Automotive steering system

Purpose:
The purpose of the steering system is to enable the driver to control the position of the front
wheels. The system must provide ease of handling, good, directional control, and stability. This
is achieved by the steering system together with the suspension system.

The steering system consists of two major units; the steering gear box with the steering wheel
and shaft, and the linkage including the knuckles, steering rods and the rods necessary to transfer
the steering gear motion to the front wheels, figure 7.1.

Figure 7.1 major units of the steering system

The combination of the steering gear box and linkage produces a mechanical advantage, which is
known as steering gear ratio or steering gear reduction.

Steering Ratio

Steering ratio refers to the amount the steering wheel is turned compared to the amount the front
steerable wheels are turned. Steering ratio assists the driver in turning knuckles in any desired
direction, and aids him in holding the front wheels in position. Without a proper steering system
and steering ratio, any irregularities in the road would cause the front wheels to be turned,
regardless of how the driver held on to the steering wheel.

The amount of steering ratio found in various steering system depends on the type or use of
vehicle, vehicle mass and steering characteristics (fast or slow) desired. Steering ratios range
between 15 to 1 and 33 to 1, resulting in steering-wheel movement of from 4 to 6 revolutions
from extreme right to extreme left position.
The higher the steering ratio, the easier it is to steer the car, all other things being equal.
However, the higher the steering ratio, the more the steering wheel has to be turned to achieve
steering.

High steering ratios are often called slow steering because the steering wheel has to be turned
many degrees to produce a small steering effect. Low steering ratios, called fast or quick
steering, require much less steering wheel movement to produce the desired steering effect.

Vehicles equipped with power steering frequently have steering ratios of less than 15 to 1.

Servicing steering wheel - column

Steering Columns

The steering columns assembly connects the steering wheel to the steering gear box. It consists
of the steering wheel and shaft, and a jacket tube and bushing assembly. Frequently standard
transmission and automatic transmission gear selectors are attached to, or integral with, the
steering column. The electric horn button or ring connections, as well as directional signal
controls, high and low beam head light controls may be built into the steering column.

Steering Wheel and Shaft

Steering wheel and shaft transfer the driver’s steering motions to the steering box. The shaft may
be of one-piece construction, or contain one or more universal joints when the steering box and
steering wheel must be off set. The shaft may include special devices to tilt the steering wheel up
and down or sideways, or it may contain a device to lengthen or shorten the shaft. Both are used
for ease of driver entrance or to accommodate variations in driver.

The steering wheel is attached to the tapered end of the steering shaft, locked to the shaft by
means of splines or a key, and secured by a nut. The steering shaft is enclosed in a tube called
the jacket tube.

The assembly is known as the steering column. A jacket tube bushing or bearing supports the
upper end of the shaft. The hub of the steering wheel exerts pressure on a spring, which in turn
presses against a sleeve, which presses against the inner bearing race to maintain the proper fit.
A rattle will develop should the fit between the bearing and the shaft become loose.

Some automobiles have energy - absorbing or collapsible steering column, figure 7.2, which has
a protective device that will collapse upon impact. If, as a result of an accident, the driver is
thrown forward against the steering wheel, the steering column will collapse and in doing so
absorbs the energy of the driver’s forward movement and thus greatly reduces the possibility of
injury to the driver.

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Figure 7.2 collapsible steering columns

Removing steering wheel and column

1. Remove the lock bolt which connects the shaft with the coupling.
2. Remove the bolts which secure the hole cover with the body.
3. Remove the upper bracket by removing the bolts.
4. Place mating markings on the gearbox, coupling, and main shaft.
5. Place mating marks on the yoke and main shaft

Disassemble the parts of steering wheel and column following the service manual. But in general
follow this procedure to disassemble the assembly.
1. Separate the steering wheel from the shaft by placing a mating mark on the shaft and
steering wheel.
2. Remove the switches attached to the steering column.

Inspecting steering wheel and column

1. Inspect the shaft, bearing, and coupling for damage, wear, and cracks and replace them if
defective.

Installing steering wheel and column

Usually the installation procedure is the reverse of the removal procedure.

Note
Align the mating marks when installing the steering column assembly

Adjusting free play of steering wheel

a. Check that steering wheel free play is correct

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 with the vehicle stopped and tyres pointed straight ahead, rock the steering wheel gently
back and forth with light finger pressure. Free play should not exceed the maximum limit
recommended by the manufacturer.

Fig. 7.3: Checking steering free play

If incorrect, adjust or repair as required.

b. Adjusting the free play

1. Point wheels straight ahead

2. Adjust steering gear box

 Loosen the lock nut (if present)

 Turn the adjusting screw clockwise or counterclockwise to decrease or
increase steering wheel free play

Fig. 7.4: Adjusting steering wheel free play

Note: turn the adjusting screw in small increments and check the wheel free play
between each adjustment.

3. Check that steering does not bind

 Turn the steering wheel one full term in both directions

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  Check that the free play is correct and steering is smooth and without rough
spots

4. Hold adjusting screw and tighten lock nut

Servicing steering gear

Steering gears

The steering gear serves two basic purposes:

1. It produces a large portion of the mechanical advantage required to provide easy and safe
steering and
2. It provides a convenient means of converting the turning motion of the steering wheel
into side-to-side or back and forward motion required to operate the steering linkage.

Several types of steering gear are used: the Rack-and-Pinion type, worm-and-sector, worm-and-
roller, cam-and-double-lever and worm-and ball-bearing nut.

A. Rack-and-Pinion:

This type of steering gear is used with front wheel drive vehicles and offers several advantages.
It is:-
 Less complicated and uses fewer parts
 Lighter in mass and requires less vehicle space
 Less expensive to manufacture

The rack and pinion housing contains a rack gear positioned between the wheels, with a mating
pinion gear connected to the steering column and wheel, figure 7.5.

Figure 7.5 rack and pinion housing

A bushing in one end of the housing is used to position and guide the rack; a spring loaded
support yoke or rack bearing at the other end keeps the rack engaged with the pinion, figure 7.6.

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Figure 7.6 exploded view of rack and pinion steering

Turning the steering wheel rotates the pinion. Rotary movement of the pinion causes the rack to
move from side to side. Unlike the conventional steering gear, which changes rotary movement
to linear and then back to rotary, a rack and pinion gear converts rotary motion directly to linear
motion.

Pinion gear end- play is adjusted by shims placed under the end cover of the housing. Proper
pinion gear to rack strip tooth mesh (back lash) is maintained by adjusting shims placed
underneath the rack strip in the housing.

B. Worm and Sector

The movement of the steering wheel turns the worm, which in turn drives the sector gear, figure
7.7. Attached to the sector shaft rigidly is pitman arm so that rotation of the steering wheel
corresponds to a linear motion of the pitman-arm end, which is connected to the steering linkage.

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Figure 7.7 Worm and Sector steering gear

C. Worm and peg (cam-and-lever) steering gear

With this type of steering mechanism the lower part of the steering column shaft is machined
with a worm-type screw thread, which meshes with a peg protruding from the arm of the cross
shaft, figure 7.8. When the steering wheel is rotated, the worm moves the peg along, and the arm
and cross shaft turn. This movement is transferred to a steering drop arm and linkages to move
the road wheels.

Figure 7.8 Worm and peg (cam-and-lever) steering gear

D. Worm and Ball Bearing (Recirculating Ball):

The recirculating ball design, figure 7.9 is a variation of the worm - and - sector steering gear. A
sliding ball nut with an internal thread contains a spiral groove. The ball nut fits over the
steering shaft, which also contains a spiral thread groove. A series of ball bearings ride between
the two grooves, and act as interconnecting threads. The teeth cut on one face of the sliding ball
nut mate with the sector teeth, and as the steering wheel is rotated, the ball bearings force the ball
nut to move up or down on the wormshaft. This converts the rotary motion of the wormshaft to
the linear motion of the ball nut. Because the ball nut and sector are meshed, ball nut movement
causes the sector shaft to rotate, converting the linear motion of the ball nut back to rotary
motion. Since the sector shaft is connected to the steering linkage through pitman are, the
steering action is transmitted to the front wheels. Because the balls rotate and roll freely, the
screw motion between the worm and ball nut provides a nearly friction free rolling contact, rather
than sliding contact.

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Figure 7.9 recirculating ball type steering gear

The ball nut contains two complete circuits. Tubular ball guides are used to prevent the balls
from running out of the end of either circuit. The guides deflect the balls away from their helical
path at one end of their travel, guide them diagonally across the back of the nut, and return them
to their helical path between the ball nut and worm at the other end of their travel. In this way
the balls are constantly recirculating.

Two steering gear adjustments are possible - worm bearing preload, and ball nut rack and sector
gear mesh adjustment (back lash), figure 7.10. The worm bearing preload is controlled by an
adjuster plug at the lower end of the wormshaft and must be correctly adjusted before adjusting
the ball nut rack and sector gear. Since the ball nut is positioned at a slight angle, backlash
between the nut and sector can be adjusted by shifting the sector shaft slightly along its own axis
with a thrust screw called a lash adjusts screw.

Figure 7.10 gear mesh (back lash) adjustment

Manual Steering Gear Service

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The steering gear should be checked to determine if adjustment or repairs are needed. In general,
if steering gear is suspected, proceed as follows.
1. Check the lubricant level; if low, check for leaks and correct.
2. Check mounting bolts; tighten to specifications or replace if damaged.
3. Check whether there is any lost motion at the flexible coupling; correct as necessary.
4. Check whether the pitman arm and nut are tight on sector shaft; tighten to specifications.
If splines are worn, replace both pitman arm and sector shaft.
Check whether there is any looseness (lost motion), roughness, or bind in the steering gear. If too
loose or too tight, adjust to specifications. If adjustment does not correct the problem or if the
gear is rough, overhaul the steering gear according to the specification.

Removing steering gear from the vehicle

1. After removing the steering column assembly from the vehicle, remove the pitman arm
from the steering gear.
2. Remove the bolts which secure the steering gear with the body.

Disassembling manual steering gear

Here is an example of overhauling of Recerculating Ball type steering gear.

Figure 7.11 shows the cross-sectional view of the gear. Note that sector shaft teeth and ball nut
teeth are tapered. Note that the lash adjuster screw, when turned moves the sector shaft endwise
to adjust mesh.

Figure 7.11 cross-sectional view of recerculating ball type steering gear

1. Remove sector shaft after side cover bolts have been removed, Figure 7.12.
2. Remove worm shaft and ball-nut assembly after worm shaft bearing adjuster has been
removed, Figure 7.13.
3. Check lash adjusting screw head –to –sector shaft clearance with a feeler gauge,
Figure 7.14. Excessive clearance at this point allows excessive sector shaft
movement, which results in loose steering and vehicle wander. Use a thicker shim to
restore correct clearance.
4. Remove all the balls from each sector and clean them.

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Figure 7.12 Remove sector shaft Figure 7.13 Remove worm shaft and ball-nut assembly

Figure 7.14Check lash adjusting screw head –to –sector shaft clearance

Inspecting Manual steering gear

Before inspecting the parts of the steering gear, wash them properly. Replace any part if
defective.

1. Inspect the bearings for damage and wear.

2. Inspect the worm threads and ball nut rack for damage and wear.
3. Check the turning condition of the ball nut.
4. Inspect the shaft at bushing contacting surfaces and at gear teeth for wear and damage.
5. Inspect the bushing for wear and damage.
6. Check the sector shaft oil clearance and compare with the specification.

Assembling Manual steering gear

1. Install balls into ball-nut assembly, Figure 7.15. Ball guides of this type (with holes
for loading) make the job easy. A retainer covers the holes and keeps the ball guides
in place after loading. Since there are two ball circuits, each circuit is loaded
separately. Turning the wormshaft helps to load the circuits.

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Figure 7.15 Install balls into ball-nut assembly

Note

On ball-nut assembly that has no ball loading holes in ball guides Figure 7.16, the wormshaft
must not be turned during this procedure, since this will allow balls to escape from their
circuit.

Figure 7.16 no ball loading holes in ball guides

2. After loading ball nut with balls, ball guides must be loaded with balls 7.17. Use
some steering gear lubricant to help keep balls in place during guide installation.
3. Install loaded ball guide in previously loaded ball-nut assembly Figure 7.18. A
retainer plate holds both guides in place after installation.

Figure 7.17 loading ball guides with balls Figure 7.18 Installing loaded ball guide

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 4. Assembled ball nut and wormshaft should look like this Figure 7.19. If wormshaft is
installed in other end of the nut, proper mesh and lash adjustment cannot be achieved.
5. Install wormshaft and ball nut in gear case.
6. After wormshaft and ball nut are installed, adjust wormshaft bearing preload to
manufacturer’s specifications Figure 7.20.

Figure 7.19 Assembled ball nut and wormshaft Figure 7.20 adjust wormshaft bearing
preload

Note
Wormshaft bearing preload is checked with a torque wrench Figure 7.21. Too much preload
causes early failure, while loose bearing causes loose steering as well as early failure.

7. After correct worm bearing preload has been obtained, install sector shaft assembly
Figure 7.22. Make sure that lash adjuster is backed off to prevent teeth from binding
when bolting down the cover.
8. Proper lash adjustment is achieved by loosening the lock nut and turning the adjusting
screw Figure 7.23. Wormshaft should be turned back and forth through midpoint of
travel to obtain “feel’ or “high point’ and correct lash adjustment. Follow shop
manual specifications for correct setting.

Figure 7.21 checking Wormshaft bearing preload Figure 7.22 install sector shaft assembly

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Figure 7.23 lash adjustment

Installing steering gear

1. Install the gearbox assembly on the body of the vehicle and tighten the bolts with the
specified torque.
2. Attach the pitman arm on the steering gear by aligning the mating marks on the pitman
arm and sector shaft and tightening with the specified torque.
3. Attach the main shaft assembly with the steering gear.
Fill in gear oil specified by the manufacturer

Servicing steering linkage

Steering Linkage:

The steering linkage is used to connect the steering knuckle to the pitman arm shaft of the
steering box. The steering linkage may be placed ahead or behind the suspension assembly.
Various linkage combinations are used to produce the desired effects, figure7.24.

Figure 7.24 Various linkage combinations

The parallelogram steering linkage consists of the following parts, figure 7.25.

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Figure 7.25 Components of parallelogram steering linkage

Steering Knuckle

The steering knuckle includes the wheel spindle or stub axle, with facilities to attach the knuckle
to the axle one beam or upper and lower control arms. It is designed so that the brake backing
plate and steering arms may be attached easily.

Steering Arms:

Steering arms are either bolted to the knuckle assembly or forged as an integral part of the
knuckle. The outer ends of the arms have a tapered hole to which the tie-rod sockets are
attached.

When the steering arms are moved in either direction, they force the steering knuckle to pivot on
the king pins or ball joints.

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Tie Rods:

Tie rods are used to connect the steering arms to the centre link. Ball joints at each end provide
the necessary flexibility. The ball joints are threaded into each end of the tie rod to provide a
means of adjusting toe in. One-piece tie-rods are usually used in solid I beam front axles.

Track Rod (Relay Rod or Centre Link):

The track rod is a long rod placed cross-wise to the frame and attached to one end of the pitman
arm and at the other end to the idler arm. The tie-rods are attached to the track rod. The purpose
of the track rod is to transmit the pitman arm motion to the tie-rods.

Idler – Arm

The idler arm is attached to one end of the centre link by a ball joint and is free to pivot on a
bracket, which is attached to the frame. The idler arm and pitman arm must be parallel. Idler
arms are not required on centre point or I - beam steering systems.

Pitman Arm

The pitman arm is connected by a ball joint to the centre link, and by means of splines and
retaining nut to the pitman arm-shaft or sector shaft of the steering box. The pitman arm can
be made to swing from side to side or front to back by rotating the pitman arm shaft.

Parallelogram linkage is used primarily with independent suspension. Heavy-duty vehicles with
solid axles use a less complicated system. In these designs, the steering gear is mounted with the
pitman arm pointing down on the left side of the frame. The drag link and steering arms may
change in design and positioning of the steering wheel and front wheels.

Compared to the parallelogram linkage used with conventional steering gears, the linkage used
with a rack and pinion gear is simple, consisting only two inner tie rods and tie rod ends, figure
7.26. On most rack and pinion gears, the inner tie rods are attached to the ends of the rack by
ball and socket joints.

Figure 7.26 Linkage in rack and pinion gear

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With older designs, the socket is a separate component which accepts the rounded inside end of
the tie rod, and is secured to the rack by various methods, such as a jam nut, roll pin, set screw
and so on.

The outer tie rod ends connect to the steering arm or knuckle with a ball and socket joint similar
to a conventional ball joint. They transmit steering motion to the wheel while maintaining the
toe angle.

Servicing Steering linkages

If any defects are found, causes must be determined and corrections made before attempting to
align the wheels. Servicing steering linkage includes removal, replacement, and adjustment of
tie rods; removing and replacement of other linkage parts, such as the steering idler and upper
and lower control arms.

All of these services, if needed, must be performed before aligning the wheels. It does no good
to do an alignment if the wheel bearings or other part is defective, worn out, or in need of
adjustment. If service to any of the above components is required, refer to the manufacturers
service manual.

Removing steering linkages from the vehicle

The removal procedure for steering linkages varies from vehicle to vehicle. Therefore refer to the
service manual for the proper procedure. But in general
1. Raise the front of the vehicle and support it with stands.
2. Remove both of the front wheels
3. Put match markings on pitman arm and the sector shaft to aid in installation.
4. Separate the steering gear box from the steering linkage by removing the appropriate bolts
which join the two.
5. Using special tools or ball joint remover, separate the various components of the steering
linkage.
6. Remove the steering linkage as an assembly.

Inspecting steering linkages

1. Clean all rust and dust from linkages by using wire brush
2. Inspect shafts and bushings for damage and wear and replace if defective.
3. Inspect rods and links for bending and cracks.
4. Inspect ball joints for wear and replace them if defective.

Assembling steering linkages

The assembling procedure is usually the reverse of disassembling.

Installing steering linkages

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Installation is performed in the reverse order of removal
1. Tighten the linkage parts to the specified torque
2. Align the marks on the pitman arm and sector shaft before installing the pitman arm.
3. Lubricate all the rod ends and damper ends with multipurpose grease.
4. After the linkage is installed, adjust toe-in to the proper specification.

Adjusting steering linkages

1. Adjust the length of the relay rod to the specified length.

2. Adjust the length of the tie rod to the specified length.
3. Adjust the length of the drag link to the specified length

Steering system trouble diagnosis

Steering problems may be listed as:

 Excessive play in the steering system
 Hard steering
 Car wander
 Car pulls to one side during normal driving
 Car pulls to one side when braking
 Front wheel shimmy at low speeds
 Front-wheel tramp (high speed shimmy)
 Steering kick back
 Tires squeal on turns and improper tire wear

These problems, their possible causes and how to correct or check them will be summarized on
the following chart.

Table 7.1 Steering trouble diagnosis chart

STEERING AND SUSPENSION TROUBLE DIAGNOSIS CHART

Compliant Possible Cause Check or Correction
1. Excessive play   Looseness in steering  Readjust, replace worn parts
in steering gear
system  Looseness in linkage  Readjust, replace worn parts
 Worn ball joints or  Replace worn parts
steering-knuckle parts
 Loose wheel bearing  Readjust
2. Hard steering  Power steering  Refer to manufacturer’s service
inoperative manual
 Low or uneven tire  Inflate to correct pressure
pressure

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 STEERING AND SUSPENSION TROUBLE DIAGNOSIS CHART
Compliant Possible Cause Check or Correction
 Friction in steering  Lubricate, readjust, replace worn
gear parts
 Lubricate, readjust, replace worn
 Friction in linkage
parts
 Friction in ball joints  Lubricate, replace worn parts
 Incorrect alignment  Check alignment and readjust as
(caster, camber, toe, necessary
SAI
 Frame misaligned  Straighten
 Front spring sagging  Replace or adjust
3. Car wander  Low or uneven tire  Inflate to correct pressure
pressure
 Linkage binding  Readjust, lubricate, replace worn
parts
 Steering gear binding  Readjust, lubricate, replace worn
parts
 Incorrect front  Check alignment and readjust as
alignment (caster, necessary
camber, toe, SAI)
 Looseness in linkage  Readjust, replace worn parts
 Looseness in steering  Readjust, replace worn parts
gear
 Looseness in ball  Replace worn parts
joints
 Loose rear springs  Tighten
 Unequal load in car  Readjust load
 Stabilizer bar  Tighten attachment, replace if
ineffective damaged
4. Car pulls to  Uneven tire pressure  Inflate to correct pressure
one side during  Uneven caster or  Check alignment, adjust as
normal driving camber necessary
 Tight wheel bearing  Readjust, replace parts if
damaged
 Uneven springs  Tighten, replace defective parts
(sagging, broken
loose attachment)
 Wheels not tracking  Check tracking, straighten frame,
tighten loose parts, replace

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 STEERING AND SUSPENSION TROUBLE DIAGNOSIS CHART
Compliant Possible Cause Check or Correction
defective parts
 Uneven torsion-bar  Adjust
adjustment
 Brakes dragging  Repair
5. Car pulls to  Brakes grab  Readjust, replace brake lining
one side when etc.
braking  Uneven tire inflation  Inflate to correct pressure
 Incorrect or uneven  Readjust
caster
 Causes listed under
item 4
6. Front-wheel  Uneven or low tire  Inflate to correct pressure
shimmy at low pressure
speeds  Loose linkage  Readjust, replace worn parts
 Loose ball joints  Replace worn parts
 Looseness in steering  Readjust, replace worn parts
gear
 Front springs too  Replace, tighten attachment
flexible
 Incorrect or unequal  Readjust
camber
 Irregular tire tread  Replace worn tires, match treads
 Dynamic imbalance  Balance wheels
7. Front-wheel  Wheels out of  Rebalance
tramp (high- balance
speed shimmy)  Too much wheel  Balance, remount tire, straighten
runout or replace wheel
 Defective shock  Repair or replace
absorbers
 Causes listed under
item 6
8. Steering  Tire pressure low or  Inflate to correct pressure
kickback uneven
 Springs sagging  Replace; adjust torsion bars
 Shock absorbers  Repair or replace
defective
 Looseness in linkage  Readjust, replace worn parts

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 STEERING AND SUSPENSION TROUBLE DIAGNOSIS CHART
Compliant Possible Cause Check or Correction
 Looseness in steering  Readjust. Replace worn parts
gear
9. Tires squeal on  Excessive speed  Take curves at slower speed
turns  Low or uneven tire  Inflate to correct pressure
pressure
 Front alignment  Check and adjust
incorrect
 Worn tires  Replace
10 Improper tire  Wear at tread sides  Inflate to correct pressure
wear from underinflation
 Wear at tread center  Inflate to correct pressure
from overinflation
 Wear at one tread  Adjust camber
side from excessive
camber
 Featheredge wear  Correct toe-in toe-out in turns
from excessive toe-in
or toe-out on turns
 Correcting wear from  Take turns at slower speeds
excessive speeds on
turns
 Uneven or spotty  Adjust brakes, align wheels,
wear from balance wheels, adjust linkage,
mechanical causes etc.
 Rapid wear from  Drive more slowly for longer tire
speed life

Excessive Play in Steering System

Excessive looseness in the steering system means that there will be excessive free play of the
steering wheel without corresponding movement of the front wheels. A small amount of free
play makes steering easier. But when the play, or lash, becomes excessive, it may make steering
harder. Many drivers complain about it. Excessive free play in the steering system reduces the
ability of the driver to accurately steer and control the vehicle.

Excessive play may be due to wear or improper adjustment of the steering gear, worn parts or
improper adjustments in the steering linkage, worn ball joints or steering-knuckle parts, or loose
wheel bearings.

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In most cars with power steering the steering-wheel rim should move two inches [51 mm] or less
before the front wheels begin to move. On cars with manual steering, the maximum allowable
free play is three inches [76 mm].

To check the amount of play in the steering system on vehicles with power steering, check the
condition and tension of the drive belt for the power-steering pump. Then check the fluid level
in the pump reservoir. Start the engine. Next, with the front wheels in the straight-ahead
position, turn the steering wheel until the front wheels begin to move. Align a reference mark on
the steering wheel with a mark on a ruler or scale.

Now slowly turn the steering wheel in the opposite direction until the front wheels start to move
again. The distance that the steering-wheel reference mark has moved along the ruler is the
amount of free play in the steering system. If the steering-wheel rim moves too much before the
front wheels begin to move, there is excessive play.

1. Steering-Linkage Check: Steering linkage, including tie rods, can be checked for
looseness. Raise the front of the car until the bottoms of the tires are slightly off the
floor. Then grasp both front tires and push out on both at the same time, figure 7.27.
Next pull in on both tires at the same time. Excessive movement means worn linkage
parts.

Figure 7.27 Checking steering linkage

2. Inspecting Front-Wheel Bearings: Loose wheel bearings can cause poor steering
control, car wander, uneven front-brake action, and rapid tire wear. To check the front-
wheel bearings, raise the car on a lift or use floor jacks, properly placed. The lift points
differ according to the type of front end. If the spring is between the frame and the lower
control arm, the car should be lifted at the frame cross member. Use this same lift point
for torsion-bar suspension systems that have the torsion bar attached to the lower control
arm. If the spring is above the upper control arm, lift the vehicle at the lower control arm,
close to the ball joint. Use this same lift point if the torsion bar is attached to the upper
control arm. In either case, the weight of the wheel should take up any play in the ball
joints.

Now grasp the tire at the top and bottom and rock it in and out, figure 7.28. Any
movement is usually the result of loose front-wheel bearings. Look at the brake drum or

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 disk and the backing plate or shield as you rock the wheel. If you see movement between
the drum or disk and the plate or shield, the looseness is in the wheel bearing. Another
check is to have an assistant apply the brakes as you try rocking the wheel. If this
eliminates the free play, the wheel bearings are loose.

Figure 7.28 Inspecting Front-Wheel Bearings

In some inspection programs, the vehicle should be rejected if the wheel can be rocked
more than 1/8 inch [3.2 mm], measured at the outer circumference of the tire. This
amount of wheel wobble can make the vehicle unstable and hard to steer. The wheel
bearings should be adjusted.

3. Steering-Gear Check: A quick check for looseness in the steering gear can be made by
watching the pitman arm while an assistant turns the steering wheel one way and then the
other, with the front wheels on the floor. If, after reversal of steering-wheel rotation,
excessive movement of the steering wheel is required to move the pitman arm, then the
steering gear is worn or in need of adjustment. Steering-gear service is covered in the
manufacturer’s service manual.

Hard Steering

If hard steering occurs, it is probably due to excessively tight adjustments in the steering gear or
linkages. Hard steering can also be caused by low or uneven tire pressure; abnormal friction in
the steering gear, in the linkage, or at the ball joints; or improper wheel or frame alignment.

If the car has power steering, its failure causes the steering system to revert to straight mechanical
operation. A much greater steering force is then required from the driver. When this happens,
the power-steering gear and the pump should be checked as outlined in the manufacturer’s
service manual.

The steering system may be checked for excessive friction by raising the front end of the car,
turning the steering wheel, and checking the steering-system components to locate the source of
excessive friction.

22
Disconnect the linkage at the pitman arm. If this eliminates the frictional drag that makes the
steering wheel hard to turn, then the friction is either in the linkage itself or at the steering
knuckles. If the friction is not eliminated when the linkage is disconnected at the pitman arm, the
steering gear is probably at fault.

If hard steering does not seem to be due to excessive friction in the steering system, the cause is
probably incorrect front-wheel alignment, a misaligned frame, or sagging springs. Excessive
caster, especially, causes hard steering. Wheel alignment is described later in the chapter.

Car Wander:

Wander is the tendency of a car to veer away from a straight path without driver control.
Frequent steering-wheel movements are necessary to prevent the car from weaving from one side
of the road to the other. An example is when the driver must continually move the steering
wheel back and forth to keep the car on the right side of the road or in the proper lane of traffic.

A variety of conditions can cause car wander. Low or uneven tire pressure, binding or excessive
play in the linkage or steering gear, or improper front-wheel alignment will cause car wander.
Any condition that causes tightness in the steering system will keep the wheels from
automatically seeking the straight-ahead position. The driver has to correct the wheels
constantly. This condition tends to allow the wheels to waver slightly from their normal running
position.

Several improper wheel-alignment angles may cause car wander. Excessively negative caster or
uneven caster on the front wheels will tend to cause the wheels to swing away from the straight-
ahead direction so that the driver must steer continually. An incorrect camber angle will do the
same thing. Excessive toe-in may also cause the same condition.

Car Pulls to One Side During Normal Driving

Sometimes a car pulls to one side so that force must constantly be applied to the steering wheel
to maintain straight-ahead travel. The cause could be uneven tire pressure, uneven caster or
camber, a tight wheel bearing, uneven springs, uneven torsion-bar adjustment, or wheels not
tracking. A lack of tracking means that the wear wheels are not following a path that is parallel
to the path of the front wheels.

Anything that makes one wheel drag or toe-in or toe-out more than the other causes the car to
pull to that side. The methods used to check tracking and front-wheel alignment are described
later.

Car Pulls to One Side When Braking

The most likely cause of pulling to one side when braking is grabbing brakes. This happens
when the brake lining on the shoes or pads becomes soaked with oil or brake fluid, when brake
shoes are unevenly or improperly adjusted, or when a stuck wheel cylinder or caliper piston

23
causes the shoes at one wheel to apply less braking force than the shoes at the wheel on the other
side of the axle. The conditions that cause car wander could also cause the car to pull to one side
when braking. A pulling condition, from whatever cause, tends to become more noticeable as
the car is braked to a stop.

Low-Speed Front-Wheel Shimmy:

Front-wheel shimmy and front-wheel tramp are sometimes confused. Low-speed shimmy is the
rapid oscillation of the wheel on the steering-knuckle support. The wheel tries to turn in and out
alternately. This action causes the front end of the car to shake from side to side. Front-wheel
tramp, or high-speed shimmy, is the tendency for the wheel-and-tire assembly to hop up and
down and try to leave the pavement. Even when the tire does not leave the pavement, tramp can
be observed as a rapid flexing-unflexing action of that part of the tire in contact with the
pavement. The bottom of the tire first appears deflated as the wheel moves down, and then
appears inflated as the wheel moves up.

Low-speed shimmy can result from low or uneven tire pressure, excessive lateral runout,
looseness in linkage, excessively soft springs, incorrect or unequal wheel camber, dynamic
imbalance of the wheels, or tire-tread irregularities.

Front-Wheel Tramp:

Front-wheel tramp is often called high-speed shimmy. This condition causes the front wheels to
move up and down alternately. One of the most common causes of front-wheel tramp is
unbalanced wheels, or wheels that have too much radial runout. An unbalanced wheel is heavy
in one spot. As it rotates, the heavy spot acts as an unbalanced rotating force. This tends to
make the wheel hop up and down.

A similar action occurs if the wheel has too much radial runout. This is the amount that the
wheel rotates out-of-round, instead of making a true circle as it turns. Defective shock absorbers,
which fail to control spring oscillations, also cause wheel tramp. Any of the causes described in
the previous section on front-wheel shimmy may also cause wheel tramp.

Steering Kickback:

Steering shock, or kickback, consists of sharp and rapid movements of the steering wheel that
occur when the front wheels encounter obstructions in the road. Normally, some kickback to the
steering wheel will always occur. When it becomes excessive, an investigation should be made.
This condition could be the results of incorrect or uneven tire inflation, sagging springs, defective
shock absorbers, or looseness in the linkage or steering gear. Any of these defects could permit
road shock to carry excessively to the steering wheel.

Tires Squeal on Turns:

24
If the tires skid or squeal on turns, the cause may be excessive speed on the turns. If this is not
the cause, it is probably low or uneven tire pressure, worn tires, or misalignment of the front
wheels. Improper camber and toe settings may tend to cause tire squeal.

Improper Tire Wear:

Various types of abnormal wear occur on tires. The type of tire wear is often a good indication
of a particular defect in the suspension or steering system, or improper operation or abuse. For
example, if the tire is underinflated, the sides will bulge over, and the center of the tread will be
lifted clear of the road. The sides of the tread will take all the wear. The center will be barely
worn.

Uneven tread wear shortens tire life. But, even more damaging is the excessive flexing of the tire
sidewalls that takes place as the underinflated tire rolls on the pavement. The repeated flexing
causes excessive heat, the fabric in the sidewalls to crack or break, and the plies to separate. This
cracking and separation seriously weakens the sidewalls and may cause tire failure. In addition,
the under inflated tire is unprotected against rim bruises. For example, when the tire hits a rut or
stone on the road, or bumps a curb too hard, the tire will flex so much under the blow that it will
actually be pinched on the rim. Pinching causes plies to break and leads to early tire failure.

Continuous high-speed driving on curves, both right and left, can produce tread wear that looks
almost like underinflation wears. The side force on the tires as they round the curves causes the
sides of the tread to wear. The only remedy is to reduce car speed on turns.

Overinflation causes the tire to ride on the center of its tread, so that only the center of the tread
wears. Uneven tread wear shortens tire life. But, equally damaging is the fact that the
overinflated tire does not have normal “give” or flex when it meets a rut or bump in the road.
Instead of flexing normally, the tire fabric takes the major shocks. As a result, the fabric may
crack or break so that the tire quickly fails.

Excessive toe-in or toe-out on turns causes the tire to be dragged sideways while it is moving
forward. The tire on a front wheel that toes in one inch [25.4mm] from straight ahead sideward
will be dragged sideways about 150 feet every mile [28.6 m every km].

This sideward drag scrapes off rubber. Characteristic of this type of wear are featheredges of
rubber that appear on one side of the tread design. If both front tires show this type of wear, the
front end has improper toe.
But if only one tire shows this type of wear when both tires have been running in the same
position on the car, a bent steering arm is indicated. This causes one wheel to toe-in more than
the other.

Excessive camber of a wheel causes one side of the tire treads to wear more quickly than the
other. If the camber is positive, the tire will tilt outward. If the camber is negative, the tire will
tilt inward. Then heavy tread wear will appear on the inside.

25
Cornering wear, caused by taking curves at excessively high speeds, may be mistaken for camber
wear or toe-in or toe-out wear. Cornering wear is due to centrifugal force acting on the car and
causing the tires to roll and skid on the road. This produces a diagonal type of wear that rounds
the outside shoulder of the tire and roughens the tread surface near the outside shoulder. In
severe cornering wear, fins or sharp edges will be found along the inner edges of the tire treads.
There is no adjustment that can be made to correct the steering system for this type of wear. The
only solution is for the driver to slow down on curves.

Uneven tire wear, such as bald spots and scalloped wear, causes the tread to be unevenly or
spottily worn. This type of wear can result from several mechanical conditions. These include
misaligned wheels, unequal or improperly adjusted brakes, unbalanced wheels, overinflated tires,
out-of-round brake drums, and incorrect linkage adjustments.

High-speed operation causes much more rapid tire wear because of the higher temperature and
greater amount of scuffing and rapid flexing to which the tires are subjected.

Introduction to power steering

Larger amount of torque is required to be applied by the driver for steering of medium and heavy
vehicles. It is also installed on fast running small automobiles. The power steering system
provides automatic hydraulic assistance to the turning effort applied to the manual steering
system. The power system is designed to become operative when the effort at steering wheel
exceeds a predetermined valve. The system is always so designed that in the event of the failure
of the power system, the driver is able to steer the vehicle manually although with increased
effort.

In power steering system, the driver supplies part of the steering effort and the power assist
portion of the unit supplies the remaining effort required. This reduction in driver steering effort
allows the steering ratio to be about 2/3 of the standard steering ratio. Power steering, therefore,
provides much faster steering response than standard steering.

The power steering system consists of an engine driven oil pump with reservoir; a control valve,
and pressure surfaces (piston and cylinder) that are used to assist steering effort, figure 7.29

26
Figure 7.29 Components and types of power steering system (A) with recirculating balls,
(B) with rack and pinion type

Power Steering Operation

The principle of working of all the power steering system is the same. The slight movement of
the steering wheel actuates a valve so that the fluid under pressure from the reservoir enters on
the appropriate side of pressure surface (cylinder), thereby applying pressure on one side of a
piston to operate the steering linkage, which steers the wheel in the appropriate direction.

Broadly, the power steering systems are classified into the two categories-the integral type and
the linkage type. In the integral type, the power steering assembly (pressure surface) is an
integral part of the steering gear whereas in the linkage type it is part of the linkage.

Checking Power steering system

Power steering problems are usually evidenced by one of the following conditions:

27
 1. Hard to steer
2. Erratic assist
3. Noisy steering
4. Pulling to one side (self-steering)

To determine the cause of problems in power steering, proceed as follows.

1. Check the lubricant level. If low, check for leaks and correct.
2. Check belt tension and condition; replace any glazed or damaged belt.
3. Check pump and gear mounting bolts; correct as necessary.
4. Check for lost motion at flexible coupling; correct as necessary.
5. Check the pitman arm and nut for any looseness; if the pitman arm or sector shaft splines
are worn, replace.
6. Check for any looseness (lost motion), roughness, or bind in the steering gear; if too loose
or too tight, adjust to specifications. If adjustment does not correct the problem or if gear
is rough, overhaul according to the manufacturer’s procedures and specifications.
7. Jack the front of the car to raise the front wheels off the floor; support the car on stands;
position the steering wheel at the center of travel; start the engine; and, without touching
the steering wheel, observe whether the wheel self-steers to right or left; if it does, adjust
or repair as required by the manufacturer’s manual.
8. Check system pressure to determine if pressure developed meets specifications. If too
low, pump must be serviced. If pressure is correct and all other checks have been
completed, steering gear should be suspected. Remove and repair as needed following the
manufacturers manual and specifications.

Checking Drive Belt Tension

Proper belt tension is important because:

a. A belt that is too tight puts a constant high load on rotating shaft bearings. Excessive tension
also strains the belt and can cause tension failure.
b. A belt that is too loose may slip on the pulleys and become glazed. Slippage also reduces the
efficiency of components such as alternators and water pumps.

You can check the tension on a v-belt quickly by pressing on the belt midway between the
pulleys on the longest belt section Figure 7.30

28
Figure 7.30 Checking belt tension by pressing on the belt midway

When the free span is less than 305mm between pulleys, belt deflection should be 3 to 6mm.
When the free span is longer than 305mm, belt deflection should be 6 to 13mm.

This deflection test gives a general idea the tension of a v-belt. It is no substitute for accurate
tension measurement with a tension gauge. Also, a deflection test won’t work on a v-ribbed, or
serpentine belt. A v-ribbed belt will bend too much for accurate deflection measurement, and
belts with spring loaded idler, pulleys will deflect too far to indicate tension.
Use a tension gauge for accurate measurements on v-belts and v-ribbed serpentine belts. Place
the tension gauge in the middle of the belt length and between two pulleys with the feet on one
side of the belt and the hook on the other.

Pull or push the handle according to the manufacturer’s instructions and read the tension in
Newtons on the gauge dial. When testing a matched pair of belts, measure the tension of each
separately.
Manufacturers provide tension specifications for both new and used belts. New-belt tension
specifications are almost twice as high as used – belt specifications.
Adjusting drive belt
1. Install the belt and adjust it to new belt tension.
2. Run the engine at idle for 10 to 15 minutes.
3. Stop the engine, measure belt tension with a gauge, and readjust it to sued – belt
specifications.

Checking fluid level

To check the fluid level of power steering system always keep the vehicle level.
1. Warm up the engine.
2. With engine running at the specified RPM, turn the steering wheel from lock to lock
several times to boost fluid temperature to the specification.

29
 3. Inspect the foaming or emulsification. Note that foaming and emulsification indicate the
existence of air in the system or that the fluid level is too low.
4. Inspect the fluid level with dipstick.
5. Inspect the complete system for fluid leakage.

Checking idle up

1. Place the vehicle on flat surface

2. Turn the steering wheel to the straight ahead position (midpoint)
3. Idle the engine
4. Measure the steering power at the steering wheel within one turn on both side of mid
point. The steering effort should be less than the specification

Replacing Power Steering Fluid

1. Jack up the front of the vehicle.

2. Remove the return hose from the fluid reservoir and drain the fluid into a vessel
3. Turn the steering wheel from lock to lock, while draining the fluid
4. Connect the return hose to the fluid reservoir
5. Add the specified type of fresh fluid
6. Bleed the system

Bleeding power steering system

1. Inspect the fluid level and add the specified fluid if necessary.
2. Jack up the front of the vehicle and support it on stands.
3. Turn the steering wheel from lock to lock two or three times depending on the
recommendation of the manufacturer.
4. Recheck the fluid level.
5. Start the engine and run it at the specified RPM.
6. Turn the steering wheel from lock to lock two or three times depending on the
recommendation of the manufacturer.
7. Lower the front of the vehicle.
8. Run the engine at the specified speed.
9. Turn the steering wheel from lock to lock several times.
10. Center the steering wheel.
11. Bleeding is complete if the fluid level in the reservoir has not risen excessively
(depending on the specification) and no foaming or emulsification is observed when the
engine is stopped.
12. If foaming or excessive rise of fluid is noticed, repeat step 8 – 11 until the level is correct.

Checking Fluid Pressure

30
 1. Attach a pressure gauge by disconnecting the pressure hose from the pump and connect
the gauge side of the pressure gauge to the pump. Connect the valve side of the pressure
gauge to the pressure hose. Bleed the air. Inspect the fluid level.
2. Boost the fluid temperature to the specified value by turning the steering wheel from lock
to lock several times with the engine running at the specified RPM.
3. Measure the fluid pressure generated by the pump at idle and with the pressure gauge
valve fully closed. The pressure should be within specification.

Note: Do not keep the valve closed for more than the specified time.

If the pressure does not reach to the specified value within the specified time, there is a
problem with the pump.

4. measure the fluid pressure utilized in the gear housing. Fully open the pressure valve.
With the steering wheel at full lock, measure the fluid pressure reading and compare it
with the specification.
measure the pressure differential under no-load running condition (flow control valve operation
check). Fully open the pressure gauge valve. Measure the fluid pressure with the specified engine
RPM. If not within limit, check the flow control valve.

Checking Power Steering Gear

Sample from TOYOTA vehicle model FJ40, 43,45,55 Series

Removing power steering gear

Figure 7.31 power steering gear

31
 1. Disconnect the return hose with the appropriate tool
2. Disconnect the pressure hose with the appropriate tool
3. Remove the coupling set bolt
4. Remove the steering column tube set bolts. Loosen the upper bracket set bolts
5. Remove the coupling from the steering gear housing
6. Remove the pitman arm with the appropriate tool

Disassembling power steering gear

Figure 7.32 Exploded power steering gear-

1. Remove the lock nut

2. Clamp the gear housing in a vice
3. Tighten the adjusting screw until the end cover 0 ring is removed from the housing
4. Remove the cross shaft by tapping the bottom end with a hammer
5. Hold the power piston with your finger and turn the worm shaft clockwise. Then pull out
the valve body and power piston

32
 Note: Do not disassemble the valve body. Do not remove the power piston nut from the
worm shaft.

Inspecting power steering gear

1. End cover
- Inspect the following for damage or wear,
a. Needle roller bearing
b. 0 ring groove
2. Cross shaft
- Inspect the following for damage or wear
a. Needle roller bearing running surface
b. Teflon ring contact surface
c. Dust seal contact surface
d. Power piston nut gear tooth contact surface
3. Adjust the cross shaft adjusting screw
a. Measure the thrust clearance of the adjusting screw and compare it with the
specification.
b. Unstake the lock nut
c. Loosen the lock nut with the appropriate tool
d. Adjust the clearance of the adjusting screw by turning the lock nut
e. Stake the lock nut
4. Power piston nut
- Inspect the following for damage or wear:
a. Cross shaft gear tooth contact surface
b. Teflon ring
c. 0 ring groove
- Measure the ball clearance and compare it with the specification.
5. Adjusting plug & worm bearing
 Support the valve body by installing it to the gear housing
 Remove the lock nut with the appropriate tool
 Remove the adjusting plug with the appropriate tool
 Inspect the following for damage or wear:
b. Oil seal
c. 0 ring contact surface
d. Bearing
- Install the adjusting plug provisionally
a. Use a new 0 ring
b. Install the bearing
c. Install the adjusting plug provisionally with the appropriate tool
d. Remove the valve body and the power piston nut from the gear housing
6. Gear housing
- Inspect the following for damage or wear
a. Needle roller bearing
b. Teflon ring

33
 c. Dust seal
7. Replace the needle roller bearing
a. Remove the dust seal with a screwdriver
b. Remove the snap ring
c. Remove the Teflon ring
d. Remove the needle roller bearing with the appropriate tool
e. Install the needle roller bearing with the longer edge of the outer race facing
outside
f. Install the needle roller bearing so that it is positioned 23.6 mm away from the
housing and end surface with the special tool recommended by the manufacturer.
g. Install the Teflon ring together with the O ring to the special tool recommended by
the manufacturer.
h. Install the Teflon ring and the O ring to the gear housing with the special tool
recommended by the manufacturer.
i. Install the steel ring and the snap ring. Confirm that the steel ring can be turned by
hand.
j. Rub the special tool recommended by the manufacturer along the inside of the
Teflon ring so that it will fit smoothly over the cross shaft
k. Install the dust seal with the special tool recommended by the manufacturer.

Assembling power steering gear

1. Install the O-ring accurately.

2. Tighten the bolts diagonally ad evenly in two or three rotations.
3. Tighten the valve body to the specified torque.
4. Adjust the preload of the wormshaft.
a. Tighten the adjusting plug with the recommended special tool.
b. Turn the worm shaft to check the turning condition.
c. Loosen the adjusting plug with the recommended special tool to adjust the
preload
d. Insert the recommended special tool into the serrated section of the worm
shaft, and measure the preload with a torque meter and compare it with the
specification
Note
Hold the power piston nut to prevent it from turning
e. Tighten the lock nut to the specified torque with the recommended special tool
f. Recheck the preload. Check to see that both the right and left rotation are
identical.
5. Wrap vinyl tape around the spline area of the cross shaft and loosen the adjusting
screw fully.
6. Align the cross shaft gear center with that of the power piston nut gear.
7. Never turn the cross shaft, as this may cause O-ring damage.
8. Tighten the end cover diagonally and evenly in two or three rotations to the specified
torque.
9. Adjust the cross shaft preload.

34
 a. Set worm shaft to midpoint position. Determine total number of the worm
shaft turns and return from full lock by half that number.
b. Insert the recommended special tool into the serrated section of the worm
shaft. Turn the adjusting screw, and measure preload with a torque meter and
compare it with the specification.
Caution
Measure again at midpoint position.

c. Use a new seal washer.

d. Tighten the lock nut
e. Recheck the preload. Check to see that both the right and left rotation are
identical.
f. Stake at three points

Installing power steering gear

1. Install the gear housing and tighten the gear housing bolts and nuts to the specified
torque.
2. Align the match marks on the pitman arm and the cross shaft.
3. Tighten the pitman arm nut to the specified torque.
4. Tighten the coupling bolt to the specified torque.
5. Install the steering column tube.
6. Connect the pressure hose with the recommended special tool and tighten it to the
specified torque
7. Connect the return hose with the recommended special tool and tighten it to the
specified torque
8. Fill with the recommended fluid.
9. Bleed the system
Boost the fluid pressure to check for fluid leakage

Power steering pumps

Three types of power steering pumps are in common usage: the vane type, the slipper type, and
the roller type. Their principles of operation and design are very similar. A power steering pump
consists of a belt-driven rotor that is turned within an elliptically shaped cam insert ring. Vanes,
slippers, or rollers are installed in the rotor slots, grooves, or cavities, figure 7.33. Pressure thrust
plates on each side of the rotor and cam seal the pump. This assembly is placed in a housing that
contains rotor bearings and oil passages. The pump housing is usually surrounded by an oil
reservoir. The pump and reservoir are sealed with O0rings for easily assembled oil-tight joints.

35
 (a) (b) (c)

Figure 7.33 Types of power steering pumps (a) Vane type, (b) slippery type, (c) roller type

In operation, the rotor spins, causing centrifugal force to throw the vanes, slippers, or rollers
outward so their outer surface maintains contact with the cam. Slippers usually have a backup
spring to aid in maintaining cam contact.

The cam fits the rotor closely at one or two opposing locations. The spaces between the vanes,
slippers, or rollers gradually move outward as the rotor turns them past the close fitting point.
This portion of the pump is connected to the inlet passage from the reservoir, so pump fluid will
flow from the reservoir into these expanding spaces.
As the vanes, slippers, or rollers reach the widest part of the cam insert, they pass the inlet
passage from the reservoir and contact the pressure passage. Continued turning now decreases
the volume between the vane, slippers, or rollers, forcing the pump fluid into the pump pressure
outlet passage.

Power steering pumps are positive displacement pumps. Each revolution delivers the same
amount of fluid; no matter at what speed it is turning. The pump capacity must be large enough
to supply the required fluid volume and pressure required for parking while the engine is idling.

Power assist requirements are very low when driving at highway speeds. At these speeds, the
pump will produce high volume and pressure unless the pump output is modified. This is done
by providing the pump with a flow control valve and a pressure relief valve.

Flow Control Valve

When the engine speed is increased the pump speed also increases. At these higher speeds, the
pump is capable of delivering more fluid than is needed to satisfy the power steering system
demands. As this increased output tries to pass through an orifice ahead of the pump outlet line,
a pressure differential is created at the two sides of the flow control valve, figure 7.34. The
difference in pressure causes the flow control valve to move to the opening position. This allows
the excess fluid to return to the intake side of the pump.

36
Figure 7.34 Flow Control Valve

Pressure Relief Valve

A pressure relief valve is built into the flow control valve to prevent the pump pressure from
exceeding design limits. When the pump pressure reaches a predetermined limit, the relief
spring compresses, and the relief valve is moved off its seat. With the relief valve off its seat, a
pressure differential is created at the ends of the flow control valve, figure 7.35. This pressure
differential allows the flow control valve to open wider, allowing a greater volume of fluid to be
recirculated and the pressure to be held at its maximum limit.

Figure 7.35 Pressure Relief Valve

Control Valve

All the time the engine is running, power steering fluid keeps flowing through the system from
the pump to the control valve, then back to the reservoir. Both pressure surfaces are exposed to
the same system pressure. When the wheels are straight ahead, the fluid flows freely through this
circuit. When steering effort is applied to the steering wheel, the control valve shifts. This
directs fluid to one pressure surface and increases the size of the return passage opening from the
opposite pressure surface to the reservoir. The amount of valve shift is proportional to the effort
applied to the steering wheel. The amount that the control valve shifts provides the proportional
amount of pressure to give the required power assist.

37
The power steering control valve is either located inside or is attached to the exterior of the
integral-type power steering gear. The link-type power steering may have the control valve built
into the end of the power cylinder or it may be a separate unit, depending upon its design.

The control valve is balanced between the mechanical input force applied by the steering wheel,
and the mechanical-hydraulic resistive force of the steering linkage and tires on the road while
the steering wheel is centered, figure 7.36.

Figure 7.36 control valve

As the steering wheel is turned, its mechanical input force moves the control valve toward the
linkage resistive force. In this position, the control valve restricts the pressure area outlet flow to
cause a pressure build-up on the pressure surface in a direction that assists the steering wheel
input force to move against the steering linkage resistance. During steering wheel movement, the
input force always leads by first moving the control valve. The hydraulic assist force is always
trying to catch up with the control valve position by helping to move the steering linkage. When
the steering wheel arrives at the desired position, it is held steady and the linkage finally catches
up, centering the control valve to terminate assist.

The control valve is provided with some type of natural centering device, usually springs. When
no effort is being applied to the system, the centering springs center the spool position to balance
pressures on both pressure surfaces, holding the steering linkage in place.

38
If the steering wheel is held in position when the front tires hit an object that tries to deflect them,
the control valve directs pressure to the pressure surface that opposes the upsetting force. This
allows the driver to maintain vehicle control.

Two types of control valves are used, sliding spools and rotating spools. The sliding spool valve
may be located between the Pitman arm and steering linkage in the link-type units, mounted
concentric with the worm shaft, or placed parallel in a housing outside the steering gear case in
integral types. When a rotary spool-type valve is used, it is always mounted concentric with the
worm shaft. In any of these types of power steering gears, control action is the same.

Checking power steering pump

Sample from TOYOTA vehicle model FJ40, 43,45,55 Series

Figure 7.357Power steering pump-

Removing power steering pump

3. Before releasing tension of the drive belt, loosen the pulley nut.
4. Disconnect the return hose with the recommended special tool.
5. Disconnect the pressure hose with the recommended special tool.
6. Remove the pump.

Disassembling power steering pump

39
Figure 7.38 Exploded view of Power steering pump

1. Remove the drive pulley if it was not already removed

2. Separate the fluid reservoir from the pump
3. Attach the recommended special tool to the pump and hold it in a vice.
4. After affixing match marks, remove only the front housing with a soft hammer.

Caution
Do not pull out the rotor and fixed ring.
Do not allow the slippers and springs to fly out.
5. Remove the rotor shaft.
6. Confirm the numbers of each part.
a. Slippers
b. Spring
c. Spring seat
7. Remove the rear housing from the fixed ring with a soft hammer.
8. Remove the flow control valve plug in numerical order.

Inspecting power steering pump

Note: If the result of inspection shows that the part is out of specification, then replace it
with the new one.
1. Rotor shaft
Inspect the following for damage or wear.
a. Oil seal tip contact surface
b. Bushing contact surface
c. Slipper contact surface
d. Side plate contact surface
 Measure overall length of the rotor and fixed ring and compare it with the
specification.

40
 2. Slipper and Spring
 Inspect the surface of the slipper for damage or wear. Measure the thickness and
length and compare it with the specification.

 Measure the free height of the spring and compare it with the specification.

3. Side Plate
Inspect the following for damage or wear
a. Rotor contact surface
b. Slippers contact surface

4. Housing
 Inspect the bushings for damage or wear

 Measure the clearance between the rotor shaft and the front housing and compare it
with the specification.

 Measure the clearance between the rotor shaft and the rear housing and compare it
with the specification.

5. Flow Control Valve

- Inspect the following for damage or wear
a. Flow control valve
b. Inner surface of the control valve housing
- Measure free height of the spring and compare it with the specification.
- Pressure leakage test
a. Install the flow control valve to the recommenced special tool.
b. Pour cleaning oil into the center hole of the locking nut.
c. Apply compressed air (4 – 5 atmospheres) to the air hole joint.
d. If bubbles can be seen coming out through the center of the valve, there is
pressure leakage.

6. Replace the Front Housing Oil Seal

- Remove the oil seal with a screwdriver.
- Install a new oil seal with the recommended special tool.

Assembling power steering pump

1. Attach the recommended special tool to the rear housing and hold it in a vice.
2. Be sure the identifying mark on the valve matches the identifying mark scribed on the
rear of the pump body.
3. To assemble, place the side plate with the large beveled width facing towards the housing
side.
4. Using the two bolts as a guide, drive in the fixed ring evenly with a soft hammer.

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 5. Select a fixed ring, rotor shaft and slipper with matching identifying marks.
6. Compress the spring with the slipper and spring seat and install. Position the slipper
notch in the proper direction .
7. To assemble, place the side plate with the large beveled width facing towards the housing
side.
8. Fit the front housing, and position the mark as is shown in the figure.
9. Tighten evenly in three or four rotations and compare it with the specification.
10. Check the preload at the pulley.

Installing power steering pump

1. Connect the pressure hose with the recommended special tool.

2. Tighten the pulley set nut securely to the specified torque.
3. Adjust the drive belt tension to the specification.
4. Fill with fluid
5. Bleed the system
6. Boost the fluid pressure to check for fluid leakage

Wheel alignment

Front - end geometry

Front - end geometry is the relationship of the angles among the front wheels, the front-wheel
attaching parts, and the ground. The various factors that enter into front-end geometry are:-

1. Front suspension height

2. Camber
3. Steering axis inclination
4. Caster
5. Toe
6. Turning radius (Toe-out on turns)

Camber, Caster and Toe are adjustable; Steering Axis Inclination and Turning Radius are not.
Alignment angles change as vehicle speed and load condition change, but should always return to
their original setting when the vehicle is at rest and unloaded. Other factors, such as changes in
steering, cornering, and braking forces, also affect alignment angles.

Suspension Height

This is the distance measured from some specific point on the body, frame, or suspension to the
ground, figure 7.39. If suspension height is not correct, it can affect the angles in the suspension
system (the wheel alignment). Incorrect height could result from sagging coil or leaf springs, or
incorrect torsion-bar adjustment.

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Figure 7.39 Suspension height on this vehicle is determined by measuring the heights at C
and D at specified distances A and B from the center lines of the axles

Camber

Camber is the tilting in or out of the front wheels from the vertical when viewed from the front
of the vehicle. If the top of the wheel tilts out, it has positive camber. If the top of the wheel tilts
in, it has negative camber), figure 7.40. The amount of tilt, measured in degrees from the
vertical, is called camber angle.

Figure 7.40 Camber angle

It is always desirable that tyres should roll on the ground vertically so that the wear is uniform. If
while running, the tyres are inclined from the vertical either inward or outward, they will wear
more on one side than the other. If the wheels have positive camber, they will have a tendency to
toe-out and the tyre will wear more on the outer side.

In the same manner, a negative camber will cause the front wheels to toe in and wear more on the
inside. Initial positive camber is provided to the wheels so that when the vehicle is loaded, they
automatically come to a vertical position.

Normal camber on automobiles is small usually within +10 to -10, with a tolerance of  1/20 with
the automobile standing. If the camber on the two front wheels is not equal, the vehicle will try
to pull towards the side where the camber is higher.

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This upsets directional stability and tends to scuff the tread on the opposite tire. Camber is
adjustable by changing the position of one end of the steering knuckle. Some automobiles have
adjustments at the upper control arm pivots using shims and others at the upper ball joint. Others
adjust the lower control arm pivots. In McPherson strut outward or inward or outward to adjust
camber.

Note:

Always follow the manufacturers manual for the methods and specifications to adjust camber
angle.

Kingpin Inclination (Steering Axis Inclination)

Steering Axis Inclination is the angle between the centre line of the upper and lower ball joints
and the vertical, figure 7.41. The purpose of steering axis inclination is to help provide steering
stability, reduce steering effort and reduce tyre wear.

Figure 7.41 Steering Axis Inclination

If the steering axis centre line is extended to the road surface near the tyre centre line, the
distance between these two lines at the point they intersect the road surface is called the scrub
radius.

A small amount of positive scrub radius is important since it reduces steering wheel shock from
road irregularities and reduces steering effort.

Scrub radius is positive when the tire centerline lies outside the steering axis. It is negative when
the tyre centreline is inside the steering axis. It is measured in mm. It should be up to about
12mm.
The inward tilt or inclination of the steering axis tends to keep the wheels pointed straight ahead
and also helps recovery, or the return of the wheels to straight ahead position. This angle is
usually between 40 and 80. SAI is not adjustable. Generally, if camber can be adjusted to
specifications, the SAI is correct. However, a change in camber will cause a similar change in
SAI. When the SAI is not within specifications, the spindle, ball joints, or other parts are bend or
worn and should be replaced.

44
Included Angle

This is the camber angle plus the steering axis inclination angle, figure 7.42. The included angle
determines the point of intersection of the wheel and steering axis centerlines.

This point determines whether the rolling wheel tends to toe-in or toe-out. The tyre that rolls
with toe-in or toe-out will wear rapidly.

When the point of intersection is below the road surface, the wheel tends to toe-out and when the
point of intersection is above road surface, the wheel attempts to toe-in

Figure 7.42 Included Angle

Caster

Caster is the angle formed by the forward or rearward tilt of the steering axis from vertical, when
viewed from the side of the wheel), figure 7.43.

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Figure 7.43 Caster angle

The angle is positive when the steering axis tilts backward. With positive caster, the upper ball
joint is behind the lower ball joint. Caster is negative when the steering axis tilts forward.

Caster angle has the following purposes:-

1. To maintain directional stability and control.

2. To increase steering returnability.
3. To reduce steering effect

Positive caster aids directional stability. The centerline of the ball joints passes through the road
surface ahead of the centerline of the wheel. Therefore, the push on the ball joints is ahead of the
road resistance to the tire. The tire is trailing behind. A car wheel that is pulled has greater
directional and steering stability than a wheel that is pushed. In addition, positive caster tends to
keep the wheels pointed straight ahead. It helps overcome any tendency for the car to wander or
steer away from the straight-ahead position.

Negative caster does not aid directional stability. SAI contributes more than caster to directional
stability of the tire.

Caster also affects the tendency of the steering wheel to return to its center position after making
a turn. This is called returnability. Positive caster increases steering wheel returnability.

Positive and negative caster have different effects on the actions of the wheels and the car body.
When both front wheels have positive caster, the body leans towards the outside of the turn. But
if the front wheels have negative caster, the car tends to lean into the turn. That is, negative
caster counter acts the roll-out effects of centrifugal force during a high-speed turn.

Caster has another effect. Positive caster tends to make the front wheels to toe-in. With positive
caster, the car is lowered as the front of the wheel pivots inward. Therefore, the weight of the car
is always exerting force to make the wheels toe in. With negative caster, the wheels tend to toe
out, although the car steers easier. Then the force to return the front wheels to straight ahead
after a turn is provided by SAI.

Normal caster on passenger cars falls between +20 and 2 1/20 with a tolerance range of  10.

Caster adjustments can be made on most automobiles by repositioning the inner pivots of the
upper control arm to move the upper ball joint forward or backward. Some suspensions are
designed to move the lower ball joint forward or backward by adjusting the lower control arm
strut at the frame-attaching pivot. In some models turning an eccentric cam changes caster angle.
In others changing the length of the strut rod changes caster angle.

Toe

46
Toe is the amount in millimetres, or degrees by which the front wheels point inward or outward),
figure 7.44. Its purpose is to ensure parallel rolling of the front wheels, to stabilize steering, and
to prevent side slipping and excessive wear of the tires with toe-in, the front wheels attempt to
roll inward instead of straight ahead. Toe-out occurs when the wheels are further apart at the
front than at the rear.

Figure 7.44 Toe

Front-wheel toe is set with the car standing still. The toe offsets the play in the steering linkage,
which is eliminated when the car is moving forward. This change in toe is due to the rolling
resistance of the tires against the road. The amount of toe should be sufficient to prevent any toe-
out or toe-in while the car is moving forward. Ideally, the toe setting will bring the actual
running toe to zero when the car is moving.

On front wheel drive cars, the driving force reaching the wheels tends to move them together at
the front. For this reason, front-wheel-drive vehicles usually have zero toe-in or a small amount
of toe-out.

Static toe-in specifications on passenger cars run from 0 to 6mm. Toe-in returns to zero as the
dynamic force develops, as the automobile is moving. Toe-in and toe-out cause excessive tire
wear. Toe wears the edge of the tire grooves to a sharp edge or feather on their inside with toe-in
and on the outside with toe-out.

Toe-out On Turns (Turning Radius)

It is the difference between the two angles formed by the two front wheels and the car frame
during turns. Then the inner wheel is following the radius of a smaller circle than the outer
wheel. Therefore, the inner wheel must toe out more to prevent tire side slip and excessive wear,
figure 7.45

47
Figure 7.45 Toe-out On Turns

When the front wheels are steered to make the turn, the inner wheel turns at larger angle than the
outer wheel. This permits the inner wheel to follow a shorter radius than the outer wheel. The
two front wheels turn on concentric circles, which have a common center.

Toe-out during turns is achieved by the proper relationship between the steering arms, tie rods,
and steering gear. For this reason, the steering arms are angled inward. If the steering arms were
parallel to the wheels, then the wheels would remain parallel during a turn. This would scuff the
tires. The relationship of the parts ensures that the inner wheel on a curve always has more toe-
out than the outer wheel, figure 7.46.

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Figure 7.46 The relationship of the parts ensures that the inner wheel on a curve always
has more toe-out than the outer wheel

Adjusting Wheel Alignment

There are many types of wheel aligners. Some are mechanical types that attach to the wheel
spindles, figure 7.47. Some have light beams that display the measurements on a screen in front
of the car figure 7.48. Others are electronic that indicate the measurements on meters, displays
or printouts.

Figure 7.47 mechanical type wheel aligner Figure 7.48 electronic type wheel aligner

When doing a front-wheel alignment, you check and adjust (if needed) caster, camber and toe.
You also measure SAI and turning radius. These are not adjustable. If they are out of

49
specifications, it means parts are bent or damaged and must be replaced. However before you
make the alignment checks, the following per-alignment inspection must first be made.

 Check and correct tire pressure.

 Check and adjust wheel bearings.
 Check and adjust wheel run-out
 Check ball joints and, if they are too loose, replace them.
 Check steering linkages, and make any corrections necessary.
 Check wheel balance, and correct it if necessary.
 Check rear leaf springs for cracks, broken leaves, and loose U bolts. Make any corrections
necessary.
 Check front- suspension height.
 Check shock absorbers, and replace them if they are defective.
 Check wheel tracking. This means checking whether the rear wheels follow the front
wheels or are off the track. If the wheels are off the track, it usually means a bent frame or
a broken center bolt of the leaf springs. The frame must be straightened before you can do
a wheel alignment.

Checking toe-in angle

(Measurement with a Bridge Beam)

The steering is first brought to the straight – ahead position. If there is no excessive play in the
pivots and bearings, toe-in can be measured by bringing the measuring arms into contact with
both wheels. On the equipment illustrated here, the toe-in value for each wheel is shown in
degrees.

If the measured toe-in value is beyond the manufacturer’s tolerances, it must be adjusted at the
track rod. Since bent track rods and track rod arms also affect toe-in, the steering linkage should
be checked as well.

Figure 7.49 Measuring toe-in

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Task 7.7.2 Adjusting Toe Angle

After correcting caster and camber, toe is adjusted figure 7.50. Place the front wheels in the
straight-ahead position. Then check the positions of the spokes in the steering wheel. If they are
not centered, they can be properly positioned when toe is set. Toe is adjusted by turning the
adjuster sleeves in the linkage. If the adjuster sleeves are turned to lengthen the tie rods, the toe-
in is increased.

Figure 7.50 Adjusting Toe

Checking caster angles

A. Measurement with a Bridge Beam

Since the camber angle changes as the steering is turned to an extent dependent on the rate of
caster change, the latter value can be determined by measuring camber angle at various wheel
positions.

The wheel is first turned in wards by 20 degrees, to simulate the inside wheel when cornering ,
and camber angle is measured. The wheel is then turned through a total of 40 degrees to the 20-
degree position on the opposite lock, simulating the outer wheel when cornering, and another
camber-angle measurement is taken. The angle on the calibrated scale between the first and
second pointer positions is used to determine caster; it is referred to as the camber difference
angle. Since 40’ of camber difference represent 1 degree of kingpin inclination, the latter is
evidently one and a half times the difference in camber angle (caster = camber angle difference
multiplied by 1.5).

The wheel has a positive camber if it leans out at the top. When it is turned to the position
occupied by the inner wheel when cornering, the camber angle must always be positive. If it is
turned to the 20 – degree lock position to simulate the outer wheel, the camber angle may be
negative (top of wheel leaning in towards vehicle).

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B. Measurement with Protractor

To measure caster, one wheel is turned to 200 left lock, the angle measuring device set up
horizontally and the caster measuring point set to the zero mark figure 7.51. The wheel is then
turned to the 200 right lock position, the air bubble in the gauge centered and the caster reading
taken. The measurement is repeated on the other wheel.

Figure 7.51 Measuring caster angle with protractor

Checking camber angles

A. Measurement with a Bridge Beam

The measuring beam must be placed against the tires in front of the wheels (which must point
straight ahead) so that the marks on the turntables are at the centers of the tyres. The vehicle is
then pushed forward until its front wheels are on the turntables. The measuring arm is set
vertically with the aid of the built-in spirit level. The probe on the measuring arm is then placed
against the wheel rim and the camber angle read off at the calibrated scale.

The camber angle must be within the specified tolerances, usually 30’, but the difference in
camber angles at the two front wheels should not exceed 20’ or else the steering will pull to one
side.

On most motor vehicles, the camber angle can be adjusted.

If the readings differ considerably from the specified values, this may indicate wear or distortion
of front axle components, which should be examined and repaired or renewed.

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Figure 7.52 Measuring camber angle with Bridge Beam

B. Measurement with Protractor

To measure camber, the front wheels must point straight ahead. The camber-scale disc of
the protractor should be turned until the air bubble of the appropriate gauge is between
the two central lines. The camber angle value can then be read off at the scale disc. The
same measuring procedure is repeated on the other front wheel.

Adjusting Camber And Caster

Several different ways to adjust camber and caster have been used. Some of the methods include
removing and installing shims, turning a cam, shifting the inner control-arm shaft, and changing
the length of the strut rod.

1. Adjustment By Installing Or Removing Shims

The shims are located at the upper control-arm shafts. They are placed either inside or
outside the frame bracket. Figure 7.53. shows the location of the shims in many General
motors cars. The shims are inside the frame bracket. Figure 7.54. shows the location of
the shims in many Ford cars. The shims are outside the frame bracket. When the shims
are inside the frame bracket, figure 7.55 adding shims moves the upper control arm
inward. This reduces positive camber.

53
 Figure 7.53 location of the shims in Figure 7.54 location of the shims in many Ford cars
many General motors cars

When the shims and shaft are outside the frame bracket figure 7.54, adding shims moves
the upper control arm outward. This increases positive camber. If shims are added at one
attachment bolt and removed from the other the outer end of the upper control arm shifts
one way or the other. This increases or decreases caster. Figure 7.55. shows these
adjustments.

Figure 7.55 Caster and Camber adjustments

2. Adjustment By Turning A Cam

There have been several variations of this method. Figure 7.56 shows the arrangement
used on some Chrysler-built cars. The two bushings at the inner end of the upper control
arm are attached to the frame brackets by two attachment bolts and cam assemblies.
When the cam bolts are turned, the camber and caster are changed. If both are turned the
same about and in the same direction. The camber is changed. If only one cam bolt is
turned, or if the two are turned in opposite directions, the caster is changed.

54
 Figure 7.56 Adjustment By Turning A Cam

3. Adjustment By Shifting Inner Shaft

This system uses slots in the frame at the two points where the inner shaft is attached,
figure 7.57. When the attaching bolts are loosened, the inner shaft can be shifted in or out
to change camber. Only one end is shifted to change caster.

Figure 7.57 Adjustment By Shifting Inner Shaft

4. Adjustment By Changing Length Of Strut Rod

This type of adjustment is shown in figure 7.58.

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 Figure 7.58 Adjustment By Changing Length Of Strut Rod

5. McPherson- Strut Camber And Caster Adjustments

Some cars with McPherson struts do not have any adjustment for camber or caster. Other
cars with this type of suspension have a camber adjustment. On these cars, turn the cam
bolt at the lower end of the strut to move the top of the wheel in or out to adjust the
camber figure 7.59

Figure 7.59 McPherson- Strut Camber Adjustments

Wrong alignment settings can cause excessive tire wear. Therefore, a caster-camber
adjustment kit is available for some cars with nonadjustable McPherson struts, figure
7.60. After the kit is installed, caster and camber can be adjusted by moving the top of
the strut. The kit has a slotted plate that is installed between the strut and the inner
fender. In the original design, the top of the strut is fixed in position because it is bolted
through eh holes in the inner fender.

56
 Figure 7.60 McPherson- Strut Camber And Caster Adjustments

Checking Steering Angle Inclination

(Measurement with Protractor)
To measure steering angle inclination, the angle-measuring device is transferred to the
push-in pin needed for steering angle inclination tests. The procedure is then as for caster
measurements, with the steering angle inclination value shown on its own scale.

57