CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This chapter presents the conceptual and research literature. It is from

these materials that the concept of this work was based and formed. It likewise

presents the synthesis, theoretical and conceptual framework, hypothesis, and

definition of terms.

Conceptual Literature

Significant and substantial concepts about teaching practices, modular

distance learning and student skills were discussed in this portion. The

researcher reviewed the following literature related to the concepts to enrich the

study and have an in-depth presentation of facts.

Practices of Teachers in Modular Distance Learning Delivery. Different

experts emphasize different practices in effective teaching. Many begin with the

knowledge of subject matter as core to the quality of a teacher (Schachter, 2012;

Scot, Callahan, & Urquhart, 2009; Stronge et al., 2011). Many states require

teachers to demonstrate knowledge via passing tests in their academic subject

matter as well as showing general competency in reading, writing, and

mathematics skills in order to receive teaching certification. The instructional

process has been the core component of teacher evaluation systems, but the

emphasis of these systems has been on superficial elements such as classroom

organization, management, and presentation. The evaluations are based on a

small number of observations, for a short time frame, and the evaluations are

announced so the teacher and students are prepared for the event. The practices

of effective teachers are gaining attention and being identified. The practices

once identified should be able to be replicated to allow every student to benefit

from experiencing these practices.

The problem with the identification of these practices is that it is not a

simple matter, lists of effective practices range from five to fifty (Danielson, 2007;

King & Watson, 2010; Marzano, 2003). Using identified effective instructional

practices does not guarantee a highly effective teacher. Teachers must be able

to provide the product of effective teaching, demonstrable student learning.

Student learning is measured through achievement on assessments. The

primary objective of schools is student learning. To achieve this objective,

schools must employ effective teachers and these teachers must use effective

instructional methods to ensure that all students are learning (Ritter & Shuls,

2012; Stronge et al., 2011).

Planned, directed and sustained educational reforms can be implemented

and running well if teachers are able to increase and develop their qualities and

qualifications. Those improved qualities and qualifications are expected to be

able to increase the teacher professional capabilities in order to produce a better

generation in the future days. Teaching is an activity that aims to create a

possible condition that students can study. According to Oemar Hamalik (2011),

teaching had several important definition, including deliver knowledge to the

students in schools; passed a culture down to young generation through school

educational institution; the effort to organize environment to create learning

condition for students; gave learning guidance to students; prepared students to

be a good citizen accordance to society demands; a process to help students in

facing daily life of society.

While Sardiman (2014) explained that teaching was an activity that

organized or managed the environment well and connected to a child, so

learning process happened. It could be said that teaching was an effort to create

conducive situation to the ongoing learning activities for students. This condition

was created in a way to support children development optimally both physically

and spiritually, also both physically and mentally. Dadang Suhardan (2016)

stated that teaching was academic activities consisting of communication

interaction between educator and students.

Researchers have identified several reasons for the persistent limited

understanding in nurturing higher-order thinking in the online classroom. One of

the critical reasons is the tendency of carrying traditional educational practices

into the online environment (Kreber & Kanuka, 2016). Teachers often rely on

traditional pedagogical approaches that they develop in emulation of professors

they consider to be effective teachers. Furthermore, these approaches are

formed over the years of developing expertise in the face-to-face classrooms,

and mostly without teaching preparation. Having little prior experience in teaching

online, teachers tend to transfer traditional approaches to the online classroom,

and perpetuate approaches that have been proven to be ineffective in the face-

to-face classroom. Teaching online, therefore, creates tensions by ‘introducing a

new activity into existing institutions with established roles’ (Natriello, 2015).

Effectiveness of MDL. Distance Learning refers to a learning delivery

modality, where learning takes place between the teacher and the learners who

are geographically remote from each other during instruction. This modality has

three types: Modular Distance Learning (MDL), Online Distance Learning (ODL),

and TV/Radio-Based Instruction. (Quinones, 2020)

The teacher takes the responsibility of monitoring the progress of the

learners. The learners may ask assistance from the teacher via e-mail,

telephone, text message/instant messaging among others. Where possible, the

teacher shall do home visits to learners needing remediation or assistance

(Llego, n.d.). Printed Modules will be delivered to students, parents or guardians

by the teachers or through the Local Government Officials. Since education is no

longer held within the school, parents serve as partners of teachers in education.

Parents play a vital role as home facilitators. Their primary role in modular

learning is to establish a connection and guide the child. (FlipScience, 2020).

 The use of modules encourages independent study. One of the benefits of

using modules for instruction is the acquisition of better self-study or learning

skills among students. Students engage themselves in learning the concepts

presented in the module. They develop a sense of responsibility in accomplishing

the tasks provided in the module. With little or no assistance from others, the

learners progress on their own. They are learning how to learn; they are

empowered (Nardo, M.T.B, 2017). Other advantages of modular instruction

include more choice and self-pacing for students; more variety and flexibility for

teachers and staff; and increased adaptability of instructional materials.

Modular instruction rests on firm and solid foundations. One of these is the

fundamental educational philosophy which stresses that the student is the

determinate in the whole instructional process. According to Brun (2001), the use

of modules has many advantages because a module is virtually embedded in the

process of learning. The student is learning, studying, and experiencing while

moving towards mastery of a subject-matter area.

The student takes the availability and accessibility of subject-matter into

account. She uses the educational materials she finds appropriate even as she

asks, guidance or assessment from a teacher or any acknowledged expert. At

the institutional level, the educational media, the guidance and tutoring can play

a role in different modules related to the same or another domain. It would also

allow a student to proceed at his own pace. The belief that self-pacing is

desirable is based on the generally accepted assumption that learners do not

achieve at the same rate and do not learn at the same time. Choice between

different learning modes is desirable if we assume that learners solve problems

and learn using different techniques based on unique behavioral repertoires or

prior knowledge. It will also provide choices between large varieties of topics

within any given ‘course’ or discipline, which is important if we assume that

students do not possess the same pattern of interest and are not pursuing the

same goals. Students are also given a chance to identify their strengths and

weaknesses and to ‘recycle’ through remedial modules, repetition, or a change in

learning mode. This is important if we assume that it is desirable to save student

time and to allow as many students as possible to attain the stated objectives.

Moreover, students can be tested earlier; progress and measures can be

brought into line. Modular teaching is one of the most widespread and recognizes

teaching learning techniques in many countries including other Western countries

and Asian region. Modular approach is used almost in all subjects like natural

science, specifically in biology and medical education and even in social

sciences as well as in computers education. Considering the individual

differences among the learners which necessitate the planning for adoption of

the most appropriate teaching techniques in order to help the individual grow and

develop at her/his own pace (Kandarp Sejpal, 2013).

The utilization of such packages takes into account individual differences

and sanctions students to work at their own pace. That is why Loughran and

Berry (2010) pointed out that individual learnt more at their own pace, because
telling is not edifying and heedfully aurally perceiving is not learning. However, it

is a process of first understand and then express the idea or knowledge. One of

the largest changes in recent years has been the addition of technology

education facilities with individualized instructional modules.

Academic Skills of Learners. Aina and Olanipekun (2015) found that

pupils’ academic performance was significantly related to the instructional

methods used by teachers in classroom. In this regard, the methods used to

deliver lessons were found to have greater impact than the content covered in a

course of study. the main goal of higher education is to develop students’

intelligence (Kholodnaya and Volkova, 2016), not to fill them with information.

Modern society needs for effective development of students’ intelligence and

high-quality formation of the innovative professionals (Belski, 2016). Teaching

and educational tasks are becoming more complex and the amount of learning

information is increasing and, consequently, students are being overloaded and

overworked. To solve this problem, the learning process should be optimized:

achieving best possible student learning outcomes defined in terms of

knowledge, skills and abilities, a required level of the inner action plan, spending

less time, efforts and tools of teachers and learners to achieve the results.

The measure of academic performance as a symbol of school success can

be traced way back from the Victorian period (Bell, 2013). Since then, academic

performance has been used to grade schools and most importantly to determine

ones career paths. The ‘good schools’ are acclaimed to be those that are able
groom the students well enough to achieve the set standards. This is measured

by use of students’ academic performance both at school level and nationally.

The importance of students’ high performance has attracted the attention of the

public, policy-makers, educators, learners and ministry of education alike.

The core business of schools is teaching and learning in order give

students’ quality education. As an affirmation on the above, it is stated that; “one

of the indicators of quality education being provided is cognitive achievement of

learners” (Kimani et al., 2013). It has been said previously that school leaders,

teachers and parents have a critical role in providing quality education for

students. But it can be argued that for quality education to prevail all education

stakeholders should take part in the translation, interpretation and

implementation of policies regarding achievement of high standards of education,

including students. Much is said about how to help students achieve their

academic performance and little is mentioned about how the students

themselves have impact on their own achievements. It should be noted that

whatever effort that teachers exert to enhance students learning, the honors lay

with the students. However, there is evidence from research which shows that

students can play a critical role in improving academic performance (Nicholas &

Sutton, 2013; Tella, 2007).

There are several ways in which students can have an impact on their

academic achievement. Among others is students study habits. Study habits can

be positive and negative. The negative aspect of students’ study habits will be
dealt with later in the article. The positive study habit is when students attend to

their school work, read book to search relevant information, schedule time for

doing homework, attend tutorials and ask teachers questions where they do not

understand the concepts taught. After tests have been marked students who

work on teachers’ feedback have high changes of improving their performance.

Another is when the students work in groups when they are given an

assignment or topics for discussion. The intelligent students will help the low

achievers to upgrade their grades and enhance their confidence. In a mixed

ability class, it has been proven that if students are not streamed according to the

students’ capability have a higher overall attainment and equitable outcomes

(Boaler, 2008). The students involved in mixed-ability approach tend to have

respect for each other. Students who value education as a means of obtaining

survival skills normally take learning seriously. They do extra work with the

assistance of their teachers. This ultimately proves their academic performance.

Negative study habit is when students have a negative attitude towards

schooling, students’ reluctance to learn and not preparing work before classes

begin.

There are several factors which can contribute to students’ poor academic

performance. One of such is language barrier, which greatly affects students’

academic performance in schools. Many students enter the classroom not fluent

in the languages of instruction. These languages are used for testing students’

mastery of subject content and used in the examinations. The student might
understand the concepts in their mother but fails to express it in the language of

examinations. At the end the student is rated a low achiever because of the

language problem. According to Pinnock in Elsworth (2013) children take years

to master their native language. The student might understand the concepts in

their mother but fails to express it in the language of examinations. At the end the

student is rated a low achiever because of the language problem.

Another factor is parenting styles. Parental involvement in the child’s

school improves his/her performance. But some of the ways in which parents

groom their children can have a negative impact on students’ academic

performance. In real life there are parents who are authoritative in terms of

school work is concerned. Parenting styles have been shown by researchers that

they can have a negative impact on their children’s performance. Permissive and

uninvolved styles cannot assist in making children value their education. The

permissive style is when the strictness over the children has been lifted. The

children have the freedom of choice in their study. Children living under this style

often neglect their studies in favor of immediate and entertaining achievements

(Verial, 2013).

Similarly, the parents give their children control over their school work.

They do not help children in their homework or even giving them emotional

support when children have personal problems. This results in students’

demotivation and lack of interest in schooling. Poor study habits could be another

contributing factor in poor students’ performance. Students’ lack of study skills

and commitment to achievement has a negative impact on academic

performance.

Negative attitudes towards schooling, students’ reluctance to learn and

preparation of work before classes begin make students not ready for tests and

examinations. Other related factors such students’ intelligence, socio-economic

status and lack of resources are determinant of students’ academic

achievements. The deficiency in the above means low students’ academic

performance.

Gottman cited in Verial (2013) believes in the authoritative style as it does

less harm to the child’s self-esteem and ability to think autonomously as opposed

to uninvolved style where parents give their children control over their school

work. They do not help children in their homework or even giving them emotional

support when children have personal problems. This results in students’

demotivation and lack of interest in schooling. Home background and socio-

economic status of the students have also been attributed to students’ academic

performance.

Yinusa & Basil (2008) suggest that the students’ home background

influence academic and educational success, while socio-economic status

reinforces the activities and functioning of the teachers and students. Lack of

academic motivation has also been attributed to students’ low achievement.

Ramsdal, Gioerum & Wynn (2013) attest that lack of academic motivation seems

to be a prominent problem for numerous high school students. Further

researches have indicated that an individual student’s intelligence has the most

significant impact on their ability to perform well academically (O’cala, 2010;

Radzka, 2010; Boaler, 2008). Without mental capacity to understand and retain

the imparted knowledge and skills they will not enjoy the teaching and learning. It

has also been observed that intelligent students normally help the low achievers

to upgrade their grades and enhance their confidence (Boaler, 2008). Other

related factors include resources, behavioural problems, friend’s factors, drugs or

alcohol abuse, diet and physical activities (O’cala, 2010; Radzka, 2010; Boaler,

2008).

Research Literature.

Francisco and Celon (2020) tested the impact of instructional practices of

teachers on students’ academic performance. To achieve this aim, the

researcher used a sample size of 55 teachers and 295 students in private

schools in the City of Meycauayan, Bulacan during the school year 2018-2019.

The primary data gathering tools used in the study was a standardized

questionnaire Instructional Practices Survey adopted from Valentine (2000) on

determining teachers’ instructional practices and a documentary analysis from

DepEd Order no.8, s. 2013 also known as the Classroom E-Record to determine

the point average of the respondents’ status of academic performance. The

collected data were analyzed and treated statistically through the use of

Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS). Results revealed that the
instructional practices affect the students’ academic performance in English,

Mathematics, Science, Filipino, and Araling Panlipunan to a varying extent. This

means that for every unit improvement in the instructional management practices

mentioned could generate a certain increase in students’ academic performance.

The analysis of variance revealed a greater value than the significance level set

at 0.05. We cannot reject the null hypothesis. We may safely conclude that the

planning, teaching, and assessment practices of the teachers did not produce

significant combined effects on the academic performance of students on the five

content subjects in the curriculum. The study recommended that school

principals may conduct frequent teachers’ assessment, training needs

assessment to identify the needs of teachers in terms of their profession.

Hash (2020) examined the practices, experiences, and perspectives of

elementary and secondary school band directors in relation to RL during this

period. Directors (N = 462) responded to survey questions related to several

aspects of RL, including (a) technologies and materials, (b) activities and

assessments, (c) student participation, (d) the challenges of teaching remotely,

and (e) the extent to which experiences varied among participants in low-poverty

versus high-poverty schools and at the elementary/middle school level versus

high school level. The researcher also examined (f) the conditions and practices

of programs that experienced both high and consistent levels of student

participation. Data indicated that the COVID-19 shutdown created many

challenges for directors, particularly in schools with higher poverty levels and/or
in rural locations. However, RL also created opportunities for instrumental

teachers to incorporate into curricula (a) a wider range of technology; (b) more of

a focus on individual musicianship; (c) lessons in music theory, history, and

culture; and to a lesser extent, (d) student creativity through composition and

arranging.

Synthesis

Both conceptual and research literature had significant bearing in the

conduct if the present study. Through a purposive and objective assessment of

these, the target clientele will be benefitted though a properly guided program

implementation and evaluation.

Knowledge of subject matter as core to the quality of a teacher was

highlighted by Schachter, Scot, Callahan, & Urquhart, and Stronge et al., while

effective practices were given focus by Danielson, King & Watson, and Marzano.

learning. The use of effective instructional methods to ensure that all students

are learning was emphasized by Ritter & Shuls, and Stronge et al..

Hamalik, Sardiman and Suhardan emphasized that teaching is a complex

process of delivery of knowledge to the students in schools with learners at the

center of the system in an atmosphere of communication interaction between

educator and students.

 Researchers have identified several reasons for the persistent limited

understanding in nurturing higher-order thinking in the online classroom

according to Kreber & Kanuka and Natriello. Quinones elaborated on the context

of MDL while Llego and FlipScience emphasized teachers’ and parents’ role. The

use of modules was highlighted by Nardo, Brun, Sejpal, and Loughran and Berry.

These studies resemble the present study in the same vein that all focused

on the topic of modular distance learning and academic skills of learners. The

present study, however, differed from these in terms of variables used and the

time and local of conduct.

Theoretical Framework

Taking the considerable role of distance learning in the academe today

and the impact of this to students’ academic skills, the following framework will

clarify the point of the study.

These theories provide a strong underpinning when considered and

applied simultaneously for the equitable education of all students and the

demonstration of their collective learning. Equity theory has been applied to

education in the expectation that there is a highly qualified teacher in each

classroom and that all students are provided a sound education based on

effective instructional practices and measured through performance on

assessments. Fairness is important in all workplace settings, but schools seem to

be especially sensitive to issues of fairness. Leaders must hold the same high
expectations for all staff members and offer all staff the opportunity to improve. In

Equity Theory, fairness would be achieved, if all teachers are expected to give

the same level of effort and achieve the same level of performance. In reality,

individuals will choose to do more or less based on their own view of equity.

Another theory is the Contingency Theory. This can be used to describe a

classroom as a collective while the scores on tests are the measure of the

productivity of the collective. The teacher is the supervisor of and the success of

the class is dependent on the teacher’s application of instructional strategies.

The collective achievement is the product of the interrelationship of the

supervision of the teacher and the production of the students. The supervision of

the teacher is equated to the instructional practices applied by the teacher. The

extent of classroom learning is explained by variable properties of the collective,

such as the instructional strategies utilized within the individual classrooms.

Individual characteristics are not explained, nor are they used as explanations.

Equivalency theory is also applied in this as it explains that distance

education’s appropriate explanation should provide equivalent learning

experiences for all students in order for there to be expectations of equivalent

outcomes of the educational experience. Learning at a distance and learning

locally are fundamentally different, even when interactive technologies are used.

Equivalency theory advocates the design for distant and local learners of a

collection of probably different but ultimately equivalent learning experiences.

 Instructional experiences are essential to learning. Students should have

learning experiences designed and made available to them that are tailored for

the environment and which they find themselves. It is the responsibility of the

distance educator to design instructional events that provide learning

experiences for individuals and group of students. The goal of instructional

planning for distance education is to develop an approach that makes the sum of

experiences for each learner equivalent.

Contingency Equity
Theory Theory

Equivalency
Theory

Figure 1
Theoretical Framework
Conceptual Framework

It was presented that the practices of teachers in delivery of modular

distance learning and the extent to which MDL is thought to be effective were

analyzed. Also, the struggles encountered by FBS teachers were identified.

Furthermore, the relationship between the level of students’ skills and the

teachers practices on the delivery of modular distance learning was sought to be

determined.

In order to analyze the given inputs, the researcher used necessary

research methodologies. The analysis and interpretations gave way for a

proposed output which is an enhancement skills scheme for Senior High School

Teachers. For further understanding, the researcher formulated a research

paradigm which served as figure 2.

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

practices of Questionnaire
teachers in Interview
delivery of modular Focus Group
distance learning Discussion Enhancement skills
scheme for Senior
High School
MDL Teachers
implementation

students’ skills

Figure 2
 Research Paradigm

Hypothesis

There is no significant relationship between the level of students’ skills and

the teachers practices on the delivery of modular distance learning.