1223135287

ISSN 0975-1211
REVELATION
The Research Journal

of
K.P.B. Hinduja College
Volume X
December 2013
K.P.B. Hinduja College of Commerce

315, New Charni Road, Mumbai 400 004.
i
ISSN 0975-1211
Editorial Board
Chief Editor: Dr. T.A.Shiware

Managing Editor: Dr. (Ms.) Chitra Natarajan
Executive Editor: Dr. (Ms.) Rajeshwary G.
Advisors:
1. Dr. J.F.Patil
2. Dr. S.K.G. Sundaram
3. Dr. L. M. Dani
4. Dr. G.M.Talhar
5. Dr. R.R.Khan
6. Dr. Madhu Nair
7. Dr S. Kaptan
Place of Publication: K.P.B. Hinduja College of Commerce

315, New Charni Road,
Mumbai 400 004.
Views expressed in the articles are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent
those of the Editor of the Journal. All rights are reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced or copied in any form by any means without prior written permission.
ii
ISSN 0975-1211
Vol. No. 10 December 2013
Contents
Sr. No. Subjects Page No.
1 Foreword from the Chief Editor v
2. From the Executive Editor’s Desk vi
3. A Study of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation in Police Constables in 1
Mumbai City
Dr. Anupama Nerurkar
4 A Study on Employer’s Perception of Employability Skills of 15

Students Graduating under Commerce Stream in University of
Mumbai
Sadhana Venkatesh
5 E-Threats And Internet Banking 28

Vanita Malik
6 Degraded and Wastelands 37
A Threat to Survival and Quality of Human Life
Dr. G. K. Kalkoti
7 Capital Productivity of State Transport Corporation 47

Dr. S. Mohan
iii
From the Editor’s Desk
The Research Journal Revelation is being brought out by K.P.B. Hinduja College of
Commerce with a view to assist academicians, professionals and researchers to share
information on topics related to Growth and Development of Business in India. The aim of
this Journal is to encourage researchers to contribute research articles based on
Industry Studies or on the Findings of Research Projects that have been executed. Issues
relevant to the growth and development of Indian Economy, in the streams of Arts, Science,
Social Sciences, Economics, Commerce and Management are also welcome.
Original research articles based on an up to date review of literature and supportive

primary/secondary data are invited.
Frequency of Publication: Biannual

Contact Address:
K.P.B. Hinduja College of Commerce, 315, New Charni Road, Mumbai.400 004.
Phone 022 4098 9000 Fax : 2385 93 97.
Email : hindujacollege@gmail.com
Executive Editor’s E mail address: rajeshwaryhinduja@gmail.com
iv
Foreword from the Chief Editor
The future of India’s growth process lies in the dynamism of its manufacturing sector. If
India has to grow at the rate of 8-9 % per annum over the next few decades and create job
opportunities for its young population, the manufacturing sector must grow at the rate of 14-
15 % per annum on a sustained basis. Despite the recent rapid growth, most of manufacturing
jobs have continued to be in the informal sector, which is characterized by extremely low
productivity, and poor wages and virtually non- existent labour laws. The small informal
firms in India employ 40 % of our workforce as compared to only 4% in developed countries.
India’s growth has been driven by services. Economic development in essence is about
shifting people from sustenance farming to manufacturing.
Our country is passing through a window of demographic transition that rarely happens in
history. The country will be adding nearly 138 million to our working age population by
2021-22. This is an astonishing number and manufacturing must catalyze large scale
employment opportunities. Manufacturing in India has been constrained by two critical
factors – firstly lack of global size and scale of physical infrastructure and secondly,
redundant and outdated labour laws, which have no relevance in today’s age and time. The
National Manufacturing Policy aims to raise India’s share of manufacturing from 16% to
25% by 2021-22 and create about 100 million job opportunities. This implies that the
manufacturing sector must grow at a rate of 16% per annum on a sustained basis between
2013-14 and 2022-23. If manufacturing growth is raised, it will further create additional
employment opportunities. Employment generation from manufacturing will be the
consequence of manufacturing, growth and enhancement in employment intensity. This
necessitates skill development on a vast scale and flexible labour laws. India’s manufacturing
must focus on being employment intensive. It has several advantages- a large, growing and
expanding domestic market, modern manufacturing techniques and a highly advanced
progressive private sector. Several initiatives need to be quickly translated into reality to
boost India’s manufacturing competitiveness.
Dr. T. A. Shiware
Chief Editor
v
From the Executive Editor’s Desk…
India continues to enjoy the number one position as the leading information technology,
business outsourcing and consulting destination for the past two decades. In fact, the other
emerging powerhouses of the BRIC nations are all hot destinations for future investment.
However our country cannot rest on existing laurels alone. It is imperative that it should
strive to become among the finest research hubs. This is possible by investing in schools and
colleges- the places where future generations will develop skills and resources that will
accelerate our country’s economic growth. The national government needs to maintain
investment in the science base in order to secure economic prosperity and to tap new sources
of innovation and growth which will sustain vital connections across the global research
landscape. Currently, a mere 0.25% of India’s GDP is spent on research and development.
The government has proposed to step this up to 2% of GDP, with half of that amount coming
from private industry and half from the public sector. However, the amount allocated for
research and development is yet too small in comparison to other nations which earmark
about 4% to 6% for scientific research.
India is in danger of falling behind other nations in the race to build an advanced 21st century
economy. There is a need to invest a huge amount in education. Our country has increased its
expenditure on education to 4% of GDP during 2012-13, yet compared to the other BRIC
countries, India needs to spend more. According to the World Bank countries like Brazil
spends 5.7% of GDP on education, Ethiopia spends 4.7% and Botswana spends 7.8% of its
GDP on education. India needs a sustainable channel to invest in scientific research. A
population grounded in the sciences will strengthen our industries and government. Our
nation will have home grown minds working on the myriad problems facing society and
improving the lives of the masses. The responsibility for this task lies not just with the
government but with private industry, schools, families and individuals too.
Indian Universities should take the initiative to give top-notch researchers, scholarships,
grants and interest free loans to make their work financially worthwhile. After all scientific
strides and a booming economy go hand in hand and this needs to be focused upon.
Dr. (Ms.) Rajeshwary

Executive Editor
vi
A Study of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation in Police Constables in Mumbai
City
∗
Dr. Anupama Nerurkar
Introduction
Motivation and Morale are the most important factors affecting human behavior and
performance. It refers to the way in which urges, drives, desires, aspirations, strivings or needs
that direct, control or explain the behavior of human beings.1
Motivation policies should consider various aspects that affect the job of employees. In police
department, Job satisfaction affects the morale. Job satisfaction reflects the extent to which
employee finds gratification and fulfillment in their work. It is a set of favourable or
unfavourable feelings and emotions with which the employees view their work.2 There is a
problem of low self esteem in the police force. Constant efforts are made to demoralize and
deprofessionalise the police. The leaders should maintain good human relations and provide
opportunities for career development to increase the morale. In police department also, the
officer’s job is to identify employee’s drive and needs and to channel their behavior to motivate
them towards task performance.
Chaudhary3 states that in the changing and challenging environment of economic liberalization
and globalization, only a truly motivated and committed manpower can take an organization to
the pinnacles of performance and achievement in the police department.
After an organization has selected and trained its employees, it is important that employees be
motivated by and satisfied with their jobs. In work, motivation is the feeling that drives workers
to perform well. Ability and skill determine whether a worker can do the job, but motivation
determines whether the worker will do it properly. Although, actually testing the relationship
∗
Head, Dept. of Commerce, L.S.Raheja College of Commerce and Arts, Mumbai.
1
Prasad L.M., OrganisationalBehaviour, Sultan Chand and Company, Educational Publications, New Delhi, 2007,
p.143.
2
Newstorm John and Davis Keith, Human Behaviour at Work,Tata McGraw–Hill Publishing Co. ltd, 2007 p.207
3
Chaudhary Rohit, Policing, Reinvention Strategies in a marketing framework, Sage Publications, New Delhi, 2009,
p. 40.
1
between motivation and performance is difficult, psychology lets generally again that increased
worker motivation results in increased job performance.
Statement of Problem and Significance of the Study
There are many superiors who believe that financial incentives have the most powerful pull.
With poor pay structure, especially in today’s economy the police department can only have
demoralized employees. However, this is not true as the financial incentives and benefits are
important hygiene factors but not the motivators of lasting value. Researchers and psychologists
like Herzberg to Maslow have pointed that other things are more important. In the police
department today, while we are groping with the issue of lack of motivation due to lack of
financial incentives, we may look at these levels of purpose, service, values, sense of
belongingness, pride in service, recognition and challenges in the job to energize the officers of
the force. Pareek4 has narrated Herzberg’s theory which gives intrinsic and extrinsic motivation,
commonly called as motivators and hygiene factors. Seven intrinsic motivational factors refer to
advancement, interesting work, respect and recognition, responsibility and independence,
achievement, a technically competent superior and equitable pay. Seven extrinsic motivational
factors include security, adequate earnings, fringe benefits, comfortable working conditions,
sound company policies and practices, considerate and sympathetic supervisor and restricted
hours of work. The study is an attempt by the researcher to measure the importance of intrinsic
and extrinsic motivation in Mumbai police force with special reference to police constables.
Objectives of the Study

1. To identify the importance of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation factors in police force with
respect to Mumbai city.
2. To study the impact of motivating factors at the level of police constables.
Hypothesis of the Study

The researcher has developed the hypothesis which reads as follows.
H1=The impact of extrinsic motivational factors is more than impact of intrinsic motivational
factors.
4
PareekUday, Training Instruments for HRD,Tata McGraw Hills publications, New Delhi,2010, p 143.
2
Research Methodology
a). Population Size
All police constables in Mumbai police stations.
b) Sample Size
The researcher covered 970 police constables working in 40 police stations in Mumbai city.
c) Collection of Data
The data was collected basically through primary data. The researcher prepared questionnaire
and interviewed police constables.
d) Analysis of Data
The researcher has followed Herzberg’s two factor theory and the respondents were asked to
rank the factors including intrinsic and extrinsic factors. The Police Extrinsic motivation and
Intrinsic motivation scale was designed by the researcher and used for the study. The
instrument was used to collect information and opinion from police personnel. Researcher has
seven factors listed in extrinsic and intrinsic scale each. The data was collected from the
respondent in the form of ranking. .Normal distribution test Z test was applied to test the
hypothesis.
Motivating Factors
A) Extrinsic Motivators: Extrinsic motivation comes from outside the individual. It refers to
the performance of an activity in order to attain an outcome. It refers to external pressures and
desire for reward such as money. Sometimes it influences the behaviour to avoid punishments.
The following observations were made by the researcher during interviews and review of
literature.
1. Job Security is the priority given by the police force at lower level which leads to job
satisfaction. Being a public sector organisation, many young recruits join the force due to the job
security attached to it. Being government job, there is a rush particularly from rural area at the
time of recruitment.
2. Adequate Salary is another motivating factor which was considered by the majority as a
factor leading to job satisfaction. Long working hours should be justified by adequate
compensation. Maharashtra police, including Mumbai police force has less salary as compared to
other states. This fact leads to dissatisfaction among employees. Sixth pay commission has
improved the salary and monetary benefits for police employees.
3
Home Minister, Mr. R.R. Patil, and former DGP, Arvind Inamdar, and other several police
commissioners have made attempts to increase the pay scale for Mumbai Police. The cost of
living being high in Mumbai, they are required to be paid decent salary. This will also curb petty
corruption to a great extent among individual police employees at lower level.
3. Fringe Benefits are the perks provided to the employee other than the salary. Mumbai police
is provided with the perks like housing facilities, fitness allowance etc. However, it was found by
the researcher that they are not adequate. The third rank is given by maximum respondents,
which shows that the benefits are required to maintain the family. Housing facilities are poor,
badly maintained and generally provided far away from the working police stations. Travelling
allowance, fitness allowance should also act as incentives to enhance the present performance of
police employees in Mumbai.
4. Comfortable Working Conditions: Majority of the respondents were of the opinion that
police work can’t be a comfortable job at all They knew the nature of the job when they joined
this disciplinary force. They and their family members were mentally preprepared for the
challenges in the job.The nature of the job is very difficult and dangerous.The least priority was
given by maximum police constables, naiks and shipais. The police have to keep awake during
night duties and take all possible steps to prevent crime in their jurisdiction. So, the researcher
believes that when an individual joins the police force and undergoes rigorous training, he/she is
very well aware about the hardships of the job. The police organisation in Maharashtra is a
parent agency of Mumbai police. The policies and practices in police stations in Mumbai region
are influenced by Home department and police commissioner’s office.
5. Sound Organisation Policies: They indicate that majority of the policies of the police
department are fair towards police employees. Majority of the respondents have given twelfth
rank as they feel that the policies and practices are formulated and standardized at the top level,
which are difficult to change. They are governed by the ruling party. However many National
Police Commission have recommended that rather than the IAS officer; it is desirable that
policies and practices are formed by the Police Commissioner’s office (IPS), who knows the
difficulties of field level.
6. Considerate and Sympathetic Supervisor: Human relations treatment is a crucial factor in
any service oriented organisation including the police organisation.The superior–subordinate
relationship depends on a number of factors. Being a discipline force, the subordinate is fully
4
controlled by the superior and the superiors follow an authoritarian style of leadership. There are
many incidences in Mumbai that the inhuman attitude of the subordinate has lead to shootout by
subordinate out of frustration. Many respondents have respect and affection for good bosses in
their career. It was also observed that they are ready to do more work if there decent treatment is
given to them. There is and always will be the pressure of work. The stress can always be
relieved by a considerate and sympathetic supervisor. Thus, the researcher believes that the
attitude of the immediate supervisor will increase the morale of the subordinates.
7. Restricted Hours of Work: It is the priority to police constables. In a city like Mumbai, there
is a continuous pressure of work. Shortage of staff is also one of the reasons for introducing eight
hours of work. The long working hours result in health problems, family problems as well as
psychological problems.
B) Intrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation that comes from inside on individual. This motivation
comes from the pleasure one gets from the task itself or from the sense of satisfaction in
completing or even working on the task. It refers to behaviour that is driven by internal rewards.
It occurs when act is done without any obvious external rewards. We simply enjoy an activity or
see it as an opportunity to explore, learn and actualize our potentials. (Coon & Mitterer, 2010)
Intrinsic motivation refers to the reason why we perform certain activities for internal
satisfaction or pleasure. Experts say that people are more creative when they are intrinsically
motivated. Following intrinsic motivation factors are considered for research.
1. Opportunities of Promotion: Promotion are the upward movement of employees in the
organization. Police constables in Mumbai city have no enough opportunities of promotion. They
retire as ASI. Whereas in western countries every policeman joins as a constable and has an
opportunity to become police commissioner.
2. Interesting Work: Police work at constable level is routine in nature. Their work includes
administration, keeping records and field work like bandobast. They do not have decision
making power as far as criminal investigation is concerned.
3. Respect and Recognition: Unfortunately, due to the problems in police department like
corruption, rude behaviour, absence of sensitivity, the reputation of Mumbai police is adversely
5
affected. However, this statement cannot be generalized. Many police constables deserve the
recognition for their job. In majority cases, there is recognition given after their death.
4. Responsibility: Majority of Police constables feel that responsibility goes with the authority.
In most of the cases, superiors have the authority and rarely it is delegated.
5. Doing something Worthwhile: Police constables feel good majority of them feel that they
deal with the society and help deprived and victims to get justice They are associated with
public right from birth to the death. Many times it gives them the satisfaction.
6. Technically Competent: Though the constables are provided training to upgrade their
technology, it is not at all adequate considering the nature of crimes. They are not techno savvy
and have little knowledge of computers.
7. Pay according to Ability and Competence-Being state government controlled institution;
performance related concept is not yet well accepted in Mumbai police. The payment is as per
the grade.
Data Analysis
The researcher has followed Herzberg’s two factor theory and the respondents were asked to
rank the factors including intrinsic and extrinsic factors. The Police Extrinsic motivation and
Intrinsic motivation scale was designed by the researcher and used for the study. The
instrument was used to collect information and opinion from police personnel has seven factors
listed in extrinsic and intrinsic scale each. The data was collected from the respondent in form of
ranking. The present data shows the needs or drives within the employees that determine their
attitudes or behaviors towards their work.
Police constables are given priorities in the job which leads to job satisfaction. It consisted of
financial and nonfinancial factors. The following table represents the weightage given to these
factors. The factors were arranged in a random order and the respondents were asked to allocate
1 to 14 numbers as per their priority. The first rank was given to the factor which is of top
priority to the respondent and the fourteenth rank was to be given to the factor which is of least
importance to the respondent. The following table shows the ranks given to the extrinsic factors.
6
Pareek5 has narrated Herzberg’s theory which gives intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, commonly
called as motivators and hygiene factors. Seven intrinsic motivational factors refer to
advancement, interesting work, respect and recognition, responsibility and independence,
achievement, a technically competent superior and equitable pay. Seven extrinsic motivational
factors include security, adequate earnings, fringe benefits, comfortable working conditions,
sound company policies and practices, considerate and sympathetic supervisor and restricted
hours of work.
Following table gives the deep insight into extrinsic motivating factors and the respective ranks
given by the respondents.
5
PareekUday, Training Instruments for HRD,Tata McGraw Hills publications, New Delhi,2010, p 143.
7
Table1: Extrinsic Motivating Factors - Ranks
Sr. Extrinsic
No. Motivating
factors 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th 13th 14th
1 Job Security 341 112 65 89 85 61 47 34 13 26 16 11 28 42
2 Adequate 157 321 66 45 86 60 54 39 46 16 16 26 21 16

Salary
3 Fringe benefits 25 48 304 69 56 93 69 70 48 47 33 35 35 37
(perks etc)
4 Comfortable 16 29 11 24 74 29 40 41 45 84 51 41 81 401
working
conditions
5 Sound 38 29 19 15 25 41 71 57 47 54 114 266 113 78
organizational
policies and
practices
6 Considerate 44 54 66 118 111 118 87 79 51 36 74 37 43 52
and
sympathetic
supervisor
7 Restricted 263 141 39 42 74 79 78 50 41 28 31 34 31 36
hours of work
Source: Compiled from primary data.
Table 1 represents the ranks given to the extrinsic factors by police constables. It shows the
percentage of respondents (N=970) giving weightage on seven extrinsic motivating factors.
About 35.15 percent police personnel felt that job security in police department will drive them
extrinsically toward better quality of work. This was followed by 33.09 percent population who
might feel extrinsically driven by adequate salary (2nd rank). Fringe benefits factor was important
for 31.34 percent of the constables (3rd rank) and 27.11 percent sample population felt that the
policy of department to restrict the hours of work will motivate them. Considerate and
sympathetic supervisor will motivate extrinsically to 12.16 percent constables (4th rank). Sound
8
organisational policies and practices were given 12th rank by 27.42 percent constables. The
researcher found that comfortable working conditions were least favourable among the
respondents. About 41.34 percent of constables said it is the last priority in joining the force and
gave 14th rank to this factor. The data collected for the present study clearly shows that the large
population in the present study gives better ranks to job security and number of hours as one of
the important extraneous factors for motivating them.
Following table represents the ranks given to intrinsic motivating factors.
Table 2 : Ranks given to Intrinsic Motivating Factors

Sr. Intrinsic 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th 13th 14th
No. Motivating
factors
1 Opportunities for 38 32 42 264 62 56 87 91 81 59 46 33 35 43
promotion
2 Interesting Work 39 21 22 27 43 64 56 54 61 66 83 126 249 57
3 Respect and 33 34 36 28 38 68 61 70 54 95 244 95 77 35

recognition
4 Responsibility 60 41 42 38 54 62 55 53 109 240 73 54 46 39
5 Doing something 43 31 31 66 101 51 53 77 218 92 61 58 52 34

worthwhile
6 Technically 71 92 106 46 91 90 97 78 46 47 46 67 47 43
competent
7 Pay according to 101 116 81 60 36 62 59 132 69 48 28 37 61 74
ability and
competence
Source: Compiled from primary data.
Table 2 shows the percentage of respondents (N=970) giving weightage on seven intrinsic
motivating factors. 27.21 percent police personnel felt that opportunities for promotion are the
fourth important factor that will drive them intrinsically toward better quality of work. This was
9
followed by 25.67 percent population who might feel intrinsically driven by interesting work but
is a second last priority in police department. Respect and recognition and responsibility factors
were important for25.15 percent (11th rank) and 24.74 percent (10th rank) sample population.
Out of the total sample, 22.47 percent population felt that doing something worthwhile will
motivate them (9th rank). Technical competent and pay according to ability and competence
were given weightage of 10.92 percent (3rd rank) and 13.6 percent (8th rank).
Table 3: Mean and Standard Deviation of Extrinsic and Intrinsic Factors

Sr. Mean
Factors No. Variables No. (Ranks) SD (Ranks)
Extrinsic 1 Job Security 970 4.27 3.8041
motivating 2 Adequate Salary 969 4.35 3.4549
factors 3 Fringe benefits (perks etc) 969 6.04 3.5444
4 Comfortable working conditions 967 10.67 3.8557
5 Sound organizational policies and 967 9.83 3.5268
practices
6 Considerate and sympathetic supervisor 970 6.90 3.5795
7 Restricted hours of work 967 5.09 4.0116
Intrinsic 8 Opportunities for promotion 969 6.75 3.4220
motivating 9 Interesting Work 968 9.66 3.6748
factors 10 Respect and recognition 968 8.94 3.4241
11 Responsibility 968 8.11 3.5364
12 Doing something worthwhile 968 7.91 3.3419
13 Technically competent 967 6.68 3.8362
14 Pay according to ability and competence 965 6.76 4.1463
Source: Statistical Analysis of Primary Data.
Tessting of Hypothesis
H1=The impact of extrinsic motivational factors is more than impact of intrinsic motivational
factors on police constables in Mumbai city.(P2>P1)
10
The researcher has framed null hypothesis as follows.
H0=The impact of intrinsic factors is same as the impact of extrinsic motivating factors on police
constables (P1=P2)
Where P1=Impact of intrinsic factors on police constables in Mumbai city.
P2=I mpact of extrinsic factors on police constables in Mumbai city.
The researcher has appled normal distribution (Ztest) to test the hypothesis.
Table 4: Mean and Standard Deviation of Extrinsic Factors

Sr. Mean
No. No. (Ranks) SD
Factors Variables (N) X (Ranks)S
Extrinsic 1 Job Security 970 4.27 3.8041
motivating 2 Adequate Salary 969 4.35 3.4549
factors 3 Fringe benefits (perks etc) 969 6.04 3.5444
4 Comfortable working conditions 967 10.67 3.8557
5 Sound organizational policies and 967 9.83 3.5268
practices
6 Considerate and sympathetic supervisor 970 6.90 3.5795
7 Restricted hours of work 967 5.09 4.0116
Source: Statistical Analysis of primary data.
For Extrinsic factors NI(Arithmatic mean of number of respondents ) is 968.43

X1-9.75 and S1=3.68
11
Table 5 -Mean and Standard Deviation of Intrinsic Factors
Sr. No. Variables No. Mean SD (Ranks)

(Ranks)
Intrinsic 8 Opportunities for promotion 969 6.75 3.4220
motivating 9 Interesting Work 968 9.66 3.6748
factors 10 Respect and recognition 968 8.94 3.4241
11 Responsibility 968 8.11 3.5364
12 Doing something worthwhile 968 7.91 3.3419
13 Technically competent 967 6.68 3.8362
14 Pay according to ability and competence 965 6.76 4.1463
Source: Statistical Analysis of primary data.
For intrinsic factors, N2=967.57

X2=7.83
S2=3.63
Z=
Z= = =
= =11.63
Z=11.63
11.63> 1.96
12
As value of Z is greater than 1. 96, H0 is rejected .Therefore H1 is accepted. The researcher
therefore concludes that there is a difference between impact of intrinsic and extrinsic factors of
motivation on the police employees in Mumbai city.Fronm the table ,it can be shown that the
average mean of extrinsic factors is more than the average mean of intrinsic motivation factors
(9.75>7.83) Similarly the standard deviation of extrinsic factors is more than the average of
standard deviation of intrinsic factors. Therefore it can be concluded that the impact of extrinsic
motivators is more than the impact of intrinsic motivation.
Findings and Conclusions
1. Extrinsic factors are more important and influence the behaviour of police constables in
Mumbai city.
2. Among extrinsic motivating facors,job security is given priority by majority of constables.
3. Adequate salary is also motivating factor which is given second priority by constables.
4. Restricted hours of work is influencing the ability and behaviour of police constables.
5. Out of 970 constables, 118 have alloted 4 th rank to cosiderate and sympathetic supervisor
6. Among extrinsic factors,soundorganisational policies and comfortables working conditions
have taken the backseat.
7. Intrinsic facors are considered secondary by majority of the constables.
8. Among intrinsic motivating factors,106 police constables alloted 3 rd rank for technically
competent.
9. Opportunities for promotion was an important intrinsic factors whch was given 4 th rank
by 264 police constables .
10. Other factors like pay according to ability and competence,was followed by doing
something worthwhile,responsibility,respect and recognitionand interesting work as far as
priority was concerned.
References
1. Prasad L.M., Organisational Behaviour, Sultan Chand and Company, Educational
Publications, New Delhi, 2007.
2. Newstorm John and Davis Keith, Human Behaviour at Work, Tata McGraw–Hill Publishing
Co. ltd, 2007.
13
3. Chaudhary Rohit, Policing, Reinvention Strategies in a marketing framework, Sage
Publications, New Delhi, 2009.
4. PareekUday, Training Instruments for HRD, Tata McGraw Hills publications, New Delhi,
2010.
14
A Study on Employer’s Perception of Employability Skills of Students
Graduating under Commerce Stream in University of Mumbai
∗
.Sadhana Venkatesh
Abstract
Employers, Universities and Professional bodies agree that India needs to develop professionals who are
highly skilled and ready to face the challenges of increased competition. More than ever we need
professionals who are responsive to economic, social, cultural, technical and environmental change and
work flexibility and intelligently across business contexts. Indian industry requires new graduates who
understand the part they play in building their organisations, and have the practical skills to work
effectively in their roles. Today the employers are looking for employees who are readymade. They do
not want to spend hundreds of thousand rupees training new hires rather they want people who are
employable. This study is based on secondary and primary data. The aim of these surveys was to
encapsulate employer perspectives of the value of the discipline-specific knowledge and employability
competencies to the work-environment.
Introduction
Employability enhancement is a burning topic in present world. To sustain in this competitive
world every human needs the capacity to adopt themselves through their own skills, efficiency
and knowledge. To build up a nation and to improve one’s capability, power of knowledge skill
and education are the most vital part of every country. Economic development of a country
comes through proper education. Education does not mean that one has to be a good scholar.
“Education" is a power at work that moulds people. They are being moulded to rely on 'higher
critical thinking'. To accelerate the economic growth of a country, employability enhancement is
urgently necessary. Today the employers are looking for employees who are readymade. They
do not want to spend hundreds of thousand rupees training new hires rather they want people
who are employable. The company can give them on-the-job training for a month or two but they
∗
Asst.Professor, Tolani College of Commerce, Mumbai.
15
expect them to have the basic understanding of how to work in an organization. The corporate
believe that colleges must train students and make them more employable as time and money are
crucial for them. Industry wants people who possess employability skills and an understanding of
client needs. To match such requirements, University of Mumbai has started various degree
courses under commerce stream like Bachelor of Management studies, Bachelor of Commerce
(Accounting and Finance), Bachelor of Commerce (Banking and Insurance), Bachelor of Mass
Media, Bachelor of Financial Markets etc. Though these programmes are structured keeping in
mind global business environment and cater to the ever changing needs of the corporate world
arising out of globalization, there is absolutely no awareness or feedback given to the candidate
what skills he or she must have, and where they are lacking.
Need for the Study

Due to fast paced changes in the industry, with great emphasis on employability skills that
interest employers, there is a need to determine the level of competence that commerce graduate
students possess before moving on to workplace. Do they possess the ability to practice the
leadership and human relations skills required by employers? Have academic programs
adequately incorporated the desired employability skills into the curriculum so that commerce
graduates can adapt to the complex nature of their functions? Could students enrolled under
commerce stream be assured that the knowledge, skills and abilities they learn will make them
employable? Since the level of preparedness of commerce graduates’ employability skills could
affect their employment; the importance of knowing if the programs are providing the necessary
employability skills required by employers is critical. Hence, an attempt has been made to
understand the major skills expected by the employers among the young commerce graduates
which facilitate them to get better employability option.
Review of Literature
The concept of employability has been in the literature for many years. Current interest has been
driven by the changing nature in public employment policy, with increasing emphasis being
given to skills-based solutions to economic competition and work-based solutions to social
deprivation.
16
Anuj Dev (2010) indicates that rising requirements in the Banking sector is creating more banks
vacancies with more people retiring and banks involving in activities like mutual funds, credit
cards, securitisation business, consumer and housing loans and trading in gold and Forex
activities. More opportunities for bank jobs in India are expected to arrive. The employers who
were surveyed in “The Skills Bill” highlighted that within the banking sector, employers are
looking for people with the following skills:
• Numeracy and maths skills
• Languages and cultural awareness
• Understanding client needs and relationship management skills
• Information technology
• Industry and product knowledge
• Interpersonal skills
• Entrepreneurial skills
An employer’s perspective defines employability skills as “skills required not only to gain
employment, but also to progress within an enterprise so as to achieve one’s potential and
contribute successfully to enterprise strategic directions”. (Australian Chamber of Commerce
and Industry & Business Council of Australia, 2002). Enhancing graduate employability skills is
considered as an important task within the university community in any country. In order to
identify employer requirement most of the universities in the world regularly conduct employers’
needs surveys. Employers normally give their comments on the skills they are looking for in new
employees. According to Employers’ Needs Survey conducted by University of Guelph, Canada,
the most common skills that are expected by the employers are as follows:
Employers’ expectations from employees:
• Time Management : The ability to manage several tasks at once, to set priorities and
allocate time effectively in order to meet multiple deadlines.
• Self-Understanding: The ability to know about strengths and personal characteristics.
• Learning Skills : The ability to learn effectively from a wide range of sources including
competencies such as learning what matters, organising information and critical thinking.
• Teamwork Skills: The ability to work effectively as a member of a team and to understand
the dynamics that make teams successful.
• Leadership Skills: The ability to lead, influence and motivate others.
17
• Problem Solving: The ability to identify, prioritize and solve problems. The ability to ask the
right questions, sort out the many facets of the problem and determine possible solutions.
• Working with Diversity: The ability to respect and tolerate different points of view, values
and philosophies of life and deal constructively with people who differ from you.
• Career Planning: The ability to manage your career in a constantly changing world of work.
• Understanding Workplace: The ability to grasp the underlying values of the workplace, its
dynamics and expectations.
• Risk Assessment Management: The ability to assess alternative courses of action in terms
of their consequences and associated risks and to identify alternative ways to reduce inherent
risk.
(Source: Generic Attributes of Graduates of the University of Sydney (1997))
The following are the main objectives of the study:
1. To analyse the importance of employability skills.
2. To understand the perceptions of employers on employability skills which are expected from
commerce graduates.
3. To suggest some measures that can help to bridge the gaps thereby accelerating chances of
employability of commerce graduates.
Methodology
The study is based on primary and secondary data. Secondary data have been collected from
books, journals, newspapers and reports. The primary data was collected through questionnaires.
Employers were requested to indicate the level of importance of skills for successful
performance at the job and the level of satisfaction with respect to the same skills on a 5- point
scale. A total number of 17 employers responded to the questionnaires.
18
Importance of Basic, Professional and Employability Skills
Table 1
Level of Importance of Basic Skills
Factor Mean Standard Deviation
Oral Communication 2.875 .34157
Written communication 2.4375 .51235
Basic Arithmetic 2.75 .44721
Basic Computer Skill 2.6875 .47871
Reading and understanding 2.6875 .47871
Following Instructions 2.025 .50000
(Source: Primary data)
From the above Table1, it can be observed that the basic skills like oral communication, written-
communication, basic-arithmetic, computer skill, reading and understanding and following
instructions had mean scores of more than 2, it indicates that they are of high value. Hence, it can
be inferred that basic skills has been identified as an important skill required by fresh commerce
graduates to enhance their employability.
Table 2
Level of Importance of Professional Skills
Problem Solving 4.8750 .34157
Learning Skill 4.5625 .62915
Creative and Innovative
4.6875 .47871
Thinking
Decision Making 4.4375 .81394
Multi Tasking 4.6250 .50000
19
From the above Table 2, it is observed that the mean value of problem solving (M =4.87),
learning skill (M= 4.56), creative and innovative thinking (M=4.68), decision-making (M=4.44)
and multi tasking (M= 4.62). As all the skills had mean scores of more than 2, it indicates that
they are of high value. But out of all the professional skills, the problem solving skills were the
mean score is 4.875, it is considered to be the most important skill followed by creative and
innovative skill and multi tasking for enhancing employability among fresh graduates.
Table 3
Level of Importance of Core Employability Skills
Dependability 4.1875 .54391
Positive Attitude Towards
4.4375 .62915
Work
Work Ethics 4.4375 .51235
Punctuality 4.5625 .51235
Interpersonal Skill 4.7500 .44721
Cooperation 4.3125 .60208
Working in a Team 4.3750 .50000
Self-confidence 4.5000 .51640
Self-image 4.4375 .62915
Adaptability 4.3125 .47871
Flexibility 4.1250 .50000
Enthusiasm 4.3125 .60208
Motivation 4.3125 .70415
Self-discipline 4.7500 .44721
Self Management 4.4375 .51235
Honesty And Integrity 4.7500 .57735
Ability to work Independently 4.6875 .47871
From the above Table 3, it is observed that the mean scores of all core employability skills are
more than 2 which indicate that they are of high value. But out of all the core employability
skills, interpersonal skill (M=4.75), self-discipline (M=4.75) and honesty and integrity (M=4.75)
are the most highly rated skills, followed by ability to work independently (M=4.69), followed
by punctuality (M=4.5625) and self-confidence (M=4.5). Therefore, it can be concluded that
these skills are considered as the most important skills for employability among commerce
graduates.
20
Satisfactory Level of Basic, Professional and Employability Skills
To assess the satisfactory level of basic, professional and core employability skills, the
researcher calculated the mean and standard deviation in order to substantiate the results.
Table 4
Satisfactory Level of Basic Skills
Oral Communication 2.8750 .34157

Written communication 2.4375 .51235
Basic Arithmetic 2.7500 .44721
Basic Computer Skill 2.6875 .47871
Reading and understanding 2.6875 .47871
Following Instructions 2.6250 .50000
From the above Table 4, it is observed that the mean scores of basic skills are more than 2, it can
be concluded that the satisfactory level of basic skills is average. Out of all the basic skills, Oral
communication has been ranked highest (M=2.87) where the satisfactory level is more when
compared to the other skills, followed by basic arithmetic (M=2.75), basic computer skill
(M=2.69) and reading and understanding skill (M=2.69). Therefore, it can be inferred that
employers are satisfied with the oral communication skill of their commerce graduate
employees.
Table 5
Satisfactory Level of Professional Skills
Problem Solving 2.6875 .47871
Learning Skill 2.6875 .47871
Creative and Innovative
2.4375 .51235
Thinking
Decision Making 2.7500 .44721
Multi Tasking 2.2500 .57735
21
From the above Table 5, it can be observed that the mean scores for decision making skill
(M=2.75), problem solving and learning skill (M= 2.69), Creative and innovative thinking (M=
2.44) and multi tasking (M=2.25). Therefore, it can be concluded that employers who were
surveyed are satisfied with their employees ‘decision making skill’ as it was ranked the highest,
followed by ‘problem solving skills’ and ‘learning skills’ of their employees.
Table 6
Satisfactory Level of Core Employability Skills
Dependability 2.8750 .34157
Positive Attitude Towards
2.5000 .51640
Work
Work Ethics 2.5000 .51640
Punctuality 2.5625 .51235
Interpersonal Skill 2.0625 .25000
Cooperation 2.5000 .51640
Working in a Team 2.5625 .51235
Self-confidence 2.6875 .47871
Self-image 2.7500 .44721
Adaptability 2.3125 .47871
Flexibility 2.5625 .51235
Enthusiasm 2.2500 .57735
Motivation 2.4375 .62915
Self-discipline 2.9375 .25000
Self Management 2.7500 .44721
Honesty And Integrity 2.5625 .51235
Ability to work Independently 2.5000 .51640
From Table 6, it is observed that the mean scores for ‘self-discipline’ (M=2.94), ‘dependability’
(M= 2.86), ‘self-image’ and ‘self management’ (M=2.75) were ranked with high scores and
‘interpersonal skill’ (M=2.06) was ranked the least. Hence, it can be concluded that the surveyed
employers are satisfied with the skill ‘self-discipline’ of fresh commerce graduate employees,
followed by dependability, self-image and self management of their employees. But at the same
time, the other skills like ‘adaptability’, ‘enthusiasm’ and ‘motivation’ were ranked less,
therefore to bridge the gap, special training programmes need to be organised to enhance these
skills.
22
Gap between What the Graduates Bring To the Workplace and Employers’ Expectations
The following figures summarizes employers’ ratings of the basic, professional and core
employability skills where there is a significant gap between what the graduates bring to the
workplace and employers’ expectations.
Figure 1
Basic Skills Gap
Figure 2 Professional Skills Gap
23
Figure3
Core figure Employability Skills Gap

Table 7
Graduates of Various Courses Hired For Entry Level Positions In The Last 5 Years
Name of the course Less than 50 50-100 100-150 More than 150
(Percent) (Percent) (Percent) (Percent)
B.COM 37%% 18% 13% 32%
BMS 44% 19% 6% 31%
B.COM 48% 24% 19% 9%
(Banking and Insurance)
B.COM(Accounting and 43% 18% 7% 32%
Finance)
B.COM(Financial 50% 31% 6% 13%
Markets)
B.SC(Information 38% 13% 11% 38%
Technology)
BMM 53% 21% 11% 15%
24
From the above Table 7, it can be inferred that 38% of the graduates from B.Sc (information
Technology), 32% of B.com graduates, and 31% % of BMS graduates are hired more by the
surveyed employers for entry level position in the last five years.
Table 8
Possibility of Finding Fresh Commerce Graduates With the Right Skills for Recruitment
Statement Percent
Yes always ---
Yes sometimes 50%
No 38%
Have not tried 12%
Don’t know ---
From the above table 8, it can be observed that out of the surveyed employers, none of the
employers were able to recruit the fresh commerce graduates with the right skills at first time,
50% of them were able to recruit sometimes, 38% of the employers never get the graduates with
the right skills and 12% have not tried so far. Hence, it can be inferred that as there is an
increased emphasis on graduate skills, the higher education curriculum need to incorporate
opportunities to develop such skills in conjunction with subject-specific skills and knowledge.
This in turn, will enhance applicants’ potential for success in the recruitment process by
producing ‘business ready’ graduates, able to make a dynamic start and rapidly adopt to change.
Figure 4
Extent to Which Education Institutions Equip Graduates to Adapt to Changes
25
From the above Figure 4, it can be inferred that 56% of the surveyed employers felt that the
education institutions poorly equip the commerce graduates , 25% felt that the education system
do not equip graduates with employability skills and 19% opined that the education institutions
equip graduates with moderately well. Thus, this study makes it clear that the boundary between
the university and business needs to become more porous. Before graduating, students need to
have a clear idea of the expectations of their future employers. Hence, it can be concluded that
there is need for both educational institutions and industry to work together for enhancing
employability skills of commerce graduates.
Conclusion and Recommendations

Employability skills are the most important attributes that businesses look for in new recruits, but
graduates are currently falling short of employers' expectations. Competition for jobs is intense
and graduate unemployment remains high, so students need to proactively develop relevant
employability skills. But at the same time all universities need to explain these skills better and
make sure they embed them in teaching. This study has developed a set of recommendations that
would improve the identification, development, assessment and reporting of employability skills
in commerce graduates of university of Mumbai.
1. Establish Employability Strategy Fund for universities to systematically implement the work
on developing employability skills and address gaps. This might involve analysis in the areas of
curriculum, teaching and learning services, or support through careers services or research into
areas of greatest efficacy.
2. Explicitly identify employability skills in university curriculum.
3. Improve and increase access to Work Integrated Learning (WIL), where employers willing
to offer student placements.
4. Enhance teaching and assessment of employability skills with a set of supporting resources
which specifically address best practice of employability skills in the higher education context
using a variety of tools, such as the General Aptitude Test, the Employability Skills Profiler, the
Graduate and Managerial Assessment (GMA), Critical Reasoning Tests (CRT) or other relevant
tools.
26
References
Books and Journals
1. Frederick H.Wentz (2012): “Soft skills training: A workbook to develop skills for
Employment”, published by Create space Independent publication, 2012.
2. Gopalaswamy Ramesh and Mahadevan Ramesh (2010): “The Ace of Soft Skills”, published
by Pearson Education,New Delhi,2010, ISBN- 978-81-317-3285-4
3. Lowden.K. (2011): “Employers’ perception of the employability skills of new graduates”
published by Edge Foundation, London, 2011.ISBN 978-0-9565604-3-8
4. Nitin Bhatnagar (2012): “Effective communication and soft skills”, published by Pearson
Education, New Delhi, 2012.ISBN 978-81-317-6034-5
5. Shalini Verma (2012): “ Enhancing employability at soft skills” published by Pearson
publication, New Delhi,2012.ISBN: 9788131773079
Research Articles and News paper Articles

6. Andreas.B. and Hiroshi Saeki (2011): “Employability and Skill set of new
graduated engineers in India”. Available at elibrary.worldbank.org retrieved on
22nd May2012. ISSN: 1813-9450.
7. Divya Nair (2011): “85percent graduates in India not employable”, retrieved
from http://www.rediff.com on 30th August, 2011.
8. Meeta Nanada (2012): “Is Indian education producing employable graduates?” retrieved
from http://www.info.shine.com on 15th August 2014.
9. Murali Pasupathy (2011): “How employable are our graduates?” retrieved
from http://www.the hindu.com on 12th August, 2011.
10. Sinha .G.R. (2012): “Need to focus on developing employability skills in our graduates”,
retrieved from http://www.indiaeducationreview.com on 8th November, 2012.
27
E-Threats And Internet Banking

Vanita Malik
Abstract
As commercialization of the internet evolved in the early 1990s, traditional “bricks and mortar”
banks began to investigate ways of delivering limited online services to reduce operating costs.
The success of these efforts led many banks to expand their internet presence with improved
websites that featured the ability to open new accounts, download forms and process loan
applications. The next stage of development was the arrival of internet that offered online
banking and other financial products and services. Internet Banking thus refers to banking
services provided by the banks over the internet.
An increasing number of people have started using the online banking service for convenience
and peace of mind. But fraudsters and cyber-crooks are constantly investing their efforts into
new scams to get access to your financial data. This includes compromising your internet
security and outwitting banks’ security systems. In order to propose security models and
solutions in general it is first necessary to understand and properly classify the existing attack
techniques and the vulnerabilities on which they are based. This research paper aims to highlight
different types of online frauds in order to raise awareness of increasingly common internet
frauds and also to offer suggestions to protect the internet users.
Keywords: Internet banking, e-threats, online banking, phishing
Introduction
The internet banking portal of a bank, enables its retail banking customers to operate their
accounts from anywhere, anytime, removing the restrictions imposed by geography and time.
Internet banking is a term used to describe the process whereby a client executes banking
transactions via electronic means. This type of banking uses the internet as the chief medium of
delivery by which banking activities are executed. It is a platform that enables the customers to
carry out their banking activities from their desktop, aided by the power and convenience of the
Internet. Some of these services include paying of bills, funds transfer, viewing account
∗
Asst. Professor, Department of Economics, Shankar Narayan College of Arts and Commerce, Mumbai
28
statement, etc. Providing internet banking has now become a “need to have “rather than a “nice
to have” service.
Internet Banking has made life easy for users by providing online access to various banking
services. However, there are potential problems associated with it which customers may not be
aware of. Consumers need to weigh the advantages as well as the disadvantages of internet
banking before signing up.
Identity Theft and Spyware- The New Threats

One of the latest and most dangerous threats to privacy in the digital age is Identity Theft.
Identity theft is the wrongful taking of someone else’s “real world’ identity for the purpose of
committing fraud. Identity theft occurs when someone illegally obtains your personal
information- such as your credit card number, bank account number, or other identifications and
uses it repeatedly to open new accounts or to initiate transactions in your name. In most cases it
leaves the owner in large debt with a negative credit history and in some cases with legal
implications. On the other hand, Spyware can be used to surreptitiously gather all types of
confidential information. In most cases the user has no idea the information is being taken. This
form of “snoopware” lets the spy access everything one does online including usernames,
passwords, online shopping purchases and e-mail or chat correspondence.
Internet Banking Threats
Although the benefits of Internet Banking are undeniable, there are some inconveniences and
concerns which the customers should be aware of. Online frauds occur when someone poses as a
legitimate company to obtain sensitive personal data and illegally conducts transactions on your
existing accounts.
 Phishing Schemes
A phishing e-mail usually looks as though it comes from your bank. Within the email you are
usually encouraged to click a link to check your current account. This link leads you to a
malicious website similar to the one of your bank. Once you enter your details, fraudsters can
get hold of them. At this point, your internet security and bank account are compromised.
 Man-In-The-Browser Attacks
With the use of financial malware like the Zeus Trojan, cyber-criminals can manipulate your
browser to show a malicious webpage which looks exactly like the one usually displayed by
29
your bank’s website. The only difference is that it asks you for private details that your bank
normally wouldn’t, and that enable hackers to take over your account. They can change the
amount, destination bank and account, and afterwards, they can alter your account balance to
make everything in your bank statement look normal.
 Money Mules
Cyber-crooks can use you as a ‘money mule’ or as an intermediary to transfer stolen money
overseas. They can contact you via e-mail, pose as a trustworthy entity and persuade you to
accept money into your bank account for a legitimate reason. Then, they ask you to transfer
money to other accounts in return for a fee. As a money mule, you can be accused of the
stealing the money, even though you had no idea that the transactions were illegal.
 Hardware and Software Key loggers
Fraudsters use small devices they attach to your computer, or pieces of malware they spread
over the web and via e-mail attachments, to covertly record your keystrokes. While you have no
idea of their existence, fraudsters can find out your PIN, passwords and other internet security
information and use them to their advantage.
 E-Mail Scams and Fake Websites
Some emails inform the customer that their security details and passwords need to be updated
by logging into an authentic looking, but fake website. The purpose of these websites is to
obtain your log in details to access your bank accounts .Others communicate security messages
and advice you to install software from the email that checks and removes viruses. By
downloading the software you are in fact tricked into downloading a virus. To prompt you into
action, such emails may signify a sense of urgency or threatening condition concerning your
account.
All of these scams can turn a simple online banking session into an internet security threat. The
safety of your financial data and identity are at stake here.

• To study the awareness level of e-threats of the internet banking users.
• To identify the different types of online frauds/ e-threats that occur in internet banking.
• To present findings, suggestions and conclusion of the study.
30
Methodology
The study is empirical in nature and uses primary and secondary data. Primary data has been
collected with the help of a questionnaire. The respondents for primary data are the customers of
internet banking. They have been selected randomly. The sample comprised of 30males and 30
females within the age group ranging from 20 to 50 from different backgrounds. Secondary data
was collected from books and websites related to the study.
Data Analysis and Interpretation

From Table 1 it is clear that out of 60 respondents 15 are below 30 years of age, 30 are between
31 to 40 years of age and 15 are between 41 to 50 years of age. It is concluded that the majority
of respondents belong to 31-40 age group.
Table 1 Age Group of the Respondents

S. No Age No. of Respondents Percentage
1 Below 30years 15 25%
2 31-40years 30 50%
3 41-50 years 15 25%
Total 60 100%
Table 2 Awareness Level of E-Threats among Respondents

S. No Opinion No. of Respondents Percentage
1 Yes 15 33,33%
2 No 45 66.67%
Total 60 100%
31
From the above table, it is understood that out of 60 respondents, 15 of the respondents are of the
opinion that they are aware of the e-threats and 45 of them are unaware of it. Thus according to
the above analysis majority of respondents are unaware of the e-threats faced by them.
Table 3 Types of E-Threats

S. No Types of E-threats No. of Percentage
Respondents are Respondents
Unaware of
Male Female Male Female
1 Phishing Schemes 3 6 17.65% 21.43%
2 Man in the browser 5 7 29.41% 25.00%

attack
3 Money Mules 4 7 23.53% 25.00%
4 Hardware and 3 5 17.65% 17.86%

software Key loggers
5 E-mail Scams and 2 3 11.76% 10.71%

Fake Websites
Total 17 28 100% 100%
Source: Primary Data
From the above table, it is clear that out of the 45 respondents 17 male and 28 females are
unaware of e-Threats. 8 respondents are unaware about phishing schemes. 12 are unaware of
man in the browser attack. 11 are not aware of money mules.8 respondents do not know about
hardware and software keyloggers and 8 are unaware of E-mail scams and fake websites. It is
found that majority of females are unaware of the different e-threats that might affect them.
Suggestions
The following points are suggested for the safe and wise use of internet banking.
32
 Keep all the applications on your PC up-dated.
 Keep your browser to the highest level of internet security notification.
 Look at the website’s URL when you do online transactions – it has to start with “https” and
not “http”.
 If you receive an e-mail from your bank, that looks suspicious, delete it and contact your
bank by phone. Always remember a bank will never ask you for your credentials via e-mail. It’s
always best to have a Spam filter on your PC to sort out all the malicious e-mails.
 Don’t bank online in public places, for example from cyber cafes, libraries etc. If you do,
don’t leave your computer unattended while in the middle of an online banking session. Also,
make sure the Wi-Fi network is secure.
 Check your bank account on a regular basis. If you spot suspicious transactions, contact your
bank immediately by phone.
 Users must change their password after the first log-in for online banking. Besides, the user
should keep changing the Password at regular intervals.
 Avoid using your date of birth, telephone number, address or name in your password.
 Do not send credit card or account details via e-mail to anybody, or even response to an e-
mail.
 While shopping online, check if the website is an established one and a reputed name in
online shopping domain.
 Use virtual keyboard to enter user ID and Password.
 Avoid entering sensitive info in pop-ups.
 Track your transactions and usage history regularly.
 Do not open multiple browsers during internet banking. Use latest and genuine software on
your system with secure settings.
 Get proactive antivirus and anti malware protection against malware that can settle in your
browser or hide in e-mail attachments and have a firewall installed in it.
Currently adopted Internet Banking Security Models

The models currently adopted in online banking systems are based on several security layers,
consisting of diverse parallel solutions and mechanisms which aim at protecting the banking
application and the user's data, providing identification, authentication and authorization.
33
 Digital Certificates: Digital certificates are used to authenticate both the users and the
banking system itself. This kind of authentication depends on the existence of a Public Key
Infrastructure (PKI) and a Certificate Authority (CA), which represents a trusted third-party
who signs the certificates attesting their validity.
 One-Time Password Tokens: One-Time Password devices are commonly used as a second
authentication factor. These kind of devices render captured authentication data useless for
future attacks through the use of dynamically changing passwords which can be used only once.
 One-Time Password Cards: They constitute a less expensive method for generating
dynamic passwords, also providing a second authentication factor.
 Browser Protection: In this model, the system is secured at the Internet browser level,
which is used to access the banking system. The user and his browser are protected against
known malware and this hinders credential theft and capturing of sensitive information.
 Virtual Keyboards: Virtual keyboards were developed to thwart the use of keyloggers
(which capture information typed into the device).
 Device Registering: This method restricts access to the banking system to previously known
and registered devices. Hardware fingerprinting techniques are used in conjunction with user
identification through secret credentials.
 CAPTCHA: Completely Automated Public Turing test to tell Computers and Humans Apart
is a method recently adopted in some banking systems whose objective is to render automated
attacks against authenticated sessions ineffective. This method requires the legitimate user to
input information conveyed as scrambled images which are difficult for automated robots to
process and recognize.
 Short Message Service (SMS): This method has been applied in some banking systems to
notify users about transactions requiring their authorization. It provides a second authentication
channel for transactions.
 Device Identification: Device identification aims at facilitating user access. This
identification model is based on physical characteristics of the user's device through which it is
possible to identify its origin and history information.
 Positive Identification: Positive identification is a model where the user is required to input
some secret information only known to him in order to identify himself. It is applied as a
second authentication method.
34
 Pass-Phrase: It is a security model based on information held by the user. It is usually used
as a second authentication method in transaction that involve money movement.
 Transaction Monitoring: This method is currently applied in all online banking systems,
each of them using different techniques. Artificial intelligence, transaction history analysis and
other methods that identify fraud patterns in previously processed transactions are among the
various approaches to transaction monitoring.
The correct identification of the threats faced by current Internet banking systems is essential for
designing more efficient models which provide a higher level of security.
Conclusion
The number of malicious applications targeting online banking transactions has increased
dramatically in recent years. This represents a challenge not only to the customers who use such
facilities, but also to the institutions who offer them. Online banking systems require efficient
security models capable of identifying users and authorizing transactions, thus mitigating fraud.
However, current models are focused on fraud identification instead of fraud prevention, which
means that actions are taken only after a fraud occurs instead of performing a series of preventive
procedures.
References
1) A formal classification of internet banking attacks and vulnerabilities. Laerte Peotta,
Marcelo D. Holtz, Bernardo M. David, Flavio G. Deus, Rafael Timóteo de Sousa Jr.
Electrical Engineering Department, University of Brasilia (UnB) Campus Universitario
Darcy Ribeiro -- Asa Norte -- 70910-900 -- Brasília, DF – Brazil.
2) International Journal of Computer Science & Information Technology (IJCSIT), Vol 3, No
1, Feb 2011DOI : 10.5121/ijcsit.2011.3113 186
3) Computerised Banking System in India-Nidhi Kapoor,2008 publication, Sublime
Publications, Jaipur.
4) Electronic and Internet Banking-C.N.Reddy, 2008 publication, Pearl Books, New Delhi
5) Lloyd Bridges. The changing face of malware. Network Security, 2008(1):17–20,

January 2008.
6) Tan, M.; Teo, T. S. (2000): "Factors influencing the adoption of Internet banking", Journal
35
of the Association for Information Systems, 1 (5), pp. 1–42.
7) D’Arcy, J., Hovav, A. and Galleta, D. (2009). User Awareness of Security
Countermeasures and Its Impact on Information Systems Misuse: A Deterrence
Approach. Information Systems Research, 20 (1), 79-98.
• http://bankingandsavings.com.au/2013/04/25/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-internet-
banking/#sthash.psZjIYFx.dpu
• www.icicibank.com>Safe Banking
36
Degraded and Wastelands
A Threat to Survival and Quality of Human Life
∗
Dr. G. K. Kalkoti
Abstract
Land has been a stock of renewable resources and a source for human survival as well as
improving the quality of human life. Since it as competing demand and multiple uses, the rate of
land degradation far exceeds its natural rate of regeneration. This means the degraded land is not
naturally replaced with a human lifetime resulting in a loss of opportunities for the next
generation. FAO says, “For thousands of years, people have modified, degraded and destroyed
natural ecosystem. In 1950, some 115 million square kilometers of the Earth’s surface were
“under graded and vegetated” land. Just 40 years later, almost nine million square kilometers
were classified as “moderately degraded”, with greatly reduced agricultural productivity. A
further three million square kilometers were “severely degraded”, having lost almost completely
their original biotic functions. Almost 100,000 square kilometers are beyond restoration”. In
order to accelerate the progress under various schemes there is need for initiating actions for
reclaiming degraded
Key Words: Land, degradation, natural resources, social mobilization, empower people
Introduction
According to National Remote Sensing Agency’s district-wise mapping of wastelands, using
satellite data, the wastelands in India is 63.85 million hectares. Besides deserts, drought-prone,
flood-prone and tribal areas have been subjected to severe forms of degradation. Estimates of the
cost of soil degradation during 1980s and 1990s ranged from 11% to 26% of GDP. The cost of
salinity and water logging is estimated at Rs120 billion to Rs270 billion. The Working Group on
“Watershed Development, Rain-fed Farming and Natural Resource Management”[WDRFNRM]
for the Tenth Five Year Plan [2002-07] constituted by the Planning Commission had assessed
that 88.5 million hectare degraded wasteland including rain-fed areas would need development.
The Working Group envisaged to cover the entire 88.5 million hectare land in four successive
∗
Associate Professor & Head, Dept. of Economics, Nagindas Khandwala College, Mumbai.
37
Five Year Plans, commencing from the Tenth Plan to Thirteenth Plan at an estimated cost of
Rs727.5 billion [at 1994 price].
Causes and Consequences

India has only 2.4% of the world’s geographical area and 0.5% grazing area but supports over
16% of the world’s population and over 18% of world’s cattle population. The degradation of
environment in the fragile Indian sub-tropical eco-system is basically attributed to increasing
biotic and abiotic pressure; absence of adequate investment and appropriate management
practices; high rate of population growth and high incidence of poverty in rural areas; over
exploitation of natural resources; the break-down of traditional institutions for managing
common property resources and failure of new institutions to fill the vacuum and faulty land use
practices. All these have resulted into soil and wind erosion; depletion of natural resources;
lower productivity; groundwater depletion; shortage of drinking water; reduction in species
diversity and increase in the extent of wastelands.
Ninth Five Year Plan

Two centrally sponsored schemes for soil conservation and integrated watershed management in
the catchments of flood-prone regions introduced in 1961 and 1982 aimed at enhancing
productivity of degraded lands, minimizing siltation of reservoirs and chances of floods. During
the Ninth Plan both these schemes were merged into a new one- soil conservation for enhancing
productivity of degraded lands in the catchments of river valley projects and flood prone rivers.
The scheme is being implemented in 53 catchments having a total area of 113.40 million hectare
spread over in 27 States.
The scheme for reclamation of alkali soils introduced in 1985-86 was extended to all States in
the Ninth Plan. It attempts to improve land and crop productivity by taking up production of
crops, including horticulture, fuel wood plantation and fodder species suitable to the soil
conditions. Integrated wasteland development project being implemented, since 1989-90, is
based on village/micro watershed plans, which are prepared after taking into consideration the
land capability, site conditions and local needs of the people.
38
The scheme also aims at rural employment besides enhancing the contents of people’s
participation in the development process at all stages, which is ensured by providing modalities
for equitable and sustainable sharing of benefits and usufructs arising from such projects. The
major activities undertaken are
[i]in situ soil and moisture conservation measures like terracing, embankments, trenching,
vegetative barriers and drainage line treatment
[ii] planting multipurpose trees, shrubs, grasses, legumes and pasture land development
[iii] encouraging natural regeneration
[iv] promotion of agro-forestry and horticulture
[v] wood substitution and fuel wood conservation measures
[vi] drainage line treatment by vegetative and engineering structures
[vii] development of small water harvesting structures
[viii] afforestation of degraded forest and non-forest wasteland
[ix] development and conservation of common property resources.
The programs for the development of degraded and wastelands got a major boost during the
Ninth Plan. The mid-term appraisal of the Ninth Plan highlighted the immediate and pressing
need for the successful implementation of the programs, such as projects should devote
significant resources to social issues, a high proportion of staff should have experience and
requisite skills in social mobilization, project leaders need to be fully committed to participation
and officials must motivate users to participate, project monitors must explicitly check whether
local organizations of users have been formed, senior staff should have capacity to influence
users and field staff to work in close coordination.
Working Group
The Working Group on “Watershed Development, Rain-fed Farming and Natural Resource
Management “constituted for the Tenth Plan projected that 107 million hectare of land were
subject to degradation, of which 88.5 million hectare would have to be treated under watershed
programs during Tenth to Thirteenth Plan.
39
Table 1:
Wasteland Development Program During Tenth to Thirteenth Five Year Plan
Five Area Estimated Total Cost By By By
Year covered Cost cost sharing Center States People
Plan million Rs/ha Rs Ratio Rs Rs Rs
hectare million million million million
10th 15.0 5000- 90,000 50:25:25 45,000 22,500 22,500
Plan 7000
[2002-
07]
11th 20.0 6000- 140,000 40:30:30 56,000 42,000 42,000
Plan 8000
[2007-
12]
12th 25.0 7500- 21,250 30:30:40 63,750 63,750 85.000
Plan 9500
[2012-
17]
13th 28.5 9000- 285,000 25:25:50 71,250 71,250 142,500
Plan 11000
[2017-
22]
Total 88.5 727,500 236,000 199,500 292,000
Source: Reports of Government of India Ministry of Rural Development Department of Land Resources
New Approach
The Integrated Wasteland Development Program is being implemented since 1 April, 1995 on
the basis of new guidelines for watershed development recommended by the Hanumantha Rao
Committee, which envisages the bottom up approach whereby the User Groups themselves
decide their work program. It aims at creating a scenario where the Government acts as a
40
facilitator and the people at the grass root level become the real executioner of the program. Its
strength lies in the flexibility approach followed in the method of release of funds, the area to be
covered in each watershed as well as choice of components. It attempts to make the projects
sustainable by establishing watershed development fund and involving people in deciding equity
issues and usufruct sharing mechanism. It is not just a technical project but encompasses a social
program as well. It, inter alia, emphasizes on greater flexibility in implementation, well-defined
role for State, district and village level institutions, removal of overlaps, a greater role for
women, an effective role for Self-Help-Groups comprising rural poor, especially those belonging
to SC/ST categories, seeking credit from financial institutions, transparency in implementation
and most effective use of remote sensing data furnished by the National Remote Sensing
Agency.
Peoples’ Participation
Since it is the man who is primarily responsible for degradation of environment, regeneration
and conservation can only be possible by creating awareness and seeking participation of the
people who inhabit the watershed. The entire watershed community should be involved to
implement Integrated Watershed Development Program [IWDP] and maintain the assets created
to ensure sustainability. It emphasizes that the IWDP would have to become a people’s
movement in order to succeed. It is people’s own program, which aims at giving them actual
decision making powers in terms of project implementation and fund disbursal. Its
implementation seeks to empower people so that sense of collective responsibility can be
inculcated among them. It aims at decentralized decision- making process by involving local
people, NGOs, Government departments and watershed community at the grass root level and
promotion of locally available low cost technology.
The new approach, also, recognizes the need to involve the community as a necessary condition
for the sustainability of the program. Activities under the community organization include
organizing Self-Help-Groups and User Groups, Participatory Rural Appraisal exercise,
awareness camps, exposure visits and programs on literacy, family welfare, social services,
income generating activities etc. giving small contributions to SHGs or other village institutions
41
like Mahila mandals, Youth clubs, Anganwadis which are considered important for people’s
participation.
Effective community organization is important to establish credibility of the Watershed

Development Team and create rapport with the village community who is ultimately going to
own and implement the program even after withdrawing the Government machinery. In short,
peoples’ participation and community organization is primarily sought to establish a system
under which village people can actually involve themselves in planning, implementation and
monitoring of watershed development programs.
Institutional Arrangement
Institutional arrangement has been provided from village to state level for successful
implementation of the program and making it sustainable and equitable, such as
[i] Water development association has a key role to play. It consists of all members of the
village whose land is situated in the watershed area called User Group and all those members
who derive sustenance from the watershed area called Self-Help-Group
[ii] Watershed committee is the key institution at watershed level consisting of about two to three
representatives, each of User Group and Self-Help-Group, Panchayat and women etc. The
committee also selects a watershed secretary preferably a local man graduate from the same area
[iii] Watershed development team is a multi-dimensional team responsible for technical and
financial supervision of the project activities.
The team comprises field level officials drawn from various disciplines like forestry, soil
conservation, horticulture, social science etc. These officials are key functionaries for sensitizing
SHGs, UGs and villagers.
Performance
Data presented in following Table shows that
[i] There have been 10 schemes for wastelands development implemented by three Ministries
viz, Ministry of Agriculture [MoA], Ministry of Rural Development [MoRD], and Ministry
of Environment & Forest [MoE&F]. Wastelands development program was started in early
sixties and progressively strengthened during Ninth and Tenth Five Year Plans. The progress
42
was slow till Eighth Plan. It acquired momentum during Ninth and Tenth Plan as the area treated
as well as investment increased sharply from 17.672 million hectare and Rs46,388.0 million till
Eighth Plan to 50.899 [188%] million hectare and Rs192,512.2 [315%] million at the end of
Tenth Plan. The MoRD accounted for 32 million hectare [63%] of the treated area investing
Rs95,232 million [49.7%] as compared to 18.77 million hectare [37%] at the cost of Rs96,804.9
million [50.3%] by the MoA. Of the 10 schemes, Drought Prone Area Program [DPAP], and
Desert Development Program [DDP] of MoRD accounted for 27%,20% and 15% respectively
of the total area treated as compared to NWDPRA [18%] and RVP&FPR[13%] of the MoA
[ii] National Watershed Development Project for Rain fed Areas [NWDPRA] launched in
1990-91[Seventh Plan] on pilot basis was implemented in 28 States during Tenth Plan. River
Valley Projects [RVP] and Flood Prone Rivers [FPR] Program is currently implemented in 53
catchments in 27 States [iii]Watershed Development Project for Shifting Cultivation Area
[WDPSCA]. An area of 4.357 million hectare is affected by shifting cultivation mainly in seven
States of North Eastern region and Orissa. This scheme launched in the Seventh Plan [1987-88]
has, since 1994-95, been implemented in seven States of North Eastern region
[iv] Reclamation of Alkali Soils [RAS] about seven million hectare is affected by salt problem,
out of which about 3.581 million hectare suffers from alkalinity in 11 States
[v] Drought Prone Area Program [DPAP] was launched in 1973-74 and currently is
implemented in 972 blocks of 182 districts in 16 States
[vi] Desert Development Program [DDP] was launched in 1977-78 and is now under
implementation in 235 blocks of 40 districts in seven States
[vii] Integrated Wasteland Development Project [IWDP], a centrally sponsored project was
introduced in 1989-90 and since 1 April 1995, is being implemented through watershed approach
under the new guidelines in 443 districts
viii] Externally Aided Projects [EAP]: The MoRD is servicing externally aided watershed
development projects for the development of degraded and wasteland areas.
43
Table 2:
Degraded Lands Developed since Inception up to the Tenth Five Year Plan
[Area: Million Hectare; Expenditure: Rs. million]
A: MoA Up to Eighth Plan Up to Ninth Plan Up to Tenth Plan
Sr. No Scheme Starting Area Expenditur Area Expenditu Total Expenditu
year e re Area re
A: MoA
1 NWDPRA 1990-91 4.233 9679.3 6.979 18777.4 9.309 30255.6
2 RVP&FP 1962&8 3.889 8199.5 5.488 15162.6 6.486 22442.4
R 1
3 WDPSCA 1974-75 0.074 937.3 0.258 1662.7 0.393 2955.8
4 RAS 1985-86 0.484 622.9 0.581 763.9 0.711 1217.4
5 WDF 1999-00 0.059 260.2
6 EAPs 1.00 6460.0 1.335 20398.1 1.815 39673.5
Subtotal 14.641 56764.7 18.773 96804.9
B: MoRD
1 DPAP 1973-74 6.86 11099.5 6.895 32847.4 13.727 48425.0
2 DDP 1977-78 0.848 7227.9 3.356 7973.8 7.873 19498.8
3 IWDP 1988-89 0.284 2161.6 3.734 6165.1 9.956 24381.5
4 EAPs 0.140 183.9 0.50 2926.7
Subtotal 14.125 47170.2 32.056 95232.0
C:MoE&F NAEP 1989-90 0.070 475.3 0.070 475.3
Total 17.67 46388.0 28.836 104410.2 50.899 192512.2
2
Source: Reports of Government of India Ministry of Rural Development Department of Land Resources
Need for Initiating Actions

In order to accelerate the progress under various schemes there is need for initiating actions, viz.
[i] Peoples’ participation and community organization need to be made very effective by
building their capacity through structured training programs to ensure proper planning,
44
implementation and monitoring that can achieve quantitative and qualitative objectives of the
programs.
[ii] Program-wise comprehensive evaluation by an independent professional team needs to be
conducted at the end of each plan period to assess improved productivity of wastelands,
improved availability of fuel wood and fodder, increase in water table, reduction in migration,
improvement of economic status of the people, cost-benefit ratio and rate of return on
investment.
[iii]There is need to develop policies, which would result in the best use and sustainable
management of land and water resources so as to prevent land becoming degraded and waste in
the light of country’s food and livelihood security.
[iv]In order to formulate an appropriate plans for treatment of degraded lands a complete census
of degraded or wasteland, its location, extent of area, ownership, the vegetative cover currently
available and the biological, physical and chemical properties of land needs to be done.
[v] Since there are a number of schemes for the development of wasteland/degraded lands, a MIS
with clearly defined benchmarks needs to be designed to get a realistic picture of the targets
assigned, progress achieved and the tasks ahead.
[vi]The corporate sector may need to be involved in public-private-partnership mode to restore
wastelands and reclaim degraded lands for which financial resources be channeled through
involvement of financial institutions.
[vii]In collaboration with the National Remote Sensing Agency, the Department of Land
Reforms has released a wasteland Atlas of India in March 2000 indicating district level
information on 13 categories of wastelands, which should be updated periodically with annual
status of land records.
[viii] Proper technical advice on the reclamation of wasteland and on improving biological
potential should be indicated in the Soil Health Passbook issued to farmers.
Conclusion
The United Nations had designated year 2008 as the International Year of Planet Earth and
celebrated it during the Triennium 2007-09. The event coincided with the launching of our
Eleventh Plan [2007-12].Let all of us commit to protect and preserve our precious land, water
and environment through all possible preventive and curative measures.
45
References:
1. Hanumantha Rao Committee Report - Report of the Technical Committee on Drought Prone
Areas Programme and Desert Development Programme (April 1994)
2. Parthasarthy Committee Report - 'From Hariyali to Neeranchal' Report of the Technical
Committee on Watershed Programmes in India (January 2006)
3. Reports of Government of India Ministry of Rural Development Department of Land
Resources New Delhi, India
46
Capital Productivity of State Transport Corporation

Dr. S. Mohan
Abstract
The main objectives of establishing the Tamil Nadu State Transport Corporations (TNSTCs) are
to provide better service at reasonable fare to the societies and to make provision for
employment to the people residing around the corporation. Such service motives are achieved at
the cost of profit. Though profitability is not the primary goal of the TNSTCs, the corporation
cannot run without earning a surplus. The bulk of capital outlay for capital investment comes
from the government. Though there are social dimensions to the investment, decisions of the
TNSTCs are basically economic decisions. Therefore, it is necessary to ensure productivity of
the scarce resource in the TNSTCs. Further, the society as a whole, expects certain rate of
growth of the economy, as a part of the resources of the economy is diverted to the TNSTCs and
it is the society’s expectation that the TNSTCs should contribute to the growth of the economy.
To meet this challenging situation, the chief executive has to lay heavy emphasis on optimum
utilization of resources, which have been employed in the TNSTCs. Today, in most of the
TNSTCs’ utilization of their resources are considerably lower than the corresponding standards.
So the capital productivity of a TNSTC is measured in this paper.
Key Words: Productivity, capital intensity, maintenance
The objectives of any enterprise are to increase the output (goods or services), reduce the cost
and obtain a reasonable return on investment. These objectives can be achieved by improving
productivity. Productivity is the relationship between the output generated by a production or a
service system and the input provided to create this output. Productivity broadly relates to the
efficient and effective use of the existing resources (land, labour, capital, materials, energy, etc.)
∗
Associate Professor of Commerce, SKSS Arts College, Tiruppanandal – 612 504, Kumbakonam, TN.
47
within the constraints inherent in the business of producing goods or services. Productivity is
implied in every economic activity and primarily stands for producing more outputs (goods or
services) from lesser inputs (resources). It is determined by dividing the output by the input.
One of the major problems faced by the TNSTC is the persistent low rate of capital productivity.
Low generation of value added, high wages and salaries, heavy investment in fixed assets, low
load factor, high capital – labour ratio and deteriorating labour – management relations are
mostly responsible for the low capital productivity. This leads to raise a question - whether or not
the capital productivity increases with variables such as real value added, capital intensity, load
factor and labour–management relations?
The gross value added is used as the measure of output, which is obtained by deducting the total
value of intermediate inputs from the value of total revenue. While the total revenue includes
both the operating and non-operating revenues, the intermediate inputs include material costs and
non-operating expenses. The first year of the study has been chosen as the base for this analysis.
In productivity studies, the outputs and inputs are to be evaluated in physical terms. Due to
heterogeneity in the product mix, output is counted in money units and the revenue product is
transformed into physical units by the method of deflation. In this study, the output is deflated
under double deflation method. First, the total revenue at constant price is obtained by deflating
the current value of the total revenue of the study unit with the corresponding estimated product
price index of the related base year. Secondly, the value of intermediate inputs are deflated by
the simple average of the wholesale price indices of motor vehicle and spare parts, fuel and tyres
to get the value of intermediate inputs at constant price. Then the difference between the deflated
value of total revenue and the deflated value of intermediate inputs is termed as real value added.
Trends in Capital Productivity

As a prelude to the presentation of capital productivity of the selected TNSTC, it is considered
necessary to indicate the extent of variations of its components viz., output and capital input. To
examine the movements of output and capital input in the said TNSTC for the period under
study, the indices of output, capital input and capital productivity are calculated and presented in
Table–1.
48
Considering the indices of output and capital input over the years, it is seen from table that the
capital input has a rapid increase when compared to the base year and hence the annual growth
rate is a fairly high such as 16.44%. But considering the indices of output over the years it is seen
that there is a steady but slow increase when compared with capital input.
The average growth rate of indices of output is less than the average growth rate of indices of
capital input. The reason for the rapid increase in the capital input may be attributed to the
increase in the secured loan from TDFC Ltd., over the years. But the output has no appreciable
increase due to the fact that in many routes the collection may not be satisfactory and the
increasing level of competition projected by the private transportation. Hence, the capital
productivity has a steep decline over the years and hence the average growth rate has become
negative. It is an indication that in future the running of selected TNSTC will be more expensive
and will not be able to gain more profits. From this angle it may be argued that the only
alternative is to increase the bus fare but the public would not take it in the right sense. So it is
suggested that the selected TNSTC should impulse the working efficiency and adopt cost
effective measures so that either the output is to be increased or the input be decreased so that the
average growth rate could be encouraging.
Factors affecting Capital Productivity

When all possible determinants of productivity are taken into account, its empirical analysis
becomes quite complex. On a ‘priori’ grounds, the changes in capital productivity in the TNSTC
could be attributed to the scale of production, capital intensity, load factor and labour
management relations:
i. Growth in scale of production permits adoption of new technologies which improve
productivity. Expansion of scale also provides division of labour which in turn improves
productivity. Real value added is used as proxy for scale of production in the present study.
ii. Capital intensity, measured by the real gross fixed capital per unit of real wages and salaries
paid explaining the effect of technical change in output.
iii. Load factor measured as percentage of passenger kilometers to capacity kilometers explains
the impact of capacity utilization.
49
iv. Labour – management relations affect motivation of workers, which in turn affects their will
to work. Time variable is introduced as proxy for institutional factors like management-
labour relations.
Multiple Regression Model

An attempt is made here to analyse the capital productivity by using the multiple regression
model. The functions for capital productivity are estimated in semi-logarithmic form as given
below:
Log CP = a + bl log RVA + b2 log K/L +b3 log LF + b4.t
Where CP = Capital productivity index
RVA = Real value added as proxy for scale of production
K/L = Capital intensity as technology variable
LF = Load factor as capacity utilization
t = Time variable as proxy for labour management relations.
a = intercept
b1, b2, b3 & b4 = regression coefficients (or) slopes
 The coefficient of the real value added (b1) is expected to be positive. It implies that the
increase in real value added would tend to increase the capital productivity.
 As per the accepted theory as well as the previous studies, the coefficient of the capital
intensity (b2) should be negatively related to capital productivity. It indicates that the
increase in capital intensity would tend to decrease the capital productivity.
 The coefficient of load factor should be positively related to capital productivity. The ‘a
priori’ expectation is that higher load factor is associated with higher capital productivity. It
implies that the increase in the load factor would tend to increase the capital productivity.
 It is ‘a priori’ expectation that the coefficient of time variable is positive if congenial
atmosphere prevails between management and labour or vice versa. If the coefficient of time
is positive, then it is presumed that the management – labour relations would tend to increase
50
the capital productivity. The estimated regression results of capital productivity for the
selected TNSTC are shown in table-3.
To assess the influence of some selected factors such as RVA, K/L, LF and time over the capital
productivity, the four independent variables are selected on ‘a priori’ grounds since it is rather
complex to select all the contributory variables to the fluctuations in the capital productivity.
For the data presented in table -2, the results of regression analysis are presented in table-3. It is
found that the value R2, the coefficient of determination is 0.945, which is very high, and it
implies that nearly 95 per cent of changes in capital productivity are due to chosen explanatory
variables and also the F statistic value is 21.519 with significant level at 0.002.
It shows that model is a good fit for the data. Regarding the significance of the regression
coefficients of the independent variables, Student’s‘t’ statistic values corresponding to the
regression coefficients of the variables Real value added, Capital Intensity and Time are found to
be significant. Hence these variables contribute to the variations in the capital productivity. The
load factor is not an explanatory variable that influences the capital productivity because‘t’
statistic value of the same is not significant.
Conclusion
The average growth rate of the indices of capital output is less than the average growth rate of
the indices of capital input. The reason for the rapid increase in the capital input may be
attributed to the increase in the secured loan from TDFC over the years. But output has not
shown appreciable increase. Hence, the capital productivity has a steep decline over the years
and the average growth rate becomes negative. In the case of capital productivity the load factor
value is not significant. The fact is that the increased revenue by an increasing load factor does
not straight away make higher addition to the capital increase, in view of the expenses involved
on labour and maintenance. On the other hand, increased capital contribution would contribute
to capital productivity by virtue of fact that improved machinery, infrastructure, better
maintenance of the fleet, purchase of new vehicles all tend to increase the revenue and thereby
ensure higher returns for the increased capital intensity.
51
Table - 1
Indices of Output, Capital Input and Capital Productivity
(Index Base: Year 1 = 100)
Indices of output Indices of Capital Indices of Capital

Year
(RVA) Input Productivity
1 100.00 100.00 100.00
2 94.76 121.17 78.20
3 91.22 133.70 68.22
4 97.76 327.09 29.89
5 132.37 338.30 39.13
6 139.65 467.92 29.84
7 159.58 351.92 45.35
8 192.44 339.12 56.75
9 190.19 350.57 54.25
10 191.30 400.41 47.78
Annual growth 10.163 16.444 -5.393
Source: Compiled from the annual reports of the selected TNSTC.
Table – 2
LOG OF CP, RVA, K/ L AND LF*
Year Log. CP Log. RVA Log. K/L Log. LF

1 2.000 2.000 2.000 1.837
2 1.893 1.976 2.008 1.858
3 1.834 1.960 1.908 1.899
4 1.476 1.990 2.332 1.903
5 1.593 2.121 2.332 1.903
6 1.475 2.145 2.334 1.900
7 1.657 2.202 2.335 1.905
8 1.754 2.284 2.278 1.902
9 1.734 2.279 2.202 1.876
10 1.679 2.281 2.221 1.845
Source: Compiled from the annual reports of the selected TNSTC.
*CP - Capital productivity; RVA - Real value added; K/L - Capital intensity;
LF - Load factor
52
Table - 3
Regression Model Summary For Capital Productivity
Change Statistics
Adjusted R Std.Error of the
Model R R square
Square Estimate R Square
F Change df 1 df 2 Sig.FChange
Change
1 .972a .945 .901 5.37E-02 .945 21.519 4 5 .002
a. Predictors: (Constant), Year, Load Factor, Capital Intensity, Real Value Added.
ANOVAb
Model Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig.
Regression .248 4
6.212E-02
1 Residual 1.443E-02 5 21.519 .002a
2.887E-03
Total .263 9
a. Predictors: (Constant), Year, Load Factor, Capital Intensity, Real Value Added.
b. Dependent Variable: Capital Productivity
Coefficientsa
Unstandardized Standardized 95%Confidence

Correlations
Coefficients coefficient Interval for B
Model t Sig.
Std. Lower Upper Zero-
B Beta Partial Part
Error Bound Bound order
53
1 (Constant) 1.137 1.982 .574 .591 -3.958 6.232
Real value 1.817 .461 1.431 3.943 .011 .633 3.002 -.265 .870 .413
added
-.957 .184 -.902 - .003 -1.431 -.484 -.832 -.919 -.545
Capital 5.198
-.428 .880 -.071 .647 -2.690 1.833 -.685 -.213 -.051
Intensity
-.487
- .019 -1.229 .016 -.119 -020 -.427 -.849 -.377
Load
6.938 -
Factor
E-02 3.599
YEAR
Source: Compiled from the annual reports of the selected TNSTC
54
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The author should provide complete references, numbered, at the end, of the article with
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Articles: Kamenta J (1967), “On Estimation of the CES Production Function” International
Economic Review, Vol. 8, No.2, pp. 180-189.
Books: Bhatia B S and Batra G S (2003), Entrepreneurship and Small Business
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ISSN 0975-1211

The Research Journal

K.P.B. Hinduja College of Commerce

Chief Editor: Dr. T.A.Shiware

Place of Publication: K.P.B. Hinduja College of Commerce

Vol. No. 10 December 2013

4 A Study on Employer’s Perception of Employability Skills of 15

5 E-Threats And Internet Banking 28

7 Capital Productivity of State Transport Corporation 47

Original research articles based on an up to date review of literature and supportive

Frequency of Publication: Biannual

Executive Editor’s E mail address: rajeshwaryhinduja@gmail.com

Dr. (Ms.) Rajeshwary

Objectives of the Study

Hypothesis of the Study

2 Adequate 157 321 66 45 86 60 54 39 46 16 16 26 21 16

Table 2 : Ranks given to Intrinsic Motivating Factors

3 Respect and 33 34 36 28 38 68 61 70 54 95 244 95 77 35

5 Doing something 43 31 31 66 101 51 53 77 218 92 61 58 52 34

Table 3: Mean and Standard Deviation of Extrinsic and Intrinsic Factors

Table 4: Mean and Standard Deviation of Extrinsic Factors

For Extrinsic factors NI(Arithmatic mean of number of respondents ) is 968.43

Sr. No. Variables No. Mean SD (Ranks)

For intrinsic factors, N2=967.57

Need for the Study

Oral Communication 2.8750 .34157

(Source: Primary data)

Figure 2 Professional Skills Gap

(Source: Primary data)

(Source: Primary data)

(Source: Primary data)

Conclusion and Recommendations

Research Articles and News paper Articles

Identity Theft and Spyware- The New Threats

Objectives of the Study

Data Analysis and Interpretation

Table 1 Age Group of the Respondents

1 Below 30years 15 25%

3 41-50 years 15 25%

Table 2 Awareness Level of E-Threats among Respondents

Table 3 Types of E-Threats

1 Phishing Schemes 3 6 17.65% 21.43%

2 Man in the browser 5 7 29.41% 25.00%

3 Money Mules 4 7 23.53% 25.00%

4 Hardware and 3 5 17.65% 17.86%

5 E-mail Scams and 2 3 11.76% 10.71%

Total 17 28 100% 100%

Source: Primary Data

Currently adopted Internet Banking Security Models

5) Lloyd Bridges. The changing face of malware. Network Security, 2008(1):17–20,

Causes and Consequences

Ninth Five Year Plan

Effective community organization is important to establish credibility of the Watershed

Need for Initiating Actions

Key Words: Productivity, capital intensity, maintenance

Trends in Capital Productivity

Factors affecting Capital Productivity

Multiple Regression Model

Log CP = a + bl log RVA + b2 log K/L +b3 log LF + b4.t

Where CP = Capital productivity index

RVA = Real value added as proxy for scale of production

K/L = Capital intensity as technology variable

LF = Load factor as capacity utilization