Genetics

5.1 Cell Division

 
1. Nucleus contains chromosomes

2. Chromosomes

long and spiral 

fconsist nucleic acids and protein 
each chromosome contains a long DNA molecule

3. Deoxyribosenucleic acid (DNA)

made up of nucleotide
each nucleotide consists of three components, deoxyribose sugar, a nitrogenous base and a phosphate group
double helix

4. Gene

basic hereditary unit that determines an individual's characteristics

Function: to control the inherited characteristics in an organism

5. 

 
Gender Autosome + sex chromosomes
Male  44 + xy
Female 44 + xx
 
6. Mitosis is a cell division process that forms 2 identical daughter cells.
 

A Chromosome with two chromatids joined at the centromere

B Replication of chromosome occurs

Chromosomes shorten and thicken
Prophase Spindle fibres begin to form

C
Chromosome arrange at the equatorial plate of the cell
Metaphase

D
Pairs of chromatids seperate and move to the opposite poles of the cells
Anaphase

E
Cytoplasm divides
Telophase

Two daughter cells are formed

F Same number of chromosomes as parent cell

 
7. Meiosis is a process where the cell divides into 4 distinct cells
 
 

A Parent cells with two pairs of chromosomes

B
Replication of chromosome occurs
Prophase I

C
Crossing over occurs
Metaphase I

D
Homologous chromosomes seperate and move to opposite poles
Anaphase I

E Cytoplasm divides
Telophase I &cell division Two daughter cells are formed

F Pairs of chromatids separate and move to opposite poles

Metaphase II Cytoplasms divides

G Four daughter cells are formed

Telophase II & cell division Each daughter cells have half number of chromosome from parents 

 
8. Similarities of mitosis and meiosis

A process of cell division

Purpose of both processes are to ensure sustainability of living organisms
Both transfer genetic material to daughter cells
Both process involve duplication of chromosome

9. Differences between mitosis and meiosis

 
  Mitosis 
Mitosis

Cell division in which a cell divides into 2 cells

Definition
Meiosis

Cell division in which a cell divides into 4 cells

Mitosis

Meristem cells in plants

Somatic cells in animals

Location of process Meiosis

Anther and ovary in plants

Testis and ovary in animals

Mitosis

2
Number of daughter cells
Meiosis

Mitosis

Same number of chromosomes of the parents

Number of chromosomes in daughter cell
Meiosis

Half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell

Mitosis

Identical 
Genetic make up in daughter cells
Meiosis

Different

Mitosis

Cells for growth and repair

Products
Meiosis

Gamates

Mitosis

For growth
For tissue repair
Asexual reproduction
Maintenance and continuity of life
Importance
Meiosis

Produce gametes
Produce variation

5.2  Inheritance

 
1. Inheritance: The transmission of certain characteristics from the parents to the children.

2. Genes control certain characteristics in an organism.

3. Allele: a pair of genes at the same locus 

Type of allele
Dominant allele
Recessive allele
The characteristics are usually controlled by dominant allele and characteristic from recessive allele will be covered.
Dominant allele - represented by capital letter
Recessive allele - represented by small letter

4. 

 
Genotypes Example of alleles
Homozygous dominant TT (normal trait)
Homozygous recessive tt (very rare trait)
Heterozygous Tt (normal trait)
 
5. Schematic diagram of Mendel's Law
 
 
6. Schematic diagram of sex determination
 
 
The father determines the gender of the offspring because:
Sperm carries sex chromosome x and y while ovum only carries chromosome x

5.3 Mutation

 
1. Mutation: spontaneous and random change that takes place in the genes and chromosomes that can cause changes of characteristic to the
offspring who inhetits the modified genes

2. Type of mutation

 
  Type of mutation
Chromosome mutation

Number chromosome change

Explanation
Gene mutation

Structure of gene change

Chromosome mutation

Down Syndrome
Turner Syndrome 
Klinefelter syndrome 

Gene mutation 
Example 
Colour blindness
Sickle cell anaemia
Thalassemia
Haemophilia
Albinism

 
3. Chromosome mutation
 
   
Down syndrome

Extra chromosome in chromosome number 21

Turner syndrome
Explanation
Less number of sex chromosomes

Klinefelter syndrome

More number of sex chromosomes

Down syndrome

47

Turner syndrome
Total number of chromosomes
45

Klinefelter syndrome

47

Down syndrome

Physical and mental retardation

Short neck
Slanted eyes
Short stocky body

Turner syndrome

Characteristic  

A person with Turner syndrome is a female

Cannot undergo the development of secondary sexual characteristic of female
Sterile

Klinefelter syndrome

A person with Klinefelter syndrome is male

Will develop female characteristic such as breasts and small testis
Sterile

 
4. Gene mutation
 
Disease Characteristic
Caused by mutant recessive genes on chromosome X
Colour blindness Patient unable to differentiate between red and green colours
Usually occurs in males

Caused by a recessive gene on the autosome

Sickle cell anaemia Affected the gene responsible for production of haemoglobin
Red blood cells are crescent shaped which affect the transportation of oxygen

Caused by the mutation of the gene that controls the production of haemoglobin
Thalassemia Small red blood cells and the lifespan of the cells is short
Can cause severe blood deficiency

Caused by mutation on the gene producing the blood clotting factor

Haemophilia Difficulty in the clotting in blood
Patient will lose blood continuously if wonded or injured

 
5. Factors that cause mutation

Natural
Pregnancy at a late age
Carcinogens
Ultraviolet rays
X-rays
Radioactive rays

6. Genetic screening 

To detect gene disorder disease

Examples:
Karyototyping - to test the number, size and shape of chromosomes in the nucleus of a cell
Amniocentesis - to identify foetal cell abnormalities from 15th to the 20th week of pregnancy 

7. Application of genetic research to improve quality of life

 
Field Application & Description
Gene therapy 
Medical
To treat or replace gene disorder disease with healthy gene

Genetic modified food 

Produce crops and livestck that mature quickly

Agriculture 
High quality and quantity of yield
High resistace towards disease 

DNA test for genetic genealogy

Forensic
Carries out the study on crime investigation by identifying and confirming the chronology of an incident based on
science
scientific evidence obtained

5.4 Genetic Engineering Technology

 
1. Genetic engineering is the deliberate modification of the characteristics of an organism by manipulating its genetic material.

2. Examples of genetic engineering 

Recombinant DNA technology: technology that combines 2 different species to priduce a new genetic characteristic
Genetically modified organism: technology combines genes of 2 different species to increase commercial quality

3. The effects of genetic engineering technology in life 

 
Advantages Disadvantages
Identifies and determines hereditary diseases and consequently treat
The product of genetic changes cause allergy reaction and
the disease
side effects to the consumer
Produces quality plants and livestock
Genetic research produces new species that can cause the
Produces plants and livestock that has high resistance towards
original species to become extinct
diseases compared to the earlier generation  
Genetic modification may be used unethically to produce
Produces more plants that require shorter time to harvest
biological weapons 
Produces insulin and enzymes from bacteria that can improve human
Produce organisms that have high resistance to pesticides
health

5.5 Variation

 
1.
 
 Continuous Discontinuos

Variation with intermediate Variation without intermediate

Characteristic can be measured  Characteristic cannot be measured
Can be represented in histogram or normal distribution curve Can be represented in bar graph 
Determined by environment factors and genetic factors Determined by genetic factors
Examples: Height Example: Ability to roll tongue

 
2. Factors that cause variation
 
Genetic Factor Environmental Factor
pH
Crossing over between homologous chromosomes during meiosis Sunlight
Independent assortment of chromosomes  Temperature
Random fertilisation between gamates Water
Chromosome and gene mutation Climate 
Nutrition

 
3. Importance of variation

Enables the organisms to adapt themselves to their environment

Enables us to easily differentiate and recognise each individual
Allows natural selection
Helps organisms to camouflage to protect themselves from predators

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