BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Danielle Joy L. Alcantara

 Table of Contents

Module 8: Cells and Batteries

Introduction 79
Learning Objective 79
Lesson 1.History of Batteries 80
Lesson 2.Basic Parts of Batteries 81
Lesson 3.Types of Batteries 82
Assessment Task 8 85
Summary 86
Reference 86

Module 9: Series & Parallel Batteries

Introduction 87
Learning Objectives 87
Lesson 1.Electromotive Force 88
Lesson 2.Series & Parallel Batteries 90
Assessment Task 9 93
Summary 94
Reference 94

Module 10: Kirchhoff’s Law

Introduction 95
Learning Objectives 95
Lesson 1.Circuit Terminologies 96
Lesson 2. Current Kirchhoff’s Law and Voltage Kirchhoff’s Law 104
Assessment Task 10 109
Summary 110
Reference 110
 MODULE 8
CELLS AND BATTERIES

Introduction

Batteries are a collection of one or more cells whose chemical reactions create a
flow of electrons in a circuit. All batteries are made up of three basic components: an
anode (the '-' side), a cathode (the '+' side), and some kind of electrolyte (a substance
that chemically reacts with the anode and cathode) ( Hymel, n.d).

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Know the history of batteries

2. Learn different parts of batteries
3. Understand different types of batteries

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Lesson 1. History of Batteries

What is Batteries?

When the anode and cathode of a battery is connected to a circuit, a chemical

reaction takes place between the anode and the electrolyte. This reaction causes
electrons to flow through the circuit and back into the cathode where another chemical
reaction takes place. When the material in the cathode or anode is consumed or no
longer able to be used in the reaction, the battery is unable to produce electricity. At that
point, your battery is "dead."Batteries that must be thrown away after use are known
as primary batteries. Batteries that can be recharged are called secondary batteries
(Hymel, n.d).

The Term Battery

Historically, the word "battery" was used to describe a "series of similar objects
grouped together to perform a function," as in a battery of artillery. In 1749, Benjamin
Franklin first used the term to describe a series of capacitors he had linked together for
his electricity experiments. Later, the term would be used for any electrochemical cells
linked together for the purpose of providing electric power ( Hymel, n.d).

Invention of the Battery

One fateful day in 1780, Italian physicist, physician, biologist, and

philosopher, Luigi Galvani, was dissecting a frog attached to a brass hook. As he
touched the frog's leg with an iron scalpel, the leg twitched. Galvani theorized that the
energy came from the leg itself, but his fellow scientist, Alessandro Volta, believed
otherwise ( Hymel, n.d).

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 Volta hypothesized that the frog's leg impulses were actually caused by different
metals soaked in a liquid. He repeated the experiment using cloth soaked in brine
instead of a frog corpse, which resulted in a similar voltage. Volta published his findings
in 1791 and later created the first battery, the voltaic pile, in 1800 ( Hymel, n.d).

Volta's pile was plagued by two major issues: the weight of the stack caused the
electrolyte to leak out of the cloth, and the particular chemical properties of the
components resulted in a very short life span (about an hour). The next two hundred
years would be spent perfecting Volta's design and solving these issues ( Hymel, n.d).

Lesson2. Basic Parts of a Battery

Parts of a battery

1. Container
Steel that can houses the cell’s ingredients to form the cathode, a part of the
electrochemical reaction.
2. Cathode
A combo of manganese dioxide and carbon, cathodes are the electrodes reduced by
the electrochemical reaction.
3. Separator
Non-woven, fibrous fabric that separates the electrodes.
4. Anode
Made of powered zinc metal, anodes are electrodes that are oxidized.
5. Electrolyte
Potassium hydroxide solution in water, the electrolyte is the medium for the
movement of ions within the cell. It carries the iconic current inside the battery.
6. Collector
Brass pin in the middle of the cell that conducts electricity to the outside circuit.

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 Figure 8.1 Basic Parts of Battery

Lesson3. Types of Batteries

Over the years, progress in battery technology has been rather slow but the need
for small more powerful batteries in the many small electrical items we carry around
with us has driven research into higher power, longer lasting batteries. According to
Electrical Cells and Batteries (2020) the different types of Batteries are:

1. Zinc Carbon

This is commonly known as the Leclanché Cell and despite being the oldest type
of battery it is still the most commonly used as it is very low-cost. Traditional Zinc
Carbon batteries cannot be reused when their chemical energy has been released.

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 Figure 8.2 Zinc Carbon Cells

2. Alkaline Cells

Alkaline chemistry is used in common Duracell and Energizer batteries, the

electrodes are zinc and manganese-oxide, with an alkaline electrolyte. Alkaline batteries
can be re-used up to 100 times with the correct type of battery charger. A normal battery
charger must not be used to charge these batteries.

The active materials used are the same as in the Leclanché cell – zinc and
manganese dioxide. However the electrolyte is potassium hydroxide, which is very
conductive, resulting in low internal impedance for the cell. This time the zinc anode
does not form the container; it is in the form of a powder instead, giving a large surface
area.

3. Silver Zinc

Lightweight expensive battery, usually used in aeronautical applications.

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 4. Rechargeable or Secondary Cells

Rechargeable batteries are rechargeable because the chemical reaction that leads to
the flow of current is reversible by passing a current through the battery. The animation
shows a battery undergoing charging and discharging. When the battery is charged the
current can flow through a resistive load.

5. Lead-Acid

Lead acid batteries are used to provide large amounts of current for a relatively short
time. They consist of plates of lead and lead oxide in a solution of sulfuric acid. Lead
combines with SO4 (sulphate) to create PbSO4 (Lead Sulphate), plus one electron. Lead
dioxide, hydrogen ions and SO4 ions, plus electrons from the lead plate, create
PbSO4 and water on the lead dioxide plate. As the battery discharges, both plates build
up PbSO4 and water builds up in the acid.

6. Nickel Cadmium (Ni-Cad)

Nickel-Cadmium cells are the most common type of re-chargeable battery. They
have a high-energy density and an EMF of 1.2 V. They can be recharged more times
than other types of rechargeable batteries but unless they are fully discharged before
recharging suffer from a memory effect which reduces their capacity to store charge.

7. Lithium Ion (Li-Ion)

Lithium is the most electronegative metal in the electrochemical series. It also has a
low density so it is an attractive material for the anode of batteries. However, lithium is
also very reactive with aqueous electrolytes producing hydrogen gas. Because of this it
took many years to develop a stable electrolyte. Lithium batteries must be sealed from
moisture and air due to the reactivity of lithium. Non-rechargeable lithium batteries have
been available since the 1980s with rechargeable lithium batteries becoming widely
available around 1995. Lithium-ion batteries can be recharged between 500 - 1000
cycles.

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Assessment Task 8

Answer the following, write on the blank provided and wrong spelling wrong.

1.____________ is a combo of manganese dioxide and carbon, electrodes reduced

by the electrochemical reaction.
2.____________ is a non-woven, fibrous fabric that separates the electrodes.
3.____________ is a potassium hydroxide solution in water; the electrolyte is the
medium for the movement of ions within the cell. It carries the iconic current inside
the battery.
4.____________ is made of powered zinc metal; anodes are electrodes that are
oxidized.
5.____________ is steel that can house the cell’s ingredients to form the cathode,
a part of the electrochemical reaction.
6. _____________is a brass pin in the middle of the cell that conducts electricity
to the outside circuit.
7._____________ this is commonly known as the Leclanché Cell and despite
being the oldest type of battery it is still the most commonly used as it is very low-
cost.
8._____________ is used in common Duracell and Energizer batteries, the
electrodes are zinc and manganese-oxide, with an alkaline electrolyte.
9._____________ are used to provide large amounts of current for a relatively
short time. They consist of plates of lead and lead oxide in a solution of sulfuric
acid.
10. ____________ are the most common type of re-chargeable battery. They have
a high-energy density and an EMF of 1.2 V.

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 Summary

• Batteries are a collection of one or more cells whose chemical reactions create a
flow of electrons in a circuit. All batteries are made up of three basic
components: an anode (the '-' side), a cathode (the '+' side), and some kind of
electrolyte (a substance that chemically reacts with the anode and cathode) (
Hymel, n.d).
• Basic parts of battery: container ,cathode ,separator, anode, electrolyte, and
collector.
• Different types of batteries, zinc carbon, alkaline cells, silver zinc, lead acid etc.

References

Electrical Cells and Batteries (2020) Introduction and history

http://www.splung.com/content/sid/3/page/batteries

Hymel S. (n.d ) What is a Battery? Spark fun start something

https://learn.sparkfun.com/tutorials/what-is-a-
battery/all#:~:text=A%20cell%20refers%20to%20a,cells%20at%202.1%20V%20ea
ch.

MODULE 9

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 SERIES AND PARALLEL BATTERIES

Introduction

Battery is an electrical element where electrical potential is produced due to

chemical reaction. Every electrochemical reaction has its limit of producing electric
potential difference between two electrodes. Battery cells are those where these
electro-chemical reactions take place to produce the limited electric potential
difference. For achieving desired electric potential difference across the battery
terminals multiple numbers of cells are to be connected in series. Hence it can be
concluded like that, a battery is a combination of several cells where a cell is a unit of a
battery (Electrical4U, 2020).

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Compute electromotive force, terminal voltage and internal resistance

2. Understand Series and Parallel Connection of Batteries

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Lesson 1. Electromotive Force

EMF of Battery (E )

According to Electrical4U (2020) If anyone just measures the electric potential

difference between two terminals of a battery when load is not connected with the
battery, he or she will get the voltage developed in the battery when there is no current
flowing through it. This voltage is generally referred as electromotive force or emf of
battery. It is also referred as no-load voltage of battery.

Internal Resistance of Battery (r)

According to Electrical4U (2020)The entire resistance encountered by a current

as if it flows through a battery from the negative terminal to the positive terminal is
known as internal resistance of battery.

Terminal voltage of battery

According to Lumen (n.d) the voltage output of a device is measured across its
terminals and, thus, is called its terminal voltage V. Terminal voltage is given by

V = emf − Ir,
where r is the internal resistance and I is the current flowing at the time of the
measurement. I is positive if current flows away from the positive terminal, as shown in
Figure 9.1. You can see that the larger the current, the smaller the terminal voltage. And
it is likewise true that the larger the internal resistance, the smaller the terminal voltage.

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 Figure 9.1Carbon Zinc Dry cell Battery Circuit from Lumen (n.d)

Any voltage source (in the case, a carbon zinc dry cell) has an emf related to its
source of potential difference, and an internal resistance r related to its construction
(Note that E stands for emf).Also shown are the output terminal across which the
terminal voltage V is measured. Since V = emf –Ir, terminal voltage equals emf only if
there is no current flowing (Lumen, n.d).

Figure 9.2 Schematic Diagram of a voltage source and its load Rload from Lumen
(n.d)

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 Suppose a load resistance Rload is connected to a voltage source, as in Figure 9.2.
Since the resistances are in series, the total resistance in the circuit is Rl oad + r. Thus the
current is given by Ohm’s law to be

emf
I=
R load + r

Example:
A certain battery has a 12.0-V emf and an internal resistance of 0.100 Ω, Calculate its
terminal voltage when connected to a 10.0 Ω load
Solution:
Entering the given values for the emf, load, resistance, and internal resistance the
expression yields
emf 12.0V
I= = = 1.188 A
R load + r 10.1Ω

Enter the unknown values to the equation V = emf − Ir,

𝑉 = 12.0𝑉 − (1.188𝐴)( 0.100Ω) = 11.9V

Lesson 2. Series and Parallel Batteries

Batteries achieve the desired operating voltage by connecting several cells in

series; each cell adds its voltage potential to derive at the total terminal voltage. Parallel
connection attains higher capacity by adding up the total ampere-hour (Ah) ( Battery
University, 2019).

Series Batteries

When in a battery, positive terminal of one cell is connected with the negative
terminal of succeeding cell, then the cells are said to be series connected or simply
series battery. Here, overall emf of the battery is algebraic sum of all individual cells
connected in series. But overall discharged current of the battery does not exceed the

discharged current of individual cells (Electrical4U, 2020).

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 Figure 9.1 Series Connected Battery Cells

According to Electrical4U ( 2020) If E is the overall emf of the battery combined

by n number cells and E1, E2, E3 …En are the emfs of individual cells.

Then,
𝐸 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 + 𝐸3+⋯ 𝐸𝑛

Similarly, if r1, r2, r3, … rn are the internal resistances of individual cells, then the internal
resistance of the battery will be equal to the sum of the internal resistance of the
individual cells.
𝒓 = 𝒓𝟏 + 𝒓𝟐 + 𝒓𝟑+⋯ 𝒓𝒏

Parallel Batteries

When positive terminals of all cells are connected together and similarly negative
terminals of these cells are connected together in a battery, then the cells are said to be
connected in parallel. These combinations are also referred as parallel batteries

(Electrical4U, 2020).

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 Figure 9.2 Parallel Connected Battery Cells

According to Electrical4U ( 2020) If emf of each cell is identical, then the emf of
the battery combined by n numbers of cells connected in parallel is equal to the emf of
each cell. The resultant internal resistance of the combination is,

1 1 1 1 −𝟏
( + + …+ )
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟3 𝑟𝑛

The current delivered by the battery is sum of currents delivered by individual cells.

Example:
1. Suppose we need a 46v 200Ah battery to power an inverter circuit, we all know that a
single 46v battery is not accessible anywhere, so all we need do is to connect three 12V,
200Ah batteries in series.
Thus: E = E1 + E2 + E3
E = (12 + 12 + 12) V = 46V.

2. Let’s consider powering an inverter that needs a 24V, 600Ah battery

Solution:
First of all if we connect 3batteries of 12V,200Ah in parallel we get:
I = 200 + 200 + 200 = 600Ah

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But voltage still remains 12V.
Then, we connect another set of 3batteries again in parallel we get another 12V, 600Ah.
Now we connect the two sets of parallel connected batteries in series so that the
voltages of the sets add-up. Thus, the entire set-up will be parallel-series connection,
giving a battery bank of the rating:
E = (12 + 12)V,600Ah
E = 24V,600Ah

Assessment Task 9

A. Answer the following show your solution

A certain battery has a 12.0-V emf and an internal resistance of 0.100 Ω,(a)
What is the terminal voltage when connected to 0.500 Ω? (b) If the internal
resistance grows to 0.500 Ω, find the current and the terminal voltage.

B. Answer each questions in 50 words, write your answer in engineering

lettering.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of connecting batteries in

series? In parallel?

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 Summary

• According to Electrical4U (2020) If anyone just measures the electric potential

difference between two terminals of a battery when load is not connected with
the battery, he or she will get the voltage developed in the battery when there is
no current flowing through it. This voltage is generally referred as electromotive
force or emf of battery. It is also referred as no-load voltage of battery.
• According to Electrical4U (2020)The entire resistance encountered by a current
as if it flows through a battery from the negative terminal to the positive terminal
is known as internal resistance of battery.
• Batteries achieve the desired operating voltage by connecting several cells in
series; each cell adds its voltage potential to derive at the total terminal voltage.
Parallel connection attains higher capacity by adding up the total ampere-hour
(Ah) ( Battery University, 2019).

References

Electrical4U (2020, October 23) Series and Parallel Batteries

https://www.electrical4u.com/series-parallel-battery-cells/

Lumen (n.d) Electromotive Force: Terminal Voltage

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/physics/chapter/21-2-electromotive-force-
terminal-voltage/

Naijaphysics41 (2018, December 16) Series and Parallel Battery Connection, Altervista
http://naijaphysicists41.altervista.org/series-parallel-battery-connections-
simple-
calculations/?doing_wp_cron=1605262903.0222680568695068359375#:~:text=T
o%20calculate%20the%20overall%20current,In.&text=Batteries%20can%20also%
20be%20connected,bank%20(see%20image%20above)

MODULE 10

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 KIRCHOFF’S LAW

Introduction

Kirchhoff's Laws for current and voltage lie at the heart of circuit analysis.
With these two laws, plus the equations for individual component (resistor, capacitor,
inductor), we have the basic tool set we need to start analyzing circuits (McAllister,
2020).

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Understand other Circuit Terminologies

2. Understand and use Kirchhoff’s Current Law
3. Understand and use Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

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Lesson 1. Circuits Terminologies

We are developing methods for analyzing a circuit. So far we've defined the most
common components (resistor, capacitor, and inductor) and sources (voltage and
current). Now we need a crisp vocabulary to talk about circuits (McAllister, 2020).

Circuit

According to McAllister (2020) circuit comes from the word circle. A circuit is a
collection of real components, power sources, and signal sources, all connected so
current can flow in a complete circle, the different types of circuits are:

Closed circuit – A circuit is closed if the circle is complete, if all currents have a path
back to where they came from.

Open circuit – A circuit is open if the circle is not complete, if there is a gap or opening
in the path.

Short circuit – A short happens when a path of low resistance is connected (usually by
mistake) to a component. The resistor shown below is the intended path for current, and
the curved wire going around it is the short. Current is diverted away from its intended
path, sometimes with damaging results. The wire shorts out the resistor by providing a
low-resistance path for current (probably not what the designer intended).

Figure 10.1 Circuit from McAllister (2020)

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Make or Break – You make a circuit by closing the current path, such as when you close
a switch. Breaking a circuit is the opposite. Opening a switch breaks the circuit
(McAllister,2020).

Figure 10.1 Make and Break from McAllister (2020)

Schematic

According to McAllister (2020) a schematic is a drawing of a circuit. A schematic

represents circuit elements with symbols and connections as lines.

Elements – The term elements means "components and sources."

Symbols – Elements are represented in schematics by symbols. Symbols for common 2-

terminal elements are shown here,

Figure 10.3 Symbols from McAllister (2020)

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Lines – Connections between elements are drawn as lines, which we often think of as
"wires". On a schematic, these lines represent perfect conductors with zero resistance.
Every component or source terminal touched by a line is at the same voltage (McAllister,
2020).

Dots – Connections between lines can be indicated by dots. Dots are an unambiguous
indication that lines are connected. If the connection is obvious, you don't have to use a
dot (McAllister, 2020).

Figure 10.4) a) and (b) are both good

(c) no dot indicates no connection
(d) also indicates no connection; the horizontal wire "hops" over the vertical wire. (d) is
very clear but takes extra effort and space to draw.
(e) For crossing connected lines, (e) is acceptable, but risks looking too much like (c), so
(f) is the better practice, all from McAllister (2020)

Node – A junction where 2 or more elements connect is called a node. The schematic
below shows a single node (the black dot) formed by the junction of five elements
(abstractly represented by orange rectangles) (McAllister, 2020).

Figure 10.5 Nodes from McAllister (2020)

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 According to McAllister (2020) since lines on schematic represent perfect zero-
resistance conductors, there is no rule that says lines from multiple elements are
required to meet in a single point junction. We can draw the same node as
a distributed node like the one in the schematic below. These two representations of the
node mean exactly the same thing.

Figure 10.6 Distributed Nodes from McAllister (2020)

A distributed node might be all spread out, with lots of line segments, elbows,
and dots. Don't be distracted, it is all just one single node. Connecting schematic
elements with perfect conductors means the voltage everywhere on a distributed node
is the same (McAllister, 2020).

From McAllister (2020) here is a realistic-looking schematic with the distributed nodes
labeled:

Figure 10.7 Realistic Distributed Nodes from McAllister (2020)

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Example:

How many nodes are there in the schematic diagram?

Figure 10.8 Example Schematic Diagram for nodes

Answer:

There are 4 nodes in the circuit.

Figure 10.9 Four Nodes Electric Circuit

Branch – Branches are the connections between nodes. A branch is an element

(resistor, capacitor, source, etc.). The number of branches in a circuit is equal to the
number of element (McAllister, 2020).

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Example:

How many branches are there in the schematic diagram?

Figure 10.10 Example Schematic Diagram for branches

Answer:

There are 6 branches in this circuit, one for each element

Figure 10.11 Electric Circuits with 6 Branches

Loop – A loop is any closed path going through circuit elements. To draw a loop, select
any node as a starting point and draw a path through elements and nodes until the path
comes back to the node where you started. There is only one rule: a loop can visit (pass
through) a node only one time. It is ok if loops overlap or contain other loops. Some of
the loops in our circuit are shown here. (You can find others, too. If I counted right, there
are six) (McAllister, 2020).

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Example:

(a)

(b)

Figure 10.12 (a) Loops of Electric Circuit that is easy to identified, (b) the other loops of
the circuit.

Total of 6 loops just from this simple example you can see the number of loops in a
circuit can become quite large. Loop analysis can be quite a burden, so you will notice a
fair amount of effort going into figuring out simpler methods (McAllister, 2020).

Mesh – A mesh is a loop that has no other loops inside it. You can think of this as one
mesh for each "open window" of a circuit (McAllister, 2020).

Example:

How many mesh are there in the circuit?

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 Figure 10.13 Example Circuit for Mesh

Answer:

There are 3 meshes in the circuit, one for each "open window" in the circuit.

Figure 10.14 Meshes on the Circuit

Reference Node – According to McAllister (2020) during circuit analysis we usually pick

one of the nodes in the circuit to be the reference node. Voltages at other nodes are

measured relative to the reference node. Any node can be the reference, but two

common choices that simplify circuit analysis are,

• the negative terminal of the voltage or current source powering the circuit, or

• the node connected to the greatest number of branches.

Ground – The reference node is often referred to as ground. The concept of ground has

three important meanings (McAllister, 2020).

According to McAllister (2020) Ground is

• The reference point from which voltages are measured.

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 • The return path for electric current back to its source.

• A direct physical connection to the Earth, which is important for safety.

Figure 10.15 Various Symbols for Grounds from McAllister (2020)

Lesson 2. Current Kirchhoff’s Law and Voltage Kirchhoff’s Law

According to McAllister (2020) Kirchhoff's Laws describe current in a node and voltage
around a loop. These two laws are the foundation of advanced circuit analysis.

Kirchhoff's Current Law

According to McAllister (2020) Kirchhoff’s current law states that “ the algebraic sum of
all currents entering and exiting a node must be equal to zero

According McAllister (2020) Kirchhoff's Current Law can be also state that the sum of all
currents flowing into a node equals the sum of currents flowing out of the node. It can
be written as,

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Example:

What is i5?

Figure 10.16 5 Branches node from McAllister (2020)

Answer:

Directly apply Kirchhoff's Current Law.

Tip: Before starting, check the arrows. Are they pointing in, or out, or some jumble of

directions? This step will save you from a very common sign error.

All the arrows in this example are pointing in. So we can do a straight sum of the

numbers as written.

Sum the five branch currents and set the sum to 0,

𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + 𝑖3 + 𝑖4 + 𝑖5 = 0
1 + 4 + (−2) + 3 + 𝑖5 = 0
𝑖5 = −[1 + 4 − 2 + 3]
𝑖5 = 6𝑚𝐴
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Kirchhoff's Voltage Law

According to McAllister (2020) Kirchhoff's Voltage Law is the sum of voltages around a
loop is zero. Kirchhoff's Voltage Law can be written as,

Where n counts the element voltages around the loop.

According McAllister (2020) you can also state Kirchhoff's Voltage Law another

way: The sum of voltage rises equals the sum of voltage drops around a loop.

According to McAllister (2020) Kirchhoff's Voltage Law has some nice properties:

• You can trace a loop starting from any node. Walk around the loop and end up

back at the starting node, the sum of voltages around the loop adds up to zero.

• You can go around the loop in either direction, clockwise or counterclockwise.

Kirchhoff's Voltage Law still holds.

• If a circuit has multiple loops, Kirchhoff's Voltage Law is true for every loop.

Procedure: Add element voltages around a loop from McAllister (2020)

Step 1: Pick a starting node.

Step 2: Pick a direction to travel around the loop (clockwise or counterclockwise).

Step 3: Walk around the loop.

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Include element voltages in a growing sum according to these rules:

• When you encounter a new element, look at the voltage sign as you enter the
element.
• If the sign is ++plus, then there will be a voltage drop going through the
element. Subtract the element voltage.
• If the sign is −minus, then there will be a voltage rise going through the
element. Add the element voltage.

Step 4: Continue around the loop until you reach the starting point, including element

voltages all the way around.

Example:

What is 𝑉𝑅3 ?

Reminder: Check the first sign of each element voltage as you walk around the loop.

Figure 10.17 Electric Circuit with four resistors from McAllister (2020)

Use Kirchoff's Voltage Law to solve this problem.

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Pick a node to start from. Node A is as good as any. We will walk clockwise around the

loop.

The voltage arrows are jumbled up, they don't all point in the same direction

around the loop. So as we write this next equation, we will be very careful to pay close

attention to the voltage polarity of each element in the loop. Consult the Procedure:

adding element voltages around a loop to remind yourself which voltage arrow direction

gets which sign.

+15 + (−5) + (−3) + (−𝑉𝑅3 ) + (−1) = 0

Getting the signs right in the equation above is the hard part. This is the essential
skill when applying Kirchhoff's Laws.

+15 − 5 − 3 + (−1) = 𝑉𝑅3

𝑉𝑅3 = +6𝑉

Check the direction of the voltage arrow labeling R3. It is pointing up, from node

e, towards node d. The positive result for 𝑉𝑅3 means that node d is 6 volts higher than

node e

More practice: Do this same problem again, but walk around the loop in the opposite

direction. You should get the same answer.

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Assessment Task 10

Answer the Following Problem, draw the diagram and write your solution.

Problem 1: What is i3, in this distributed node?

Problem 2: Find the voltage in each resistors, the total voltage, and the total
resistance,

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 Summary

• Kirchhoff's Current Law for branch currents at a node,

• Kirchhoff's Voltage Law for element voltages around a loop,

References

McAllister W. (2020) Circuit Terminologies Khan Academy

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/electrical-engineering/ee-circuit-
analysis-topic/circuit-elements/a/ee-circuit-terminology

McAllister W. (2020) Kirchhoff’s Law Khan Academy

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/circuits-topic/circuits-
resistance/a/ee-kirchhoffs-laws

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