GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF

METABOLISM REGULATION.
HORMONES.
 Levels of the homeostasis
regulation
Highest level –
nervous system

Intermediate -
hormonal
regulation
Intracellular
(enzymes)
 Hormones – organic biologically active
compounds of different chemical nature
that are produced by the endocrine glands,
enter directly into the blood and
accomplish humoral regulation.
The word “hormone” is derived from a
Greek term that means to arouse to
activity.
Term ‟hormone” was discovered in 1905
british physiologists Ernest Henry
Starling with his brother-in-law William
Bayliss.
Typology of hormones
• Autocrine - bind to • water soluble (hydrophilic)
receptors on the • Insulin
cell that produces them • Glucagon
• Paracrine - secreted into • Catecholamines
the interstitial space and
generally have a very short
half-life. These include the • lipid soluble (lipophilic, or
prostaglandins hydrophobic)
and the neurotransmitters. • Steroids
• Telecrine - secreted into the • Calcitriol
bloodstream, generally • Thyroxines
have a longer half-life, and • Retinoic acid
include the endocrine and
gastrointestinal (GI)
hormones.
 Hormones functions
Hormones regulate the following processes:
1. Growth and differentiation of cells, tissues and
organs.
These processes include cell proliferation,
embryonic development, and sexual differentiation.
2. Metabolic pathways
The main processes to hormonal regulation are the
uptake and degradation of storage substances
(glycogen, fat), metabolic pathways for
biosynthesis and degradation of central metabolites
(glucose, fatty acids, etc.), and the supply of
metabolic energy.
Digestive processes
Digestive processes are usually regulated by
locally acting peptides (paracrine), but mediators,
biogenic amines, and neuropeptides are also
involved.
Maintenance of ion concentrations (homeostasis)
Concentrations of Na+, K+, and Cl– in body fluids,
and the physiological variables dependent on blood
pressure, are subject to strict regulation. The
principal site of action of the hormones involved is
the kidneys, where hormones increase or reduce the
resorption of ions and recovery of water. The
concentrations of Ca2+ and phosphate, which form
the mineral substance of bone and teeth, are also
precisely regulated.
Endocrine glands:

1. Hypothalamus
2. Pituitary
3. Epiphysis
4. Thymus
5. Thyroid gland
6. Parathyroid glands
7. Langergans’ islands
of pancreas
8. Epinephrine glands
9. Sex glands
 Classification of hormones
according to chemical nature
1. Proteins: hormones of anterior pituitary
(except ACTH), insulin, parathyroid hormone.
2. Peptides: ACTH, calcitonin, glucagon,
vasopressin, oxytocin, hormones of
hypothalamus (releasing factors and statins).
3. Derivatives of amino acids: catecholamins
(epinephrine and norepinephrine), thyroxin,
triiodthyronin, hormones of epiphysis.
4. Steroid (derivatives of cholesterol):
hormones of the cortex of epinephrine
glands, sex hormones.
5. Derivatives of polyunsaturated fatty
(arachidonic) acids: prostaglandins.
Fate of hormones in the organism
• Are secreted directly into the blood

• Peptide and protein hormones are

secreted by exocytosis

• Steroid (lipophilic) hormones

continuously penetrate the membrane
(they are not accumulated in cells,
their concentration in blood is
determined by the speed of synthesis)
 Transport of hormones in blood
Hormones of protein and peptide nature –
transported in free state

Steroid hormones and hormones of thyroid gland

– bound with alpha-globulins or albumins

Catecholamines – in free state or bound with

albumins, sulphates or glucuronic acid

Hormons act on specific cells that called target

cells. The target cells has a specific protein
molecule, called a receptor.
Mechanism for water-soluble
hormones
• transmit signals to affect metabolism and gene
expression
• receptor in cell membrane: no entering the
cytoplasm
• Protein and polypeptide hormones
• Catecholamines
• second messenger systems that activate protein
kinases
 Receptors of hormones
Two groups:
-placed on the surface of membrane – peptide and
protein hormones, prostaglandins;
-placed inside the cells (cytoplasm, nucleus) – steroid and
thyroid hormones
Model of the insulin receptor ( Jacobs, Cautrecasas, 1982)
 Inactivation of hormones

After biochemical effect hormones are released

and metabolized.
Hormones are inactivated mainly in liver.
Inactive metabolites are excreted mainly with
urine.

Half-time life
-from several min to 20 min – for the majority of
hormones
-till 1 h – for steroid hormones
-till 1 week – for thyroid hormones
 THE FINAL EFFECTS OF
HORMONES ACTION
1. Change the permeability of cell membrane,
accelerate the penetration of substrates, enzymes,
coenzymes into the cell and out of cell.
2. Acting on the allosteric centers affect the activity
of enzymes (Hormones penetrating membranes).
3. Affect the activity of enzymes through the
messengers (cAMP). (Hormones that can not
penetrate the membrane).
4. Act on the genetic apparatus of the cell (nucleus,
DNA) and promote the synthesis of enzymes
(Steroid and thyroid hormones).
 Specific stimulus for hormones
secretion is:

-nervous impulse

-concentration of the certain

compound in blood passing through
the endocrine gland
 The mechanism of hormons action
All hormones can be divided two groups, water-soluble and
lipid-soluble. Based on the resulting properties, both
groups interact with the receptors of their target cells in a
different way.
Water-soluble hormones bind to a signal receptor in the
membrane of a target cell, and being a multi-step process
called signal transduction, a translation of the extracellular
signal into a specific intracellular response.
 Hormones binds to a G
protein-coupled receptor
in the plasma membrane
of the target cells. This
hormone-receptor
complex activates the G
protein inside of the cell,
which in turn triggers a
cascade of reaction
involving synthesis of a
short-lived second
messenger, cyclic AMP
made from ATP by the
catalytic action of the
enzyme adenyl cyclase
and which, as a second
messenger, is
responsible for the
intracellular mediation
GPCRs
• G-protein-coupled
receptors
• Part of signal transduction
pathway
• Only in eucaryots
• 1000s of types
• Heavily researched, target
of up 40% of drugs
• seven-transmembrane
receptors – 7 α helixes
• Bind to a specific ligand
• Undergo conformational
change
 Cyclic AMP is an
important second
messenger. It
forms, when the
membrane
enzyme adenylyl
cyclase is activated
The cyclic AMP
activate protein
kinase A, which
goes on the
phosphorylate
certain cellular
proteins.
Signaling sequence
1. Ligand (hormone)
binds to GPCR
2. GPSR undergoes
conformational
change
3. change then triggers
the interaction
between the GPCR
and a nearby G
protein
G proteins
• Guanine nucleotide-binding proteins
• Can bind guanosine triphosphate (GTP) to guanosine
diphosphate (GDP)
• “signal-transducing molecules”
• Act as molecular switches inside cells
• Involved in transmitting signals from a variety of stimuli
outside a cell to its interior
• Coupled with receptors
• "Malfunction of GPCR [G Protein-Coupled Receptor] signaling
pathways are involved in many diseases, such as diabetes,
blindness, allergies, depression, cardiovascular defects, and
certain forms of cancer. It is estimated that about 30-40% of
the modern drugs' cellular targets are GPCRs."
• Hetromeric: consist of 3 subunits
G protein structure and function
• 3 subunits: α, β, and γ
• Inactive form: α subunit binds
GDP and is in complex with the β
and γ subunits.
• Hormone binds to its receptor ->,
receptor becomes activated ->
engages corresponding G protein
• GDP is replaced with GTP, α
subunit dissociates from the β
and γ subunits
• Activated α subunit alters the
activity of the target enzyme
• GTP in the activated α subunit
dephosphorylates to GDP and
rebinds to β and γ subunits -> G
protein inactive
Signaling sequence
1. Ligand (hormone) binds to
GPCR
2. GPSR undergoes
conformational change
3. change triggers the
interaction between the
GPCR and a nearby G
protein
4. α subunit exchanges GDP
for GTP
5. α subunit dissociates &
regulates target proteins ->
Target protein relays signal
6. GTP hydrolyzes to GDP
Example - Epinephrine
• GPCR – β adrenergic receptor
• G protein dissociates
• α subunit seeks target protein
(enzyme) – adenylate cyclase
• Adenylate cyclase takes ATP,
produces cAMP (cyclic
adenosine monophosphate)
• cAMP is a secondary
messenger
• Increase heart rate
• Dilate skeletal muscle blood
vessels
• Break down glycogen to
glucose
 Protein Kinase
• Enzyme
• Phosphorylates other
proteins, changing their
activity
• Activates
• Inhibits
• Activated by secondary
messengers (most of the time)
• Human genome contains
about 518 protein kinase
genes (about 2% of all genes)
• ~ 30% of all human proteins
modified by kinase activity
Protein kinase activation
• Phosphorylation of
enzymes to rapidly increase
or decrease their activity
• Phosphorylation of gene
regulatory proteins
• Control gene expression, ~
several hours
• Add more enzyme to the cell
• Increase in the enzyme
means an increase in Vmax
for that reaction
• Reversed by protein
phosphatases
Cyclic AMP (cAMP) and
phosphatidylinositol
bisphosphate (PIP2)
pathways
• PIP2 = IP3/DAG
Sequence of Events from
Receptor
to Protein Kinase
1. Hormone binds receptor
2. Trimeric G protein in membrane is engaged
3. Enzyme (adenylate cyclase or phospholipase)
activated
4. Second messenger generated
5. Protein kinase activated
6. Protein phosphorylation (minutes) and gene
expression (hours)

G proteins: Gs, Gi, Gq

Secondary messengers: cAMP and IP3 + DAG + Ca2+
PK A, PK C
 Adrenergic receptors
• α1 adrenergic receptor + Gq (PIP2 pathway)

• smooth muscle contraction

• α2 adrenergic receptor + Gi (cAMP pathway)

• epinephrine inhibition

• inhibition of adenylate cyclase

• insulin release from β cells of the

pancreas is inhibited

• β adrenergic receptor + Gs (cAMP pathway)

• Stimulation of adenylate cyclase

• Increase heart rate

• Dilate skeletal muscle blood vessels

• Break down glycogen to glucose

 Other G proteins
• All connected to a 7-helix membrane-spanning
structure
• Gt , photoreceptor pathway
• Monomeric G proteins (p21ras)
• Several G protein linked deficiencies
It is located in the HYPOTHALAMUS
base of forebrain
between thalamus
and pituitary gland.

Has wide anatomical

bonds and collects
information from
another structures
of brain.

Collect information
from blood flowing
through
hypothalamus.
Tight
anatomical
bonds with
pituitary
gland

Two groups of
hormones
related to
anterior and
posterior lobes
of pituitary
 Hypothalamus and anterior pituitary

Hypothalamus
bound with anterior
pituitary by the
capillary net –
hypothalamic portal
system

Releasing factors
(liberins) and statins
rich the anterior
pituitary via this
system
Secretion of liberins and statins by hypothalamus is
carried out
1) the effect of nervous impulses and
2) as result of the change of concentrations of certain
hormones in blood (feedback regulation).

Releasing factors (liberins) stimulate secretion of

pituitary hormones; statins - inhibit.
•somatoliberin,
•thyroliberin,
•somatostatin,
•corticoliberin,
•prolactostatin,
•foliliberin,
•melanostatin
•prolactoliberin,
•luteinising-hormone liberin,
•melanoliberin
 HYPOPHISIS - “conductor of the
hormonal orchestra of the organism”
There are hormones
of anterior,
posterior and
intermediate lobes
of pituitary gland.

The most important

– anterior lobe
(secrets tropic
hormones)

Tropic – because
stimulate functions
of peripheral
endocrine glands
 TROPIC HORMONES OF PITUITARY
Somatotropic hormone (growth hormone)

Chemical nature – simple protein

It is secreted continuously during the whole life

Secretion is stimulated by somatoliberin, is

inhibited by somatostatin

Main function – stimulate somatic growth

of organs and tissues, particularly bones,
cartilages, muscles.
Acts both directly and through the stimulation of the
formation of polypeptides somatomedins (insulin-like
growth factors).

ILGF are synthesized in liver

 The effect of STH on the protein
metabolism
 Promotes the entrance of AA into cells,
 Inhibits catabolism of proteins and AA
 Activates the synthesis of proteins, DNA, RNA.

The effect of STH on the carbohydrate

metabolism
 Antiinsulin hormone – activates insulinase of liver
 Activates the exit of glucose from liver
 Inhibits the conversion of glucose into fat
The effect of STH on lipid
metabolism
 Stimulates the decomposition of lipids (lipolisis)
 Stimulates the oxidation of fatty acids.
In the inherited
hypoplasia of pituatary
gland dwarfism is
developed.

For the treatment GH is

used.
Hyperproduction of GH
before puberty and
before the completion of
ossification results in
gigantism

Yao Defen, the

tallest women
in the life,
2.36 м
Hyperfunction of pituitary in
adults results in acromegaly –
unproportionally intensive growth
of particular body parts (fingers,
nose, lower jaw, tongue, inner
organs).

Cause –
tumor of
anterior
pituitary
 Adrenocorticotropic hormone (АCTH)
Chemical nature – polipeptide

Secretion is stimulated by corticoliberin

Feedback regulation of the speed of secretion
depending on the cortisol level

Controls the cortex of epinephrine gland where

cortisol is produced:
-promotes the increase of cholesterol content in
epinephrine glands cortex and its conversion into
corticosteroids;
-activates the passing of glucose into epinephrine
glands and pentose phosphate cycle (NADPH
synthesis)
-has melanocyte stimulating activity
 Cushing’s disease
Cushing's disease – hyperproduction of
ACTH (adenoma in a pituitary gland) which
in turn elevates cortisol.
- Obesity, particularly of the trunk and
face (“moon face“) with sparing of the
limbs; striae (stretches of the skin)
- Proximal muscle weakness
- Hirsutism (facial male-pattern hair
growth)
- Insomnia, impotence, amenorrhoea,
infertility
- Heart diseases, hypertension
- Polyuria, hypokalemia hyperglycemia,
glucosuria (steroid diabetes)
- Kidney bones
- Depression, anxiety
- Hyperpigmentation
 Thyrotropic hormone (ТТH)
Chemical structure – protein (glycoprotein)

Secretion is stimulated by thyroliberin

The speed of secretion is regulated according to

the feedback regulation by thyroid hormones

It is necessary for the normal functioning of

thyroid gland:
-promotes the accumulation of iodine in thyroid
gland and its insertion into tyrosine;
-stimulates the synthesis of try- and
tetraiodthyronin
 Gonadotropic hormones
Follicle-stimulating hormon
Chemical nature – protein (glycoprotein)

Secretion is stimulated by foliliberin

Function: stimulates the function of follicles in
women and spermatogenesis in men

Luteinizing hormone
Chemical nature – protein (glycoprotein)
Secretion is stimulated by luliberin
Function: stimulates the follicular growth and
conversion of the follicle into a corpus luteum in
women and secretion of testosterone in men
Chemical nature – protein Prolactin
Secretion is stimulated by
prolactoliberin
Functions:
-During and following pregnancy,
prolactin, stimulates breast
development and milk production.
-provides the body with sexual
gratification;
-stimulates the function of
corpus luteum (progesterone
secretion);
-stimulates the growth of tissue
of prostatic gland in men;
-responsible for the mother
instinct
 Lipotropic hormones

Chemical nature – simple proteins

Functions:
- mobilization of lipids from depot;
- melanocyte stimulating function;
- decrease Ca in blood
 THE INTERMEDIATE LOBE OF
PITUITARY
Melanocyte stimulating hormone (melanotropin)
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone is produced
from the same precursor molecule as
adrenocorticotropic hormone called pro-
opiomelanocortin (POMC).

Chemical nature – peptide

Functions:
- stimulates melaninogenesis;
- adaptation of vision in darkness
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone plays a key role
in producing coloured pigmentation found in the skin,
hair and eyes. It does this by inducing specialised skin
cells called melanocytes to produce a pigment called
melanin; melanin protects cells from DNA-
damage, which can lead to skin cancer
(melanoma).
POSTERIOR LOBE OF PITUITARY

Hypothalamus and posterior

lobe of pituitary
3 peptides are synthesized
in hypothalamus
Migrate along axons into
posterior lobe of pituitary

1) Antidiuretic hormone
(vasopressin)
2) Oxytocin
3) Neurophysin (promotes
transport of vasopressin
and oxytocin into pituitary
gland)
 Vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone)

Chemical nature – peptide

Functions:
- increases the reabsorption of water in
kidneys;
- contractions arterioles and capillaries –
increases blood pressure

Insufficiency of vasopressin – diabetes

insipidus (polyuria, low density of urine,
dehydratation).
 Oxytocin

Chemical nature – peptide

Functions:
- stimulates the contraction
of smooth muscles (of uterus
during labor)
-stimulates milk secretion
(contraction of muscle
fibers around mammary
alveoli)

Using:
-for labor stimulation;
-to stop after labor
hemorrhage;
-for stimulation of milk
secretion
 EPIPHYSIS (PINEAL GLAND)
Produces:
 Мelatonin from serotonin (regulates the
pigment metabolism)
 Adrenoglomerulotro-
pin – stimulates
secretion of
mineralocorticoids in
the epinephrine
glands cortex.
 Inhibitor of
gonadotropin –
inhibits the synthesis
of prolactin,
cholesterol
 PANCREAS
Exocrine and endocrine parts
Endocrine – Langerhans islets (alpha-,
beta- and delta-cells)
Alpha-cells: glucagon
Beta-cells: insulin
Delta-cells: somatostatin
Epithelium of ducts: lipocain
 Insulin
 Nature – protein (51 АA)
 Is formed from proinsulin by proteolisis
 Contains zinc
Insulin Receptor: tyrosine kinase
receptor
• Ligands (agonists) Insulin
/ IGF-1 / IGF-2
• Receptor tyrosine
kinase (protein kinase)
• Triggers phosphorylation
of the tyrosine residues
(autophosphorylation and
activation of other
proteins) -> cascade of
events
• This generates a binding
site for the insulin
receptor substrate
(IRS-1)
 Cascades
 Insulin receptor
substrate (IRS-1)
binds the receptor and
is phosphorylated on
tyrosine residues
 Proteins with SH2 (src
homology) domains
bind to the
phosphotyrosine
residues on IRS-1 and
become active.
 One receptor activates
several enzyme
cascades
 Activation of
phosphatidylinositol-3
kinase (PI-3 kinase)
 Increase GLUT-4 in the
membrane in adipose
and muscle tissues
 Activation of protein
phosphatases
 Stimulation of the
monomeric G protein
(p21ras) encoded by the
normal ras gene
 Effect on gene expression
 GLUT-4 (Glucose
transporter type 4)
 protein encoded, in
humans, by the SLC2A4
gene
 insulin-regulated glucose
transporter found
primarily in adipose
tissues and striated
muscle
 permits the facilitated
diffusion of circulating
glucose down its
concentration gradient
into muscle and fat cells
 Phosphatase  p21ras
 enzyme that removes  Member of Ras family
a phosphate group of related proteins
from a protein  involved in
 Together with transmitting signals
kinases, these two within cells (cellular
families of enzymes signal transduction)
act to modulate the  turn on genes
activities of involved in cell
the proteins in a cell, growth,
often in response to differentiation and
external stimuli. survival
 overactive Ras
signaling can lead to
cancer
 Other tyrosine kinase receptors
• involved in signaling by
several growth factors
• platelet-derived
growth factor
(PDGF)
• plays significant role in
blood vessel formation
• epidermal growth
factor (EGF)
• stimulates cell growth
and differentiation
• transforming growth
factor alpha (TGF-α)
• cell proliferation,
differentiation and
development
Functional Relationship of Glucagon
and Insulin
• Insulin, associated with
well-fed, absorptive
metabolism
• Glucagon, associated with
fasting and postabsorptive
metabolism
• cAMP pathway to activate
protein kinase A ->
phosphorylation of
rate-limiting enzymes
• Glycogen phosphorylase
(glycogenolysis)
• Glycogen synthase
(glycogen synthesis)
• Result: Release of glucose
from the liver during
hypoglycemia
 Regulation of the synthesis:
- Glucose concentration in blood
- Other hormones (somatostatin)
- Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system

It is destroyed by insulinase (enzyme of liver)

Target cells:
 Hepatocytes

 Myocytes

 Adipocytes

In the unsufficiency – diabetes mellitus

The effect on carbohydrate metabolism
•Increases the permeability of membranes
for glucose
•Activates glucokinase (hexokinase) in
glycolysis
•Activates TAC (citrate synthase)
•Activates PPC (G-6-PDH)
•Activates glycogen synthase
•Activates pyruvate- and alpha-кetoglutarate
dehydrogenase
•Inhibits gluconeogenesis
•Inhibits the decomposition of glycogen
(glucose-6-phosphatase)
 Effect on the protein metabolism
•Increases the permeability of membranes for
AA
•Activates synthesis of proteins and nucleic acids
•Inhibits gluconeogenesis

Effect on the lipid metabolism

•Activates of the lipids synthesis
•Promotes the saving of fats activating the
decomposition of carbohydrates
•Inhibits gluconeogenesis

Effect on the mineral metabolism

•Activates Na/K-АТP-аse
 Glucagon
 Nature – polypeptide
 Antagonist of insulin

 Synthesis is activated in fasting

 Functions
 Activates the
decomposition of
glycogen in liver
 Activates
gluconeogenesis
 Inhibits glycolysis

 Activates lipolysis
 Somatostatin
 Nature – peptide

Functions:
• Inhibits secretion of insulin and
glucagon
• Inhibits secretion of STH and TTH

• Inhibits secretion of local hormones of

intestine
 Lipocain
Functions:
• Activates the synthesis
of phospholipids in liver
• Stimulates the action of
lipotropic factors
• Activates the oxidation
of fatty acids in liver
 EPINEPHRINE GLANDS
Two parts:
-cortex
-medulla
 Hormones of medulla -
catecholamines
 Epinephrine, norepinephrine and DOPA

All catecholamines are synthesized from

the amino acid - tyrosine according to the
following sequence:
tyrosine → dopa (dihydroxyphenylalanine)
→ dopamine → norepinephrine
(noradrenaline) → epinephrine
(adrenaline).
 Catecholamines are synthesized in
the brain, adrenal medulla and by
some sympathetic nerve fibres.

l-Dopa is well known for its role in

the treatment of parkinsonism, but
its biological importance lies in the
fact that it is a precursor of
dopamine, a neurotransmitter
widely distributed in the central
nervous system.
 Functions:
Stress hormones. Contraction of vessels, increase
the blood pressure, accelerate pulse. Contraction
of uterus muscles. Epinephrine relaxes the muscles
of bronchi and intestine.
On carbohydrate metabolism:
-activates the decomposition of glycogen in liver and
muscles
-activates glycolysis, PPC, TAC and tissue respiration
On protein metabolism
-accelerate the decomposition of proteins
On lipid metabolism
-activates lipase, mobilization of lipids and their
oxidation
Hormonoids (tissue hormones, histohormones) - organic trace
substances produced by different cells of different tissues (not by
specific glands) that regulate metabolism on the local level (some
hormonoids are produced in the blood too (serotonin,
acetylcholine).

Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter. Releases chemicals into

the brain and plays a role in normal brain functions such as sleep.
Also, it deals with attention, learning, and memory skills. The
mechanisms that the transmitter controls was a mystery until now.
Scientist now know that acetycholine deals with communication
between neurons. Located in the prefrontal cortex.
 Heparin, is an naturally-occurring
anticoagulant (blood thinner) produced by
basophils and mast cells that prevents the
formation of blood clots.
Heparin is used to treat and prevent blood
clots in the veins, arteries, or lung. It is also
used before surgery to reduce the risk of
blood clots.
 Secretin hormone production is stimulated by acid
chyme entering the duodenum. This hormone
stimulates the pancreas to release bicarbonate to
neutralize the acid
Secretin is a hormone that both controls the
environment in the duodenum by regulating
secretions of the stomach and pancreas, and
regulates water homeostasis throughout the body.
Secretin regulates the pH within the duodenum by
inhibiting gastric acid secretion by the parietal cells of
the stomach, and by stimulating bicarbonate
production by the centroacinar cells and intercalated
ducts of the pancreas.
Secretin stimulates pepsin secretion from chief
cells, which can help break down proteins in food
digestion. It stimulates release of glucagon,
pancreatic polypeptide and somatostatin.
 Histamine, an important mediator (local signaling
substance) and neurotransmitter, is mainly stored in tissue
mast cells and basophilic granulocytes in the blood. It is
involved in inflammatory and allergic reactions.
Histamine is found in plant and animal tissue and is
released from mast cells as part of an allergic reaction in
humans. Release of histamine stimulates gastric
secretion and causes dilation of capillaries,
constriction of bronchial smooth muscle, and
decreases blood pressure.
 Serotonin or 5-hydroxytryptamine is
neurotransmitter. Biochemically derived
from tryptophan, serotonin is primarily found in
the gastrointestinal tract, blood platelets, and the
central nervous Functions:
system (CNS) of humans.
Bowel function. Most of the body's serotonin is found in
the gastrointestinal tract where it regulates bowel function
and movements. It also plays a part in reducing the
appetite while consuming a meal.
Mood. It is most well know for its role in the brain where
it plays a major part in mood,anxiety and happiness.
Clotting. Its third major role is in the formation of blood
clots. Serotonin is released by platelets when there is a
wound, and the resulting vasoconstriction (narrowing of
the tiny arteries - arterioles) reduces blood flow and aids
the formation of blood clots.
Nausea. If you eat something that is toxic or irritating,
more serotonin is produced in the gut to increase transit