cas be decreased by increasing the crystal diameter or by incteasing the probe frequotcy ‘Unfortunately this will extend the length of the near zone. Soin probe design tei « compromise to obtain minimal beam spread anda shor ne 2086 a eet edge e S105 intensity edge 0m incensiy edge 5 half angle ‘beam conte L00% intensity SO% intensity edge tal oo 10% intensity edge beam extsene edge "0% intensity Inthe far ane of the ltrasni bain thre sno Wave interexeuce therfore the sou! intensity in this zone is predictable. "The sound intensity reduces from 100% in the centre to O% at the edge of the beain , therefore when the cent of the beam hits reflector/aw the amplitude of the signal ‘on the CRT willbe at its maximum. ‘The sound intensity will also Uectease with greater distance (in the range axis) to reflector of flaw. In the far zone the amplitudes of reflected sound from large and sinall reflectors follow different laws. LARGE REFLECTORS. (larger than the width of the ultrasonic beam) Follow the INVERSE LAW - The amplitude is-inversely proportional to the distance, i.e, if the distance is doubled then the signal amplitude is halved (Le... reduced by 64B), SMATLL REPLECTORS (snialler than the width of the bear) follow the INVERSE SQUARE LAW - The amplitude is inversely proportional tothe square of the distance, ice. if the distance is doubled then the amplitude from the second reflector is one quarter of the amplitude of the nearer (1248 less). Large reflectors ‘Small reflectors Ce ram | To atl - a] Lt all We le Oe al NST a OeCerN Side lobes Side lobes art secondary lobes to.the primary ultrasonic beam or malin. labe that ace formed atte face of transducer and rediste avray froin the main lobe; Thy represent ‘reas of high and. low acoustic intensities. and may cause unwanted echoes to be received by the probe; especially on rough surfaces, which may be mistaken for flaws ‘on the CRT: Por shear wave probes, the minimum rifracted beam angle in Stel is apbroximately 33° to 35%, bla. these relatively acute angles, side Lobes may ve formed Which, although ‘usually negligible, may. cause spurious indications on the CRT. For this reason iis ‘usually safer to set the minima beam angle for shear wave probes in stoel at 40°, ‘The iarrower the main lobe, -c. the smaller tre half-angle of the beam, the weaker and smote mumerous the side lobes. : Sloe crane The ultrasonic pulse {In a modern tilrasonic pulse echo flaw detector the pulse of ultrasound is ereted by charging a capacitor in the circuitry then Suddenly releasing this charge of electrical energy, about 1Ky to 2Kvy, into the probe. ‘This electrical energy is converted imo mechanics) vibration by the piezo electric erfstal in the probe. The ultrasonic vibrations aze formed by the collapse of the crystal after the electrical energy has been removed, The behaviour ofthe crystal, on collapse, can be likened tothe behaviour of ‘spring when'it is sttetched shen released. The spring will return to its former shape then shorten then stetch, etc, until i finally comes to rest in its original shape. ‘This cycle of expansion and contraction is what forms the ultrasonic pulse, Maximam, expansion Original Maxisausn| contraction io | UT2-3 “Ruane & TPONe | rs UNIT L —— Pulse length “This length of pulse is unacceptable since in order to show separate, clear cect signals on the CRP then the pulses of sound mst be short and sharp. To shorten the prises the lresonicerystal must be damped with a backing medium which absorbs the Sound energy (i much same way a8 a shock absoxbor fied to a spring 08 a motor vehicle dampens the vibration ofthe suspension). In this way the pulse length can be redced to between. and $eyctes. cyel Damped pulse Ammptioude Timeldistance. “The ideal puise length would be approximately two cycles but such levels of damping are dificult t6 achieve with conventional backing mediums and commercially available crystals. DAMPING, then controls PULSE LENGTH (the number of cycles x wavelength). The other factor that controls pulse length is probe frequency. The higher the frequency the shorter the wavelength, ie, the length of each cycle in the pulse and hence the shorter the pulse length (containing the same number of cycles) PULSE LENGTH controls RESOLUTION. otamearrowse Seta UT2-4 AAA Aaa aaa aan a PeoNE Trem UO UaT Resolution Resolution is the ability to separate on the timebese two gr more reflectors that axe vel close-together in terms of beam path Iength: Consider two reflectors within the beam with a beam path, fength, difference of 3mm. Ifthe pulse length was greater than 32am thea the signals from the tw refleators would ‘be contained within the same eavelope, as in.(a). Ifthe pulse length was less then 3ram_ ‘then, in practical tesins, the signals wold be separated, asin (b). oTesase7TESW OTaT ESO TET (@) ) “The above therefore emionstéates thatthe’ shorter the pulse’ length, the be resolution the —_— Pulse repetition frequency (P.R.F.) ‘The pulse repetition frequency (ps1) or pulse repetition rate (px) isthe mamber of pulses of ultrasonic energy that leave the probe in 2 given time (usaally per second), } Bach pulse of energy that leaves the probe must retura before the next pulse leaves . otherwise they eslide'cansing “ghost” x spurious-cchoes to appear ou the CRT. The, WK co} tne taken forse palse to travel from the pol cottids.* ihe time between paloes. leaving the probe is kuown as the clock interval. There c Yee stated chat the transit time mast be shorter than the Plock interval or ghosting ‘occurs, Practically speaking the clock interval should be around five ines the transit ie. | “| tsoc) = DISTANCE TRAVELLED (man) anal ee ‘ema CLOCK INTERVAL: 4 E ‘nium 2 TRANSIT TIME EN PRE Mp Practical = 5.x TRANSIT TIME, br Um25 UNIT UT2*7 aia PAGATION OF SOUN On aye ot l gt Bisa of prapagtion between approximately 28° an x= Incident angle $19) tens ste ——== Modes of propagation ‘Compression or longitudinal wives Compression waves are produced in sect f the incident angle ofthe beam in perspex is Joss than approximately 27.4°; Probes that pfaduce compression waves will normally have an incident and refracted angle of, of close to, “These waves mavel though mums cemsing the particles ofthe terial to cla parallel to the diction of wave propagation anf consist of alerats ‘compression and dilation pressure wis ooo. eoomocs @ SOTO 010 inp “iin nnd Compressive velocity in sel = 5960: ‘Compresion waves om propagate through solids, liquids and gases since ‘ghd particle bonding (a condition that ‘ily ists in solids) not Shear or transverse waves Shear waves only ate produced in steel i'the incident angle of the beat in perspex is 14 56° Dies ropagation enti RRO Particles vibrate at 90° to the tection oF propagation aig have a whip like action Seo ‘Shear velocity in steel = 3240 mis Shear waves cat only propagate in solids, rigid particle bonding being a pre-requisite. UT2-6 UNIT UT: Boundary waves Surface or rayleigh waves changing direction at the interface with the surface, the platé material to flex by totally saturating the material "There are two types of plate waves: Surface wave ‘They are a combination of compression and surface or Shear and sunface waves causi ‘These forms.of propagation can only accur then a solid to gas interface is present. If ‘o] the objects were immersed, these. modes would be fully attenuated, Sarface waves are formed whén’shear waves refract to,90°. ‘The whiprlike particle vibration of the shear wave is converted inte an elliptical motion by the particles ‘These waves are not offen ted in industial NDD-T, although they do have sore applications in the serospace industry. ‘Their mode of propagation is elliptical along the surfae of material, yeperatng to a depth of ove wavelength, ‘Tey will fllow the contour of a surface and they travel at approximately 90% the velocity. of shat waves. Depth of Direction of propagation penetration (one wavelength) irection of particle motion ‘Where sharp changes in contour oscur, such as'a comes edge, eeflected energy will return tothe probe Plate or lamb waves Plate waves are formed bythe introduction of surface waves into thin plate material Symmetrical "Se So <> LS <> Longitdina wee) sutie wave an ree Plate distortion. t * YE * * WOOD DO TY were Asymmetical (exaral) NIST Shear wave) senones 69 GY YY IT I cinco nave are ee ria dinoson + 4 4 YH aA aA naam € 1. Anisotropic: Th grains Gre rant in orlentaton ‘a have diferent else properies diferent ‘Breton 2, Velo i somatinar “eve the eer” (constant veloc Factors affecting the propagation of ultrasound The propagstion of ultrasonic waves in a material is dependant on the density and laste propertios ofthat material and the type of wave transmitted "The practical considerations which will affcct propagstion will include: + hotest materials grain size + attenation (absorption and scatter effects) “+ scout impedance of the test material + _characerstic impedance of inclusions +. dittrscsion + lack oFhomogenciy * asiosteopic material ries Acoustic impedance ‘Avaustic impedance (2) is the resistance ofa material tothe passage of ukrasound, It iis the product of the smaterial density (P) and sound velocity (c)’. in "Ze pe tis ne acoustic impedance difference benween two dffeent matexalsnedioms which governs the inteasty of vlitsound reflected from the interface between tbe. Conversely the amt of ultrasound pasing from one material to another depends on this difference between the two mate, “Thin tifeence is expressed asthe acoustic ‘Theoretically if an vttasonic wave: Was passed throvgh two materials, with the same acoustic impedance (11 rai} i intimate contact, then no rfiection woul occur {00% srncwission of sound would occa. In pracdee it very diffe o achieve ints conact witout a coupling medion (ee next secuon). The coupaat would hae a different acéusic impedance (othe mteral and 0 would affect the siount of sound elected “The amount of energy reflected at an interface can be calosated withthe following formula: Whore 21 and 22 are mem \a be eanete seouté Refs erty = * 100 mente a impedances ofthe vo sir It can be seen from the formufa tha: HIGH ACOUSTIC IMFEDANCE RATIO (eg, 20:1) = MORE REFLECTED ENERGY LOW ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE RATIO (eg. -1:1)=MORE-TRANSMITTED FNERGY cin also be seen from the formula. that ye same amount of energy is reflected, rogardless of which direction the sound is avelling across the interface me as UT2-8 FeBNed Die: Tie cour Iingedance of eouplant ‘shod Deen tie courte npedance ofthe probe andthe aco lmpetance feet retrial. The deat ‘Bckness ofthe ayer of. ‘nuplant hoe be one (quer ofthe wavelength facand trough Some rectly developed ‘race pte wre no olan ese ae cw (tet coupled apts es ‘ey wae vr wera anplifcaton ond ens ‘eccver ere. ‘THE PROPAGATION OF SOUN! ¢ —= Couplant € Because of the very high acoustic impedance ratio of sir to sold material almost @ 160% of the energy is tehected at an interteoe between thom (the basis of fw devection), Therefore to onabe the sound energy to transmit more realy into the test specimen we have (o exclude any ai that may be presen! between Ihe probe and test Strface, "This is echsved by stbyiting the si with « materia thal as 9 closer ‘acoustic impedance ratio tothe prove and test material. This ic known as a couplant, Common couplants are: water, oi], greasé, polyoell, swarfega and glycerine. ¢€ “The selection af coupant is someties based ob he posttest use ofthe material being tested, e.g. water based couplants inay case custing or cotrosion but are easier to clean © ‘off in preperation for painting or coating when compared to cil or grease, which may cually protect the materia from corosion, NBL ca 3 aw nm ny ankles ty pn na) € Te et ce me ein me € 2) Whatever couplant is used} for calibration/setting the search sensitivity, this must 6 the gp ‘ — 2 c Attenuation ‘Attenuation is defined isthe loss in intensity ofthe ultrasonic beasn as it passes through, ‘a material and is dependant upon die physical properties ofthe matetal ‘Toe two main causos of atlensation ate SCATTER and ABSORPTION Scatter ‘This is the major cause of auemuation and is the redsection of the souid waves. © reflecting off grain boundaries, porosity and non-metallic inclusions, ete, and becomes ‘more apparent on the inspection When the sizaof grains become 22 of the wavelength ofthe search unit being employed. Absorption As the sound travels through a matérial a small amount of the energy is used up by |") * ‘eraction ofthe particles, as they vibrate, causing fection which is dissipated as heat.“ [As the frequency of the sound is increased the autcnuation increases due to more particle vibration (absorption) and increased sensitivity to smal refeciors (cater front grain boundaries, porosity and inclusions) which is related to the wavelength of the sound. Materials such a5 castings and austenitic strinless steel are highly attenustive due their costse grain structures, etc. The attenuation factor of a material ean be measured) * and is expressed in 4B/mm (see the appendices for an example), ocural ettomuainn also occurs due to the divergetice of the beam in the far 20ne. ie, assuming compression probe use, the amplitude of the ackwal echo will be halved (C64) every time the distance from the probe is doubled. conan uiL98 PONE ‘The decibel (dB) ‘The decibel is logarithmic base-unit used to compare sound itensities. Because we do not know the actual energy being transinitted by a:prabe, we can only coinpare sound intensities being received and express them as a ratio, eg. twice as, such, ten times 28 rch ee. A change in ound intensity, expressed in dB, cay be measured by comparing signal Ineights on acalibrated CRT. ‘The change in dB is given-by the formula: HL 4B = 201g Whee HY and 2 ae the respetve signal eights, By tringposing tie formula it is possible to determine the'rstio of the signal heights ‘when the AB difference is known. HL 7 cne() ‘The gain/atenuator contros on a conventional ultrasonic flaw detector are calibrated in decibels, i if we reduce the imensity of wtrasound by 641 any signal on the CRT. will drop to half its orginal height. If we reduce or increase the intensity by 204B then the signal will reduce to a tenth or increase by ten times its original height espectively 11s importartto note that on cattan flaw detectors, if reject or suppression is used to remove small unwanted signals from the display, them the linearity of the amplifier, and. hence the other signals, will be adversely affected “Table of approximate JB drops: i & 7H Drop 20. joe | 90% 14 20% 80% {2 5% 15% [30 23% a% 6 50%. 50% 2 20%, 20% te UT2-10 SOUND GENERATION —_—_—_—_—_= The piezo electric effect ‘This is dfined as the propaity of certain exystals to convert electrical enerBy into ‘mechanical, energy and vice versa, These crystale._maybe naturally occurring, artificially manufactored or growa in solution, sound. Blectrical energy in > era => Blectrical energy out Piczo electric’crystals » “These crystals may be X-cut or Y-cut depening on which estat they are seed, from the crystal material. The erystas used ultrasonic testing are X-cut ve tthe ‘nade of vibration they produce (Compression). This means thatthe crystal is sliced with its major plane (he crystal face) perpendicular to the X ixis of the erystal ‘material. x [ecot crystal —— Y axle [Psy | lectial sampections lay 7 sot} pe wi . resi ea) Long diswnce to [= avoid stati dicchange Original ery Got or sitver conductors (ilveing) ‘inforced with ehrome for wear resistance “The frequency of the crystal is determined by its thickness and its acoustical velocity ‘and can be calculated with the formula: Whee: Ff = ondamenal equasey’ From the formula it canbe sen that ret Copal material veoelty the thinner the erystal the higher ‘Cyt hicks the frequency. of Piezo electric crystal materials [Natural | _Artitcfatty grown ‘Manufactured ceramics Quartz Tatu Sulphate (80) | Barium Titanate Baricy) “Tourmaline ‘Lead Zicconate(P620,) ad Lead Zseonate Titanate (PZT) Lead Metaniobate (PUN0,0,) ae UT3-1 The titans of odera ‘eran cra materials ‘aretha hey hve lw Iechanicl stent be ‘hey are bate ond thy have tendons ape Treaitontge however ir ‘hat hy are excelent generator of trou The Curie enperatr fap Baum Thanate road fc cr 120°C, although he lew eecricpropernes fl ‘Brion Tuna wil tart © degrade er aroend 70°C and bore The primary reason sanard probes are not, ‘ually ated on motets hove ore bec of (he posi of gran fhe oh, re secondary reson ide to the probe shee ‘harocteriir beginning (0 thangealiering wos tnd harefore the Beam (leon shear wave rover 1. Specatars Miron, Properties of piezo electric materials ‘Crystal material ‘Advantages ‘Limitations ‘This describes what happens to an ultrasonic bes when i passes from one medium to another wero the two media have different acoustical velocities, e.g. from perspex 10 steel, The beam changes direction or angle inthe vertical plane. (ocident angle | @ Reflected angle Tncident angle (9, ey _ Motium 1 Mediam2 Refraced angie ® 28 — le tT Quart a | Stable, Poor piezo electric propértios Good wear resistance ty Best receiver and easily | Soluble in water damped fasisananaEE € ‘May be preformed to | Temperature critical c al focus beam Best wansmiter and good c piezoelectric properties’ | 7 ead Zrconare ‘Good piczo eloviie € propertios eae ‘so | Lead Zirconate Titananz | Good transmitter and all | Poor silvering / € | round properties, pal c ‘The polarisation of ceramics, € In their natura? state thé polycrystilline ceramic material's crystals are randomly cvintted andthe piezoelectric properties cancel each ober cnt, polis these ‘ecamics they are heated upto thelr Carle temperature and subjected to an electostaic field. The erysts align themselves withthe direction ofthe field, which s maintained dixing cooling. This polarised ceramic material then behaves as piezo electric transducer unt heated again to it's Cri texapertue. “Tho most common crystal Materials in use ae Barium Titanate and Lead Ziconate a Titanate t | £ Reflection, refraction & Snell's law Reflection ‘Unwasonic waves are vedected by objects or interfaces placed in thei path, Wh: siking a specular! reflector the angle at which this reflection takes place is gover“, { by the law of reflection; which states:, . Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection £ aug wecion « ee Afferesa veain - furon UT3-2 » Snell's law ‘The relationship between the i aw that states Sine. VE ‘sing ~ V2- ‘Vis velocity in medium 1 V2 = velocity in medium 2 ee Mode conversion ane ‘A-ghange in wave-form from one'to another, together with the arcophpanying change in velocity, dut to reflection or reffaction at’ an idterface, An example of mode ‘Stretton a we mats oe ts when te conpresion wav, pncne y Ge cya jin a’shear wave probe's perspex shoe, crosses an interface between the shoe and a stect fet poce ad converts toa sheer sane Pope ‘Another example of mode change that we do not Avant to occur, e.g. shear waves “eget congeron vane Ths comes fy emty whee arn 9 Se scan ease fly ponracd wed nibs she ome robe Te, Sone Site oc cringe Ge ab else etal op oe see wea ings trodeds be wwe mode wil change foe Bea seein ‘tesiay on ren po probe enced open pal ‘teased on ime wl erent an ncaon fea pyr pt or a ep pares dine lac lon an opponte eae eeming aac Ths uae twee wl gt bo able conf is fn the apa of the a ee ereiia tea tomes note vous er reece ods sata ig of mate changin cnion ras ¢ uty chancorie age ‘Mian cprece nate we bs ened ontop ay oly Fe ae fee ase ose eee eae oe ee Mian ies bated ser regs coco —w Diffraction ‘This occurs when Sound waved pass the.tip of a narrow reflector. Some of the sound scaters off the ip causing waves in different directions that reinforce or cancel out the original waves. This results iy a series of high and low intensity waves radiating out ‘rom the tips, giving the impression of sound bending arwund the edges of the dafect ooh <— Dittoctey eerey ed Sound waves. => 02 YN conan UT33 Cm es KEES —_ Critical angles “These are the incont angled in the ft medium at which the refracted angles in the vel second meum change ovr fom one waveform tothe next. ‘The fist rice angle io ‘whore the refracted compressional wav is just abot to disappear leaving only shear ‘waves in the second medium. The second critical angle is where the refracted shear wave has changed to'a surfoce wave. ‘The -ttical angles can be ealculated using Snell's law, oP st critical angle Po 2ad critical angle Critical angles perspex to steel “6 diagram (1) a compression wave (c) is incident on the boundary between pers; and steel at an angle of O°. At the inertaze some enesgy reflects (°) and some is transmitied across (c) continuing through at 0°. In (2) as we incresse the angle (Ct) of the incidest wave (c), in the perspex (Le. less than frst incident critical angle), the wave inthe steel (6) refrnets (8°), de tg the difference in the velosities of perspex (71) and sel (42), However as well as the refracted compression wave thee wil abo be weak shear wave mode (5) s0e sketch 2). In 3) if we increase the incidem angle (2) anti the reacted wave (c) reaches 90° (B°(C)), them the incident angle (2) has reached what we trim the first critical angle, Following behind the retraced compression wave is shear wave (s) and i (4) as we increase the incident angle (@) oo] stil further, the compression wave internally reflects () leaving only shear waves () the steel, At (5) if ie incidem angle (@) i Fuster increased then the shear wave refracts until it reaches 90° (B°(S)). This is what we term the second critical angle. At this point the shear wave bounding aloag the interface has changed into a surfce wave (au). Therefore we. can sce that () compression and shear waves exit in the second mediam when the incident angle is between O° andthe frst eral angle. (i) (Only shar waves exist when the incident angle is beweon the ts and second etal angles and (ii) surface waves exist only at tho second critical angle. Beyond the Second efitica incident angle, asin diagram (6), all conventional modes of propagation axe reflected internal. Seer UT3-4 Ags aannr Ananna am A PBOR @ = incident angle VI = compressional velit in perspex = 27 wl v2 = velocity in ste, compressional shear ‘stertical angle: vi 2 fs Sina =~ xSinB Sing = ~AOME x sinooe al We 5960.m/s Sino = 0.459731543 x 1 a= 2a 2ad erica angle: vu 2740 wis Sing = — x Sin Sing = SEE x singo? * B & = 320m * S" ef. Sin = 0.845679012 x 1 o> SLE ‘At te ist critical angle compression and shar waves co-exist, so the lowest angle for | shear waves only in practical use, is just beyond the fst ertical angle, at an incident angle of 29°, which gives a refracted shear angle of 35°. vas 3240 mvs sin p= — x sin sin.p = OHS x sino Be ur “ "B= 740 ms «| Sin B = 1.182481752°x 0.4848096 B= 35 1. Atthe second critical angle surface waves exis so the highest incident angle We use for shoar waves SS at gives an.B0" shear wave. So the range of shear wave probe angles in steel (for practical purposes} ase 35° to 80°, produced from incident angles of 29° to 56° in psp cn UT3-5 May aio be referred ot tera probe roreis weds an { oo pha col ory | 1p, aharten te gus Kyuac eee 1 ate ne som A Kpging vated [rea in minise tar dead vere. QUIPMENT EQUIPMENT — Probes ” ‘The angle of a probe used in ultrasonic tsting is measured-fiom 2 tine drawn perpendicular othe test surface..This lin is known as the normal, 0° probe then is ‘oat which transmits sound ai 90° tothe test surface. Also laiown 34 kiormal pre, this probe-asuallytansnite Compeessional or longitudinal waves, A 60® ange probe ‘would taasmit sound at 60° 10 the norm, i. 30° from the suface. "The most ccommon-angle-probes transmit shear waves (although angled cammpession probes dp ‘exist for special applictiods) and the manufacturers quote the angle of the probe for ssc on wild steel odivance a combi * © combined double* probe 7 1. Gel arg ecviesconnentions ae . i cea “aon, Backing Casing hs AYO smediom ho suirnale re rArde Pore. cy ‘Cork separator Derapex she “e : Double probes have two crystals, oiné transmits and the other cork separator in between the shoes prevents “cross-talk of stchartes” betvegn. the, crystals. Using oil as 2 couplant’may eventually break down the acoustic barrier and produce spurious standing echoes on the display. Having separate crystals eliminates the dead zone' on the display, enabling the detection of near-surface defects. ‘These probes ste therefore useful for testing thin sections, e.g thickness gauging and ‘examining for near ssfuce flaws: The crystals may be focased to give a focal point at ‘te ideal beam path range to be examined. Single crystal angle probe Electrical connection. Casing Damping, Criig Taney ‘material Ceystaltl Index point Perspex shoe ‘Single crystal probes have one crystal that transmits and receives ultrasound. The flaw detector controls the process by transmitting a pulse of energy then switching the circuit to receive, listening for any returning sound, in between pulses. The circuitry can be | switched quicker than the crystal can be daraped, ‘So the seosiver picks up the last few io UT4-1 2 pian Sixfe ewyctad pree adv 1 Retley pemereratien hon torn probe 2, have a chert ancl shove =) pulse [Red ves dustion. ne cad. i bgists chews Dre, couplant’: Te enable che sound tobe ®) tpanemerfed inte median ‘vibrations of the crystal, as it switches in, and displays them on the'screen asthe dead zone. This elitsinates the possibility of detecting near-surface defects ‘Angle probes have = perspex shoe, on which the crystal sits, that can be machined to ‘any angle: The angle of the wedge determines the angle thatthe ultrasound strikes the interface (incident angle). This in turn, according to Snell's law, comroks the angle that the sound will propagate through the test material (refracted angle). Darnping material fon the back of the erystal (also known a& a backing sig) controls the length of the ‘ultrasonic pulses by absorbing the sound energy, producing short sharp pulses. The length of the pulse is the main factor in determining the resolution of the equipment ‘The mast common damping/becking medium is Tungsten Araldite ‘SHORT RULSELENGTH/WIDTH/DURATION MEANS GOOD RESOLUTION r Copa 2 Soft nosed probe 3. Betti connection Damping fee oie eeeenat 3) fae tert Be agg aD Clarnping Crystal - ring i: Couplant” —"\SoR diaphiagin ‘This has a soft diaphragm mounted on the font of the exystal, clamped in place by a timeaded ring, the space in between the diaphragm and the crystal being filled with ccouplant to expel any ait. The soft diaphragm follows the contour ofthe surface under test, making this probe ideal for rough or uneven surfaces, e.g. castings or rough ‘machined components. _ Water gap or gap scanning probe Blecrical water ) conection ia ; Probe | re Column of - wild cls as couplant ‘Testmaterial ¥ 4 Sound path ‘This consists ofa water jacket with a moze at theca anda probe inside. Wai fe. into the jacket and flows out trough the nozle, forming 3 column of water, tthe et surface, trough which ths soond can travel, Because of the Mexbiiy of the coupking al. sediim, (water) the probe can be used on rough or uneven suctaces. These probes Bre osully usin aitomated wluasonic acaoning systems and can be sp, using a tide whee 0 follow te contour ofa component. ‘They can also be seh arays 0 Sean a wider ae. He sora un2 € € @ € Auone & PeONel Senet oman Wheel type probe 5 6 lestrical connection £ Spring tosded -' . 4 ‘joint Soft tyre, solid ‘or water filled Cryst (within axle) Vest nirface ‘Sound path Si 1 this probe the crystal is withia the‘axlp/of the wheel and the sound travels through the soft tyre into the tet qutrial. The spring loaded joint allows the probe to follow the contour ofthe surface 0 ican be used on rough or‘aneven surfaces. Wis use! in 2 similar wiy tothe water gop probe: The main advantage of this typ of probe is that it removes the requirement of externally applied couplant, mainly used in acrospsce indies, Delay line probe lectigal connection “The delay line probe is very similar in construction to the soft nosed probe. “The difference is that it fas # long perspex shoe clamped in instead of a diaphragm. The length of the shoe extends the time wtken for the'eeho from the, front surface, of the~ inaterial under test, to return tothe crystal, This plices the front surface echo (FSE) further along the timebase, ie. beyond the dead zone. This enables near vrface defects {0 he located or thin plate to be tested using a single crystal probe, Another advantage of using a ag shoe is that these probes are usually high frequency probes, hence small dead zone but high freqoency = long near zone, therefore, to ensure usage for near surface flaw detectiow/sizing, the long shoe is used so contain the nesr zone in the probe mot in the test material UT4-3 chat Vy the apranerts used ce date dbfeeD BR sro Hl tp using vrerspucer coll 7 Magnetostrictive transducers a Fenitie bar Upws0ftlong ‘Used for deiecing defective bar stork, the transducer coll has 2 magnetic fie th switching at ulsasotc frequency. . This-feld causes the bar stock to vibrate at ultrasonic Frequency aid thé wbrations travel along the length of the bar. When the vibrations reich the other end ofthe bar, they reflect back and are then picked up the transducer (in receive mods) and register onthe detector. The equipment i calibrated off a defect free piece of bar stock to register a specific value on the detector and defesive bas sock is recognised by a change in this valu, ee Probe frequency, bandwidth & damping ‘An altrasoni probe transmits sound at a range of frequencies, not just a the stated frequency, this is known as the bandwidth. For example a SMEtz probe may produce a frequency-range of 4 to 6MEz. ‘The bandwidth is also an indication of the dumping factor; BROAD BAND PROBES ‘NARROW BAND PROBES Thy ae highly damped “They have low damping Have a short pulse ‘Alonger put length =" Gypically 1 10 2 cycles) (Gpically 3 or 4 eycles) ‘A short ringing time (dead 20ne) Better resolving power Poor penetration ‘Good penetration Tins or UT4-4 AAA RAAMAnAaAanaasn a Fe OWNe UNIT UT4*® — Probe selection [38 “The selection of probes for ultrasonic inspection is influenced by varions asyects of the test and the particular material under test. ‘These may incl; the type apd size ot dlefect being sought, the type of material under test and the distance the Sound has to travel through the materi. Below is a table of properties of probes, psig the toy critere dat we fan selec, frequency and ameter. Effect of frequency LOW FREQUENCY BIGH FREQUENCY ‘Long wavelength ‘Shon wavelength ‘More beam spread Less beam spread ‘Shorter near zone Longer near zone Better penetration Less penetration Less attention More attenuation Longer dead zone Shorter dead zone Loss sonsiti 2 Higher sonstivity Se ee Bffects of Diameter LARGE DIAMETER ‘SMALL DIAMETER, Less beam spread “More bean spread Longesinear zoné Shorter near zone Beiter penetration Lets penetration Less atlemuation (due to bean spied) ‘Mote attenuraion Difficult coupliig on curved surfaces” | Easier coupling on curved surfaces ‘More coverage on flat surfaces, Less coverage on flat surfaces Another contention is wheter (9 use a sng crystal o a combined double crystal probe, ‘The advantages of robe ae; better penetration, forthe same size probe af & double, bésause the effective transmitter crystal diaineter is larger, na Focal point, Le. it works efectively over alonger range and cost (cheaper). The main advantage oft B6BRIGACABobe. is that there is uo dead one on the sree, thie tmeang better near surface resolution can be achieve, Itcan be sen fom the tables that higher Hequency probes havea higher sensitivity. In this ganteas, sentvty refers 16 the ability to detect small defects. The hither the. ‘robe fraency the smaller the wavelength and the smaller the sizeof reflector the probe can detect iis generally accepted thatthe smallest reflector a probe can Aletect is half the probe's wavelength. So a probe with a ong wavelengt (ow frequency) will aot detect small reflectors, rich as srs defect or grain boundaries and s0.the sound will penetrate further through the material because itis not eflacted at ‘ese smal interfaces, manent onl ures pose BORS WHeABME "| loth Ascas The ultrasonic flaw detector (flow diagram of a typical A sean flaw detector [+f ato Pree face” | ‘treraienee Iso"known a the dock or timer this circuit controls the synchronisation the flaw. detector. It sends an electrical signal 0 the timebase generagt 20d to the ‘pulse transinitor simultancously. These electrical signal frequencies are known as PRE-PRR (Pulse Repetiion Prequency/Pulse Repetition Rate). tis vsually contolled automatically by the range (Coarse) contro setting, this in turn ultimately controls the: maximuin depth of inspection and the. speed ‘Fee WAGEAIAP or sweep. generator, upon receiving the electrical signal pe pulse generator this. circuit controbs the voltage ar charge ‘on the X-plaes causing the electon beam inthe cathode ray tube to sweep aeross the Screen ina Tincat mation. BOLE AE astajap ee OF pulser circuit, the electrical signal from the pulse generator uu ths cet ends bus of sa ney ato er to nae he probe, ‘The Probe or search unit, converts the electrical energy, sent by the pulse transmitter into pilses of wlirasound by means of a piezo electric crystal (TX). The returning ultrasound from the test material is Converted back ito electrical enerzy by the prob x) and sent tothe amplifies. ‘The Receiver Amplifier. circuit accepts and implies the incoming elettical pols. ‘The amplification required is about 10,000 to 100,000 times and the output must be linest, with the input, Tho’ amplifier must also te capable of accepting a range of different frequency signtls to accommodate the range of probe frequencies used, ‘Broad band amplifiers accept a very wide array of frequencies préducing an accurate represeitation of signal shape, "This enhances defect interpretation (type) but the signal to noise ratio will be poor, so defect detection may be adversely affected, ue. 2 reduction in sensitivity because of high noise (or grass) levels. Narrow band amplifiers, on the other hand, suppress the parts of the signal that are cuts the frequency band that it operates at (the pass frequency). This erates a cleaner signal (although not a true Tepeseztation ofthe input signal), which means that the gain (amplification) can be increased which in tara enhances defect detetaility (Gonstivity). The disadvantage ofthis is thatthe altered shape of the signal means that defect interpretation is more difficult. ‘The Attenuator or gain’ contol reduces the amplification from the amplifier by controlling the voltage or charge on the Y-plates in the C.RT., which will control ‘onan reo Kone? OOK UT4-6 SAO a anmaaan signal heights; bringing them down to & readable level: ‘The-etnizls. works on logerithmie base and it doesnot affect the linearity ofthe apie Suppression or rect reduces the grags or noisé lovel on the display by effectively raising the ime base, but in doing this it destroys amplifier Uncuadty. Usually resorved for taking thickness measurements. Some modern digital flaw deters have +s} a “tinear reject” function which does'not destroy amplifier linearity and shows thé amount of reject in use ds a percentage of display height, e.g, 50% reject indicates that all signals below 50% sereen height have been removed but the remaining signals are stil the same height as before, ‘The Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) consists of a vacuum tube with a positively charged phosphofoscent’coating on the inside of the froat surface, a cathode, ray gun at the LIQUIF E> CRYSAL THM Opposite end, a foousing oil and X-plates and Y-pltes to contol the direction ofthe Cree) clectron beam. ‘The gun produces a shower of negatively charged eleotrons that are attracted to the positively charged coating on the front of the wibe, fas tbe electrons ravel toward the front (meeting 20 resistance. because of the vacuum), they. pass through the focusing soil which focuses the shower into a single steam (or bean), ‘They then pass betwecia the X and Y plares and are attracted towaed any ofthese plates that have: a positive cliarge-or voltage applied. ‘This bends the beam coward the ‘esfective plate s0 deflecting the’ position that it hits the front sutface of the tube, Le the sercen. When the elsctrons finally teach the front surface they react with the phosphorescent coating causing it to, glow (grcen in thost analogue sets), producing dot on the screen, : ‘This, dot ié changed into signals puroly by the’deflectién of the beam by the X and Y plates, using 2 Phasphoresc eae Focusing coil horescent coating ray. gun ~-- Blectes beam, Vacuum ne lectrons plates Y¥-plates: ima ure7 PEONd 1 Thecarrent Brick StandarS for etascole Bry Colon blocks S206 1978 Calibration blocks and their uses Tolerances: Wherever practical the limits on dimensions should be 0.1 mu. | Materials: Stecl blocks are made from low or medium carbon ferritic steel (killed), normalised 9 produce a fine grained hiomogenous strcture throughout, ‘The International Institute of Welding (I. I.W.) block Also referred to as the A2, V1, DINS4/120 or dutch. block, eye at i —___= 0° Compression probe uses Calibration 0° probe calibrato thioknesses available, i an be set using back wall echoes (BWE) off the various 5, 10, 25, 100 and 200mm. It can also be checked (rough) oa ce} the 73mm thick perspex insert which gives a reading of 5Omm when calibrated on steel (the ratio of sound velocity in steel 10 the velocity in perspex is 5960nvs ¢ ‘2740m/s = 50:23). A minimum of two echoes are required for calibration with ¢ probes. The Stmm step inthe biock serves to edlibrate the soreen for use with she wave probes by using a compression probe. Ifa 0* probe is placed over the Otmm and the echoes placed at 5 and 10 on the graticue then the screen is ealibrated fora range ze] of Oto 182mm compressional. This is equivalent to 0 to 100mm shear, the ratio of the velocities of compression to shear waves is 1.82:1 (5960m/s:3240m/3), Dead zone measurement (single crystal probe) Place the probe over the Smm section. If the signal is’ visible outside the dead zone then the dead 20% is less than Sram. If the signal is not visible then place the probe on ‘the 10mm section, If the signal is now visible then the dead zone is greator than Simm bat fess than 10mm. If the signal is still not visible then go on to the 1Smm deep bot ‘This procedure can be carried out with an un-calibrated sereen, An alternative method would be to calibrate the sereen and read the length of the dead zone off the flaw detector graticule. Resolution The resolution of a 0° probe can be checked by using the three different thickness sections around the slot below the centre ofthe 100mm radii, Place the probe above the slot and with a calibrated scrcen note the separation between the 85, 91 and 100mm signals eam UT4-8 aanaa an aAnaa an ¢ —— Shear probe uses Index or sound exit point Place the probe on the top of the-block over the centze:of the 100mm radius, with the beam travelling toward the radius. Maximise the signal-by moving the probe back and forth, stopping at the point where the signal is highest. Mark the position of the small fot, in the block, onto the probe, this represents the point where the centre of the sound beam 1s Yeavieg the'probs.. The engraved lines either side of the small slot (and the ‘ones ou the probe) can be used tb measure the movement of the index pdint as the probe shoe wears down Shear prohe calibration ‘This can be carried out using the 100mm radius, repeat signals being secured by the small slot used for indexing. ‘Shear probe angle check ‘Maximise the reflected signal from tie'SOram diameter (side) of the perspex insert and note the position of the probe index, in relation to the engraved. graduations on the block, to read off the approximate angle. miore accurate check can be made using the reflection from the 1.Smin diametér hole in the same way. Shear probe output ‘Maximise the-signal from the 100mm radius and adjust to full screen height, sing the fain, and note the JB figure indicated on the controls. This figure can be used to compare different probes orto check the probe in use, daily, for deterioration ——eoe ee ee A4/V2 calibration block/D1N54/122 or kidney block 25mm radins SO 4.5.0¢ Smm oo “ia hole | @lm mye san (5) ite UT4-9 tuane a ‘esalation and shea probe fp ekeck a only be ‘pprecimated on the ADAG locks Specie blocks such ‘athe iy Ab ad A? should de wsed for more accurate produce rere as ‘uoted iv azociore Sandor, ce BS 4331 Pare] ad aaaaf Compression probe uses 4 | Calibration This block can be obtained in various thicknesses, although the current standards in wie for ultrasonic calibration blocks may only: mention 12,5 or 20mm. The repeat signals € secured from this through thickness can be used to calibrate the O° probe. a —— Shear probe uses Probe calibration ‘With the probe aiming towards the-25mm radius, signala occur at; 25mma, 100mm. 175mm, 250mm, 325mm; 400mm: et, } ‘With the probe facing tho other. way, foward the 50mm radius, the signals occur) 50mm, 125mm, 200mm; 77Smun, 350mm, 425mm, et. ‘To calibrate; the eading which gives the easiest signals, within the range selected, to align on the graticule should be selected. Anan an =| Index or sound exit point. Using. the 25mm or the’ SOmm radius, maximise the reflected signal and wark the position of the central graduation (the centre of the radiuses) onto the probe. (it is recommended however thatthe IIW block is more arcurate for this check). Probe angle check Maximise the echo. from the drilled hole and check the angle from the posit index point. a : 5 a Institute of welding (1.0.W.) /A5 block ‘This block Contains four Eaniverse holes oft Sm dia ve) Guitied at depts 915, 19,28 and Boi ifom be ‘SIDE VIEW aeiied Zora feep a ie PLAN VIEW ‘This block can be used as a calibration block with a compression probe, however, its 9} main use is asa reference block with cither compression or shear wave probes, Sts a rigst common uses are for plotting the beam profile and for setting test sensitivity, using the various individual side drilled holes a8 reference reflectors. ‘Tue five side dalled holes om one side of the block that are drilled close together may be useful to check the resolution capabilities of angle probes. oa UT4-10 KENDA YAKY mee 4. The ueent lish Standrdjorequpnent hee BS 433021978 2, Thetoleanc for Timebaze linear in D5 131 is a2 of he whale a 3. The wlerace for ‘ampli linearty in 1BS053 quoted foreach sep of er eheck. tt ct aretinaly Equipment checks Periodically vitrasonic flaw detection equipment ust be checked to ensure performance charecteristice hive not deteriorated. Some of the checks indlude: + Timebase linearity * Amplifirtineasity “Thmebase cangeealraion Signal noise ratio ‘Angle probe index pint Probe angie check + Beam profile determination, + Resolution heck ‘This ig not a compreherisive list, the recommended checks to be carried out can usally be found in he relevant curent standards! ‘Timebase linearity Carried out over the ranges to.be'vised, this is performed by placing a compression ‘robe on a éalibration block to obtain multiple echoes. Calibrate the screen by placing the frst and last echoes, within the tegsned sang, in their correct respective positions con the timebase and check that the intermediate echoes are in their corect respective positions. The tolerance? on linearity can be found in the eurent standard Amplifier linearity Position a probe on a eaibration block to obtain a reflected signal from « 1.5 6° Smm diameter transverse drilled hole. Using the gain adjust this signal to 80% of fll srcen height, Increase the gain by 248 and the signal should rise 0.100% full screen heigh [Now reduce the gain by 8B and the signal should fall to 40% screen height, Reducing the gain a further Y2db should sex the signal fall to 10% screen height and a futher {6B should take the signal dow to 5% screen height. The tolerance on signal heights can be found in the eutent standard ‘Timebase range calibration - Check the ability ofthe equipment tobe calibrated 40 the eanges required Signal to noise ratio Place ihe probe on s.calibration block to obtain a reflected signal from # transverse riled hole. ‘Using the gain adjust the signal to 20% of full sereen height and acte the again seting (GB). Increase the gain uilil the grass (noise) level reaches 20% screcn height atthe same timebase position and note the new gain solting (dB). The difference in the two dB. gain settings is the signal to noise ratio and can be used (0 compare <&ilefent equipment oF to monitor the equipment in. use. Angle probe index point “This check is covered inthe calibration block section of the notes. Probe angle check ‘Also covered in the calibration block section, the more acciirate check being when plotting the beam profile using the AS block (see next paragraph), an ures Beam spread * Example: 20 dB drop heam spréad eo € € Althougb the beam spread can be calcilaed, iis usually ploted out practically sing the AS block and a range of different depths of eeference holes, Before ploting the beam profile the probe index point should be checked. The probe i placed above one Of the holes, then by moving the probe back and forth, the signal om the tole is) maximised and the gain adjusted. 10 give a signal at 100% fall screen height. "The ‘sition ofthe index point i then marked onto the block. The probe i then moved! G forward avi the signal falls 10% sore height and again the postion of the index © int it mated onto he tock. The bole is now in the 10% (2008) intensity talling edge of the beam and the distance between the two marks on the block represents the distance from the cent tothe 2048 ailing ee ofthe eam ath depth of te hole, ‘The procedure is then repeated inthe opposite direction (backsracis) to find the leading ge of he bon, This rpeated on several (a minimum of te) differen: deeds of |g hole 10 find the profile ofthe beam. “The marks on the block can be transferred to a {ep 0 ge 4 leona representation of the Beam andor ante fo plot) @ } € system for use in ploting and sizing defects, Tees dansa' at so 400 » Resolution ‘This check can be found in the calibration block seation ofthe notes. - Souel ona UT4-12 CRE Card Roy abe Dead sot alitough with vin ry praber no ble dei exes the CRT, he rm dead tne ‘correct means an eee ‘there indications cannot be (oes a ttl present ear surice de oe antl of he eal sed to Foca the beam tthe optimum sage rage "Thave are 9 metodo achieving callin ‘) mabe che. 1 deta techie, UNIT UTS ¢ 0° PI 0° PROBE SCANNING ‘ Calibration ‘The fniial polse or main bang isa test signal thatthe flaw detector creatés and bas n0 ‘Significance for calibration. It usually les just off to the left ofa calforaed sexeen. Visible area of CRT OTases eve pio ‘Wnentan ultrasonic probe is placed on 10 a piece of stool, some ofthe uluasound in the probe reflects off the interface between the probe shoo and the, steel and some is transmitted through into the steel. When the transmitted energy strikes the back surface “ofthe steal it virally all eflects off the see 0 ait interface and returns tothe steel to Fecpex interface. Tere some enerBy tansmits into the probe and creates the fist signal (1) and the rest reflects back inside the steel and the process repeats itl, cceating the repeat signals, etc.) unt the energy decays away. "The spacing between the echoes represents the thickness of he stl, 903 we place the probe on a A2 block, co the 25mm thickness, then the echoes are 25mm apart. Note. I we are using a single cxystal probe then the intial energy that reflected back into the probe will cate. 4 y signal athe start of the screen (F) which will be very close tothe intial pulse and there ©" will azo be @ dead zone visible on the CRT, TE we arc using a double exysal pee (ceparate transmit and receive crystals) then thece will be no signal ftom the front surface and no dead zone* visible Cost —fes Probe shoe. Test Matec Oris eee Trew en ‘To calibrate a 0° probe to a range of: 0 to 100 mm’ Apply covplant to the A2 block and place the probe on the 25mm thickness to obtaln ‘multiple echoes. We require a range of 100mm on the screen so four echoes would fit, in to this range, so we adjust the coarse range control to give us about four echoes on. the serees. We then adjust the delay control to yosition the first backwall echo a quarter of the way along the sereen and the fine range control to position the fourth echo at the end of the screen. This procedure is repeated unt) all four echocs take up their respective positions (see sketch). The same basic procedure applies to different ranges using different thicknesses. By dividing the tange by the thickness we can obtain the number of echoes requited and by evenly spacing the echoes on the screen Se urs-1 ta] Using the V1 block: eTises tte O———— to => 100mm range ——_—= Calibration exercises ‘Calibrate the timebase for: 100 mm range using the 25 mm thickness Method: Multiple BWE, 200 mum range using the 25 mm thickness Method: ‘Multiple BWE. 400 mm range asing the 25 mm thickness Method: Multiple BWE 1100 mm range using the 100 mm thickness Method: Delay technique 200 mim range using the 100 mm thickness Method: Multiple BWE. ‘400 nam range using the 100 mm thickness . Method: Multiple BWE 20 mm range using the'10 mim thickness - Method: “Multiple BWE. 10 mm rango using the mim thickness Method: Multiple BWE, 10mm ringo using the 10-mm thickness Method; Delay teclnique 1000 mm range using thé 200 mun thickness Method: Multiple BWE —_—_ Accurate measurement For accurate beam path measurement, such as thickness surveying using 2 flaw a] detector, the achievable accuracy is determined by the range selection. For example if the range is set (© 100 mm full seen, then each large graticule division is $0 mm a: each small division is 2m. This means thatthe most accurate that you could read t ssereen, by judging the halfway distance between the divisions, would be 1 mas:.” However, the manufacturers of analogue flaw detectors using a CRT, can only ‘guarante® the horizontal (time base) linearity of the display. to be within 2% of the +o] Whole time base. This means that an echo could be one small division (or 2 mm on the 100 mm range scale) out of position, so the guaranteed acouracy would normally have 3 folerance of 42% of the range (the same size as one small division). ‘Timebase range | Large division | Small division | Read accuracy [7st [Stem om Sra 00mm 20mm. 4mm 2m 400mm 0mm a ‘50mm Sm, imo sum | 20mm 2mm. O.4mm 02mm, 10mm, Imm (02mm ‘lgam feet ~ menmraaaeaaa naan c 1 Section UP4- Eaipment Multiple back wall method ‘Another method of reading aceurdie thickness measurements is (0 use dhe multiple ‘backwvall method. This involves calibrating the screen to-a langet cange then reading, the nth repeat signal from the thickness and dividing the reading by n, where 1 is the clearest signal that you carisead the furthest slong the screen, 100nim x > {n this example the 6th signat can gi nay vad oft seen pis a bean pho 3m H ‘ oot ‘The thickness cam be calculated by: EET Te @ = 75am stn — Defect detection ‘When using’a 0° probe to search for defects we must consider the following. Whisk range should be used, for accuracy and through thickness coverage?. Probe selection, taking into account material attenuation and defect size. What level of tet sensitivity to use to ensure -that defects which are considered harmful to the product (not ‘wecessarily all flaws ‘are considered harmful), are located and to assure’ that reproducible test sesults can be obtained, by different operators, using diferent ‘manufacturers equipment. Probe and range selection have been covered in previous sections! of these notes, setting sensitivity is as follows, — Sensitivity “There are various methods of setting the test sensitivity these include: * Back wal echo level method (0" probes only) * -Gmss evel ‘© Using a reference reflector ain a gant or curve ploued from reference reflectors Back wall echo (b-w.e.) ‘The backwall echo method involves coupling the probe fo the test material and increasing the gain until the-back wall echo is at the pre-determined level. ‘The level cctn be varied in several ways, €g- if the second back wall echo (bwe) is set to full soreet height-(Gsh) this would be more-sensitive than setting the first bwe to {sh Another way is to st4 the bwe to 2 lower level (less sensitive) of to set it to a percentage: of {sh and add & pre-determined number of dBs to the gain (xerease sensitivity). The ‘bwe method can obviously only be uséed with O° probes since reflections off the back. surface, when using angle probes, do not return tothe probe. Grass ‘The grass ot grain interference method involves coupling the probe to the test surface and increasing the gain until the reflections from the grain structure of the maerist guano win Tin UT5-3 reach » pre-detertisied level: This 18 often quoted as-2‘mm_- 3mm in height at the ‘maximan-test-depth but ideally should be referenced 38 a percentage of full screen hheight as not all law detectors use the same dimension screen The sensitivity can be adjusted-by increasing-ot decreasing’ the level or by adding or subtracting MBs to or from the gain Reference reflectors A common method of sesing sensitivity is to set 8 maximised signal from a reference reflector, at target depth 10a predetermined level, for example full screen height, The reference reflector could take the form ofa known reflector, e-g. A transverse side rilled hole, a flat bottom hole, a stot orn vee notch, or it could be real, of simulated, defect of know size and type. aa ———ssS Graphs and D.A.C. Curves Another common nied of sting sensitiv involves plotng & graph or curve «> paper oF onthe iw deteton scree using trangeerse or flat bottom holes. One oft.) is known asthe distance amplitude corection (DAC) curve. ‘This is a cuve ploved on the sereen using transverse or flat bottom holes, of the same size but at different depts, in 2 block of the same or’ structurally siilar material as the material under examination. The soreea is cilibrated t0 the required range and the probe is, placed cover the hole that gives the best signal response. The response is maximised and se to a predetermined level using the gain.-‘The peak of the signal is then marked onto the screen (usualy on a wansparentisay) and the probe is then moved along to 8 deeper ¢° hole. ‘The signal from the deeper hole is then maximised and with the gain sou tunalisred the peak ofthe signa is marked onto the sercen and the robe is then moved > to the acxt hole dowa, The procedure is repeated until the end ofthe range is reached ‘The marks on the seeen aretha joined up with ane drawn thiongh andths forms the g DACeurve a rT) ‘he range, sin sing and probe Weniftion should all be recorded (ont seen usually) along with the curve. The curve shape is a probe characteristic, the gain setting is dependant on the flaw detector, i. ifthe flaw detector is changed for another ‘ne the gain seting will bo diferent and if the-probe is changed for another one, another eure should be plotted, - Distance gain sizing or DGS, although. a sizing technique, is sometimes wed as a { sensitivity Jove, e.g. Looking for defects up to a certain size as acceptable and above that size as rejectabe. An example method to vet the sensitivity wauld be: The bwe som the reference (DGS) block is set to a pre-determined level and the gain setting noted. ‘The maximised signal from a reference reflector (usvally slat botom hole) at target depth (tes material thickness) is st t0 the same pre-determined level and the difference between the new guin setting and the previous ove is noted. The bwe from the test material is sto the pre-determined level and the difference noted in the fist to enin settings i added to the present gain and this then is the scanning sensitivity. { inet omy : UTS4 + aaaaag ‘Scanning patterns 0° probe When scanning for defects the scunting pattern 10 be used is sometimes dependant on the size of defect sought: ‘The two miain factors to consider are the pitch (distance between scans) ar oveilap (te amount, if any, that the each sean overlays the next)-and ‘he panem or direction of scanning. -If the pitch is less than the size of the probe then, the scans-will overlap. Ifthe pitch is greater than the size of the probe then there will bbe aigap berween the scans. Whether there-is a gap between the scans oF not may depend on the'size of defect sought and the size of the test pitce. For example on a large test piece Looking for Sefects over 100mm the pitch may be 75mm between scans, regardless of the probe size, because scanning every 75nam will locate defect over 100mm in size, The paticin may require scanning in'one direction or in two directions at 90° to each other. Gy -Probe dia. Pitch — Sizing methods 0° probe ‘There ae four main siting techriques used with Fpaobes: + 6B drop © Bquslisation + Maximum amplitude + Dos GdB drop technique Used to size large defects, i. defects that are bigger than the beam spread, suchas laminations, this,is where the probe is moved off the edge of the reflector until the signal amplitude is reduced by 50% (64B). The position of the centre of the probe is then marked onto the material surface. The probe is now in a position where the beam is half on and half off the defect. Hf this is repeated along the edge of the reflector the reflectors size and shipe will be marked out onto the material's surface. Ber || | OTe OTT ITT eT Tr sot UTS-5 jrvelve ‘Equalisation technique 6 ‘he equalisation echnigue i very sila in pein to the a drop sep that he g probe is ioved off the edge of the reflector until its signal is equal in amplitude to the tising bwe~ At this position the cent of the probe is masked onto the suefase, again continuing along tic edge of the reflector to map out the shape and size. e A B Both the GaB-drop and the equalisation methods only work accurately on larpn, reflectors ind will grossly oversize ssall ones. 3 NB. The flaw must-also be along the centre line of the plate or again sizing accur:. ‘will be adversely affected. € Maximum amplitude (max, amp) technique Cc “This is wed to sins ates of small defects, such as inclusions, or to size mull-faceted defects, soch as cracks. The technique involves moving the probe off the defect area ‘until the signals disappear, then slovly bringing the probe back, watching the whole Sara group, t0 the fest position where one Of the signals maximises. “The probe C position is then marked as inthe other methods to mark out the edge ofthe detect area ‘This technique will pick out the last individual inclusion of a group or the last facet of © crack giving the overall size ofthe defector area. Bate of masked we A 6 @ ang = opps} Tap = aia € sd c Cc To caleulate the expected beam path ora elesor, when the depth and the robe angle axe known, we transpose the Cosi formula, € fh & = Gosp € € ‘To calculate the depth of a reflector, when the beam path and probe angle are known, ‘we transpose the Cosine formula agein. d= bp x Cosp ol To calcolate the surfacé distance, Waen the beam path and probe angle are known, se twanspose the Sine formula. sd = bp x Sing iA Finally if we wish oeaculate te beam angle when the depth sud suet distance toa seflecioc are known we we the Tangent formula, sd Tang = ¢ ‘The ratio of the sides of the triangles in the three fost ‘common probe angles . y 1 a L 1 704 i 9 \ i 375 —_—_—= ‘The irradiation factor va] When testing tubolar materials around the ctcumference with angle probes, it ie possible tat duc tothe curate, wall thicktess and peobe angle, th! the bean will not tik dhe inside surface of the material, We can elealase te inimaum prckesngte that wil ste the inside surface at tangent. This s known asthe radaton factor 5 or Since tbulat materials are usually measured by diameter we cas conver the equation to: » Sing —=— Plotting systems Rather than calculate the position of a reflector in relation to the probe index, using 59) trigonometry, we can draw the probe angle onto a card, or transparent film, and by lovtrinying onto a cross-sectional diagram af the test piece, we can plot the reflecor’s position. "The following illustrations show two examples of plotting systems, one for use om a flat surface and one for a curved surface. pheesartowat Gmaees UT6-5 Sizing methods Angle prob “There are three main sizing techniques used with angle probes: + GAB drop ©2048 aro Maximum amptiwde 64B Drop technique ‘Used to size defect dimensions which are larger than the beam, such as the length of ¢ Jack of sidewall fusion in @ weld. The probe is moved pff the end of the defect until the signal amplitude is reduced by 50% (64B), ‘The position of the centre ofthe probe i» then marked onto the material surface. The probe is now in a position where the beam is half on and half of the defect. If this is repeated atthe other end of the defect then the distance between the marks represents ts length. 20dB Drop technique ‘This technique is used for defects that ac less than the width of the beam, such as the cross-sectional size ofa lack of sidewall fusion in weld. Icrequies the use ole 2048 beam profile, plotted oit forthe probe in use, drawn onto a plotting system. The signal from the defect is trst maximised and the position of the defect plotted down the main beam on the ploter a in fg. "The probe is then moved forwards, off the defect, until the signal drops to 10% ofits original eight” As the probe has moved forward the defect is now in the trailing edge of the beam, so xe now plot the signal down the trailing edge on the plotter, see fig.2.. "This should give a point plotted just above the previous plot and this rpreseals the top edge ofthe defect. If we now move the probe ‘ackewards, past the maxim, (oa position where the signal is again 10% of the maxim, thon plot the signal down the leading elge ofthe beam, as in fig.3, this should give us the bottom edge ofthe defect and thus the overall siz. ome UTS-6 aa ‘Maximum smptitoide (max. amp) technique “This is used to size areas of small defects, such as inclusions or porosity, oF 0 size ai faceied defects, such as exacts. ‘The technique iavolves moving the probe off the defect sea unl the signals disappear, then slowly bringing the probe back, watching the whole signal group, to the frst postion where one ofthe signals maximises The ‘ofoct is then plotted using the main beam onthe plotting system. ff this is caried out jn both directions the the ctossscctional extremities ofthe defect are ploted out. The technique is repeated moving the probe laterally 10 size the Tenglh of wh, deft by aaarking the postion ofthe centre of the probe. This technique will pick out te last inividal inclusion oft gioup or the Last faont ofa ocak giving the overall size ofthe defect of ares. It can also be used to plot the shape of a defect an for condition ‘monitoring where critical sizing is required by ploting each individual signal in the stoop as it maximises. ing the length ofa crack} meal | eon etn r UT6-7 * tthe ase ofa defect in steal plot, he defer forms ‘ovale ier othe thrash nce of te { ‘eet ent show on he ‘ray. TESTING TECHNIQUES eee »| A,B & CScanning systems ‘A-scan “hit is one of the most common sytem in use for mann utasone inspection. i ‘isplaye the reflected energy a8 cignals 00 a CRT. ‘The horizonlal ais onthe CRT reprtons elapsed time or distance and the vertical axis represents signal amplitude or found eneey fetring tothe prove, This system can provide'an indication on the size of a defect from signal amplitude, the detec location, from the position ofthe signal on the timebase, andthe signal shape and Behaviou, on moversent ofthe proke, can dicate defect type. "The disadvantages of this system ate thatthe signals require interpretation, which means tata more shill is rauired for operation. ‘The advantages ofthis syst are ils portability and les ime involved in Sting up. snp} OTs Ts eT ET. SHAS ESSE Timeldistance Rescan system “The B-scan system provides us witha cross-sectional view ofthe material under es by seanning the probe across the surface (gometimes at high speed). By using 2 high persistence phosphorescent coating on the CRT she image i rained, fora period oF time and canbe photographed for a pecmanent record The amplfude of the received signal is teptesented by the brightness of the image and the synchronisation of the ‘| movement ofthe probe and the display eas give a rue representation ofthe size ethe defect Material top surface—> EL detect bottom surface—> OTST ET TT TOW C-scan system. ‘This system gives usa plan view ofthe scanned area, showing defects as conresting azeas, on a printout or plouing system tha i synchronised withthe prabes movement as it traverses over the material. The big advantage of the system is an instant exmanent record, The distdvantages are there is no indication of defect depth oF *| orientation and seting up the system can be time consuming. ‘ome UT7-1 "Pulse echo systems 5 ‘A system that sends out pulses of ultrasonic energy then listens ont for the retum_.! echoes is a pulse echo system. The probes-used can be in the single or deubke crystal format, ‘The single crystal probe transmits pulses of energy, typically at a rate of anything between 150 to: 10008, in between. pulses the circuitry switches to receive sod to listen for any returning echoes, The donble crystal probe has separate transmit and receive ceystals, the transmitter stil sends vist pulses, (at the same rates 28 above) ‘but ress in between, whilst the receiver is in “listening” mode permanently. See the “Introduction to the basic concept" section of the notes for further information and the “Prorgatig of sound” section for details on pulse repetition frequencies. The advantages of the pulse echo system are thai defect positions can be located with accuracy and access 10 only one side ofthe test material is necessary, ‘The disadvantage is that she sound has to travel through the material twice (there and back) so there is more attenuation, ris Through transmission testing “Mainly used in autoinated systems, i this technique there are two probes, one eithé side of the test material, one transmitting pulses of energy the other receiving th energy. The received enecy signal is st tos pre-determined level on the CRT an the presence of a defects intiomed fy x eduction in amplitude or loss ofthis signal. Te ‘utomaed systems te signal maybe set o teach or exceed a negative gaz onthe CRT “This means that a portion of the screen in the arca of the signal will have an alan sound if the signal doesnot reach the pre-set amplitads, ‘This may be coupled to an automatic marking system; such aa paint sprayer, that marks whe, atzial when the ‘Signal als shor, The marked ares then being inspected Iver marially in more detail. “The advantages of his technique are base on he Act thatthe sound only bas to tavel cone wy through the material ie. Materials with higher atenuative prope: can be tested, hiker material an be tse and higher fequency probes canbe weed. ‘The disadvantages are; there is no indication of defect depth, there must be access 10 both sies ofthe material place the probes, the probes mst be correctly aligned at ' change in coupling eosdltons (causing 2 los of signal amplitie) could be mistaken fora defect. om : orr2 * Sure ware are cre ited in ltanasion stems rants) shee tia boundary wave ‘aid naires asad p88 Intec opropopate ‘ster mazrve tution LN EROS W EM SUN eR ~ Signs) evel on defen Fre aca Sigal vel i relcel defect stars to ‘cnterbeam »| . The Tandem technique ‘This exploys wo probes, one tansmittng sound and one receiving, this time both the probes are.on-the same surface ofthe west thtesial. "The probes are set at fixed distance fiom each other sb that-the pulses fom the transmiter, if reflected from a defect, wi be directed to the receiver probe and ths create a signal onthe CRT, The distance between the probes i dependant on the probe angle; the material thickness and the depth of expected defetts.. ‘The technique is-used when looking for defeat at a pre-determined depth such 28 8 he oot ofa double sided weld “The: advantage of this technique is, that vertical, efes, which would normally. be cexuemely difficult t0.tocate ultrasonically by O° or angle probes, would be easly found ‘The disadvattage is, that omly defects a the pre-determined depth would be located. ‘Transmiter ———— Immersion testing an somatic ultrasonic inspection technique thats carried out in liberatcries ¢ specialised faciory inspection areas. ‘The system uses & compression probe mounted in 2 manipulator that i catied on a bridge over a tank of water in which the test material sits, The manipulator allows the probe to be tid at any angle. By varying dhe angle beyond the critical angles, warious shear wave refracted angles can be produced in the test material as required. The: bridge allows the probe to be moved aver the test ‘material, The test material is sometimes placed on @ rotating table in the tank and is rotated a it is scanned, Probe frequencies up t0 2SMHz are not uncommon in immersion testing, sina UT7-3 " nprdece the “ale of ‘thant hath waer 309 hot be of tas ofthe material cise (aming FeAl 4 {Gn CCalibgation is normally done with a contact probe from’ a calibration block, The water ‘| ” gap between the prabe and the test material front surface is then delayed off the screen, thatthe ze end ofthe screen represeats'he font surface ofthe test mara. ‘The “elo of ultrasound in ste! Your tes the velocity in wast. So when esting seo tho war gap should be pater than ene quarter Be thickness ofthe sta. Otherwise the repeat sguas form de front surtae wil ttt occur befor the bwe and Rost brute echo will occur wibin tho st bet these, Hs making any defo “| within the test piece at this depth. “| initial potse "Front surface echo ‘Second front surfitce echo (within the test area) Ba * | eee [pe tind Ah ‘Cont stp Income set “| ca Te? 28 * UT7-4 aa aAmaaana ns a ana c ULTRASONIC.THICKNESS SURVEYING; 9S “Thickness surveys usually take the form of multiple measursments at pye-desgemined postions ona component, eg. bolt wal or asbip's hull using a dedicate tiginees 4) meter (Demeter 0 Tegauge), oF sn A-scan flaw detector and a 0 probe. the probe selection i dependant on the material ickness and aenuation properties. ‘Using 'a thickness meter Dedicated thickness meters are either pre-calibrated at the factory; for a pafticulor matetial, With a supplied probe tit, of yay we « calibfation block and a catration routine is-enrie ut prior to use. A typical calibration foutine on a digital thickness ster would be; ‘Switch the tit 98, clean the probe shoo and press the “zer0” function bustorto zero the probe. Select "clibrato" and place the probe on a thin section’ ofthe

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