THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION

Lecture 1: Causes of Crime

Background

The creation of the different law enforcement agencies in the Philippines rooted in the variety
of issues, problems, misunderstanding, miscommunication, misconduct, malpractices of habits
and beliefs, misfeasance of government and public workers, lifestyle, behavior and etc. It is
essential that one must know first the cause/s or reason/s why such thing exists. Enumerated
below are the things one must recognize in relation to the issues surrounding the problems on
criminality. Neither the cause are identified as human, property, money, drugs, family relations,
position, ranks, salary and many more. The following below are the Common Causes of Crime.

1. Overpopulation is the biggest cause of crime:

In Asia, Philippines is one of the countries whose population proliferate. And increase in
population is the biggest cause of crime and much of the world's worries. The government
initiates a mechanism to control birth such as artificial birth control and even dole out
contraceptive pills. Although population increase is related to each and every cause mentioned
here, it still needs to be looked at as a cause of crime. The increase of population triggers of a
dynamo effect in society and this leads to the creation of more people with some form of
frustration or resentment towards society as such.

To feed a family and to create a healthy home at atmosphere, the following must exist.

1. there must be an income earner - father or the mother

2. family manager or budget officer- usually the mother or the eldest child the 3, basic needs
are met/provided

4. children are able to attend school

2. Poverty:

Third world countries like the Philippines is one among the poorest that experience the
negative effect of it. And Economic deprivation, or simply poverty is a major cause of crime all
around the world. People are often driven to great lengths of desperation by poverty and this is
a foremost cause of crime all around the world. The fact that such frustration is created is in
itself a very dangerous thing for society on the whole as global inflation has risen significantly
over the last few years. Although it does seem that in our world today, the rich get richer and
the poor get poorer.

Poverty alleviation is one of the programs of the government being undertaken in many ways
where predators in the major thoroughfare are taking advantage. And this is one agenda that
never did it prosper due to the conflict of interest of the implementers and distributors for
foods, medicine and shelter as the main issue.

Examples of these programs in the Philippine Government are:

1. Affordable housing

2. Dole out of cash assistance (4Ps- Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino Program)

3. Free Medical Assistance/Medicine

4. Free seeds for farmers, and a lot more

3. Politics:

Politics is often a cause of crime. It is seen that many political associations all around the world
have their own mafias running which they use to manipulate and subjugate people. Political
power is often misused to take advantage of weaker groups and people and the dissidence that
rises out of such situations often force the victims to resort to crimes. Politics is more related to
crime on a much larger and a much heinous level than anything else.

Politicians want to stay in power. They must remember that people put them in the position
they hold. It is a must therefore, that they serve the people who voted for them. Greediness is
the main issue to every politician who do not like to step down after finishing their term.
Politicians most often use and abuse their power just to stay in the position. Politicians want to
stay in their position because of the following common reasons:

1. R - Recognition

2. A - Authority

3. M - Money/Manipulation

4. P - Power
4. Racism:

Discrimination based on race is a serious issue all around the world. All humans are in a way
racist towards some people in some part of the world or another. Racism has contributed a lot
of unrest to many places all around the world and it's mostly because of one or two idiots that
such crimes are given birth to. It is a sad fact of the world that we live in that we end up
discriminating against something that is the flesh and blood underneath even though the
external appearance and the origins may be different.

In local areas, racism is better understood as the comparison of the

1. Rich vs Poor

2. Beautiful vs Ugly

3. Black vs White

4. Tall vs Short

5. Mansion vs Nipa hut

5. Television or TV violence:

TV violence has gone up to staggering levels and it does not help when people are influenced
and try to emulate such acts of violence. TV violence is a major cause of crime especially among
younger people that are unable to differentiate between fiction and reality. Since TV has
become such an integral part of people's lives nowadays, it is important to draw clear lines
between what is real and what is not.

With the presence of social media site in technology, violence is anywhere since children can
easily access these at a click of thumb. Full supervision cannot be given by parents to their kids
due to the advancement of technology in the market. Many laws have been passed to regulate
the showing of violence on social media but still, it proliferate even in the rural areas where
vulnerable children are the prime victims.

Movie and Television Review and Classification Board (MTRCB) is in charge of the conduct of
review to movies before it will be out in cinemas and televisions. Their functions include;

1. Classifying the movie (for Adults only or for General Patronage)

2. Screening the scene prior to its publication

6. Regionalism and Isolation:

Regionalism is a major cause of crime and unrest among people. Such people that harbor such
regionalist feelings often go to great lengths to commit crimes against other communities. This
fact is often ignored by people and the administrative bodies as they too are caught up in
classifications of people by region. It is often that a victim of such regionalism gets influenced
and enters the world of crimes.

Basically, regionalism is observed by means of;

1. Separation of educated to literate

2. Recognition only for the rich and wealthy

3. Products produced by the community

4. Dialect they speak

7. Family Condition is one of the causes of crime:

There are a lot of things that go on in families that often cause people to get into a life of
crime. Here there are a lot of different conditions that lead a person into crime. Abuse during
formative years from family members and other such acts also instigate a person into a life of
crime. People who are neglected by their families and do not get the to and attention that they
desire also get into criminal activities.

Family violence and other issues are also related to crime in many ways. Some of which are
listed below.

1. Unemployment of parents

2. No formal schooling of parents

3. Parents who are into vices

4. Separation of parents

5. irresponsible parents

6. Undisciplined children due to their improper upbringing ll is noticeable)

7. Family abuses (physically is noticeable)

8. Depression and other Social and Mental Disorders:

Depression is also a major cause of crime . Other than depression, people with grave mental
disorders also end up committing crimes. Such people should be treated before their
tendencies and ailments get out of hand. A person under depression or some other serious
mental disorder can also easily cause harm to themselves.

These occur when a person experienced the following:

1. Loss of love ones

2. Frustrated in her/his dream

3. Unwanted child

4. Suffering from severe Illness

5. Fear

9. Prohibited Drugs:

Prohibited and Regulated Drugs are a bane and a menace, no matter how we look at them. A
person addicted to drugs is unable to support their addiction and more often than not they end
up in a life of crime to fuel their habits. It is not unknown anywhere in the world that a drug
addict ends up committing crimes to raise money for their habits. Besides that there are also a
large number of people that are involved in the drug trade. Though these people may not really
be drug users themselves, they often lure others into drugs and crimes.

These drugs are chemicals and substances that may affect the mind and body of users and
create possible change in their mood and behavior. The effect may be short term with a bizarre
attitude, long term and even death.

People tend to be in this vice due to some reasons:

1. Family problems

2. Peer pressure

3. Environment

4. Availability in the black market

5. Negligence of parents
10. Victim of Unfair Rulings and the Correction System: (Prison system):

Victims of unfair or incorrect rulings from court often people to enter a life of crime. It often
happens that a cause person is a victim of chance and happens to fall into crimes. Besides the
people are also often falsely accused of committing crimes what ends up in a court conviction.

Jails or prisons often make worse criminals out of people because of the conditions that exist
there. Corrections anywhere does not involve major rehabilitation for criminals and more often
than not they end up being thrown in overpopulated jails full people who are either victims or
perpetrators of crimes more serious than their own. The declassification of people in prisons is
also s major cause of crime creation.

These unfair ruling can be experienced by prisoners through the following:

1. Insufficient Food/Water Supply

2. Not conducive cell/room

3. No Medication

4. Unfair Visiting Privilege

5. No Open Communication 6. Injustices inside jail/cells

The Causes of Youth Violence

Every day, print media and televisions are not live without their news story about the minor
and youth violence. Whether at home, and or a street violence, bullying and oppression, or a
school shooting, our country's youth is plagued by violent behavior. The American Psychological
Association (APA) defines youth violence as an extreme form of aggression with the goal of
physical harm, injury, or death. Examples of youth violence include everything from date rape,
homicides, and school shootings to gang violence and bullying.

For parents and educators of teens, it is important to recognize that these types of violent
behaviors are more prevalent than they should be. In fact, homicide is the third leading cause
of death among young people ages 15 to 19 years old in the United States according to the
Centers for Disease Control (CDC).

Consequently, for this rate of violence to decrease, parents and educators need to take an
active part in preventing youth violence in the lives of teens. To do this, it's important to
understand what causes violent youth behavior. Following are the most common causes of
violence among teens.

1. Media Influence:

Research studies indicate that violence in the media influences teens and can cause them to
act aggressively and violently. Although it is difficult to determine whether or not violence in
media leads directly to youth violence, studies have shown that playing violent video games
increases belligerent opinions and conducts.

In fact, in one of the studies conducted, it was discovered that video games not only escalate
destructive behaviors, but they also increase angry thoughts as well as raise the heart rate and
blood pressure of participants. Meanwhile, these video games decrease "helping behaviors"
and reduce feelings of compassion. Furthermore, violent video game users tend to interact with
other aggressive teens, which makes them belong to the group and feel accepted and
confirmed for their thoughts and feelings.

Basically, the social media consists of anything your teen es, feels, hears, or interacts with.

2. Teen Communities and Neighborhoods:

Where teens live can also have an impact on them and lead them to act more aggressively. In
fact, the CDC Points to several community risk factors for youth violence including diminished
economic opportunities, high levels of crime, and socially disorganized neighborhoods.

Additionally, a study by the APA found that youth violence can become a form of "street
justice" in response to the lack of police protection or patrols in poorer neighborhoods. When
this happens, teens may attempt to secure the neighborhood by using violence as a way of
bringing order to the area. As a result, youth violence often manifests as gang violence, turf
wars, gun wars, and other types of violence.

When teens live in socio economical-challenged neighborhoods, they may feel like their only
option for survival is to join a gang or to engage in violence. When this line of thinking is the
norm, teens are likely to act aggressively and participate in violent behaviors.

3. Domestic Violence and Child Abuse:

Abuses and maltreatment happening at home are signs of unhealthy homes where children are
basically threatened and will become part of their Weak and fragile foundation. Examine what
violations are presented in the cycle.
 Children who lived and witness violence in the home learn by example and can become violent
people as they grow, they also are more likely to experience teen dating violence either as
victim or an aggressor.

Other contributing factors include harsh parenting styles along with chaos in the home,
neglect and rejection. Each of these situations can lead to youth violence later in life because of
the lack of stability and structure in the home. Many times, violence is about power and
control. Consequently, being violent gives the teen a feeling power and control-- something
they lack at home.

To combat this risk, it is important that parents consider their parenting style and make
adjustments in order to reduce the likelihood of seeing violence in their teen’s lives later.
Meanwhile, educators can lend support by offering parenting workshops for all their school’s
parents.

4. Insufficient Parental Supervision

Parents who focused on their work and on how they increase their income are more likely to
experience the lack of supervision to their children.

The teens who receive insufficient supervision from their parents are vulnerable and prone to
engage in aggressive behaviors or criminal activity and do wrong doings. Without adequate
adult supervision, they do not have the resources needed to make good choices or to recognize
risks.

Subsequently, these teens tend to make friends with the wrong peers and people around, take
unnecessary risks, and experiment with things an involved parent would never allow.
Moreover, when parents are permissive, their kids often have no motivation to do well in
school and may even stop caring about their future.

As a whole, teenagers need fair and firm discipline and consistent interaction with and
direction from their parents. When parents take an active role in their teens' lives, it reduces
the likelihood of teen violence.

5. Peer Pressure

Peer Pressure plays a pivotal role in youth violence, especially When because kids are more
likely to engage in risky or violent behaviors when they act as a group. As a result, teens who
normally would not be aggressive or violent on their own often feel empowered when in a
group.
 Additionally, teens are more likely to be violent or aggressive they feel pressured. They also
may become violent in order to maintain their place in the group. Peer pressure can even lead
to engage in risk taking behaviors.

6. Drug and Alcohol Abuse

Alcohol and drug use has long been associated with the risk for youth violence. In fact, both
alcohol and drug use can increase aggression and reduce fear, which increases the likelihood of
youth violence.

While teens usually engage in recreational drug and alcohol use to feel good, prolonged use of
illicit drugs often brings about feelings of depression, anger, and frustration. These feelings can
then lead a teen to exhibit behaviors of aggression and rage.

7. Traumatic Events

Dealing with traumatic events also can cause violent behavior in teens. For instance, teens
who lose a friend in a car accident that they also were involved in often get angry at the fact
that they were the ones that lived. Because anger is a normal stage of grief, a violent outburst
from these teens may seem justified. But, while anger is a normal emotion, it is not normal to
be violent toward another person. When violence occurs, it should always be addressed.

Meanwhile, teens who exhibit signs of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) due to a
traumatic event also may be prone to violence. In fact, violent outbursts are typically a
symptom of PTSD, and if left untreated, can manifest in significantly violent situations. For this
reason, it is extremely important for teens with PTSD to get the counseling and intervention
that they need.

8. Mental Illness

Mental illness is another cause of violence among teens. In fact, mental health issues like
attention-deficit disorder (ADHD), bipolar, oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), and common
symptoms.

Teen mental illness sometimes hides behind other causes of youth violence. For instance, a
teen with bipolar disorder may be using drugs. If this teen become violent illness is part violent,
the drug use could hide the fact that the bipolar illness is part of the cause.

For this reason, it is important that teens engaging in violent behaviors are evaluated for a
mental illness. By treating the entire person than just the symptoms, you are more likely to
reduce the risk of additional violent outburst.
Lecture 2 Theories of Crime

What Are the Theories of Crime Causation?

Understanding the Theory

Undoubtedly, worldwide problems today about criminality is i attributed to issues present in

the society where prominent theories of crime causation are strain theory, in which people
commit crimes to get relief from strain or stress and or trauma, and control theory, which
claims that others force people to do crimes. The social learning theory is the idea that people
learn to do crimes through their constant association with others especially their peers.

Moreover, there are also theories of biological causation of crimes. Causation theories are
further divided into psychological, economic and political theories.

Labeling theory holds that the acts of arresting and prosecuting people contribute to crime
because people become labeled as criminals. Non-criminals may not want to associate with
them, so they associate with other criminals, which may lead to more criminal behavior.

Another social theory is social disorganization theory, which studies how family, friends,
associates and society in general contribute to a person's propensity to commit crimes. This
theory studies why some societies have more crimes than others.

A major area of study is economic theories of crime causation. Social scientists look at what
the criminal expects to gain from crime as opposed to what he can earn from legal work,
whether he can get gainful legal employment and what he perceives as the risk of being caught
when committing crimes along with the severity Punishment.

Genetics and biological factors may influence criminal behavior. Studies involving adoption and
alcoholism in Iowa, Denmark and Sweden found a strong link between genetics and criminality.

Studies of twins and adoptees have analyzed whether there is a genetic Propensity for
violence have had mixed results.

A theory is a reflective and coherent type of mental or generalizing thinking about a

phenomenon, or the results of such imagination. It is likewise the manner of figurative
reasoning often associated with such processes like remarkable undertaking including research.

The theories may either be based on science or on the existing phenomena where it is
considered as most reliable and comprehensive.

In modern learning, the term "theory" refers to systematic theories, a well-confirmed type of
explanation of nature of crime, made in a way consistent with scientific method, and fulfilling
the criteria required by modern science in the field of criminalistics. Such theories are described
in such a way that scientific tests should be able to provide empirical support for, or empirically
contradict ("falsify") it. Scientific theories are the most reliable, rigorous, and comprehensive
form of scientific knowledge, in contrast to more common uses of the word "theory" that imply
that something is unproven or speculative (which in formal terms is better characterized by the
word hypothesis). Scientific theories are distinguished from hypotheses, which are individual
empirically testable conjectures, and from scientific laws, which are descriptive accounts of the
way nature behaves under certain conditions.

Theories guide the readiness of finding facts rather than of reaching goals, and are neutral
concerning alternatives among values. A theory can be a body of knowledge regarding the
existence of criminality, which may or may not be associated with particular explanatory
models. To theorize is to develop this body of knowledge.

Commonly known, the word theory or "in theory" is more or less often used erroneously by
people to explain something which they individually did not experience or tested before. In
those instances, semantically, it is being replaced for another concept, a hypothesis. Instead of
using the word hypothetically, it is exchanged for a phrase "in theory".

In some instances the theory's reliability could be opposed by calling it "just a theory"
(implying that the idea has not even been tested). Hence, that word "theory" is very often
contrasted to "practice" (from Greek praxis) a Greek term for doing, which is opposed to
theory. A "classical example" of the distinction between "theoretical" and "practical" uses the
discipline of law enforcement: law theory involves trying to understand the causes and nature
of criminality, while the practical side of enforcement is trying to make people secure. These
two things are related but can be independent, because it is possible to research c criminal
without identifying for the specific and it is possible to arrest an offender without knowing its
cause.

That "practice prevails when it comes to application". One best example of this is, when a
prudent taxi driver met an accident, due to the negligence and imprudence of a bus driver, the
latter died due to the said accident. Is the taxi driver liable? The answer is YES, though he
took extra care. The theory here is, when you violate the law, you are liable, but in here, the
bus driver is the one liable, but still the taxi driver has liability on the matter.

Understanding Crime

Inside and out of the country, municipality, barangay and family, crime is prevalent and
ubiquitous. Sometimes, the non-acceptance of the nature and how it is being done create
another crime environment. Educated and uneducated alike, known and prominent
personalities or not, Christian and non-Christians, healthy and the gruesome, poor and wealthy
are all possible crime suspects and victims. With this, it is imperative therefore to recognize the
sources and origins of crime.

In the legal point of view, crime is an act committed or omitted in violation of public law,
forbidding or commanding it, while in its common understanding, crime is a violation of the
norms or agreement of the society. The effect can be destructive or even fatal.

Some of the Crime causes or sources are;

1. Misunderstanding of family members

2. Materialism/people who focus on material things rather than blood relation

3. Position/designation conscious

4. Greedy of Power and Authority

5. Lifestyle (needs vs wants)

6. Recognition

Theories that Further Explain the Commission of Crimes

1. The Anomie Theory

■ Emile Durkheim defined anomie (normlessness) as the breakdown of social order as a result
of the loss of standards of values. When a simple society develops into a modern, urbanized
one the intimacy needed to sustain a common set of norms declines.

■ Based on this theory, crime is normal.

■ Anomie is a sociological term meaning "personal feeling of a lack of norms; normlessness". It

describes the breakdown of social norms and values. It i was popularized popularized by French
sociologist Emile Durkheim. In his influential book Suicide (1897). Durkheim borrowed the word
from French philosopher Jean-Marie Guyau.

■ For Durkheim, anomie arises more generally from ' mismatch between personal or group
standards and wide, social standards, or from the lack of a social ethic, which produces moral
deregulation and an absence of legitimate aspirations.

■ This is a nurtured condition: Anomie in common parlance is thought to mean something like
"at loose ends." The Oxford English Dictionary lists a range of definitions, beginning with a
disregard of divine law, through the 19th and 20th century sociological terms meaning an
absence of accepted social standards or values. Most sociologists associate the term with
Durkheim, i who used the concept to speak of the ways in which an individual's actions are
matched, or integrated, with a system of social norms and practices ... Durkheim also formally
posited anomie as a mismatch, not simply as the absence of norms. Thus, a society with too
much rigidity and little individual discretion could also produce a kind of anomie, a mismatch
between individual circumstances and larger social mores. Thus, fatalistic suicide arises when a
person is too rule-governed, when there is ... no free horizon of expectation.

Causes:

- Disrespect to elderly and parents

- No values nurtured

- “come what may" idea

- Abuse of freedom

2. Strain Theory

This theory assumes that people are law-abiding, but under great pressure they resort to crime.
The real problem is created not by sudden social change but by a social structure that holds out
the same goals to all its members without giving them equal means to achieve them.

Causes:

- cannot explore to something

- People work like "robots"

- Barred in bringing out their potentials

3. Differential Association Theory

This theory was introduced bH. Sutherland. He is known as the Father of

AmericanCriminology.

Individuals acquire criminal behavior patterns because they are exposed to situations in which
earning. of definitions favorable to law breaking outweighs the learning of definitions
unfavorable to law breaking.

Actual observation and practice makes the individual perform the same. Later it was modified
into a more coherent manner.

He proposed the Differential Association Theory (DAT)

1. Criminal behavior is learned.

2. Criminal behavior is learned in interaction with other persons in the process of

communication.

3. Learning criminal behavior occurs within intimate personal groups.

4. Learning includes techniques of committing crime, styles, motives, drives, rationalization and
attitudes.

5. Specific direction of motives and drives is learned through definitions be it favorable of

unfavorable.

6. A person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favorable to violation of

law against unfavorable.

7. The process of learning criminal behavior by association with criminal and anti-criminal
patterns involves all of mechanisms that are involved in the learning.

8. Criminal behavior is an expression of general needs and values, and

9. Learning varies in time, duration, priority and intensity.

4. Differential Identification Theory

"A person," according to Daniel Glaser, "pursues criminal behavior to the extent that he
identifies himself with real or imaginary persons from whose perspective his criminal behavior
seems acceptable.

Causes:

- Law enforcers with firearms - expected to kill

- Public officials - anytime can do corruption

- Teachers - can always bully and shout to his/her students

- Managers - can belittle subordinates

5. The Labeling process Theory

The Labeling Theories - have their foundations in the various concepts and insights provided
interactionism, phenomenology and ethnomethodology which focuses on three (3) central
concerns.

1. This is consideration of why and how it is that some acts come to be defined as deviant or
criminal while others do not; to this end there is an examination of legal codes and practices,
and the social and professional interest groups that shape the criminal law;

2. It is recognized that certain people and groups are more likely to attract a deviant, criminal
and stigmatizing labels than others; there is thus an examination of the differential applications
of laws and labels by the various social control agencies and the organizational context;

3. It assesses the experience of being labeled for the recipients of the label.

By labeling individuals as "delinquents" or "criminals n encourages those individuals to

redefine themselves in accordance with the community’s definition. A change in self-
identification (or self-concept) may occur, such that individuals become what others say they
are.

Causes:

Branding of somebody without the court conviction yet;

- People who steal

- Thief

- Someone who kill

- Killer

6. Social Learning Theory

People are not actually born with ability to act violently but they learn to be aggressive
through their life experiences. People learn to act aggressively when, as children, they model
their behavior after the violent acts of adults. Violence is learned through a process called
"behavior modeling."

Causes:

- Victimized by their own loved ones

- Family quarrel/misunderstanding in front of their children

- Social media such as: Television and Print Media' and other means of violence seen publicly.
7. Overvalued Beliefs

Our own beliefs influence our values, attitudes, and perceptions. We tend to see what we
believe.

Beliefs persevere especially when we find a reason for their validity, even if there are evidence
to show that they are false.

Over value beliefs are irrational but have been buried deep in the subconscious and accepted
as true by the individuals.

Causes:

-Based on long overdue practices

- Handed down tradition

- Unfathomable faith

8. The Brain and Crime

Neurotransmitters are chemical compounds that influence or activate brain functions. Studies
have shown that abnormal levels of these chemicals are associated with aggression. It has been
reported by several researchers that there is an inverse correlation between serotonin
concentrates in the blood and impulsive or suicidal behavior.

Causes:

- Addiction to drugs and other chemicals

- Food intake effect

- Other vices

9. Conflict Theory

Conflict theory is a field of sociology that focuses on competition and the dynamics of
conflicting interests between different social groups as the fundamental force underpinning
culture and politics. Conflict theories of criminal justice look at criminal law as a means by
which more prosperous and powerful social groups exercise control and containment over
socially disadvantaged groups.

While crimes and punishments have been prescribed by social systems since pre-Biblical times,
criminology as a social institution involving police, courts and jails, is a modern development
with seeds of development n in the eighteen century and significant growth in the nineteenth
through the present day. Writing in the mid-1800s, Karl Marx developed an economic conflict
theory applicable to criminal justice as well as many other social institutions, positing that
industrialization led to excess population., which was thee socially and politically oppressed by
those who benefited from the developing capitalist system. Max Weber, writing at the turn of
the 20th century, viewed human culture as more beneficent than Marx did, viewing the
conflicts underlying criminal justice as competing values rather than intentional oppression.
George Simmel, at around the same time as Weber, looked at concepts of crime arising from
clashes in cultural groups newly brought into contact with one another by increasing
immigration patterns.

Function

Conflict theories function as one means of explaining the overarching philosophies behind
different criminal justice policies and systems. As a branch of social philosophy, criminal justice
conflict theories do not dictate what is right or wrong, or declare which system of criminal
justice is superior. Rather, conflict theories are one mode of describing and analyzing the
intentions and impacts of different criminal justice systems and events. For example, a
normative analysis of the death penalty might look at costs, deterrence effects and systemic
safeguards against improper convictions to describe whether the death penalty works to stop
crime.

Effects

Popularization of conflict theories of criminal justice has various effects. One effect amongst
the general public may be, ironically, to exacerbate racial tensions. Publication of reports
pointing out the disproportionality of incarceration of certain races can result in public and
media backlash asserting that the data is due to certain races having a greater inclination for
taking part in criminal activities, rather than due to other races' use of criminal laws to affect
racial oppression.

Causes:

-Nationality

- Religion o Position

- Accomplishments

- Power

- Injustices

- Inequality
10. Marxist Theory

Marxism is a method of socioeconomic anal views class relations and social Conflict using a
materialist interpretation of historical development and takes a dialectical view of social
transformation. It originates from the works of 19th-century German philosophers Karl Marx
and Friedrich Engels.

Marxist criminology is one of the schools of criminology. It parallels the work of the
structural functionalism school which focuses on what produces stability and continuity in
society but, unlike the functionalists, it adopts a predefined political philosophy. Marxist Theory
of Criminology.

Marxist theory condemns Western capitalist society as an unjust divide between two classes:
the ruling bourgeoisie who own the means of production (the capitalists), and the proletariat,
the poor masses with nothing to offer but their own labor.

Causes:

- Unemployment

- Capitalism

- High class ruling over the low class

11. Feminist Theory

Feminist theory is a major branch of theory within topical focus away from the male viewpoint
and experience and toward that of women.

Feminist theory is the extension of feminism into theoretical, fictional, or philosophical

discourse.

It aims to understand the nature of gender inequality. It examines women's and men's social
roles, experiences, interests chores, and feminist politics in a variety of fields, such as
anthropology and sociology in variety of fields, media studies, psychoanalysis, home economics,
literature, education, and philosophy.

Causes:

- Gender inequality

- Men’s world identity

Four Different Types of Feminist Theory

a. Liberal Feminism - is an individualistic form of feminist theory, which focuses on women's

ability to maintain their equality through their own actions and choices.

Liberal feminists argue that society holds the false L are, by nature, less intellectually and
belief that women able than physically cap men; thus it tends to discriminate against women in
the academy, the forum, and the marketplace.

b. Marxist Feminism - Marxist Feminism refers to a particular feminist theory focusing on the
ways in which women are oppressed through capitalist economic practices and the system of
private property.

c. Radical Feminism - is a perspective within feminism that calls for a radical reordering of
society in which male supremacy is eliminated in all social and economic contexts. Radical
feminists view society as fundamentally a patriarchy in which men dominate and oppress
women.

d. Dual-System Feminism - A synthesis of Marxists and Radical Feminist Theory, therefore

neither Capitalism nor Patriarchy take a position of importance as we're in a capitalist-
patriarchal society where both systems work together.

12. Containment Theory

The deviant behavior is defined in the context of relationship between personal and social
control. It also assumes that for every individual there exists a containing structure and a
protective internal organization, both of which provide defense, protection and security against
delinquency and misbehavior.

Walter Reckless, an American criminologist known for his containment theory of criminology,
which stated juvenile delinquency commonly arises from a breakdown in moral and social
forces in the organization that otherwise "contain" an individual deviant behavior.

Causes:

1. Presence of out-of-school youth (OSY)

2. No recreational facilities for the young OSY

3. Presence and tolerance of vices

4. Slum areas

The Four Choice Theories of Crime

What Causes Criminal Behavior?

The study and practice of criminology delves into crime causation and factors that contribute
to offender criminality. This means considering four basic theories namely: Rational Choice,
Sociological Positivism, Biological Positivism and Psychological Positivism. The theories rely on
logic to explain why a person commits a crime and whether the criminal act is the result of a
rational decision, internal predisposition or external aspects. The law and judicial system is
structured around use of these theories. Please read the following theories below

1. Rational Cause Rational Cause or "choice theory"

Developed by 18th century Italian philosopher and politician, Cesare Becarria, is considered
the classical school of thought and depicts criminals as deviants. The basis of the theory
explains offender motivation to commit a crime as a purposeful decision with intent of personal
gain in the form of ego-boosting incentives such as money, power, status or learning by means
of using the “free-will”.

Rational cause theory purports that the offender makes a choice to commit a criminal act
upon examining options, consequences and benefits or the "pain and pleasure ". The offender
then plans the crime by consciously picking the type of crime, location of the crime and target
of the crime, and executes the crime with awareness that it is wrong and control to choose
otherwise.

2. Sociological Positivism

Sociological Positivism, popularized by statisticians Lambert Adolphe Jacques Quetelet and

Andre-Michel Guerry in the 1800s, examines relationships between societal influences and
crime. Sociological theory is driven by a study of social structures within an offender's
environment such as family, peer groups, socioeconomic status, education level and subculture
that led to his criminality. The theory focuses on how an offender conforms to his surroundings,
becoming a product of his environment and social learning. This concept proposes that
criminality is inevitable under circumstances such as ongoing exposure to social disorganization
in a criminal culture, stigmatization, strain including poverty, a break-down in family or moral
values and family or community-justified crime.

The societal factors are:

1. Low levels of education,

2. Poverty, and

3. Negative subculture influences

4. Individuals en or surrounding social or cultural structure.

These could predispose that individual can connect and dwell into crime.

This ground seeks to associate crime statistics to sociological and profitable issues, such as
population density, ethnographic diversity, distribution of wealth, and employment. Rejecting
the classical notion that crime is a consequence of individual and predetermined decision
making, sociological positivism investigates social influences in relation to susceptibility for
criminal behavior. Within this presentation, crime and deviant activity are seen as normal,
adaptive responses to the structural and sociological organization and coercive factors of
society.

3. Biological Positivism

Biological Positivism, theorized by Italian criminologist Cesare Lombroso in the late 1800s, is
based in anthropology, and studies the evolution and physiological differences between
criminals and non-criminals, theorizing that some people are born-criminals. The belief is that
criminals are predisposed to commit crime as a result of biological inferiority versus personal
choice. This theory takes an objective and scientific approach to understanding crime by
researching an array of physiological factors that may contribute to criminality such as vitamin
deficiencies, hormonal imbalances, diet and brain function.

Biological positivism claims that criminal behavior is the result of some chemical imbalance
within the brain or abnormalities. Traditional biological theories suggest that criminal behaviour
is a result of a defect within the individual. It can be shown below how this theory can be
explained.

Theories of Crime and Deviance: Positivism

• Sought to overcome limitations of classical criminology

• factors outside individual control:

— Environmental

— Biological

— alcohol abuse, drugs, heredity milieus

• 19th C rationalist view of crime: Scientific criminology- treat the causes of disorder crime is
result of observable factors

• Empirical research - leading to Biological- Psychological theories of crime and deviance

4. Psychological Positivism

Psychological Positivism, theorized by French criminologist Alexander Lacassagne in the 1800s,

proposes that the causation of criminality is rooted in offender mental illness or personality
disorders. Examples include schizophrenia, bi-polar disorder, psychopathic personality,
antisocial personality disorder, depression and neuroticism. Disorders may be the result of
sociological or biological factors such as physical or sexual abuse, parental criminology and
intelligence level. Psychological Positivism analyzes criminality as the result of an internal and
unavoidable cause versus that of a controlled decision.

Psychological positivists propose that people commit crime because of internal psychological
factors over which they have little or no control. There is a criminal personality (Burke, 2009)
and that there are certain internal factors which motivate and drive an individual to become a
criminal.

POSITIVIST CRIMINOLOGY
- Punishment should fit for criminal.

- Crime is a function of internal forces such as chemical, neurological, genetic, personality,

intelligence, or mental traits.

- Trial theory

Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909)

- known as "father of criminology"

- Born criminals

- biological theory of crime

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

- psychological theory

- Id, ego and super ego.

- psychodynamic model
Lecture 3 Theories of Victimization

Background:

Understanding the various theories of victimology that exist today is significant, each with the
aim and purpose of explaining why certain people become victims of crimes, and why others do
not. Some people view some of these theories in a negative light, believing that to conjecture
and surmise as to the causes of victimization is tantamount to blaming the victim for crime, at
least partly.

What is Victimology and Victimization and Legal Definition?

Victimology is the scientific study of victimization, including the relationships between victims
and offenders, victims and family and the criminal justice system, and victims and other social
groups and institutions, such as the media, businesses, and social movements.

Types of Victimology

General Victimology. Some scholars refer to general victimology as victimity. General

victimology includes the study of five specific types of victimization:

1. Criminal Victimization

2. Self-Victimization

3. Social Environmental Victimization

4. Technological Victimization, and

5. Natural Disaster Victimization.

The theories of victimization shows vulnerability of every individual.

Theories of Victimization

Crime

1. Lack of capable guardians

- Police officers

- Homeowners

- Security systems
2. Motivated offender

- Teenage boys

- Unemployed

- Addict population

3. Suitable targets

- Costly jewelry

- Expensive cars

- Easily transportable goods

The Four Theories of Victimization

1. The Victim Precipitation Theory.

Victim precipitation refers to the interactions of victims with those Who commit c es against
them. In this s. lesson, you will be introduced to the theory of victim precipitation through
definitions and example.

The Definition:

Victim precipitation is a criminology theory that analyzes how victim's interaction with an
offender may contribute to the crime being committed. The theory is most commonly
associated with crimes like homicide, rape, assault, and robbery.

The axiom Victim precipitation' was first introduced by 20th century criminologist Marvin
Wolfgang, in his article entitled Victim Precipitated Criminal Homicide. In this theory, Wolfgang
describes the victim as the first in the homicide drama to use physical force against his
subsequent slayer.

The Theory:

Like all criminology theories, victim precipitation relates to how and why crime happens. While
most theories focus on the acts and intentions of the offender, victim precipitation seeks to
understand the interaction between the victim and the offender.

Aggressor as agitator + provoked victim = crime where 'victims provoke criminals" and that
victims trigger criminal acts their provocative behavior.
 This theory application is known as victim facilitation, and it concerns situation where a
victim's negligence or carelessness makes them more susceptible to criminal conduct.

The victim is viewed as an active participant in the crime. This happens in two ways: first, the
victim is the participant In the crime who acts first; and second, the victim encourages or
provokes the offender to commit the crime. These are the Primary components of the victim
precipitation theory.

Example: Tonio and Acio are having a drink at the local Acio owes Tonio money, and as the
night progresses, -1:91:110 becomes increasing 7 agitated with Acio's failure to pay his debt.
Finally, Tonio snaps— he shouts at Acio from across the bar, and then charges at him, flaunting
a pistol. He fire a shot toward Acio, barely missing his head. Acio pulls a knife and stabs Tonio
to death as the two wrestle on the floor.

Victim precipitation theory also relates to interactions that make a victim susceptible to crime

2. The Lifestyle Theory

• Lifestyle

Style of life, the way a person lives a

Some lifestyles favor victimization because they offer more opportunities

• Demographic variables determine victimization risk through their effect on lifestyle.

• Some populations are at heightened risk due to their status (e.g., elderly).

The lifestyle/exposure theory is a model of victimology that posits that the likelihood an
individual will suffer personal victimization depends heavily upon the concept of life style. Most
victims are victimized at night. The lifestyle theory is constructed upon several premises.

"Lifestyle theories suggest that victims put themselves in danger by engaging in high-risk
activities", "Victimization risk is increased when people have a high-risk lifestyle. Placing oneself
at risk by going out to dangerous places results in increased victimization"
3. Deviant Place Theory

Deviant Place Theory. In order to lower the chance and vulnerability that one will become the
victim of a crime, the individual should avoid the "bad" areas of town or cities where crime
rates are high.

The Deviant place theory discusses the fact that crime flourishes in certain places and the odds
of victimization increase when people live in the high-crime areas and that this theory states
that "crime is not a random occurrence but rather a function of the victim's lifestyle".

The view that victimization is primarily a function of -- where people live, poor areas, densely
populated and highly transient.

Examples:

1. The MNLF 86 MILF place in Mindanao area in the Philippines where ASG, ISIS proliferate all
year round.

2. Slum areas in highly urbanized cities

4. Routine Activity Theory

A likely offender

CRIME

A suitable target

The absence of a capable guardian

Physical convergence in time and space

A graphical model of the Routine Activity Theory. The theory stipulates three necessary
conditions for most crime; a likely offender, a suitable target, and the absence of a capable
guardian, coming together in time and space. The lack of any of the three elements is sufficient
to prevent a crime which requires offender-victim contact.

It clearly states that in order for a crime to be committed, three specific criteria must be
involved.

a. there must be a motivated offender,

b. a suitable target,

c. the absence of a capable guardian.

 Activity Theory is mainly a macro theory of crime and victimization. It requires motivated
offenders, but does not explain how such offenders become motivated.

Motivated offenders are individuals who are not only capable of committing criminal activity,
but are willing to do so. Suitable targets can be a person or object that .are seen by offenders as
vulnerable or particularly attractive. Guardianship can be a person or an object that is effective
in deterring offense to o cur and sometimes crime is stopped by simple presence of
guardianship in space and time. The factors that render a particular target attractive are
situational and crime specific.

The analytic focus of routine activity theory takes a macro-level view and emphasizes broad-
scale shifts in the patterns of victim and offender behavior. It focuses on specific crime events
and offender behavior/decisions. Routine activity theory is based on the assumption that crime
can be committed by anyone who has the opportunity.

The theory also states that victims are given choices on whether to be victims mainly by not
placing themselves in situations where a crime can be committed against them.

It is suggested that if one simply reduces the three factors, they will be able to reduce crime.
An increase in guardianship as well as time spent at home decreases the ability and opportunity
to commit crime.

Victim Categories

Background:

Categorizing victims is essential in order to know the niche of the investigation and in the
origin where to start the making of reports necessary to the probe of the case. On the other
hand, the victims are by-products of heredity, environment, traditions and culture and their
genes. This is also attributed to their experiences as perpetrators and victims prior to their
involvement as captive target of any crime. These categories are divided into the following:

1. Primary Victims - are persons who directly sustained injuries and even the immediate caused
of his/her death as a result of the violence inflicted against them.

Furthermore, the outcome is the product of direct involvement of the victim towards his
opponent.

This can be supplemented with the examples such as:

• My head was wounded when my enemy hit me with a hard object.

• I sustained serious injuries when my vehicle jolted with a car in the road.
• I suffered severe leg bone due to incendiary fire in the village”.

Special Primary Victim – is the result of the act of violence as the main target in any law-
breaking or wrongdoing.

• The supplementation of this is shown below:

• Victim of statutory rape

• Mentally incapacitated as victim of sexual assault or maltreated.

• Presence of threat and intimidation made by the person who mistreated the victim.

2. Secondary Victim - refers to a person who suffers panic shock or attack without himself
exposed to the actual danger or encounter in a catastrophe.

These may occur when the following are observed:

• Eye-witness of an outrageous event showing the immediate effect

• There is sudden assault in the nervous system

• Nervous breakdown is caused by witnessing an actual death of other person

• A parent who is considered as a secondary victim suffers from;

• Anxiety - when seeing her child maltreated by another

• Depression - when witnessing her child being assaulted by a stranger

• Frustration - when she entrusted her child to her relative but abused by the latter.

Types of Victims

Many criminologists have identified different types of victims on the basis of different
principles.

Mendelsohn (quoted by Krishna and Singh, 1982) has given six (6) types of victims according to
the degree of their contribution guilt in crime. These are:

1. Completely Innocent Warns (e.g. small infants/children who are raped or murdered or
kidnapped without their realizing what is being done to them);

2. Victims with Mingo Guilt (such as pregnant go quacks for abortion and pay for it with their
lives);
3. Victims as guilty as offenders

4. Victims more guilty than the offenders (such as those who provoke others to commit crime)’;

5- The Most Guilty types of victims who commit offenses against others and get harmed or
killed themselves (e.g., a rapist who gets killed by his victim who acts in self-defense); and

6. Simulating (or pretending) victims (such as paranoids, hysterical and senile persons) who give
evidence in the courts in order to obtain sentence against an accused person.

In this case, Walter Reckless (1961) has talked and further consider two types of victims:

a. Reporting - is one who is willing to report because he/she fears reprisals and punishments or
social consequences of doing so.

b. Non-Reporting Victim - is one who does not bother for the consequences of reporting his
victimization but is rather interested in getting the offender punished or getting some relief for
his suffering.

Specific Types of Victimization

Five (5) Types of Victimization by Wolfgang Four (4) Types of Victimization by Von Hentig
(1967) (The Criminal and His Victim, 1948)

(i) Primary victimization, involving (i) Victims whose injury may be the price of a
personalized or individual victims. greater gain, e.g., in abortion

(ii) Secondary victimization, where the victim (ii) Victims who bring about the detrimental
is an impersonal target of the offender (e.g., a result partly by their own concurrent effort;
thief in a department store, a person travelling e.g., prostitutes
without a ticket on a roadways bus

(iii) Tertiary victimization, which affects the
public or the administration of society
(iv) Mutual victimization, which concerns
those victims who themselves are offenders in
a given mutually consensual act (e.g.,
adultery)
(v) No victimization, which is an act of
(iii) Victims who provoke or instigate the
offense, e.g., by challenging the opponent to
kill him if he can and in an emotional state of
mind, the opponent accepts the challenge and
attacks
iv) Provocative or investigative attitude.
These are classified as:
1. Lethargic Attitude;
2. Submissive or Conniving Attitude;
negligible significance where there is no 3. Cooperative or Contributory Attitude,
immediately recognizable victim. 4. Provocative or Investigative Attitude.

Lecture 4 Crime Causation Explanation

Background:

Crime causation is a daunting and complex field. It is a manner of understanding the WHYS and
the HOWs in all its angles. For centuries, philosophers have pondered the meaning of the
concept of cause as it pertains to human behavior. Increasingly, research suggests that
individuals are unaware of the causes of other people's behaviors as well as the causes of much
of their own conduct.

Basically, to further explain crime causation, take note of the three theories.

Three (3) Theoretical Explanations of Crime Causation

Criminology recognizes three groups of theories.

1. Biological Theories. Made the common norms that physical traits can lead an individual to
criminal activities. Generally speaking, it was thought that physical attributes were passed down
from parent to child. It was thought that the risk of committing crimes also passed down from
parents.

The early biological theories of crime were focused mainly on heredity of crime, that a child
inherited his behavior from his parents.

2. Sociological Theories. This entry focuses on the three major sociological theories of crime
and delinquency: strain, social learning, and control theories. It then briefly describes several
other important theories of crime, most of which represent elaborations of these three
theories.

All of the theories that are described explain crime in terms of the social environment,
including the family, school, employment, group associate, workplace, community, and society.
These theories, however, differ from one another in several ways: they focus on somewhat
different features of the social environment, they offer different accounts of why the social
environment causes crime, and some focus on explaining individual differences in crime while
others attempt to explain group differences in crime (e.g., why some communities have higher
crime rates than other communities).
3. Psychological Theories. This came to the existence around 1913, and their primary concern
was to find a supporting link between crime and low intelligence (IQ). Three different types of
criminological theories attempted to answer what causes the existence of crimes.

Critical Theories Explanation

Critical theories also try to explain group differences in crime rates in terms of the larger social
environment; some focus on class differences, some on gender differences, and some on
societal differences in crime. Several versions of critical theory exist, but all plain crime
causation in terms of group differences in power. The manner of execution and performance of
the offenders differ based on their goals and reasons in doing and committing an offense.

Manner of execution comes in when:

1. The Situation is conducive to crime

Understanding the elements of crime must be reiterated in order to arrive in the situation of
considering the aspects and concepts of how crime is encourage. It is argued that crime
occurrence is most likely when motivated offenders come together with attractive targets in the
absence of capable guardians. Attractive targets are visible, accessible and open, valuable, and
easy to move items. The police may function as capable guardians, but it is more common for
ordinary people to play this role—like family members, neighbors, and teachers. According to
this theory, the supply of suitable targets and the presence of capable guardians are a function
of our everyday or "routine" activities—like attending school, going to work, and socializing
with friends. The pattern is observed.

Potential to crime:

a. Banks with no security officers

b. Jewelry shops with open shelves

c. Commercial establishments without CCTV

2. The Situation is Conducive for the Target

In a situation where the vulnerable victim is open and unaware that an attracted perpetrator is
going to make an attack it's either to the person himself or the property. It is essential to note
that properties with high value must be protected and persons who are into sensitive position
whose lives are endanger must be given an extra ordinary security.

Potential as target:
a. Wearing ostentatious jewelries in open public places

b. Carrying huge amount of money obviously seen anytime

c. Prominent personalities walking alone

3. The Instrumentalities are available

Simple to grave offenses reported by the police officers are usually on the account of using an
instrument in the attempt to perpetrate any target. Even if the incident is orchestrated by the
culprit. These instrumentalities are made accessible by the offender because of their desire to
be successful in their plans to gain for profit and to silent the victim.

Potential Instruments Used:

a. Presence of Loose Firearms

b. Availability of drugs in the market

c. Deadly weapon not check in department stores

d. Hired killers

The Future of Crime Theories and its Explanation

Basically, crime is the interests of the world whereby its effect is not just an easy talk by the
bystanders and

1) Biological Theories. Biological explanations of crime assume that some people are 'born
criminals', who are physiologically distinct from non-criminals. The most famous proponent of
this approach is Cesare Lombroso.

Lombroso and Biological Positivism In the 19th Century, Italian prison psychiatrist Cesare
Lombroso drew on the ideas of Charles Darwin and suggested that criminals were atavistic:
essentially 'evolutionary throwbacks'. He suggested that their brains were mal-developed or
not fully developed. In his review of prisoners, he found that they shared a number of common
physical attributes, such as sloping foreheads and receding chins. In so doing, Lombroso
suggested that involvement in crime was a product of biology and biological characteristics:
criminals were born that way. Lombroso's theory is essentially a theory of biological positivism.

Lombroso's work has long since fallen out of favor. However, biological theories have
continued to develop. Rather than measuring physical features of the body, contemporary
approaches focus on: • Biochemical conditions (e.g. linked to poor diet or hormone imbalance)
• Neurophysiological conditions (e.g. learning disabilities caused by brain damage) • Genetic
inheritance and/or abnormality • Intelligence. These attempts, to locate the causes of crime
within the individual, suggest that there are identifiable differences between offenders and
non-offenders. In other words, the criminal is ‘other’: in some way different or abnormal to
everyone else.

Positivism: Influenced by the scientific discoveries of the 18th and 19th centuries, positivism is
a research tradition that seeks to establish objective causes of individual behavior

2) Sociological theories. Sociological approaches suggest that crime is shaped by factors

external to the individual: their experiences within the neighborhood, the peer group, and the
family.

The Chicago School/ Social Disorganization Theory

Social Disorganization Theory grew out of research conducted by sociologists at the University
of Chicago in the 1920s and 1930s. The key proponents were Clifford R. Shaw and Henry D.
McKay (1942), who used spatial mapping to examine the residential locations of juveniles
referred to court. Shaw and McKay found that patterns of delinquency were higher in areas
characterized by poor housing, poor health, socio-economic disadvantage and transient
populations. This led them to suggest that crime was a function of neighborhood dynamics
and not due to individual actors and their actions. Shaw and McKay explained these patterns
by reference to the problems that accompanied immigration to Chicago at this time. They
claimed that areas settled by newly arrived immigrants experienced a breakdown of social
norms due to ethnic diversity and competing cultural traditions. Conventional institutions of
social control were therefore weakened, and unable to regulate the behavior of local youths.

Contemporary theories of crime, place and space include:

• Defensible Space Theory, which examines how the design of physical space is related to
crime;

• Broken Windows Theory, which looks the relationship between low level disorder and crime;
and

• Routine Activities Theory, which considers how opportunities to commit crime are shaped by
between people's everyday movements through space and time.
3) Integrated Theories.

Several theorists have attempted to combine certain of the above theories in an effort to
create integrated theories of crime. The most prominent of these integrations are those of
Terence P. Thornberry and Delbert S. Elliott and associates. Elliott's theory states that strain and
labeling reduce social control.

For example, school failure and negative labeling may threaten one's emotional bond to
conventional others and investment in conventional society. Low social control, in turn,
increases the likelihood of association with delinquent peers, which promotes the social
learning of crime. Thornberry attempts to integrate control and social learning theories. Like
Elliott, he argues that low control at home and at school promotes association with delinquent
peers and the adoption of beliefs favorable to delinquency. Thornberry, however, also argues
that most of the causes of crime have reciprocal effects on one another.

For example, low attachment to parents increases the likelihood of association with
delinquent peers, and association with delinquent peers reduces attachment to parents.
Likewise, delinquency affects many of its causes: for example, it reduces attachment to parents
and increases association with delinquent peers (an argument compatible with labeling theory).
Further, Thornberry argues that the causes of crime vary over the life course.

The Logic of Psychological Theories

Two friends were in trouble, A was put behind bars because the latter inflicted injury to B
which resulted to almost demise of B. but because of the established friendships, B still visit A
in Jail, but A doesn't even feel sorry. It's like he cannot understand that what he did to B was
wrong.

This will basically explain the Psychological Theories of Crime.

Psychological Theories of Crime - simply explain that criminal behavior is a result of individual
differences in thinking processes.

There are many different psychological theories, but they all believe that it is the person's
thoughts and feelings that dictate their actions. As such, problems in thinking can lead to
criminal behavior. Take the example of A 8v B, he doesn't believe that what he did was wrong,
which was what led him to be in jail.

Four (4) basic ideas when it comes to Psychological Theories of Crime. These general
assumptions are that crime is a result of:

1. Failures in psychological development

Some people run into trouble because they didn't develop, or grow, the way that others
normally do.

For example, a child with an underdeveloped conscience. That many times, what the parents
advised to them is for their own good, but this usually ignored by the children because what
they insist is what they believe it's correct. This is an example of what happens when someone
has an issue with psychological development.

2. Learned behaviors of aggression and violence

If a person is surrounded by viciousness, violence and aggression, they are more likely to
become violent and aggressive themselves, because they have learned that those behaviors are
okay and accepted.

For example, A comes from a very abusive and rude household, and his violent parents and
siblings taught him that it's normal to work out your frustrations by being violent against
others.

3. Inherent Personality Traits

It is common that there are some characteristics that criminals tend to share with each other,
and some psychologists believe that there are certain personality traits that predispose
someone towards criminal behavior, and as an outcome, crime is the output.

For example, even as a baby, A liked to seek out dangerous, risky and exciting activities. B is
happy to stay at home with a book; that's enough excitement for him. But, A likes danger,
which could lead him to act irresponsibly and recklessly, and perhaps in criminal ways.

4. Relationship of Criminality to Mental Illness

All year round, some people with psychological disorders and maladies end up committing
crimes. While this isn't the case for all people with mental illness, there are a higher-than-
normal percentage of criminals with mental illness.

For example, A has been diagnosed with a personality disorder, which means that he feels less
empathy than other people.
Glossary
Basic Terminologies are hereby defined for better understanding of the learners and other
readers.

1. Abnormal Behavior - that is observed unlike the majority of a healthy human population-
behaviors which could pose a threat or danger to one's livelihood Orwell-being. Frequently,
abnormal behavior is viewed as being symptomatic of underlying problems ranging from
emotional traumas to mental illness.

2. Atavism - In biology, an atavism is a modification of a biological structure whereby an

ancestral trait reappears after having been lost through evolutionary change in previous
generations. Atavisms can occur in several ways; one of which is when genes for previously
existing phenotypic features are preserved in DNA, and these become expressed through a
mutation that either knocks out the overriding genes for the new traits or makes the old traits
override the new one. A number of traits can vary as a result of shortening of the fetal
development of a trait (neoteny) or by prolongation of the same. In such a case, a shift in the
time a trait is allowed to develop before it is fixed can bring forth an ancestral phenotype.
Atavisms are often seen as evidence of evolution.

3. Behavior - Behavior (American English) or behavior (Commonwealth English) is the actions

and mannerisms made by individuals, organisms, systems or artificial entities in conjunction
with themselves or their environment, which includes the other systems or organisms around
as well as the (inanimate) physical environment.

It is the computed response of the system or organism to various stimuli or inputs, whether
internal or external, conscious or subconscious, overt or covert, and voluntary or involuntary.

4. Biochemical Condition - relating to the chemical processes and substances which occur
within living organisms that may induce one to commit crime such as the effect of drugs,
pollutions and other contaminants.

5. Biological Theory - Biological theories of crime attempt to explain behaviors contrary to

societal expectations through examination of individual personal characteristics.

6. Born Criminal - is a criminal type that describes those who are born as criminals through
hereditary. In a sense, the Born Criminal is inherently evil or a "bad seed." Examples of the Born
Criminal can be seen in many child murder cases or extortion cases in which children were the
masterminds.

7. Branding - The process involved in creating a unique name and image for a person who is
usually involved in a common crime such as thieves and murderers.
8. Causes of Crime - Criminologists looked to a wide range of factors to explain why a person
would commit crimes. These reasons included biological, psychological, social, and economic
factors. The blame is usually a combination of these factors behind a person who commits a
crime.

9. Crime - refers to an act committed and omitted in violation of public forbidding or

commanding it.

10. Crime causation - refers to the origin and reasons of family feud, public disorder, conflict of
religion and beliefs at any given time.

11. Delinquent - showing or characterized by a tendency to commit crime, particularly minor

crime.

12. Designation - the choosing and naming of someone to be the holder of an official position
even in the criminal world especially in the syndicated crimes.

13. Deviant theory - describes an action or behavior that violates social norms, including a
formally enacted rule (e.g., crime) as well as informal violations of social norms (e.g., rejecting
folkways and mores).

Deviance here is a behavioral disposition that is not in conformity with an institutionalized set-
up or code of conduct.

Deviance is connected to the place where it was committed or to the time the act took place.
Killing another human is generally considered wrong for example, except when governments
permit it during warfare or for self -defense. There are two types of major deviant actions, Mala
in se and Mala Prohibita.

14. Differential Association - This theory view crime i from symbolic interaction perspective.
This theory is studied in the discipline of sociology and criminology. It states that criminal
behavior is learned through social interaction.

15. Drug and Alcohol Abuse - Substance abuse, also known as drug abuse, is a patterned use of
a drug in which the user consumes the substance in amounts or with methods which are
harmful to themselves or others, and is a form of substance-related disorder. In addition to
possible physical, social, and psychological harm, use of some drugs may also lead to criminal
penalties, although these vary widely depending on the local jurisdiction.

16. Explanation of Crime - refers to the justification of causes where one may suggests that a
crime occur due to its effect be it economic, social, psychological or physical.

17. Family disorganization - refers to distraction of good relationship of family members.

18. Feminist theory - the theory that focuses on the explanation of women involvement in
crime and violation of social norms.

19. Foundation of crime - it refers to the causes and origin of minor offenses and violation that
later, if ignored, it becomes a larger issue in the society.

20. Integrated theory - Integrated information theory attempts to explain "what consciousness
is" and " why it might be associated with certain physical systems". It refers to the recurrence of
traits of an ancestor in a subsequent generation.

21. Labelling Theory -is the theory of how the self-identity and behavior of individuals may be
determined or influenced by the terms used to describe or classify them. It is also associated
with the concepts of self-fulfilling prophecy and stereotyping. Labeling theory holds that
deviance is not inherent in an act, but instead focuses on the tendency of majorities to
negatively label minorities or those seen as deviant from standard cultural norms.

22. Lifestyle - is the interests, opinions, behaviors, and behavioral orientations of an individual,
group, or culture. The term was introduced by Austrian psychologist Alfred Adler with the
meaning of "a person's basic character as established early in childhood"

23. Lifestyle Theory - this theory holds that crime is a developmental process guided by an
ongoing interaction between three variables (incentive, opportunity, and choice). During each
phase of the criminal lifestyle (initiation, transition, maintenance, burnout/maturity) incentive,
opportunity, and choice take on different values and meanings.

24. Mala in se - refers to acts that are inherently wrong, or an act that is wrong in and of itself
and are acts that are bad all by themselves, such as violent crimes.

25. Mala Prohibita- refers to acts that are illegal even though they may not be actually evil,
such as public indecency.

26. Malpractices - refers to the action executed by people in the community which is not in
consonance with the norms of the society.

27. Materialism - it is an act of a person who focused his whim s in the acquisition of cupidity
for wealth and materials as his priority.

28. Miscommunication - this pertains to the .exchange of arguments which resulted to

different action an d performance.

29. Misconduct - the display of abnormal behavior and disrespect to anyone.

30. Motivated Offender - a person who is greedy, avaricious and materialistic and position
conscious will lead himself into the illegal involvement in many ways.

31. Motivation - a stimuli that is encouraged due to one's desire of anything.

32. Neurophysiological Condition - is a condition that connects the activity of the mind and
body in the accomplishment of the planned action:

33. Origin of crime - it is the identification of the actual cause of the violation.

34. Over population- is an issue where the community or village cannot provide the needs of
the population to normally tehxeisctoiunnotrd.er to contribute growth and development for

35. Positivism - is a philosophical system deeply rooted in science and mathematics. It's based
on the view that whatever exists can be verified through experiments, observation, and
mathematical/logical proof. Everything else is nonexistent.

36. Psychological theory - Psychological theories of crime look at how differences in people's
thoughts and feelings can lead to criminal behavior.

37. Racial discrimination - Racism is the belief in the superiority of one race over another. It
may also mean prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism directed against other people because
they are of a different race or ethnicity. Modern variants of racism are often based in social
perceptions of biological differences between peoples. These views can take the form of social
actions, practices or beliefs, or political systems in which different races are ranked as
inherently superior or inferior to each other. It is also the non-acceptance of other colors within
the territory.

38. Recognition - is defined as the act of identifying someone or something because of previous
knowledge, or to formally acknowledge someone.

39. Regionalism - In international relations, regionalism is the expression of a common sense of

identity and purpose combined with the creation and implementation of institutions that
express a particular identity and shape collective action within a geographical region.
Regionalism is one of the three constituents of the international commercial system.

40. Routine theory - is a sub-field of crime opportunity theory that focuses on situations of
crimes. It was first proposed by Marcus Felson and Lawrence E. Cohen in their explanation of
crime rate changes in the United States 1947 - 1974.

41. Slum areas - refers to places where no permanent houses and jobs originate and always
resort to illegal activities as their means of livelihood.
42. Social Control - the enforcement of conformity by society upon its members, either by law
or by social pressure.

43. Social learning theory - Social norms differ throughout society and between cultures. A
certain act or behavior may be viewed as deviant and receive sanctions or punishments within
one society and be seen as a normal behavior in another society. Additionally, as a society's
understanding of social norms changes over time, so does the collective perception of deviance.

44. Sociological Theory - a set of ideas that provides an ex planation to human society.
Sociological theories are statements of how and why particular facts about the social world
are related. They range in scope from concise descriptions of a single social process to
paradigms for analysis and interpretation. Some sociological theories explain aspects of the
social world and enable prediction about future events, while others function as broad
perspectives which guide further sociological analyses. The following are reasons for
committing a crime to include greed, anger, jealously, revenge, or pride. Some people decide to
commit a crime and carefully plan everything in advance to increase gain and decrease risk.
These people are making choices about their behavior; some even consider a life of crime
better than a regular job—believing crime brings in greater rewards, admiration, and
excitement—at least until they are caught. Others get an adrenaline rush when successfully
carrying out a dangerous crime. Others commit crimes on impulse, out of rage or fear.

45. Theory - refers to the concept or principles as bases in the formulation of an idea applicable
to a certain phenomenon.

46. Understanding the Causes of Crime - it is a way of acceptance by the victim regardless of
how it is executed.

47. Victim - Victim definition, a person who suffers from a destructive or injurious action or
agency: a victim of an automobile accident. A person harmed, injured, or killed as a result of a
crime, accident, or other event or action.

48. Victimization- is defined as causing someone to be treated unfairly or made to feel as if he

is in a bad position.

49. Victimology - the study of the ways in which the behavior of crime victims may have led to
or contributed to their victimization and the claim that the problems of a person or group are
the result of victimization at a given time.

50. Violent crime - refers to crimes committed against persons, properties, public orders and
chastity where the manner and in doing the crime is not accepted by the society. The manner
of execution is harsh and injurious to the government. The outcome is categorized as "Heinous
crime".