INSTRUMENTATION

PART-1

Prepared By

RAJAN SINGH PAL

Fractional Distillation
Crude oil separation processes
Steam Cracking

coke.
 , Polymerization lkylation olefins

alkylate

Sulphuric acid alkylation -

Hydrofluoric acid alkylation.

Solvent Treatment Processes
 COKING
Coking

Delayed Coking

Continuous Coking

reactor
 Moving-Bed Catalytic Cracking, Thermofor Catalytic Cracking

Visbreaking, Steam Cracking

light & heavy gas oils

WELLHEAD FACILITIES

GTU FACILITIES
Inlet Facilities

Dehydration

TEG Regeneration
MAIN PROCESSING FACILITIES

Acid Gas Absorption

Acid Gas Regeneration Unit

Sulphur Recovery Unit

superclaus
Dehydration

Hydrocarbon Dewpointing

Sales Gas Metering and Export (By Pipelines)

 ICSS / SAS
Integrated Control and Safety System
Safety and Automation System
 SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition)

SCADA is a control layer above a DCS/RTU system.

SCADA does not perform DCS but the elements of a DCS system can perform SCADA.

A SCADA system is event driven, while a DCS system is process driven.

A SCADA system is primarily interested in process events, while a DCS system is primarily interested in process trends.

SCADA is data-gathering oriented / event oriented: The control centre and operators are the centre of its universe.
The remote equipment is merely there to collect the data-though it may also perform some very complex process control. The SCADA system must
operate reasonably when field communications fails. The 'quality' of data shown to the operator is an important fact of the SCADA system.
SCADA needs to get secure data and control over an unreliable communications medium and maintains a database of the 'last known good values'
for operator display. It frequently needs to do event processing and data quality validation. Redundancy is usually handled in a distributed manner.
These underlying differences needs design decisions that requires more complexity in SCADA system databases and data-gathering systems than is
usually found in DCS. The DCS systems typically have more complexity in their process-control functionality.
DCS is process oriented: DCS looks at the controlled process (refinery process) as the centre of the universe. A DCS operator workstation is normally
connected with its I/O (through local wiring, FieldBus etc). When DCS operator wants to see information he makes a request directly to the field I/O
and gets a response. Field events are directly able to interrupt the DCS system and advise the operator. DCS is always connected to its data source,
so it doesnot need to maintain a database of 'current values', it generally acts on real time. Redundancy is usually handled by parallel equipment,
and not by diffusion of information around a distributed database.
Controllers in DCS system handle high speed adjustments to keep the process variable at the desired set point. These controllers receive commands
from a SCADA to change to a new setpoint. It is these controllers which ensure that deviations from the setpoints are detected and compensated.

SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition)

It is impossible to keep control and supervision on all industrial activities manually. Some automated tool or system is required which can control,
supervise, collect data, analyses data and generate reports.
A solution to meet all these demands is the SCADA system. A SCADA system usually refers to a system that coordinates, but does not control process
in real time, DCS controls the process in real time.
Human Machine Interface (HMI)
It is an interface which presents process data to a human operator and through this the human operator monitors and controls the process.
Supervisory (computer) System
The supervisory station refers to servers and software responsible for communicating with field equipment (RTUs, PLCs ) and then to HMI software
running on workstations in control room or elsewhere.
Remote Terminal Unit
It connect to sensors in the process, converting sensor signals to digital data and sending digital data to the supervisory system.
Communication infrastructure
It provides connectivity to the supervisory system to the Remote Terminal Units.

SCADA usually refers to a centralized system which monitors and control the entire sites or complexes of systems spread out over a very large areas.
Most control actions are performed automatically by the RTUs or DCSs. Host control functions in a SCADA are usually restricted to basic overriding or
supervisory level intervention. For example the DCS may control the flow of cooling water through part of an industrial process, but SCADA system
may allow operators to change set points for flow and enable alarm conditions, such as loss of flow/high temperature, to be displayed and recorded.
SCADA systems have distributed database, referred as tag database, which contains data elements called tags or points.
A point is a single input or output value monitored or controlled by a system. Points can be either "hard" or "soft". A hard point represents an actual
input or output within system, while soft point results from logic/mathematical operations which are applied to other points. (Most implementation
conceptually remove the distinction by making every property a "soft" point expression, which may in the simplest case equal a single hard point).
The Points are normally stored as value-timestamp pairs: a value and the timestamp when it was recorded or calculated.
A series of value-timestamp pairs generally gives the history of that point. It is also common to store additional metadata with tags or points, such as
the path to a field device or PLC register, design time comments and alarm information.

The term SCADA usually refers to a centralised system that monitors and controls a complete site. The bulk of the site control is actually performed
automatically by a Remote Terminal Unit (RTU) or by a Programmable Logic Controller (PLC). Host control functions are almost always restricted to
basic site over-ride or supervisory level capability. Data acquisition begins at the RTU or PLC level and includes meter readings and equipment state
uses that are communicated to SCADA as required. Data is then compiled and formatted in such a way that a control room operator using the HMI
can make appropriate supervisory decisions that may be required to over-ride normal RTU or PLC controls.

SCADA software is event driven. A change of state will cause the system to generate all alarms, events, database updates and any special processing
required relating to that change directly from the recognition of that change (including any analogue alarms).
Event lists and Alarm lists are of major importance to operator, sometimes more than process data screens. Filtering of these lists is quite complex,
allowing displays sorted by plant/system area and alarm/event category/importance. Configuring alarms and events for points is relatively very easy,
as such attributes are usually added by default when a point is added to a SCADA system database.
On the down side, the display of process data can be neglected by system manufacturers. It can be difficult to draw and configure system displays,
and graphics can be dismal, although modern operating systems with off the shelf display packages are overcoming this.
 DCS (Distributed Control System)

The concept of automatic control includes accomplishing two major operations; that is the transmission of signals (information flow) back and forth
and the calculation of control actions (decision making). Carrying out these operations in real plant requires a set of hardware and instrumentation
that serve as the platform for these tasks. Distributed control system (DCS) is the most modern control platform.

A DCS refers to a control system usually of a process or any kind of dynamic system, in which the controller elements are not central in location but
are usually distributed throughout the system with each component of sub-system controlled by one or more controllers.

A DCS uses processors as controllers and uses both proprietary interconnections and communications protocol for communication.
Input/output modules form component parts of DCS. Processor receives information from input modules and sends information to output modules.
The input modules receive information from input instruments in the field and transmit instructions to the output instruments in field.
Computer & Electrical buses connect processor and modules through multiplexer or demultiplexers. Buses also connect distributed controllers with
central controller and finally to Human machine interface (HMI) or control consoles.

DCS is process oriented: DCS looks at the controlled process (refinery process) as the centre of the universe. A DCS operator workstation is normally
connected with its I/O (through local wiring, FieldBus etc). When DCS operator wants to see information he makes a request directly to the field I/O
and gets a response. Field events are directly able to interrupt the DCS system and advise the operator. A DCS is always connected to its data source,
so it doesnot need to maintain a database of 'current values', it generally acts on real time. Redundancy is usually handled by a parallel equipment,
and not by diffusion of information around a distributed database.
Controllers in DCS system handle high speed adjustments to keep the process variable at the desired set point. These controllers receive commands
from a SCADA to change to a new setpoint. It is these controllers which ensure that deviations from the setpoints are detected and compensated.

The elements of DCS may connect directly to physical equipment such as switches, pumps, valves and to Human Machine Interface (HMI) via SCADA.
DCSs are used to control industrial processes such oil and gas refineries. Product and process control are usually achieved by deploying feed back or
feed forward control loops whereby key product and/or process conditions are automatically maintained around a desired set point.
To accomplish desired product and/or process tolerance around a specified set point, specific programmable controllers (PLC) are employed in field
and proportional, integral, differential settings on PLC are tuned to provide desired tolerance & desired rate of self-correction during process upsets.
DCSs are used extensively in process-based industries for controlling a process.

DCS systems and process control system based SCADA HMIs are state based and consider the process variable's present and past states to be the
main criteria driving the DCS. PLC protocols are generally register scanning based, with no specific change of state processing provided.
Should a point toggle between scans, it will not be seen by the DCS. If any change of states are critical (as some would be for a DCS used for SCADA
applications), a point must be latched on until it is confirmed it has been scanned, which can be difficult and non-deterministic.
Field devices do not scan points as rapidly, but may be able to present them to the DCS in an overall faster time.

DCS software tasks are generally run sequentially, rather than event driven.
Therefore alarms or events are not generated when a point changes state, but when that particular process is run.
Events and alarm lists are secondary in importance to the process displays and filtering may not be as complex and flexible.
Configuring points is a separate task, with points requiring alarms and events needing to be configured in a separate action.
The generation and display of data, especially analogue trends and standard process blocks, is more user friendly for both operator and engineer.

A DCS consists of functionally and/or geographically distributed digital controllers capable of executing regulatory control loops.
The input/output (I/O) devices can be integral with the controller or located remotely (Remote I/Os) and connected by a communication network.
The controllers have extensive computational capabilities and in addition to proportional, integral, derivative control, can generally perform logic
and sequential control.

The DCS (Distributed Control System) systems are usually designed with redundany to enhance the reliability and availability of the control system.
Redundancy is generally applied at three different levels.
Power Supply Redundany
Controller / I/O Redundancy
Network/Communication Redundancy

DCS may employ one or more workstations and can be configured at the workstation or by an off-line personal computer.
Local communication is handled by a control network with transmission over twisted pair, coaxial or fiber optic cable.
A server and/or applications processor may be included in the system for extra computational, data collection and reporting capability.
 ESD (Emergency Shutdown System)

SIS (Safety Instrumented System) The safety instrumented system shall form a shutdown hierarchy treating fire & gas events, process abnormalities,
electrical isolation, fire fighting, prevent escalation as well as process segregation and blowdown.

The main purpose of an Emergency Shutdown System (ESD) is to minimize the consequences of an emergency situation, due to accidental fires or
uncontrolled release of hydrocarbon or critical process conditions.

All ESD outputs shall be energized in normal conditions. (De-energized to trip)

The Emergency Shutdown System is divided into five main levels:

Level 1 : Abandonment of facility with Automatic Depressurization (Vital Utilities UPS Power, Emergency Lights)
Level 2 : Total Facility Shutdown (Vital Utilities + Emergency/Essential Utilities like Flare, Fire System, PAGA etc.)
Level 3 : Total Process Shutdown (Process Utilities are not shutdown) (Electrical Utilities/Loads Normal, Emergency/Essential, Vital)
Level 4 : Process Unit Shutdown
Level 5 : Equipment / Package Shutdown
The system shall operate in a hierarchical arrangement where Level 1 is the highest level shutdown and Level 5 is the lowest level shutdown.
A shutdown initiated at a certain level shall imitate all lower levels shutdowns, but not initiate any higher level shutdowns.

The purpose of Emergency Shutdown System is to ensure that the plant is:
Depressurized
Electrically Dead

The Emergency Shutdown System shall initiate and control the following:
Initiate proper ESD level and all lower levels in the shutdown hierarchy
Sequential Blowdown of entire facility
Automatic isolation of all ignition sources
Shutdown of all equipment except the following:
1. ESD, F&G, PAGA system are left operational during required abandonment time for a safe shutdown and evacuation process
ompletion of abandonment.
2. Firewater Pumps
3. Emergency Lights
4. Navigational Aids
5. Emergency Radio Systems
6. Emergency Floodlights for lifeboats.

Level 1 is the highest shutdown level in shutdown hierarchy.

Level 1 push-button shall be provided for manual activation in preparation for total facility abandonment.
Level 1 shall be possible to initiate by activation of push-buttons located in:
Central Control Room (CCR)
Helideck area
Lifeboat Embarkation Areas (PLS muster station)

Level 2 pushbutton is used if gas is observed or if observed gas leak cloud reaches in non-hazardous areas.
Fire detection in non-hazardous areas shall not initiate any ESD action but shall initiate alarms in the CCR.
Level 3 pushbutton is used if there is confirmed fire and confirmed gas scenarios in hazardous areas.
Level 2 and Level 3 shall be possible to initiate from :
Automatics actions from F&G system
Manual activation of Level 1 and Level 2 push-buttons
A limited number of critical process conditions

F&G initiated ESD

ESD (Emergency Shutdown System) shall automatically be initiated upon confirmed gas detection within all areas (hazardous and non-hazardous)
and confirmed fire detection within all classified zones or hazardous areas.
Fire detection in non-hazardous areas shall not initiate any ESD actions but shall initiate alarms in CCR

Blowdown
Activation of manual sequential blowdown button in CCR will initiate Level 1 and start sequential blowdown sequence after 30 seconds.
Opening of blowdown valves has 30 seconds time delay to ensure that all emergency shutdown valves are closed.
30 seconds delay on opening of blowdown valves also gives operator some time to evaluate the need for activation of blowdown.
 F&G (Fire and Gas System)

SIS (Safety Instrumented System) The safety instrumented system shall form a shutdown hierarchy treating fire & gas events, process abnormalities,
electrical isolation, fire fighting, prevent escalation as well as process segregation and blowdown.

The F&G System monitors the plant for accidental fires and uncontrolled release of hydrocarbons.
The main purpose of F&G System is to detect the fire and gas hazards, wherever they are likely to occur in the plant and to alert plant personnel and
initiate preventive measures automatically or manually.

The F&G System shall consist of field mounted detection equipments, manual alarms stations, a logic control system for processing of signals, alarms
and display units (including mimic/ matrix)

All F&G outputs shall be de-energized in normal conditions. (Energized to trip)

The main function of F&G System shall be to:

Receive inputs from Detection System, Alarm System and any other equipment related to fire protection and safety
Process all input signals in accordance with the applicable Fire Protection Data Sheets (FPDS)
To initiate output signals, i.e alert plant personnel by audio and visual alarms and activate fire protection systems
To initiate shutdown actions, either hardwired or communicated on data highway to other systems / panels such as
a. ESD Included ignition source control (Hardwired)
b. HVAC Control System
c. The Safety and Automation System

The F&G System shall consist of two sub-systems:

Detection System Used to detect fire and gas hazards, wherever they are likely to occur in plant.
1) Fire Detection System For all areas with a potential fire risk.
Smoke Detectors (HSSD, Ionization, Photoelectric)
Flame Detectors (UV, IR, UV/IR, IR3)
Heat Detectors (Rate of Rise/Rate Compensated, Fixed Temperature, Frangible-Bulb Sprinkler System)
2) Gas Detection System For all areas where escape of gases may give rise to hazardous situation.
Catalytic gas detector (Flammable)
Infra-Red point detectors / Infra-Red open path detectors (Flammable)
Electrochemical gas detectors (Toxic)
MOS (metal oxide semiconductor) gas detectors (Toxic)
Ultrasonic gas detectors (Flammable/Toxic)
3) A system of Manual Alarm stations (MFA)- along escape routes, entrances to all safety and fire areas

Protection System Used to alert plant personnel, initiate shutdown actions and activate fire protection systems.
Fire detectors / Gas detectors shall give input signals to F&G system resulting in automatic protective actions

Fire / gas detected by one single detector shall always initiate alarm in CCR

A single fire / gas detector shall only be considered if sensor head is self monitored with fault detection in CCR
In case of CONFIRMED FIRE / CONFIRMED GAS following actions may be taken:
Alarm in control room, fire station, audible and visual alarms through PAGA
Initiate shutdown sequence through ESD
Initiate HVAC shutdown / damper closure
Activate start sequence of firewater pumps
Activate Fire Protection System ( Gases Suppression System or Water Suppression system)

The firewater pump start signal shall be direct from the F&G system logic, in addition to local starting facilities.
The F&G System shall be located in a dedicated room with accommodation facility and with a dedicated VDU with full graphic display located in CCR
for continuous monitoring and control.
The F&G system shall require minimum maintenance and has comprehensive self-checking / diagnostic fault detection capabilities.
The F&G system shall be powered from Emergency Power Supply (EPS) for minimum 24 hours upon loss of main electric power.
Upon loss of EPS, the system shall be powered from monitored UPS system (Battery Banks) for a minimum of 30 minutes.
All cabling and external equipments which are associated with the F&G system shall be routed, located and protected in a manner, which minimizes
the possibility of damage arising from explosion, fire or other physical causes.
The field equipment shall be able to withstand the environmental and mechanical loads/impacts due to rain, wind, dust etc.
F&G filed equipment which is located within mechanical ventilated unclassified areas shall be certified for use in Zone 2
F&G filed equipment which is located within mechanical ventilated classified areas (Zone1/2) and in all naturally ventilated areas shall be certified for
use in Zone 1, Gas Group IIB and Temperature Class T4
For Battery Rooms, Gas Group IIC is required.
 Packages
Classification
Instrumentation and control concept to be adopted on project for different packages will broadly be classified as Class-A, Class-B, Class-C, or Class-D.
Monitoring and Control of packages shall be incorporated within the ICSS system as far as it is practicable considering the classification on packages.
The level of integration required shall be considered on a case by case basis with the following classification structure.
The supplier shall be responsible for the supply of all the instruments and control including the necessary hardwares, softwares, engineering, design,
co-ordination, manufacturing, assembly, testing, documentation, technical support and spares. All the package instrumentation and control systems
shall be in full compliance with the requirements of the applicable codes, standards and regulations.

Class-A : All controls and safety within ICSS

Control & Safety requirements are entirely implemented in ICSS. Supplier will fully support for design and implementation of control logic if required.
The package vendor shall provide following documents but not necessary be limited to:
P&IDs, I/O Database, Cause & Effect Diagrams, Function logic sequence, Start-up, Control and Shutdown Narratives, Functional Design Specification.

Class-B : Controls by ICSS and safety (Machine Protection System) within a package UCP
Control requirements are entirely implemented in ICSS & Safety requirements in UCP which will monitor machine status, vibration, temperature etc.
The package vendor shall provide following documents but not necessary be limited to:
P&IDs, I/O Database, Cause & Effect Diagrams, Function logic sequence, Start-up, Control and Shutdown Narratives, Functional Design Specification,
Serial communications bit mapping schedules.

Class-C : All controls and safety within a package UCP

UCP will have full Control & Safeguarding for autonomous operation and data handover to ICSS over a serial interface, except hardwired signals from
UCP to ICSS for UCP power supply status, common alarms and ESD trip signal as minimum.
The package vendor shall provide following documents but not necessary be limited to:
P&IDs, I/O Database, Cause & Effect Diagrams, Function logic sequence, Start-up, Control and Shutdown Narratives, Functional Design Specification,
Serial communications bit mapping schedules.

Class-D : All controls and safety within a package LCP (standalone systems)
Class-D package are standalone package with simple hardwired interface to ICSS. All package field instruments will be connected to field Local Panel.
The package vendor shall provide following documents but not necessary be limited to:
P&IDs, Cause & Effect Diagrams, Function logic sequence, Functional Design Specification.

Interfaces with the plant main piping and Instrument/Electrical systems will be at nominated flanged tie-in points & at skid edge junction boxes.

Classification for package PLC

OPTION-1 : Complete system resides in Safe Area e.g. control room, rack room, PIB/LER or Shelter.
OPTION-2 : Processor chassis resides in Safe Area e.g. control room, rack room, PIB/LER or shelter,
with remote I/O chassis mounted in the field.
OPTION-3 : Complete system resides in Weatherproof Purge Panel with cooling system in the field.
OPTION-4 : Complete system resides in Flameproof Panel with Vortex Cooler in the field.

The Packages PLC System shall comprise:

(Redundant)
or remote rack.
upply modules. (Redundant)
(Redundant)

A local HMI with limited functionality shall be provided with each PLC System, mounted in the PLC cabinet.
This shall be utilized for display and operational adjustments in the process control PLC configuration with
required user authentication.
These facilities will be required for operator and technician assistance with startup, operation, monitoring,
fault-finding, shutdown and maintenance.
Terminal.
Provides an operator interface in the PIB when connected to the PLC Chassis.
Provide an operator interface to be used during Installation, SAT, loop testing, pre-commissioning, startup.
Provides local engineering access to PLC configuration and trouble shooting.

The Programming Terminal shall comply with the following requirements as minimum:
* Latest operating system and anti-virus with necessary licenses, LAN / Network interface Cards, USB ports,
serial communication ports, integrated DVD & keyboard.
* Fully configured system software package including software keys and disks, required to configure, view,
use, maintain and develop SELLER'S standard and project specific software applications.
This shall include a tool to efficiently manage back-ups of PLC configurations and system databases.
* Programming Terminal shall have isolated communication channels / cards for communication processor and
interface to the central PLC network hardware.
* Programming Terminal shall be loaded with copy of as-built rack monitoring configurations and system databases.
* Programming Terminal shall be installed within the system panel with accessories.
 MCMS (Machine Condition Monitoring System)

Condition monitoring is process of monitoring parameters of condition in machinery (vibration, temperature, axial displacement etc)
in order to identify a significant change which is indicative of a developing fault. It is a major component of predictive maintenance.
Use of conditional monitoring allows maintenance to be scheduled or actions to be taken to prevent failure & avoid its consequences.
Condition monitoring benefits, so that conditions that would shorten lifespan are addressed before they develop into a major failure.
Condition monitoring techniques are normally used on rotating equipment and other machinery (pumps, compressors, turbines etc.)
while periodic inspection using non-destructive tests techniques & fit for service evaluation are used for stationary (Static) equipment
such as steam boilers, piping and heat exchangers.

Measurements such as vibration, temperatures, shaft axial/radial displacement, velocity, acceleration, pressures, loads, efficiency,
differential expansion are taken where possible.
The parameters value are fed back into the machinery management software package which is capable of trending historical data and
providing operators with advance information on performance data, predict faults & provide diagnosis of failures before they happen.

CRITICAL MACHINERY: Machines that are vital to plant or process and without these machines the plant or process cannot function.
Unexpected shutdown or failure of these machines will cause significant production loss.
Machines in this category include the steam turbines or gas turbines, compressors, crude oil export pumps, VDU, or cracker units.

ESSENTIAL MACHINERY: Machines that are a key part of the plant or process, but if there is a failure, the process still continues.
Unexpected shutdown or failure of these machines will cause minor interruption in production.

GENERAL MACHINERY: These are the machines that make up the remainder of the plant and are generally/normally monitored using
handheld data collectors or through permanently mounted transducers to periodically scan and create a picture of health of machine.
Unexpected shutdown or failure of these machines causes Inconvenience in operation, but no interruption in production.

Equipment

Continuous Online Monitoring System with Remote Diagnostics (Critical Machines)

Transducers are mounted permanently on the equipment and machine condition parameters are continuously monitored.
Alarm/trips are triggered when values exceed configured set points.
System is equipped with special diagnostics software for monitoring and analyzing parameters e.g. Bently Nevada System1 & DM2000
In this type of systems, E and both continuously and automatically.
The system may export the data to DCS for trending which could be useful for plant operations.
It contains data storage server(s) for storing historic data. Large plants have many machines and could be a network of such servers.
In case dedicated network is designed, separate workstation(s) with diagnostic software may be installed at central location (CCR) and
used by the reliability group.
pe drive) may also be provided. Common central location.

Continuous Online Monitoring System with Local Indication (without remote diagnostics) (Essential Machines)
Transducers are mounted permanenty on equipment & machine condition parameter are connected to standalone monitoring system
placed near to the machine (in field).
This type of systems, monitors the configured parameters continuously and has facility for connectivity with DCS and ESD systems for
trending and protection respectively.
This system does not have facility to store the data. There are no storage servers for storing historical data of equipment parameters.
handheld devices in case vibration analysis is required using
diagnostic software.

Periodic Online Monitoring System (General Machines)

In this system, parameters are monitored at defined intervals automatically and data can be stored in a server which can be used for
analysis using diagnostic software.
Numbers of transducers are connected to a monitor in daisy-chain Topology (wired network) or Mesh Topology (wireless network)
and transducers are scanned one by one in a pre-assigned sequence.
As monitor scans data one by one, scanning time for each transducer depends on the number of transducers connected to monitor.
The data scanning frequency depends on number of transducers connected to the monitor.
In this system, local display or buffered output may not be available.
This sys and relay outputs for trip is not possible.

The system shall display following plots Machine Train Diagram Spectrum Waterfall Cascade Bode Polar Time waveform
Orbit Shaft Centerline Acceptance Region Tabular list.
 HIPPS (HIGH INTEGRITY PRESSURE PROTECTION SYSTEM)

In the conventional design, a Pressure Safety/Relief Valve (Relief Systems - PSV, PRV) were used as the primary means of protection,
and a flare system was used to safely combust gases relieved during overpressure event. Something more robust was needed due to:
Increased design pressures and increased flow rates
Environmental concerns
The overall risk factors associated with modern day plants and processes.
In an industrial plant, the flare systems are primarily used for burning off the gases released by the pressure relief valves during the
unplanned over-pressurization of plant equipment. Flaring & Venting constitute significant source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
HIPPS can be employed to prevent the over-pressurization of a plant by shutting-off the source of the high pressure gas rather than by
releasing it to the atmosphere.

HIPPS provides this critical assurance in a safe and environmentally friendly manner. These safety systems are used when applications
involve high pressure and flow rates. Chemical reactions, multiphase fluids or plugging make it difficult to properly size a relief valve.

HIPPS high integrity pressure protection system is type of safety instrumented system (SIS) which is specifically designed to prevent
over-pressurization of a plant, such as a chemical plant or oil refinery. The HIPPS will shut off the source of the high pressure before
the design pressure of the system is exceeded, thus preventing loss of containment through rupture (explosion) of a line or vessel.
Therefore, a HIPPS is considered as a barrier between a high-pressure and a low-pressure section of an installation.

In traditional system, over-pressure is dealt with through relief system. A relief system will open alternative outlet for fluids in system
once a set pressure is exceeded, to avoid further build-up of pressure in the protected system. This leads to a flare or venting system
to safely dispose the excess fluids.
A relief system aims at removing any excess inflow of fluids for safe disposal, where HIPPS aims at stopping the inflow of excess fluids
and containing them in system. Conventional relief systems have disadvantages such as release of (flammable/toxic) process fluids or
their combustion products in environment and often a large footprint of the installation. With increasing environmental awareness,
relief systems are not always an acceptable solution. However, because of their simplicity, relatively low cost and wide availability,
conventional relief systems are still often applied.

Since HIPPS is a type of SIS (Safety Instrumented System), the requirements of HIPPS applications must be investigated thoroughly.
The SIS standards are performance-based with the safety integrity level (SIL) as the primary performance measurement.
s with the
tolerable probability of failure on demand (PFD) to all HIPPS devices from the sensor through the logic solver and final elements.
International standards IEC 61508, IEC 61511, IEC 61131 and US standard ANSI/ISA S84.01-1996 are intended to address framework
for design and application of SIS in process industry, through the definition of assessment, design, validation & documentation for SIS.

HIPPS module includes flowline barrier valves, pressure transmitters & controls designed to protect against overpressure in pipelines.
tem monitors the pressure of fluid flowing through the pipeline to the host platform.
Through hardwired logic, control system automatically close valves, if pressure fluctuations exceed a predetermined value in flowline.
HIPPS typically utilizes dual devices in a 1oo2 configuration (two valves in series) in conjunction with 1oo1 or 1oo2 solenoid valves.
Each solenoid can also be connected in 2oo2 configuration to reduce spurious trips by having 2 independent output from Logic Solver.
Sensors (Initiators) that detect the high pressure A Logic Solver, which processes the input from the sensors to an output to the
final element Final Elements, that actually perform the corrective action in the field by bringing the process to a safe state.
In case of a HIPPS this means shutting off the source of overpressure. The final element consists of a valve, actuator and solenoids.
 INTEGRATED TURBINE & COMPRESSOR CONTROL SYSTEM (ITCCS)

The integrated turbine and compressor control system (ITCCS) provides complete integrated control solution for the entire train,
It integrates turbine controls/protection with compressor controls/protection, and its auxiliaries and related process equipment in
single unified platform for superior performance & host of benefits that positively impact Operations and Maintenance bottom line.
The independent actions of a separate turbine control system and compressor control system can / may work against each other
adversely impacting process stability & diminishing efficiency. By integrating controls (Turbine & Compressor) into a unified system,
they work together seamlessly optimizing performance without sacrificing reliability. The result is enhanced compressor function,
increased throughput productivity, and increased stability in the process or pipeline.

The main functions of the ITCCS (start-up sequence, load synchronization, stopping and shut down) are described below:

Gas Turbine Control

Automatic turbine startup and sequencing

Control and Sequencing

Integrated vibration monitoring

per (Steam) Turbine Control

Steam Turbine Control

Automatic
Gas Turbine Steam Turbine Motor Driver
ure/Flow Control

Mode - This control mode is used on generators where the output frequency is held constant regardless of load.
Droop Mode - Speed droop is used to control the magnitude of governor response for a given frequency change so all generators
will share response after a disturbance.

Motor Driver Control

Control

Compressor Control
Automatic startup and sequencing
Load Sharing
-Surge Control

Suction Pressure Control

Discharge Flow Control

Pressure Control

ITCCS system shall also be configurable for the integration and control of a wide variety of auxiliary systems
Lube Oil Systems
Cooling Systems
Vibration Systems Integration
Fuel Valves Systems
Servo Valve Systems: Fuel, IGV, Bleeds, etc.
Steam/Water Injection Systems
Fire & Gas Detection Systems
Fire Suppression Systems
Combustion Flame Detection Systems
 Gas Turbine Compressor
Steam Turbine
Motor Driver

Benefits of integrating Turbine Control System & Compressor Control System

Comprehensive, integrated control for an entire turbine-compressor train.

Highly reliable less electronics, less opportunity for single point failure.

Easy to use access to all data from single database.

Advanced diagnostics for quick location of process faults.

Fewer spare parts needed one control platform, multifunction I/O boards.

Common HMI for gas turbine and compressor allows better data correlation for debugging and diagnostics.

Common pool of maintenance spares.

matic synchronization.
 ALARM MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Alarms are signal to operator that they should intervene in process operation to correct a condition in plant and return the process to a normal state
or to prevent the process from going into an abnormal or unsafe condition. It is the first hard layer in a multi-layered safety strategy.
Alarms should alert operator to a change or inform operator of the nature of change and guide the operator toward a course of corrective action.

Best practices for alarm management require distinctions between alarms and alerts.
Alerts provide a warning mechanism, but do not necessarily require immediate action.
Alarms should never be used as a warning and should always require operator action.
In short, alarms are not alerts. Alarms are not alarms unless they require operator action.

The fundamental purpose of alarm annunciation is to alert the operator to deviations from normal conditions, i.e. abnormal operating situations.
The objective is to prevent or at least minimize, physical/economic loss through operator intervention in response to the condition that was alarmed.
For most digital control system users, losses can result from situations that threaten environmental safety, personnel safety or equipment integrity,
economy of operation and product quality control as well as plant throughput. A key factor in operator response effectiveness is speed and accuracy
with which the operator can identify the alarms that require immediate action.

When a major piece of process equipment like a pump, compressor shuts down or during the startup of plants many alarms become unnecessary.
These alarms are no longer independent exceptions from normal operation. They indicate non-critical effects provide important information
Many of the alarms in existence today are often related only to the process variable that they are connected to, they are not aware of other alarms.
The result is may cause alarm showers or cascading alarms. These occur when one failure causes many process variables to trip their preset alarms.
The result can be catastrophic when the quantity of alarms masks the real source of the problem and causes delays in operator corrective actions.
In cases of equipment failure, startups, shutdowns, the operator must search alarm annunciation displays and analyze which alarms are significant.
This wastes valuable time when operator needs to make important operating decisions and take swift action. If resultant flood of alarms becomes
too great for the operator to comprehend, then basic alarm management system has failed as a system that allows the operator to respond quickly
and accurately to alarms that require immediate action. In such cases, operator has virtually no chance to minimize or prevent a significant loss.

Alarm Management System is usually necessary in a process manufacturing environment that is controlled by plant operator using a control system,
such as DCS or programmable logic controller (PLC). Such a system may have hundreds of individual alarms that up until very recently have probably
been designed with only limited consideration of other alarms in the system. Since humans can only do one thing at a time and can pay attention to
a limited number of things at a time, there needs to be a way to ensure that alarms are presented at rate that can be addressed by human operator,
particularly when the plant is in upset or in an any unusual conditions. Alarms also need to be capable of directing the operator's attention to most
important problem that he or she needs to act upon, using a priority to indicate degree of importance or rank for instance.

The main functions of Alarm Management System are:

Alarm and Event Archiving

Alarm and Events Analysis
Alarm Enforcement
Auditing and Traceability
Nuiscance Alarm Reduction

Step 1: Create and adopt an alarm philosophy

A

Step 2: Alarm performance benchmarking

Analyze the alarm system to determine its strengths and deficiencies and effectively map out a practical solution to improve it.

From experience, it is known that around half of the entire alarm load usually comes from a relatively few alarms. The methods for making them
work properly are documented and can be applied with minimum effort and maximum performance improvement.

Step 4: Alarm documentation and rationalization (D&R)

A full overhaul of the alarm system to ensure that each alarm complies with the alarm philosophy and the principles of good alarm management.

Step 5: Alarm system audit and enforcement

DCS alarm systems are notoriously easy to change and generally lack proper security. Methods are needed to ensure that the alarm system does not
drift from its rationalized state.

Step 6: Real-time alarm management

More advanced alarm management techniques are often needed/required to ensure that the alarm system properly supports, rather than hinders,
the operator in all operating scenarios. These include Alarm Grouping, Alarm Shelving and Alarm Flood Suppression Technologies etc.

Step 7: Control and maintain alarm system performance

Proper management of change and longer term analysis and KPI monitoring are needed, to ensure that the gains that have been achieved from
performing the steps above do not dwindle away over
What is Alarm System
Alarms are signals which are annunciated to operator typically by an audible sound, some form of visual indication (usually colours and flashing), and
by the presentation of a message or some other identifier. An alarm will indicate a problem requiring operator attention, and is generally initiated by
a process measurement passing a defined alarm setting as it approaches an undesirable or potentially unsafe value.
Alarm systems are a way of automatically monitoring plant condition and attracting attention of operator to changes that require assessment/action.
They help the operator:
A alarm system helps operator to correct situations before ESD (Emergency Shutdown System)
is forced to intervene. This improves the plant availability. It also reduces the demand rate on the ESD and thus increases the plant safety.
oid hazardous situations. It is the role of ESD system to intervene before a hazard arises. Also there may be cases where
operator action following an alarm has been explicitly identified within the plant safety procedures as a measure of protection.
may lead to financial loss, as off-specification or overly expensive product or catalyst.
should alert, inform and guide Alert is generally/usually provided through an audible warning or flashing indication on operator screen
Information and guidance shall be provided through text defined in the alarm message or graphic indications.
operator Characteristics of good alarms are defined below.
If there is no operator response, then it should not be an alarm.
Alarm priority is a function of severity of impact and max response time.

The following different types of process alarms can be configured in an alarm system;
Deviation alarms (difference of a measurement from a setpoint)
d to detect the beginning of an exothermic reaction )

low , low-low, high, high-high alarm)

cally change alarm setpoints or priorities)
-alarming (an alarm could be alarmed again if the problem has not been corrected from the alarm response)

Alarm Priority
Experience has shown that the use of priority bands within any one type of display is ergonomically effective for the normal presentation of alarms.
However, a plant may have more than one alarm system. Example, there may be alarms implemented within the process control system (DCS), and
some alarms (some of which are safety related) on a hard-wired annunciator, and a separate fire and gas alarm panel.
Priority 1 High
Priority 2 Medium
Priority 3 Low
Priority 4 Information meassages
Priority 5 Maintenance Alarms

Basis for Setting Alarm Priority

Once priority levels have been defined, the next question is how to assign priority levels to each particular alarm point. Alarms are prioritise as per
two factors, severity of impact & maximum time available. This establishes objective criteria that can be used by client in determining alarm priority.
onomic terms) that operator could prevent by taking corrective action associated with alarm.
When assessing severity of impact, account should be taken of other systems that will act to mitigate risk if the operator fails to respond.
for the corrective action to be performed and to have the desired effect in process.
If there are two alarms of similar consequence but one needs fast action to prevent the consequence, and the other does not, then there may be
benefit in prioritizing the first alarm higher than the second so that it gets dealt with first.
Once severity of impact is defined, then a table of priorities
can be developed from a grid of maximum response time vs
severity of impact.

Alarm Distribution
The relative alarm priorities should be distributed nearly to the values presented in Table below and the Alarm occurrence rates as per table below.

The following is the terminology that shall be used when referring to alarms on the alarm lists:
raised or initiated when the condition creating the alarm has occurred.
standing when the condition exists at a particular point in a time (i.e. snapshot).
cleared when the condition has returned to normal.
accepted or acknowledged when the operator has indicated awareness of its presence (usually by push button or mouse click)
Operator can accept/acknowledge an alarm when it occurs or after corrective action, until then alarm remains as unaccepted/unacknowledged.
reset when it is in a state that it can be removed from the displayed list.
 ASSET MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

For many years, companies have taken an approach in an attempt to drive down initial investment costs as well as total operational life cycle costs.
However, producers now have access to state-of-the-art techniques such as condition monitoring which enables plant personnel to use design data
when they monitor the status of field devices and system components.
At the present time, there are 3 main approaches to asset management.
and experience. These old hands can
detect changes in machine operating noise & pass this information to specialist who use experience based data to make operational recomendation.
The time lapse between detection of a malfunction and corrective action is very short and solutions are normally very pragmatic.
The second is from inspection data provided by offline checks which are made at regular intervals to detect deviation, is somewhat more reliable.
Monthly vibration checks are an example of this kind of approach.
The third is online monitoring which provides both the momentary value and the underlying trend.
All of these 3 approaches have a crucial flaw : they ignore process conditions, a major factor which influences remaining lifespan of equipment.
Since most modern field devices provide HART communication capability in addition to the analog process variable, manufacturers are turning to the
Instrument Asset Management Systems (IAMS) to improve the plant efficiency, reduce maintenance requirements and enhance overall productivity.
Plants can achieve significant reduction in operating cost & production downtime as result of implementing an effective asset management strategy.
As soon as plant equipment is commissioned, it is subject to degradation. The process, human interaction & time all conspire to corrupt the function
of process equipment and associated field devices. To control/slow the decline, plant maintenance groups are responsible for operational oversight
and timely repair of equipment. Their challenge is to keep installed assets performing while also reducing the resources and personnel required for
the maintenance function. A handheld communicator can be used for temporary on-site interaction with smart field instrumentation devices.
-wide basis to capture preventative maintenance information and

Understanding the technology

Keying (FSK) standard
to superimpose digital communication signals at a low level on top of standard 4-20mA.
This enables two-way field communication to take place and makes it possible for additional information beyond just the normal process variable to
be communicated to/from a smart field instrument. The HART Protocol communicates at 1200 bps without interrupting the 4-20mA signal and will
allows a host application (master) to get two or more digital updates per second from smart field device, there is no interference with 4-20mA signal.
HART technology is a master/slave protocol, which means that a smart field (slave) device only speaks when spoken to by a master.
The HART Protocol can be used in various modes such as point-to-point or multidrop for communicating information to/from smart field instruments
& central control/monitoring system. Communication occur using standard instrumentation grade wire with standard wiring & termination practice.
The HART Protocol provides two simultaneous communication channels: the 4-20mA analog signal and a digital signal.
The 4-20mA signal communicates the primary measured value (in the case of a field instrument) using the 4-20mA current loop - the fastest and
most reliable industry standard. Additional device information is communicated using a digital signal that is superimposed on the analog signal.
The digital signal contains information from the device including device status, diagnostics, additional measured or calculated values, etc.
Together the two communication channels provide a low-cost and robust complete field communication solution that is easy to use and configure.
The HART Protocol provides for up to two masters (primary and secondary). This allows secondary masters such as handheld communicators to be
used without interfering with communications to/from the primary master, i.e. control/monitoring system.
The rest of the unique information in a smart instrument used for configuration, calibration, troubleshooting, maintenance and diagnostics is usually
described in its Device Description (DD) files. The DD technology has been refined to include useful graphical and organizational constructs, and this
refinement is referred to as EDDL or Electronic Device Description Language. DDs are binary files containing an electronic description of parameters
and functions needed by a host application to communicate with the device. Instrumentation vendors use specific programming tools and tokenizer
to create the encoded DD file. The software/tool that make use of the DD information are generally considered to be the asset management system.
Many equipment suppliers use FDT/DTM (Field Device Tool/Device Type Manager) technology so they can present meaningful device information.
DTMs are software components that contain device-specific data, functions and logic elements. They range from a simple graphical user interface for
setting device parameters to highly sophisticated applications that perform complex calculations for diagnostics and maintenance purposes, or even
implement complex business logic for device calibration. The DTM also contains interfaces to enable communication with connected system or tool.
Device suppliers are able to embed intelligence in DTM in way that is very difficult to accomplish with DD files, such as number of graphical construct
that cannot be expressed within DD technology. Moreover, DTM is device and revision specific so that it has knowledge about the particular version
of each device on the control network. It is interesting that automation industry attaches so much importance to the IAMS, when it is the contents of
the DTM that really have value for the end-user. The IAMS is simply a container enabling communications to devices, a way to organize information,
as well as a path to the technician or operator.
Method of Operation
HART protocol operates using the FSK principal. The digital data is made up from two frequencies 1200 Hz and 2200 Hz representing bits 1 and 0.
Sinusoidal waves of these frequencies are superimposed on the DC analog signal cables to give simultaneous analog and digital communications.
There are several reasons to have a host communicate with smart field devices. These include:
Device Configuration or Re-configuration
Device Diagnostics
Device Troubleshooting
Reading additional measurement values provided by the device
Device Health and Status
The HART follows the basic Open Systems Interconnection (OSI), The HART protocol uses a reduced OSI model, implementing only layers 1,2 and 7
Layer 7
The application layer, brings the HART instruction into play. The master sends messages with requests for the specified values, actual values and any
other data or parameters available from the device. The field device interprets these instruction as defined in the HART protocol.
The response message provides the master with the status information and data from the slave.
For slave devices, logical uniform communication is provided by the following command sets:
Universal commands understood by all field devices.
Common practice commands provide functions which can be carried out by many, though not all, field devices.
Drive specific commands provide functions which are restricted to an individual device.
DATA TRANSMISSION
Types of data transmission : Frequency shift keying (FSK)
Transfer rate : 1200 bit/s.
it information frequency : 2200 Hz
mation frequency : 1200 Hz
Signal structure : 1 start bit, 8 data bits, 1 bit for odd parity, 1 stop bit.
Transfer rate for simple variables : Approximately 2/s (poll/response)
There are two main operational modes of HART instruments:
* Analog/Digital Mode
* Multidrop Mode
Peer-to-Peer mode (Analog/Digital)
Here digital signals are overlayed on 4-20mA loop current. Both 4-20 mA current and the digital signal are valid output values from the instrument.
The polling address of the instrument is set to "0". Only one instrument can be put on each instrument cable signal pair.
Multi-drop mode (Digital)
In this mode only the digital signals are used. The analog loop current is fixed at 4 mA. In multidrop mode it is possible to have up to 15 instruments
on one signal cable. The polling addresses of the instruments will be in the range 1-15. Each instrument needs to have a unique address.

ASSET MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

The Instrument Asset Management System (IAMS) is designed to manage the utilization and operation of smart field devices connected to DCS, ESD.
This includes all intelligent transmitters, positioners, multiplexers, FF segments applied to all systems.
The IAMS system supporting the field devices consists of hardware, software and network communications.
The functional scope of IAMS extends across the entire DCS and ESD systems and into the field instruments.
THE IAMS System provides functional capability at 2 levels:
Device Management
Maintenance Management

Device Management includes those functions which directly involved with operation and basic maintenance of a specific device:
* Ability to remotely perform typical configuration, calibration and maintenance for field instrument
* Detection of problems in the field instrument through device self-diagnostics
* Notification to maintenance personnel that field instrument problems exist
* Recording of device maintenance alarms
* Interactive program interfaces that can be used to access device information, initiate embedded diagnostic and maintenance routines within the
field device and precisely diagnose the nature and scope of any operating problems in the device.

Maintenance Management includes functions required to improve economic efficiency of maintenance activities associated with specific device:
* Maintaining a database of equipment information for field devices in the plant (asset registry)

identify devices requiring maintenance activities and issues alert messages to locations within operations, maintenance, management organizations.
* Comprehensive data viewing and reporting capabilities.

The hardware and software elements of IAMS system are located in following locations:
PIB (Plant Interface Building)
CCR (Central Control Room)
PIBs will contain control and monitoring I/O for a process area. PIB will contain a HART collector workstation with a multiport RS485 card which will
collect information directly from controller, if HART pass through I/O modules are used. If I/O modules are not HART pass through then information
will be collected from HART Demultiplexers which are used to strip HART signals from the 4-20mA signals.
The HART collector workstation will also be connected to PIN network through which it connects to IAMS servers in CCR.
CCR engineering room contains keyboard, Video, mouse, redundant servers providing maintenance management functions for the entire plant.
The central control room (CCR) and PIBs will be linked together by PIN (Plant Information Network).
This will allow maintenance management functions to be performed for any area of the plant from a central location i.e. CCR Engineering Room.
ICSS Integrated Control & Safety System
SAS Safety & Automation System

ENMS Electrical Network Monitoring System

PDCS Power Distribution Control System
PCS Process Control System
TCS Turbine Control System
CCS Compressor Control System
MCMS - Machine Condition Monitoring System
CTMS Custody Transfer Metering system
ATG Automatic Tank Gauging

ESD Emergency Shutdown System

F&G Fire & Gas System
HIPPS High Integrity Pressure Protection System
PSD Process Shutdown System
VIDEO WALLS
Controlling processes and monitoring plant behavior requires a number of skills from operators.
Of all information that we take in from our surroundings, 80% comes through our eyes, Hence an overview system that can be seen by all operators,
while providing them with all the vital information in blink of the eye is a necessity. This overview system must not only give an accurate information
but this must be done in a visible and legible way, keeping The overview system is a video wall.
Video walls are found in control rooms, stadiums, and other large public venues where patrons are expected to observe the display at long distances.
A video wall is a special multi-monitor setup that consists of multiple computer monitors, video projectors, television sets tiled together contiguously
or overlapped in order to form one large screen. Typical display technologies include LCD panels, LED arrays, and front/rear projection screens.

Screens specifically designed for use in video walls usually have narrow bezels in order to minimize mullion, the gap between active display areas,
and are built with long-term serviceability in mind. Such display screens often contain the hardware necessary to stack up similar screens together,
along with connections to daisy chain power, video, and command signals between screens.
A command signal may, for example, power all screens in video wall on or off, or calibrate the brightness of a single screen after bulb replacement.
Simple video walls can be driven from multi-monitor video cards, however more complex arrangements may require specialized video processors,
specifically designed to manage and drive large video walls.

Reasons for using a video wall instead of a single large screen can include the ability to customize tile layouts, greater screen area per unit cost, and
greater pixel density per unit cost, due to the economics of manufacturing single screens which are unusual in shape, size, or resolution.

What is a video wall ?

A video wall is a display and processing system comprising a matrix of projectors or monitors that function together as a single logical unit.
When compared to a single display, video walls typically provides a much larger picture size with a far greater pixel estate, since multiple screens are
combined to form a single image. Video walls are ideal for displaying large images and/or amounts of data that cannot fit onto single smaller screens.
A video wall usually dominates a significant portion of wall, and can be built with the same aspect ratio of a standard display and can be of just about
any desired shape or orientation. A video wall can comprise two, four, eight, nine,
Video walls have several distinct attributes and advantages, with image display capability and flexibility that simply cannot be achieved otherwise.
The investment for video walls always faces scrutiny, so it is important to sensibly identify & specify video wall system requirements for each project.
An effectively designed video wall system, with proper consideration for both environmental and human factors, ensures total viewing comfort and
optimal accessibility for everyone in the room. This in turn helps to maximize the cost-effectiveness of the in conveying visual information.
The ability to present clear, high quality images and at large sizes make video walls valuable for maintaining situational awareness in control centres,
specifically when properly integrated into its physical environment and engineered for efficient, ergonomic use.
On deciding how large a video wall should be is more than a matter of determining how many display devices are required to fill a space on a wall.
The manner in which the video wall will be used, the types and quantity of information to be presented, and the size and shape of the room should
be considered before selecting the quantity, type and resolution of displays.
A video wall in a public setting for digital signage e.g. the foyer of a corporate head office will have a very different specification on video wall as one
within a command and control centre. To help determine the best physical shape and size for a video wall, keep the following points in mind:
The general shape and size of a video wall is determined by the layout of the room and space available on the wall, and the seating and
standing positions of the operators and supervisors.
The distance from the closest and furthest operator from the wall.
Ensure the display you select for the video wall has sufficiently pixel density, so that the closest viewer will not see pixel structure.
Balance this with fact that higher the display resolution, the smaller the text will appear, closer the operator need to sit in order to read it.
Drafting window layouts will help you better define the shape and dimensions of the video wall. Be sure to account for:
1. The types of input sources.
2. The aspect ratios and native resolutions of these sources.
3. Legibility of content, particularly text, and possible need to enlarge and re-position them on the wall.
Character heights should be at least 0,006 x viewing distance to be legible.
4. The maximum number of sources to be displayed simultaneously.
Together with these suggested guidelines, be sure that the final video wall design and configuration satisfies eye and head tilt considerations.
Apply a minimum text height of 25 mm on screen for every 4.5 m of distance between video wall & furthest viewing position in the room.
The dimensions and resolution of each individual display unit that makes up video walls, will depend on the overall required pixel density,
the desired shape and size of the video wall, and the budget. The choice of display technology will dictate the specific screen dimensions
and resolutions available from which to choose.

The Design Process

Establish the total available space provided and available for the video wall.
Determine the desk and standing positions of all operators and supervisors.
Choose between a straight wall and a curved wall through a sight line study.
Using the same study, calculate the bottom height from the floor where the video wall should start and the top height where it should end.
Decide on technology LCD, LED, Rear Projections. Rear Projection-DLP is always preferred due to longer life span and its seamless displays
if space and budget constraints do not dictate otherwise.
Try to find enough space for rear accessibility for maintenance of wall this is for DLP systems as any servicing donot disturb the operators.
Identify what else needs to be placed on the sides of the wall, e.g. company logos, clocks, frequency indicators etc
Now establish the maximum size and desired shape.
Specify the aspect ratio and resolution of individual displays.
Ask video walls suppliers for using different screen-sizes that are available for aspect ratio to show the area that each screen size will cover.
The configuration that covers the maximum size the best, will dictate the size and number of displays to be used.
The steps above are suficient to sensibly specify a video wall in terms of layout, size, shape, front vs. rear access for maintenance, display technology,
aspect ratio, resolution, display size, number of displays required, and number and height of the supports on which the displays will be installed.
LCD Displays:
Flat-panel LCD displays have quickly become popular for video wall applications. They range in size from 40-100 inches, with a depth of 10 cm or less,
& are ideal for facilities with limited physical space and/or budgets. LCD panels designed for video walls are typically available with 16:9 aspect ratio
at resolutions as 1366 x 768 and 1920 x 1080. Recently the availability of ultra-thin bezel models typically 7.3 mm and 5.7 mm display - to - display
has made LCD flat panels very popular in a broad range of applications.

olecule tends to untwist.

This causes the angle of light which is passing through the molecule of the polarized glass and also cause a change in angle of the top polarizing filter.
As a result little light is alowed to pass polarized glass through a particular area of LCD. Thus that particular area will become dark compared to other
ectrode plane is made of
indium-tin oxide which is kept on top and a polarized glass with a polarizing film is also added on the bottom of the device.
The complete region of the LCD has to be enclosed by a common electrode and above it should be the liquid crystal matter.
Next comes to the second piece of glass with an electrode in the form of the rectangle on the bottom and, on top, another polarizing film.
It must be considered that both the pieces are kept at right angles. When there is no current, the light passes through the front of the LCD it will be
reflected by the mirror and bounced back. As the electrode is connected to the battery the current from it will cause the liquid crystals between the
common-plane electrode and the electrode shaped like a rectangle to untwist.
Thus the light is blocked from passing through. That particular rectangular area appears blank.
Colour LCDs are those that can display pictures in colours. For this to be possible there must be 3 sub-pixels with red, green and blue colour filters to
create each colour pixel. For combining these sub-pixels these LCDs should be connected to a large number of transistors.
If any problem occurs to these transistors, it will cause a bad pixel.

LED Displays:
LED displays produce very high brightness and are frequently used outdoors or in environments with high ambient light conditions.
These are generally not found in industrial or security control room environments.
LED (Light Emitting Diodes) Displays are basically LCDs only. The difference in it is that the lamp behind the screen that was used to illuminate the
fluorescent display in LCD is replaced by small LEDs. The working of the display remains the same, but due to the use of LEDs the display screen is
much slimmer in size, power efficient and can yield a true black effect to a much greater extent.

Modular Displays:
A recent class of display products feature a compact, modular display size comparable to LED panels which are virtually seamless.
This is a new display technology used for creating video walls with many different shapes and configurations. Similar to LED systems, these displays
are not limited to standard aspect ratios and can be a rectangle, square, or
Due to very low resolution,they are meant more for digital signage where it will be viewed from distance, rather than 24/7 command/control centre,
where legibility from close range is often necessary; or even security applications where facial recognition from CCTV camera images is required.

Rear Projection Displays:

A projection technology uses a projector to create a small image or video from a video signal and magnify this image onto a viewable screen.
The projector uses a bright beam of light and a lens system to project the image to a much larger size.
A front-projection technology uses a projector that is separate from the screen and the projector is placed in front of the screen.
A rear-projection technology is similar to traditional television. The projector is contained inside the box & projects image from behind the screen.

The following are different types of projection, which differ based on the type of projector and how the image (before projection) is created:
CRT projector: Small cathode ray tubes create the image in same manner that a traditional CRT television does, which is by firing a beam of electrons
onto phosphor-coated screen & then image is projected to large screen. This is done to overcome size limit of cathode ray tube which is about 40 in.
Normally 3 CRTs are used, 1 red, 1 green and 1 blue, aligned so the colors mix correctly on the projected image.
LCD projector: A lamp transmits light through a small LCD chip made up of individual pixels to create an image.
The LCD projector uses mirrors to take the light & create 3 separate red, green, blue beams, which are then passed through 3 separate LCD panels.
The liquid crystals are manipulated using electric current to control the amount of light passing through.
The lens system takes the three color beams and projects the image.
Digital Light Processing (DLP) projector: A DLP projector creates an image using a digital micromirror device (DMD chip), which on its surface contains
a large matrix of microscopic mirrors, each corresponding to one pixel in an image.
Each mirror can be rotated to reflect light such that pixel appears bright or mirror can be rotated to direct light elsewhere & make pixel appear dark.
The mirror is made of aluminum and is rotated on an axle hinge. There are electrodes on both sides of the hinge for controlling the rotation of mirror
using electrostatic attraction.
The electrodes are connected to an SRAM cell located under each pixel, and charges from the SRAM cell drive the movement of the mirrors.
Color is added to image-creation process either through spinning color wheel (used with single-chip projector) or 3-chip (red, green, blue) projector.
The color wheel is placed between the lamp light source and DMD chip such that the light passing through is colored and then reflected off a mirror
to determine level of darkness. A color wheel consists of red, green, blue sector, as well as 4th sector to either control brightnes or include 4th color.
This spinning color wheel in the single-chip arrangement can be replaced by red, green and blue light-emitting diodes (LED). The three-chip projector
uses a prism to split up the light into three beams (red, green, blue), each directed towards its own DMD chip.
The outputs of the three DMD chips are recombined and then projected.
The Video wall System shall integrate a number of OPC servers which are specific to a plant system, such as:
Distributed Control System (DCS)
Emergency Shutdown (ESD)
Fire and Gas (F&G)
Electrical Distribution Management System (EDMS)
Electrical Load Management System (ELMS)
Advanced Process Control (APC)
Tankage Information System (TIS)
Terminal Automation System (TAS)
Analysers
Generator Control Systems

The general architecture of a Video wall system can be represented as shown below.
LCD DISPLAY

LED DISPLAY

REAR PROJECTION DISPLAYS (CRT Projectors, LCD Projectors, DLP Projectors)

OPERATOR CONSOLES
Introduction
The Central Control Room (CCR) will monitor the entire facility and complex.
The CCR will generally provide operational management for entire facility, including production plants such as process, utilities and Offsites.
The CCR will be designed as a s and superior interior finishes.
The Operator Consoles will be deployed within CCR so that each of operators has an overview of the Plant facilities under his management and
the interface to other facilities via display walls (Video Walls).

Operator Console Design

The CCR will be a normally manned facility 24 hours per day 365 days per year with plant operators occupying the CCR full time.
The Operator Consoles will be technology intensive comprising a diverse array of display, control and communication equipment.
The Operator Console design, in general:
Shall satisfy the functional, ergonomic and aesthetic requirements of the operational working environment.
Shall exhibit spatial efficiency, accommodating a variety of computer, communication, display and operator interface devices.
Shall exhibit an open, modular design, to facilitate future equipment retrofits, re-configurations and relocation without on-site cutting or drilling.
Shall be fabricated to industry recognized quality standards.
Shall utilise modern exterior finish materials to achieve a distinguished appearance while maintaining ruggedness and durability.
The selection of equipment shall be governed by safety, reliability, maintainability, availability of spares and service, capability for future expansion,
design margins, suitability for environment, economic considerations, maximum commonality and exchangeability of equipment, ease of operation.

Ergonomic Factors
The overall design of Operator Console shall comply with accepted human factor and ergonomic standards for modern Control & Command Centres.
The placement of equipment shall support the Operator in a variety of routine tasks and promote Operator effectiveness and health.
Due consideration shall be given to reach distances, both near field of reach and extended field of reach.
Similar, consideration shall be given to view distances, both near field of view and extended field of view.
Equipment may be arranged radially to promote efficient interfacing, and minimise overreach and twisting.
The push button stations shall house safety system interfaces as ESD/FGS push buttons (max. 20), status lamps, & Maintenance Override Switches.
The right hand angled section will mount facility for data network & communication interconnection equipment below work surface.
The left hand side shall house power and discrete signal distribution below the work surface.
The final design of the operator console may be curved integrating all of the features above based on a joint styling exercise.

Work Surface
In general, a smooth level work surface shall be provided. The work surface shall conform to the following characteristics:
Manufactured from metal or fire retardant particle board core with high pressure, plastic laminate surface.
Surface material shall provide a non reflective and anti-static finish.
Surface material finish shall allow direct use of LED or ball type mouse without mouse pad.
Floor to work surface height shall be 750mm (fixed)
Static Load 75 kg/m (maximum 120 kg per surface on Work surface).
The work surface shall be supplied with a nosing (waterfall edge). The nosing shall comply with the characteristics as follows:
Manufactured from a high impact, moulded polyurethane edging affixed to an extruded aluminium core.
.
Console Vendor shall provide data on the fire rating of the polyurethane material used in the nosing construction, including any toxic gases released
when exposed to a source of ignition.
The Console Vendor shall include in his proposal facilities for mounting alpha-numeric keyboards below the work surface.
The facility shall allow for an operator to access the keyboard when it is required, but allow the keyboard to be stored when not required without
compromising the normal, above surface working area.

Equipment Mounting
Operator Consoles shall accommodate a diverse array of computer, keyboards, communication equipment, display, operator interface components.
Each of the components to be installed in operator console will have a unique installation envelope and unique requirements for interconnection.
In general the facilities for equipment mounting shall conform to the following:
Equipment supports shall be suspended from a continuous horizontal structural beam.
The size and spacing of equipment supports shall be variable in order to optimise the available equipment mounting area.
Equipment mounting kits shall be interchangeable, for future flexibility.
Allow for front and rear access for equipment loading.
Equipment mounting shall provide for, but not be limited to, the following equipment.
s.
Mounted on the top of the console
Mounted on a fixed arm from either a slatted wall or an extrusion.
Adjustable for height and angle.
Accommodate Console work station processors, network & communication components within operator console cavity on shelves/ trays, as follows:
Fixed or slide- .
Optional door mounted processor shelf where this can be demonstrated to maximise accessibility and minimises console depth.
Mounting shelves/ trays manufactured from 16 Gauge precision-formed cold rolled steel, 90 kg. load capacity (fixed shelf) & 45 kg (slide-out shelf).
Door mounted shelves/ trays shall be manufactured from 14 Gauge precision-formed cold rolled steel, with 45 kg. load capacity.
Accommodate facilities for discrete signal, power and network interface, interconnection and segregation, as follows:
DIN rail mounting, for signal terminal blocks.
DIN rail mounting, for essential and non-essential power.
Packages Philosophy
 Packages
Classification
Instrumentation and control concept to be adopted on project for different packages will broadly be classified as Class-A, Class-B, Class-C, or Class-D.
Monitoring and Control of packages shall be incorporated within the ICSS system as far as it is practicable considering the classification on packages.
The level of integration required shall be considered on a case by case basis with the following classification structure.
The supplier shall be responsible for the supply of all the instruments and control including the necessary hardwares, softwares, engineering, design,
co-ordination, manufacturing, assembly, testing, documentation, technical support and spares. All the package instrumentation and control systems
shall be in full compliance with the requirements of the applicable codes, standards and regulations.

Class-A : All controls and safety within ICSS

Control & Safety requirements are entirely implemented in ICSS. Supplier will fully support for design and implementation of control logic if required.
The package vendor shall provide following documents but not necessary be limited to:
P&IDs, I/O Database, Cause & Effect Diagrams, Function logic sequence, Start-up, Control and Shutdown Narratives, Functional Design Specification.

Class-B : Controls by ICSS and safety (Machine Protection System) within a package UCP
Control requirements are entirely implemented in ICSS & Safety requirements in UCP which will monitor machine status, vibration, temperature etc.
The package vendor shall provide following documents but not necessary be limited to:
P&IDs, I/O Database, Cause & Effect Diagrams, Function logic sequence, Start-up, Control and Shutdown Narratives, Functional Design Specification,
Serial communications bit mapping schedules.

Class-C : All controls and safety within a package UCP

UCP will have full Control & Safeguarding for autonomous operation and data handover to ICSS over a serial interface, except hardwired signals from
UCP to ICSS for UCP power supply status, common alarms and ESD trip signal as minimum.
The package vendor shall provide following documents but not necessary be limited to:
P&IDs, I/O Database, Cause & Effect Diagrams, Function logic sequence, Start-up, Control and Shutdown Narratives, Functional Design Specification,
Serial communications bit mapping schedules.

Class-D : All controls and safety within a package LCP (standalone systems)
Class-D package are standalone package with simple hardwired interface to ICSS. All package field instruments will be connected to field Local Panel.
The package vendor shall provide following documents but not necessary be limited to:
P&IDs, Cause & Effect Diagrams, Function logic sequence, Functional Design Specification.

Interfaces with the plant main piping and Instrument/Electrical systems will be at nominated flanged tie-in points & at skid edge junction boxes.

Classification for package PLC

OPTION-1 : Complete system resides in Safe Area e.g. control room, rack room, PIB/LER or Shelter.
OPTION-2 : Processor chassis resides in Safe Area e.g. control room, rack room, PIB/LER or shelter,
with remote I/O chassis mounted in the field.
OPTION-3 : Complete system resides in Weatherproof Purge Panel with cooling system in the field.
OPTION-4 : Complete system resides in Flameproof Panel with Vortex Cooler in the field.

The Packages PLC System shall comprise:

Power Supply modules. (Redundant)
CPUs mounted in rack. (Redundant)
or remote rack.
(Redundant)

A local HMI with limited functionality shall be provided with each PLC System, mounted in the PLC cabinet.
This shall be utilized for display and operational adjustments in the process control PLC configuration with
required user authentication.
These facilities will be required for operator and technician assistance with startup, operation, monitoring,
fault-finding, shutdown and maintenance.
Terminal.
Provides an operator interface in the PIB when connected to the PLC Chassis.
Provide an operator interface to be used during Installation, SAT, loop testing, pre-commissioning, startup.
Provides local engineering access to PLC configuration and trouble shooting.
In additi
The Programming Terminal shall comply with the following requirements as minimum:
* Latest operating system and anti-virus with necessary licenses, LAN / Network interface Cards, USB ports,
serial communication ports, integrated DVD & keyboard.
* Fully configured system software package including software keys and disks, required to configure, view,
use, maintain and develop SELLER'S standard and project specific software applications.
This shall include a tool to efficiently manage back-ups of PLC configurations and system databases.
* Programming Terminal shall have isolated communication channels / cards for communication processor and
interface to the central PLC network hardware.
* Programming Terminal shall be loaded with copy of as-built rack monitoring configurations and system databases.
* Programming Terminal shall be installed within the system panel with accessories.
Operating Philosophy
CLASS-C Packages : Control Option-1
For package PLC that communicate to the DCS via/through Modbus or OPC, the DCS shall allow the operator to have full control of these packages &
carry out all the normal operator actions that are available at the PLC HMI or pushbutton panel, where this is supported by the PLC.
annunciated within the Control Room(s) based on data passed via Serial Links.
The alarm handling philosophy will ensure no mismatches occur between the PLC and DCS. All the control and interlock logics shall reside in the PLC,
the DCS will only initiate actions within the PLC. Control and interlock logic resident within the PLC will not be duplicated in the DCS as far as possible.
The DCS will display interlock status and sequence progression. The Control Rooms are the central monitoring and control point for entire facility and
it is necessary to ensure that the Operators are provided with consistent status and alarm informations to enable proper operational decisions made
and correct operational actions to be undertaken without the need to go to the PLC. The packages normally unmanned locations,
although they will provide status and alarm information locally at PLC to enable monitoring and control actions to be carried out at PLC as required.
DCS/PLC Selection
A DCS/PLC selector - keyswitch, software signal or other secure method. The status of this selector will be included in serial data transfer with DCS.
Remote will be a logic 1 and Local a Logic 0. The transition between DCS and PLC will be bumpless in terms of data transfer and control outputs.
PLC Selection
With selector in this position control of field equipment, changes of control setpoint alarm levels,trip settings and all other operator allowed changes
will be available from the PLC HMI. The DCS will have a monitoring role only.
DCS Selection
With selector in this position control of field equipment will be available from Control Room via serial link. The PLC HMI will have a monitoring role.
It is not advisable to change alarm levels & trip settings in PLC from the DCS HMI. All safety/protective functions within PLC will remain in operation.
Control Setpoints
Control setpoints will be resident in the PLC. The DCS will read the value of these setpoints and display them as necessary.
Changes to the control setpoints from the Control Room(s) shall only be allowe selector on the PLC
The DCS HMI will prevent changes to setpoints when the switch is in the PLC position by preventing Operator from entering changes into DCS HMI.
When the selector is in DCS position it will be possible to change the setpoints from the Control Room(s) within the setpoint limits resident in PLC .
Changes to these control setpoint limits will also be possible at the Control Room(s) if allowed at the PLC.

CLASS-C Packages: Control Option-2

If it is not possible to fully control the package from DCS operator HMI then Package will have a separate PLC HMI just next to the DCS operator HMI.
In this screnio, a package cannot be fully controlled by the DCS HMI via through DCS/PLC serial Interface. Hence two separate PLC HMIs are required.
One PLC-PIB HMI shall be located at normally unmanned locations PIB/LER/SHELTERS and Second PLC-CR HMI shall be located in CONTROL ROOMS.
PLC-PIB/ PLC-CR Selection
A PLC Toggle selector - keyswitch, software signal or other secure method. The status of this selector will be included in serial data transfer with DCS
PLC-CR will be logic 1 and PLC-PIB a Logic 0. The transition between PLC-PIB & PLC-CR will be bumpless in terms of data transfer and control outputs.
PLC-PIB Selection
With selector in this position control of field equipment, changes of control setpoint alarm levels,trip settings and all other operator allowed changes
will be available from the PLC HMI located at PIB/LER/SHELTER. The PLC-Control Room HMI will have a monitoring role only.
PLC-CR Selection
With selector in this position control of field equipment will be available from Control Room via FO Cable. The PLC-PIB HMI will have monitoring role.

Alarms
Alarms from following packages but not limited to will be collected directly using OPC A&E using the Alarm Collector Workstations located in the PIB.
Condition Monitoring System (MMS)

ng System (SMC)

Alarms from packages that are collected by OPC A&E are also likely to be sent to DCS for command/control purposes using DCS serial interface links
for use in DCS logics (trips and interlock permissives) and for operator information and acknowledgment.
In such cases, alarm are collected twice by alarm management system. For post trip review/analysis the alarms collected using OPC A&E will be used.
To ensure consistent alarm acknowledgment for alarms collected by OPCA&E, alarm must be acknowledged from DCS workstations or from PLC HMI.
There will be no alarm acknowledgment from the PlantState Suite Alarm Analysis Servers.
Alarm Settings and Alarm Indication
All alarms associated with operation of field equipment & instruments connected to PLC will be generated within PLC and will be transmitted to DCS.
This is to ensure that alarm settings are resident in one location only. PLC will include a separate discrete alarm flag for each analogue alarm setting
within the PLC that will be configured to change when the associated alarm threshold has been crossed. These flags will be read by the DCS system
and combined within the screen and alarm displays, applications etc and will be displayed and annunciated at the DCS as if the alarm level had been
directly detected within the DCS.
The PLC supplier shall identify all necessary alarms to be transferred. This shall include process alarms, instrument faults, position status mismatches.
Time stamp on alarms from serial link will be done upon receipt of changes in values from PLC to DCS to ensure that it receives time stamp of DCS.
Alarm settings on analogue points will be resident in the PLC. Changes to these settings will only be possible at the PLC at defined access levels.
The access levels will be the same as those configured at DCS. It is not advisable to change alarm levels and trip settings in the PLC from DCS HMI.
Serial I/O is treated the same as hardwired I/O with respect to historian and trending. Serial I/O tags will be configured for historical trending.
Alarm Acknowledgement
All PLC alarms are to be handed off to the DCS system via Serial Links used for command and control at all times, these will then be annunciated and
acknowledged at the DCS according to the project alarm philosophy.
The DCS will latch the alarm upon receipt and it will only clear when the alarm has been acknowledged at DCS and has returned to a healthy state in
the PLC/field. Acknowledgement of alarms at the PLC when in DCS operation mode will be handled by one of two methods if supported by the PLC.
1. The PLC shall be configured to have an automatic alarm acknowledgements. This will remove the end and
ensure that PLC alarm buffers are not filled. Manual alarm acknowledgement at DCS will not be transmitted to the PLC. The alarm status transmitted
will remain in alarm state until the condition returns to the healthy state. Alarms will be automatically logged/recorded within the PLC and in DCS.
2. A group alarm acknowledgement from the DCS to the PLC may also be used. All alarms in the PLC that are active will be acknowledged in the PLC
on receipt of this command. To ensure that no alarms at the PLC end will ensure that alarms generated by momentary devices -
e.g. vibrations sensors are latched to DCS for a configurable time period. When the PLC is in PLC operation mode alarms will be audibly and visually
annunciated at the PLC and will be manually acknowledged at the PLC HMI.
W CS operational mode (i.e. Control via DCS at Control Room(s)) it is necessary that all Package alarms are :

d via command from DCS by PLC and cleared when alarm state returns to healthy state

it is necessary that all Package alarms are :

d automatically when the alarm state returns to a healthy state

Trip settings
It will not be possible to changes trip settings in the PLC from the DCS HMI.
PLC Resets
Trip actions assigned within the PLC that require resets will have these resets carried out once the trip condition has cleared from the PLC.
Operator intervention will be required at the PLC to confirm that the tripped condition has cleared.
Reset (where applicable) when alarm state is healthy will require Operator reset at the PLC.

Analogue Control
All analogue inputs and analogue outputs will be scaled in the PLC, no raw counts will be passed to the DCS.
Digital Signals
All digital inputs transmitted by the PLC for status or alarm will be fail safe, e.g. loss of serial link will mean the digital input is in alarm as bad input.
Device Control
Pumps controlled by the PLC will have all logic and interlocks resident within the PLC. Starting of the pumps from the DCS will only be allowed when
th possible to send stop command to a pump at any time from the Control Room(s).
The DCS will be configured so that starting from the Control Room(s) will not be allowed when the selector is in the PLC position or when the pump is
interlocked by PLC logic for each drive that is set within the PLC logic based on electrical and process status.
Where applicable, start/stop sequences will be held on PLC. The status of limit switches, available signals, desired states (open/start close/stop) and
any mismatch alarms will be transmitted by the PLC to DCS as well as the output state. The PLC will respond to start/stop commands from DCS and
carry out all the start-up sequencing and discrepancy monitoring as required and will transmit the status to the DCS.
The DCS will not carry out any discrepancy monitoring for equipment that is not directly connected to the DCS but will annunciate all such data as if
it had been derived within the DCS. Block valves controlled by the PLC will follow the guidelines outlined above for pumps.
Controllers Auto/Manual
Controller Selection by the Control Room(s) operator to Auto or Manual modes will be allowed when the PLC is in DCS operation.
This facility will be subject to any restrictions within the PLC logic &
will not change the modes of controllers in PLC. PLC controllers will be configured to adopt pre-defined states in event of package trip or an ESD trip.
The facility will remain active when the PLC is on DCS or PLC operation. Switching controller mode from DCS to PLC and vice versa will be bumpless.
Loss of DCS Interface to PLC
Complete loss of data transmission/communication with PLC, will result in an alarm in the Control Room(s) and all data on link (analogue and digital)
will be displayed as Bad by change of colour or other means to alert operator. The PLC will contnue to operate in the operational mode selected at
the time of the data loss. When the link is restored the DCS will read the status of all PLC registers to update the DCS alarm and status displays and

HUMAN MACHINE INTERFACE (HMI)

PLC which have HMI will use the same HMI conventions in terms of colours, alarm conventions etc. as defined in PLC Human Interface Software FDS.
Serial points will be trended and historised using the same conventions used for hardwired I/O points. Where a PLC graphic is duplicated on the DCS,
the DCS HMI conventions will be used as defined in the DCS Human Interface Software FDS.
PLC HMI Configuration
For ease of fault finding, maintenance and testing the PLC HMI will be configured to the same analogue and digital PLC tags transmitted to the DCS.
The use of internal PLC tags for HMI configuration will be not be used. This will ensure that the same data is displayed by both the DCS and PLC HMI.
PLC HMI Access Levels
For package PLCs that have an HMI the Operator access levels defined for the DCS will be used to ensure consistent Operator access.
FACTORY ACCEPTANCE TEST
HARDWARE INSPECTION OF CONTROL SYSTEM
1.1 HARDWARE CHECK
1.2 I/O LOADING SPECIFICATION
1.3 PROCESSOR START-UP
1.4 PROCESSOR BACK-UP FUNCTION
1.5 COMMUNICATION REDUNDANCY
INSPECTION FOR PANELS
1.1 GENERAL ARRANGEMENT
1.2 APPEARANCE AND CONSTRUCTION
1.3 PANEL WIRING
1.4 POWER SUPPLY REDUNDANCY CHECK
SYSTEM CHECKS
1.5 INPUT/OUTPUT (I/O) CHECKS
1.6 COMMUNICATION WITH THIRD PARTY SYSTEM
SOFTWARE INSPECTION FOR LOGIC FUNCTIONS
1.7 LADDER LOGIC FUNCTION CHECK
1.8 GRAPHICS FUNCTION CHECK
1.8.1 ALARM CHECK
1.8.2 TREND DISPLAY CHECK
PLC PANEL FAT CHECKLIST
PLC FAT PROCEDURE CHECKLIST
PLC PUNCH LIST

HARDWARE INSPECTION OF CONTROL SYSTEM

1.1) HARDWARE CHECK:
OUTLINE : All hardware components for which test certificates exist are subject to complete testing before being staged for inspection.
Review of test certificate for testing tools shall also be provided.
OBJECTIVE : The purpose of this test is to verify test certificates for following items exist.
1. For Power Supply Modules
2. For Controller System
3. For I/O Racks
4. For Input/Output modules
5. For Communication Modules
6. Testing Tools
a) Multimeter
b) Current Source Simulator
c) Mega Ohm Meter
REFERENCE : Processor System configuration
Bill of Materials
PROCEDURE : Check that test certificates (Internal functional test report) are available for above items and examine test procedures carried out.
CRITERIA : Test certificates for all above components are available.
Comments:

1.2) I/O LOADING SPECIFICATIONS:

OUTLINE : All I/O Modules, CPU and Communication modules and Racks are assigned during detail engineering and quantity and the position of each
item installed in the I/O Rack are of utmost importance. To check module location and switch required for modules.
OBJECTIVE : The purpose of this test is to verify that all I/O Modules, Racks are correct in quantity & that each I/O Module is instaled in right position,
to check whether switch setting are correct. To check whether spare terminals are available.
REFERENCE : Approved System configuration
Panels General Arrangement drawing
PROCEDURE : Visually check that each I/O Module, CPU, Communication Modules are installed in the correct slot & check the Module Cat. Number
Visually check that each I/O Rack is correct in quantity and installed in the correct position.
Visually checks that all labeling is in order.
SPARE CAPACITY: Spare channel in I/O Module__________
Spare slots in I/O rack______________
CRITERIA : The quantity and location of the I/O Modules, CPU, Communication modules, I/O Racks are in accordance with the system configuration.
Comments:

1.3) PROCESSOR START-UP:

OUTLINE : CONTROL system goes to its operating environment on powering up, provided that all application images are stored in respective media.
OBJECTIVE: This test ensures processor
PROCEDURE: Power Off Control Processor individually or the system as a whole.
Power ON each component individually.
SCAN TIME :_______________________
CRITERIA
1.4) PROCESSOR BACK-UP FUNCTION:
OUTLINE: CONTROL System provides automatic switch over from the primary to the Back-up processor when a fault occurs in primary.
Then when the faulty processor is repaired, it can be reinstalled as back-up processor without affecting operation of primary processor.
-
but without enabling output to the field) and remains ready to take control of the remote I/O.
OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this test is to verify that the back-up processor becomes Active when the Primary processor fails and all I/Os remains
unaffected after the switch over.
PROCEDURE e Back-Up Processor.
2. Stop the Primary processor by switching the power off.
3. Check that the Back-
4. Check that there is no change in the status of I that the O/P
relay contact with the help of multimeter. Check communication with other system.
DIAGNOSTIC :
CRITERIA : The control shall be transferred promptly and correctly to back-up processor and I/O status remains the same.
COMMENTS:

1.5) COMMUNICATION REDUNDANCY:

OUTLINE : Controller System is being configured for dual Ethernet to take care of Network Redundancy.
OBJECTIVE: To check whether failure of one Ethernet leaves the process unaffected and the redundant Ethernet is functioning normally.
PROCEDURE: To simulate Ethernet failure, the connection of one Ethernet channel is removed from the EN2TR.
Under such an event, the redundant Ethernet channel should continue functioning properly without affecting the process.
DIAGNOSTIC :I/O Communication failed is displayed on HMI
Node Status is displayed on HMI
CRITERIA : Failure of one Ethernet channel should not affect the Plant operation.
COMMENTS:

INSPECTION FOR PANELS

1.1) GENERAL ARRANGEMENT:
OUTLINE ponents and accessories (i.e. Panel
lifting/fixing/cable entry etc) are in accordance to final approved panel specification.
OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this test is to verify that the following are in accordance with approved panel specification and approved drawings:
Visual inspection to confirm that all material is as per panel drawings.
Confirm that all components and accessories (i.e. Panel lifting/fixing/cable entry etc) are mounted as per approved panel drawings.
GROUNDING CHECK : As per Approved panel drawings
REFERENCE: Approved panel drawings
PROCEDURE: Visually check that each panel based on above objectives and verify that each panel is in order.
CRITERIA : Each panel should confirm to that defined in approved panel drawings.
COMMENTS:

1.2) APPERANCE AND CONSTRUCTION:

OUTLINE : All panel manufactured are free from scratches and deformities, which might impair the project quality and appearance.
OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this test is to ensure that all panels are free from scratches and deformities.
PAINT SHADE : RAL7035
REFERENCE: Panel GA Drawing
PROCEDURE: Visually check that all components are free from scratches and any kind of deformities.
CRITERIA : There should not be any external defects such as scratches and any other deformities,
COMMENTS:

1.3) PANEL WIRING:

OUTLINE dance with terminal
assignment and wiring drawings.
OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this test is to verify that the panel wiring is in accordance to:
Terminal assignment
Wiring drawings
REFERENCE : Control Panel Wiring Drawings
PROCEDURE: Visully/Functionally check that each panel wiring based on above objectives and verify that each panel wiring is in order.
Check color codes/sizes of all wires as per approved drawings..
CRITERIA : Wiring should be in accordance with the wiring drawings.
Check each cable shall have separate ferrule / Tag number
COMMENTS:
1.4) POWER SUPPLY REDUNDANCY: (INCOMING UPS REDUNDANCY SUPPLY)
OUTLINE: All system equipments are provided with redundant AC UPS incoming supply.
These incoming powers to Control Panel are feed from redundant UPS supply.
OBJECTIVE: To demonstrate that if one incoming supply to system (Panel) fails, the system (Panel) continues to work without interruption.
REFERENCE: Power Distribution Drawing.
PROCEDURE: To simulate, Incomer to one of power supply is switched off. Under such an event, redundant Power supply should continue feeding
power to all the redundant power supply units of all the equipments & the equipment functioning properly without affecting process.
CRITERIA : Failure of one AC Power Supply should not affect the Plant Operation.

1.4) POWER SUPPLY REDUNDANCY: 24VDC SMPS UNIT REDUNDANCY

OUTLINE: All the system 24 VDC powered equipments are provided with the supply from redundant 24 VDC SMPS units.
A pair of 24VDC SMPS units is provided with power supply from two different incomer AC Power feeder in panel.
OBJECTIVE: To demonstrate that if incoming feeder fails or SMPS 24VDC power supply is switched off, system continues to work without interruption
REFERENCE: Power Distribution Drawing.
PROCEDURE: One 24 VDC SMPS unit or one AC incoming feeder is switched off, second 24 VDC SMPS power supply continues to feed the power to
equipments without interruption of process.
CRITERIA : Failure of one AC Power Supply feeder to panel or failure of one 24 VDC SMPS unit should not affect the Plant Operation.
COMMENTS:

SYSTEMS CHECKS
1.5) CONTROL LOGIX I/O CHECKS:
OUTLINE: The following functions are part of the console:

2) I/O Mapping,
OBJECTIVE: To ensure the proper functionality of the above mentioned functions vise:-

To check that online modification of Ladder does not affect the process.
REFERENCE: I/O List.
PROCEDURE -
PC Level- .
Simulation software is written in Ladder Logic and also Simulation Graphic is developed.
CRITERIA : Simulate of I/Os at both PC and TB level should be reflected in PC as per requirement.
TEST EQUIPMENT : Multimeter, Toolkit-Screwdriver set, 4-20 mA Analog Simulator, Digital Input simulator-Jumper

1.6) COMMUNICATION WITH DCS SYSTEM:

OUTLINE: 1) Communication between PLC System & DCS System over Ethernet Network
2) DCS IO point Mapping.
OBJECTIVE: To ensure the proper functionality of the above mentioned functions vise:-
To check communication between PLC system & DCS system over Ethernet Network.
To check all IO points defined in DCS interface list are mapped properly with modbus register and its data is reflected in the DCS system.
REFERENCE: DCS Interface List.
PROCEDURE: Simulate of DCS IO Points-
At PC Level, the IO points are forced through the Software and it is observed if corresponding data is available at DCS System.
CRITERIA : Simulate of DCS IO points at PLC system should be reflected in DCS System as per requirement.
COMMENTS:

SOFTWARE INSPECTION FOR LOGIC FUNCTION

1.7) SOFTWARE-LADDER LOGIC FUNCTION CHECK
OUTLINE: The ladder logic generated by vendor for this project is based on control philosophy. The functioning of all logic is to be checked.
OBJECTIVE: The purpose of test is to verify that the ladder logic generated by vendor as per control philosophy.
REFERENCE: Control Philosophy
PROCEDURE: To simulate the inputs as per ladder logic and confirm corresponding outputs. For this Simulation software is written in Ladder Logic.
CRITERIA : The Ladder logic generated should function as per the control schemes.
COMMENTS:

1.8) SOFTWARE-GRAPHICS FUNCTION CHECK

OUTLINE : The Graphics generated by vendor for this project is based on control philosophy. The functioning of all logic is to be checked.
OBJECTIVE: The purpose of test is to verify that Graphics generated by vendor as per control philosophy.
ALARM CHECK : As per Alarm List
TREND DISPLAY : Analog Inputs are logged for trending
REFERENCE: Control Philosophy.

CRITERIA : The Graphic generated should function as per the control philosophy.
Check the ranges of the instruments with proper units.
COMMENTS:
Gas Detection -
T
 2Pb + 2H2O 2PbO + 4H+ + 4e-
O2 + 4H+ + 4e- 2H2O

2Pb + 4OH- 2PbO + 2H2O + 4e-

O2 + 2H2O + 4e- 4OHThe

Overall reaction in both cases is: 2Pb + O2 2PbO.

1.
2.
5)
METHODS OF PROTECTION
 CONSIDERATION FLAMEPROOF EXPLOSIONPROOF
Not Allowed
Field Drilling Acceptable
Must be drilled by manufacturer
Pressure testing 1.5 times maximum 4 times maximum
Construction Lighter Heavier
Joints Threaded, flat, spigot Threaded, flat, labyrinth (serrated)
Wiring room Not a major design consideration Major design consideration
Factory drilled directly into the enclosure or
Entries field drilled into an Ex-e enclosure (indirect entry) Field or factory drilled directly into enclosure

Flameproof Enclosures contain the explosion and allow gases to cool

as they escape across the joints.
INCREASED SAFETY
 PRESSURIZATION

Ducting Requirements

Apparatus
Zone of exhaust duct outlet
A B
ZONE 1 Required Required
ZONE 2 Required Not Required
A = apparatus which may produce ignition-capable sparks or particles in normal operation
B = apparatus which does not produce ignition-capable sparks or particles in normal operation
* If the temperature of the enclosed apparatus constitutes a hazard upon failure of pressurization,
a suitable device shall be fitted to prevent the rapid entry of the surrounding atmosphere in to the
pressurized enclosure.
 External Zone Flammable substance is present Enclosure contains Enclosure does not contain
classification inside the enclosure ignition-capable apparatus ignition-capable apparatus
1 NO Type px Type py
2 NO Type pz No pressurization required
1 Gas/vapour Type px Type py
2 Gas/vapour Type px Type py
1 Liquid Type px (inert) Type py
2 Liquid Type pz (inert) No pressurization required*
* Protection by pressurization is not required since it is considered unlikely that a fault causing a release of liquid
will simultaneously occur with a fault in the equipment that would provide an ignition source.
The protective gas shall be inert if "(inert)" is shown after the pressurization type
HAZARDOUS AREA
NEC-National Electric Code (American) IEC-International Electro-Technical Commission (European)

IIC MSEG < 0.5mm

IIB MSEG 0.5mm 0.9mm

IIA MSEG > 0.9mm

TEMPERATURE Maximum Surface Temperature of the Apparatus ( ) Ignition Temperature of Flammable materials ( )

T1 450 > 450

T2 300 > 300
T3 200 > 200
T4 135 > 135
T5 100 > 100
T6 85 > 85
The Maximum Temperature of the Apparatus should always be LESS than the Ignition temperature of gas

Intrinsic Safety : Ex ia Intrinsic Safety : Ex ib Non-Incendive : Ex n

Flameproof : Ex d
Increased Safety: Ex e
Pressurization : Ex p
Powder Filling : Ex q
Oil Immersion : Ex o
Encapsulation : Ex m
Pressurization : Ex p
Powder Filling : Ex q
Oil Immersion : Ex o
Encapsulation : Ex m
Safety valves should be installed wherever maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP) of a system or pressure-containing vessel may be exceeded.

If Constant Back Pressure is less than 10% of Set Pressure Conventional Safety Valve
If Constant Back Pressure is more than 10% but less than 50% of Set Pressure-Balanced Safety Valve
If Constant Back Pressure is more than 50% of Set Pressure Pilot Safety Valve
If Variable Back Pressure is less than 50% of Set Pressure Balanced Safety Valve
If Variable Back Pressure is more than 50% of Set Pressure Pilot Safety Valve

The ASME / ANSI PTC25.3 standards applicable to the USA define the following generic terms:
A spring-loaded pressure relief valve which is designed to open to relieve excess pressure and to reclose and prevent the
further flow of fluid after normal conditions have been restored.
It is characterized by rapid-opening 'pop' action or by opening in manner generally proportional to increase in pressure over the opening pressure.
It may be used for either compressible fuids (gases) or incompressible fluids (liquids), depending on design or application
This is a general term which includes safety valves, relief valves and safety relief valves.

A pressure relief valve actuated by inlet static pressure and characterized by rapid opening or pop action.
Safety valves are primarily used with compressible gases and in particular for steam and air services. However, they can also be used for process type
applications where they may be needed to protect the plant or to prevent spoilage of the product being processed.

A pressure relief device actuated by inlet static pressure having a gradual lift generally proportional to the
increase in pressure over opening pressure. Relief valves are commonly used in liquid systems, especially for lower capacities.
They can also be used on pumped systems as pressure overspill devices.

A pressure relief valve characterized by rapid opening / pop action or by opening in proportion to the
increase in pressure over the opening pressure, depending on the application & which may be used either for compressible
fluid (gases) or incompressible fluid (liquid).
In general, the safety relief valve will perform as safety valve when used in a compressible gas system, but it will open in proportion to overpressure
when used in liquid systems, as would a relief valve.

The European standards (BS 6759 and DIN 3320) provide the following definition:
- A valve which automatically, without the assistance of any energy other than that of fluid concerned, discharges a certified amount
of the fluid so as to prevent a predetermined safe pressure being exceeded and which is designed to re-close and prevent the further flow of fluid
after normal pressure conditions of service have been restored.
Safety Valve Design
Although the principal elements of a conventional safety valve in USA or Europe are similar, the design details can vary considerably.
In general DIN style valves (commonly used throughout Europe) tend to use simpler construction with a fixed skirt (or hood) arrangement
whereas the ASME style valves common in the USA have a more complex design that includes one or two adjustable blowdown rings.
The position of these rings can be used to fine-tune the overpressure and blowdown values of the valve.

For a given orifice area, there may be a number of different inlet / outlet connection sizes, as well as different body dimensions such as
centreline to face dimensions. Furthermore, products of European origin have differing dimensions and capacities for same nominal size.
Orifice area are referred by a letter. It is common for valves with same orifice letter to have different sizes of inlet and outlet connection.
For example, 2" x J x 3" and 3" x J x 4" are both valves which have the same orifice size ('J), but they have differing inlet and outlet sizes
as shown before and after the orifice letter respectively. A 2" x J x 3" valve would have a 2" inlet, a 'J' size orifice and a 3" outlet.

The basic spring loaded safety valve referred to as 'conventional' is simple, reliable, self-acting device providing overpressure protection.
The basic elements consist of a right angle pattern valve body with valve inlet connection, mounted on the pressure-containing system.
The outlet connection may be screwed or flanged for connection to a piped discharge system normally through the flaring network
However in compressed air systems, the safety valve will not have an outlet connection and fluid is vented directly to the atmosphere.

The valve inlet (or approach channel) can be either a full-nozzle or a semi-nozzle type.
A full-nozzle design has entire 'wetted' inlet tract formed from one piece. The approach channel is the only part of safety valve that is
exposed to process fluid during normal operation, other than the disc, unless the valve is discharging.
Full-nozzles are usually used in safety valves designed for process and high pressure applications, especially when fluid is corrosive.
A semi-nozzle design consists of a seating ring fitted into the body, the top of which forms the seat of valve, used in non-corrosive apps.
The advantage of this arrangement is that the seat can easily be replaced, without replacing the whole inlet.

The disc is held against the nozzle seat (under normal operating conditions) by the spring, which is housed in an open or closed spring
housing arrangement (or bonnet) mounted on top of the body.
The discs used in rapid opening (pop type) safety valves are surrounded by a shroud, disc holder or huddling chamber which helps to
produce the rapid opening characteristic.
The closing force on disc is provided by a spring. The amount of compression on spring is usually adjustable, using the spring adjuster,
to alter the pressure at which the disc is lifted off its seat.
Standards that govern design and use of safety valves generally define 3 dimensions that relate to the discharge capacity of safety valve,
namely the flow area (or bore), the curtain area, the discharge area (or orifice)

1. Flow area - The minimum cross-sectional area between the inlet and the seat, at its narrowest point.

2. Curtain area - The area of the cylindrical or conical discharge opening between the seating surfaces created by the lift of the disk above the seat
The diameter of the curtain area is represented by dimension 'd1'

3. Discharge area - This is the lesser of the curtain and flow areas, which determines the flow through the valve.

Valves in which flow area and not curtain area determine the capacity are known as full lift valves.
These valves will have a greater capacity than low lift or high lift valves.
Lifting and Overpressure
When the inlet static pressure rises above the set pressure of the safety valve, the disc will begin to lift off its seat.
However as soon as spring starts to compress, the spring force will increase; this means that the pressure would have to continue to rise
before any further lift can occur and for there to be any significant flow through the valve.
The additional pressure rise required before the safety valve will discharge at its rated capacity is called the overpressure.
The allowable overpressure depends on the standards being followed and the particular application.
For compressible fluids (Gases), this is normally between 3% and 10%, and for liquids between 10% and 25%.
In order to achieve full opening from this small overpressure, the disc arrangement has to be specially designed to provide rapid opening.
It is done by placing shroud, skirt or hood around disc. The volume contained within this shroud is known as control or huddling chamber.

As lift begins and fluid enters the chamber, a larger area of the shroud is exposed to fluid pressure. Since magnitude of lifting force (F)
is proportional to the product of the pressure (P) and the area exposed to the fluid (A); (F = P x A), the opening force is increased.
This incremental increase in opening force overcompensates for the increase in spring force, causing rapid opening. At the same time,
the shroud reverses the direction of the flow which provides a reaction force, further enhancing the lift.

These combined effects allow the valve to achieve its designed lift within a relatively small percentage overpressure.
For compressible fluids, an additional factor is the rapid expansion as the fluid volume increases from a higher to a lower pressure area.
This plays a major role in ensuring that the valve opens fully within the small overpressure limit.
For liquids, this effect is more proportional and subsequently the overpressure is typically greater (25% is common).

Reseating and Blowdown

Once normal operating conditions are restored, the valve is required to close again, but since larger area of disc is still exposed to fluid,
valve will not close until pressure has dropped below original set pressure. The difference between set pressure and reseating pressure
is known as the 'blowdown', and it is usually specified as a percentage of the set pressure.
For compressible fluids(Gases) the blowdown is usually less than 10%, and for uncompressible fluids (liquids) it can be up to 20%.

The design of shroud must be such that it offers both rapid opening and relatively small blowdown,
so that as soon as potentially hazardous situation is reached, any overpressure is relieved, but excessive quantity of fluids are prevented
from being discharged. It is also necessary to ensure that system pressure is reduced sufficiently to prevent immediate reopening.

The blowdown rings found on most ASME safety valves are used to make fine adjustments to overpressure & blowdown values of valve
The lower blowdown (nozzle) ring is a common feature on many valves where tighter overpressure and blowdown requirements require
a more sophisticated designed solution. The upper blowdown ring is usually factory set, essentially takes out manufacturing tolerances
which affect the geometry of the huddling chamber.

Lower blowdown ring is also factory set to achieve appropriate code performance requirement but under certain circumstances is altered
When the lower blowdown ring is adjusted to its top position the huddling chamber volume is such that the valve will pop rapidly,
minimizing the overpressure value but correspondingly requiring a greater blowdown before the valve re-seats.
When lower blowdown ring is adjusted to its lower position there is minimal restriction in huddling chamber and a greater overpressure
will be required before the valve is fully open but the blowdown value will be reduced.
The ASME I standard for boiler & ASME VIII standard for pressure vessel applications and ASME/ANSI PTC 25.3 for safety valves or relief valves
provides following definition. AMERICAN These standards set performance characteristics as well as defining the different types of safety valves:

ASME I valve - A safety relief valve conforming to the requirements of Section I of the ASME pressure vessel code for boiler applications which will
open within 3% overpressure and close within 4% blowdown.
It has two blowdown rings and identified by a National Board 'V' stamp. (STEAM GENERATION BOILERS)

ASME VIII valve - A safety relief valve conforming to requirements of Section VIII of the ASME pressure vessel code for pressure vessel applications
which will open within 10% overpressure and close within 7% blowdown. Identified by a National Board 'UV' stamp. (PRESSURE VESSELS)

Conventional Safety Relief Valve - The spring housing is vented to the discharge side, hence operational characteristics are directly affected by
changes in the backpressure to the valve.

Balanced Safety Relief Valve - A balanced valve incorporates means of minimizing the effect of backpressure on operational characteristics of valve.

Pilot operated Pressure Relief Valve - The major relieving device is combined with and is controlled by self-actuated auxiliary pressure relief device.

Power-Actuated Safety Relief Valve - A pressure relief valve in which major pressure relieving device is combined with, and controlled by a device
requiring an external source of energy.

Low Lift Safety Valve - The actual position of the disc determines the discharge area of the valve.
Full Lift Safety Valve - The discharge area is not determined by the position of the disc.
Full Bore Safety Valve - A safety valve having no protrusions in the bore, and wherein the valve lifts to an extent sufficient for the minimum area at
any section, at or below the seat, to become the controlling orifice.

The following types of safety valve are defined in DIN 3320 standard, which relates to safety valves sold in Germany and other parts of Europe:

Standard Safety Valve - A valve which following opening reaches the degree of lift necessary for the mass flowrate to be discharged within a
pressure rise of not more than 10% (overpressure). The valve is characterized by a pop type action and is sometimes known as high lift.

Full Lift (Vollhub) Safety Valve - A safety valve which after commencement of lift, opens rapidly within a 5% pressure rise up to the full lift as limited
by the design. The amount of lift up to the rapid opening (proportional range) shall not be more than 20%.

Proportional Safety Valve - A safety valve which opens more or less steadily in relation to the increase in pressure. Sudden opening within a 10% lift
range will not occur without pressure increase. Following opening within a pressure of not more than 10%, these safety valves achieve the lift
necessary for the mass flow to be discharged.

Direct Loaded Safety Valve - A safety valve in which opening force underneath valve disc is opposed by a closing force such as a spring or a weight.

Diaphragm Safety Valve - A direct loaded safety valve wherein linear moving and rotating elements and springs are protected against the effects of
the fluid by a diaphragm.

Bellows Safety Valve - A direct loaded safety valve wherein sliding and (partially or fully) rotating elements and springs are protected against the
effects of the fluids by a bellows. The bellows may be of such a design that it compensates for influences of backpressure.

Controlled Safety Valve - Consists of main valve and a control device. It also includes direct acting safety valves with supplementary loading in which,
until the set pressure is reached, an additional force increases the closing force.
EN ISO 4126 lists the following definitions of types of safety valve:
Safety Valve - A safety valve which automatically, without the assistance of any energy other than that of the fluid concerned, discharges a quantity
of the fluid so as to prevent a predetermined safe pressure being exceeded, and which is designed to re-close and prevent further flow of fluid after
normal pressure conditions of service have been restored. Note; the valve can be characterized either by pop action (rapid opening) or by opening in
proportion (not necessarily linear) to the increase in pressure over the set pressure.
Direct Loaded Safety Valve - A safety valve in which the loading due to the fluid pressure underneath the valve disc is opposed only by a direct
mechanical loading device such as a weight, lever and weight, or a spring.
Assisted Safety Valve - A safety valve which by means of a powered assistance mechanism, may additionally be lifted at a pressure lower than the
set pressure and will, even in the event of a failure of assistance mechanism, comply with all the requirements for safety valves given in standard.
Supplementary Loaded Safety Valve - A safety valve that has, until the pressure at the inlet to the safety valve reaches the set pressure, an
additional force, which increases the sealing force. Note; this additional force (supplementary load), which may be provided by means of an
extraneous power source, is reliably released when the pressure at the inlet of the safety valve reaches the set pressure.
The amount of supplementary loading is so arranged that if such supplementary loading is not released, the safety valve will attain its certified
discharge capacity at a pressure not greater than 1.1 times the maximum allowable pressure of the equipment to be protected.
Pilot operated Safety Valve - A safety valve, the operation of which is initiated and controlled by the fluid discharged from a pilot valve, which is
itself, a direct loaded safety valve subject to the requirement of the standard.
Safety Valve options and accessories
Seating material
A key option is type of seating material used. Metal-to-metal seats are normally used for high temperature applications such as steam.
Alternatively, resilient seats can be fixed to seating surfaces where a tighter shut-off is required, typically for gas or liquid applications.
These elastomer inserts can be made from a number of different materials, but Viton, nitrile or EPDM, PTFE are the most common.
Soft seal inserts are not generally recommended for steam use or high gh temperature applications
applications.

Levers
Lifting Levers are generally used for utility services Air, Water, Steam
Standard safety valves are generally fitted with an easing lever, which enables the valve to be lifted manually in order to ensure that it is
operational at pressures in excess of 75% of set pressure. It is done as part of routine checks or during maintenance to prevent seizing.
The fitting of a lever is usually a requirement of national standards and many insurance companies for steam, hot water, air applications.
For example, ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code states that pressure relief valves must be fitted with a lever if they are to be used
on air, water over 60°C, and steam (levers are generally used for utility services)
A standard or open lever is simplest type of lever available. It is typically used on applications where a small amount of leakage of fluids
to the atmosphere is acceptable, such as on steam and air systems. (see Figure (a))
Where it is not acceptable for the media to escape, a packed lever must be used. This uses a packed gland seal to ensure that the fluid
is contained within the cap. (see Figure (b))

For service where a lever is not required, a cap can be used to simply protect the adjustment screw. If used in conjunction with a gasket,
it can be used to prevent emissions to the atmosphere.

A test gag may be used to prevent the valve from opening at the set pressure during hydraulic testing when commissioning a system.
Once tested, the gag screw is removed and replaced with a short blanking plug before the valve is placed in service.
Open Bonnets and Closed Bonnets
Unless bellows or diaphragm sealing is used, the process fluid will enter the spring housing (or bonnet).
The amount of fluid that enters the bonnet, depends on the design of safety valve. If emission of this fluid into atmosphere is acceptable,
the spring housing may be vented to the atmosphere - an open bonnet. This is usually advantageous when the safety valve is used on
high temperature fluids or for boiler applications as otherwise, high temperatures can relax the spring, altering set pressure of the valve.
However, using an open bonnet exposes the valve spring and internals to environmental conditions, which can lead to damage and
corrosion of the spring.

When the fluid must be completely contained by the safety valve (and the discharge system), it is necessary to use a closed bonnet,
which is not vented to the atmosphere. This type of spring enclosure is almost universally used for small screwed valves and it is
becoming increasingly common on many valve ranges (particularly on steam) discharge of the fluid could be hazardous to personnel.

Bellows and Diaphragm Sealing

Safety Valves commonly those used for water applications, incorporate a flexible diaphragm or bellows to isolate the safety valve spring
and upper chamber from the process fluid.

An elastomer bellows or diaphragm is commonly used in hot water or heating applications, whereas a stainless steel one would be use
on process applications employing hazardous fluids.

SAFETY VALVES SELECTION

As there is such a wide range of safety valves, there is no difficulty in selecting a safety valve that meets specific requirements of a given application.
Once a suitable type has been selected, it is imperative that correct relieving pressure and discharge capacity are established and suitably sized valve
and set pressure is specified.

The selection of a specific type of safety valve is governed by several factors:

Cost - This is the most obvious consideration when selecting a safety valve for a non-critical application. When making cost comparisons, it is
imperative to consider the capacity of valve as well as nominal size. As mentioned in previous tutorial, there can be large variations between models
with the same inlet connection but with varying lift characteristics.
Type of disposal system - Valves with an open bonnet can be used on steam, air or non-toxic gas, if discharge to the atmosphere, other than through
the discharge system is acceptable. A lifting lever is often specified in these applications.
For gas or liquid applications, where escape to the atmosphere is not permitted, a closed bonnet must be specified. In such applications, it is also
necessary to use either a closed/gas tight cap or packed lever.

For applications with a significant superimposed backpressure (typically in process industry) a balancing bellows or piston construction is required.

Valve construction - A semi-nozzle type construction should be used for non-toxic, non-corrosive media at moderate pressures (utilities),
whereas valves with full nozzle type construction are typically used in process industry for corrosive media or for extremely high pressures.
For corrosive fluids or high temperatures, special materials of construction may also be required.
Operating characteristics - Performance requirements vary according to application and the safety valve must be selected accordingly.
For steam boiler applications, a small overpressure is required usually 3% or 5%. For most other applications 10% overpressure is required,
but according to API 520 for special applications such as fire protection, larger valves with overpressures of 20% are also allowed.
For liquids, overpressures of 10% or 25% are common and blowdown values tend to be up to 20%.
Approval - For many valve applications, the end user will state the required code or standard for construction and performance of valve.
This is usually accompanied by requirement for approval by an independent authority, to guarantee conformance with required standard.
 NOZZLE ORIFICE AREAS

Size Designation Orifice Area , in2 Standard Size

D 0.110 1 X 2

E 0.196 1 X 2

F 0.307 1.5 X 3

G 0.503 1.5 X 3

H 0.785 1.5 X 3

J 1.280 2 X 3

K 1.840 3 X 4

L 2.850 3 X 4

M 3.600 4 X 6

N 4.340 4 X 6

P 6.380 4 X 6

Q 11.050 6 X 8

R 16.000 6 X 10

T 26.000 8 X 10
FLARING
Pressure Relief System (FLARING)
I II III IV
CONTROL VALVES
There are valve types which have linear spindle movement and rotary spindle movement.
Linear types - Globe Valves and Gate Valves
Rotary types - Ball Valves, Butterfly Valves, Plug Valves and their variants.

The first choice to be made is between two-port and three-port valves.

Two-port valves 'throttle' (restrict) the fluid passing through them.
Three-port valves can be used to 'mix' or 'divert' the fluid passing through them.

Two-Port Valves
Globe valves
Globe valves are frequently used for control applications because of their suitability for throttling flow and the ease with which
they can be given a specific 'characteristic', relating valve opening to flow.

Two typical globe valve types are shown below. An actuator coupled to the valve spindle would provide valve movement.

Two differently shaped globe valves

The major constituent parts of globe valves are:

The body.
The bonnet.
The valve seat and valve plug, or trim.
The valve spindle (which connects to the actuator).
The sealing arrangement between the valve stem and the bonnet.

Unbalanced Single Seat Valve or Conventional Single Seat Valve

Below figures is a diagrammatic representation of single seat two-port globe valve. In this case fluid flow is pushing against the valve plug
and tending to keep the plug off the valve seat.
The difference in pressure upstream (P1) and downstream (P2) against which the valve must close, is known as differential pressure (DP).
The maximum differential pressure against which a valve closes will depend upon the size and type of valve and the actuator operating it.

The force required from the actuator may be determined using Equation below

A = Valve seating area (m²)

DP = Differential pressure (kPa)
F = Closing force required (kN)

If a larger valve, having a larger orifice, is used to pass greater volumes of the medium, then the force that actuator must develop in order
to close the valve also increases. Where large capacities must be passed using large valves or where very high differential pressures exist,
the point will be reached where it becomes impractical to provide sufficient force to close a conventional single seat valve.
In such circumstances, the traditional solution to this problem is the double seat two-port valve.

The double seat valves has two valve plugs on common spindle, with two seats. The valve seats are smaller (since there are two of them)
and also the forces are partially balanced. This means that although the differential pressure is trying to keep the top valve plug off its seat
(as with a single seat valve) it is also trying to push down and close the lower valve plug.

Flow through a double seat, two-port valve Balanced Single Seat valve

However, potential problem exists with any double seat valve. Because of manufacturing tolerances and differing coefficients of
expansion, few double seat valves can be guaranteed to give good shut-off tightness.

Shut-off tightness
Control valve leakage is classified with respect to how much the valve will leak when fully closed.
The leakage rate across a double seat valve is Class III, (a leakage of 0.1% of full flow) which may be too much for certain applications.
Consequently, because the flow paths through the two-ports are different, the forces may not remain in balance when the valve opens.
Various international standards exist that formalise leakage rates. The following leakage rates are from the British Standard BS5793 Part 4
(IEC 60534-4). For an unbalanced standard single seat valve, the leakage rate will normally be Class IV, (0.01% of full flow), although it is
possible to obtain Class V, (1.8 x 10-5 x differential pressure (bar) x seat diameter (mm). Generally, lower the leakage rate more the cost.

Balanced Single Seat Valves

Because of leakage problem associated with double seat valves, when a tight shut-off is required a single seat valve should be specified.
The forces required to shut a single seat globe valve increases with valve size. Some valves are designed with a balancing mechanism to
reduce the closing force necessary, especially on valves operating with large differential pressures.
In a piston-balanced valve, some of the upstream fluid pressure is transmitted via internal pathways into a space above the valve plug,
which acts as pressure balancing chamber. The pressure contained in this chamber provides a downforce on the valve plug as shown,
balancing the upstream pressure and assisting the normal force exerted by the actuator, to close the valve.
Packing
There are always number of options when choosing a packing. For globe valves, these include a choice of spindle gland packing material
and gland packing configurations, which are designed to make the valve suitable for use on higher temperatures or for different fluids.
Some examples of these are seen in the simple schematic diagrams in Figure 6.1.9. It is worth noting that certain types of gland packing
produce a greater friction with the valve spindle than others. For example, traditional stuffing box type of packing will create greater friction
than the PTFE spring-loaded chevron type or bellows sealed type. Greater friction requires higher actuator force.
Spring-loaded packing re-adjusts itself as it wears. This reduces the need for regular manual maintenance.
Bellows sealed valves are the most expensive of these three types, but provide minimal friction with the best stem sealing mechanism.
Bellows sealed valves usually have another set of traditional packing at the top of the valve spindle housing. This will act as a final defence
against any chance of leaking through the spindle to atmosphere.

Fig. 6.1.9 Alternative gland packings

Guiding
Valves also have different ways of guiding the valve plug inside the body. One common guidance method, is the 'double guided' method,
where the spindle is guided at both the top and the bottom of its length.
Another type is the 'guided plug' method where the plug may be guided by a cage or a frame. Some valves can employ perforated plugs,
which combine plug guidance and noise reduction.

Guiding arrangements
By manipulating the supply pressure (P1)
By manipulating the flow area (Hence changing flow Coefficient)
1) Calculate the Required Cv at a given differential pressure (Actual Differential Pressure)

2) Calculate the (Maximum Differential Pressure) (Allowable Differential Pressure) (choked Differential Pressure) that
can exist across the control valve.

3) If Actual differential Pressure is LESS than Choked Differential Pressure

The Required Cv calculated in step 1 is OK

3.) If Actual differential Pressure is MORE than Choked Differential Pressure.

Then the Required Cv calculated in step 1 is NOT OK. Because it cannot pass the required flowrate @ actual differential
pressure, as the flow will get CHOKED at choked Differential Pressure which is before the Actual Differential Pressure.

Thus the Required Cv calculated in step 1 should be Revised.

The Revised Cv can be calculated by

In , the velocity change is minimized and enthalpy level remains
nearly constant.
GAS TURBINES
GAS TURBINES
A gas turbine has an upstream rotating compressor coupled to a downstream turbine and a combustion chamber in-between.
The basic operation of the gas turbine can be defined in 4 easy steps.
Inlet Section : Fresh atmospheric air is sucked and should be free from any dust and dirt.
Compressor Section : Fresh atmospheric air flows through a compressor that brings it to higher pressure.
Combustion Section : Energy is then added by spraying fuel into air & igniting it so the combustion generates a high-temperature flow.
Turbine and Exhaust Section : This high-temperature high-pressure gas enters a turbine, where it expands down to exhaust pressure,
producing a shaft work output in the process. The turbine shaft work is used to drive the compressors or pumps and other devices as
an electric generator that may be coupled to the shaft.
A gas turbine essentially brings together air that it compresses in compressor module, and fuel to combustion , that are then ignited.
Resulting gases are expanded through a turbine. T ..
A starter unit (Cranking Motor) is used for & keep entire unit running.
The energy that is not used for shaft work comes out in the exhaust gases, so these have either a high temperature or a high velocity.

The Inlet Section

The air inlet ducts must provide clean and unrestricted airflow. Clean and undisturbed inlet airflow extends the life by preventing
erosion, corrosion, and foreign object damage (FOD). Consideration of atmospheric conditions as dust, salt, industrial pollution,
foreign objects (birds, nuts and bolts), and temperature (icing conditions) must be made when designing the inlet system.

The Compressor Section

The compressor provides turbine with all the air it needs in an efficient manner. In addition, it must supply air at high static pressures.
Generally axial flow compressor are used. In an axial flow compressor, each stage incrementally boosts pressure from previous stage.
A single stage of compression includes set of rotor blade attached to rotating disk, followed by stator vane attached to stationary ring.
The flow area between compressor blades is slightly divergent. Flow area between compressor vanes is also divergent.
In general terms, the compressor rotor blades convert mechanical energy into gaseous kinectic energy.
This energy conversion increases total pressure (Pt). Most increase is in form of velocity(Pi), with small increase in static pressure (Ps).
The stator vanes slows the air by means of the divergent duct shape, converting accelerated velocity (Pi) to higher static pressure (Ps).

The Combustion Section

Once the air flows through the compressor, it enters the combustion section, also called the combustor.
The combustion section has the difficult task of controlling the burning of large amounts of fuel and air.
It must release the heat in a manner that air is expanded and accelerated to give a smooth and stable stream of uniformly-heated gas
at all starting and operating conditions. This task must be accomplished with minimum pressure loss and maximum heat release.
In addition, the combustion liners must position and control the fire to prevent flame contact with any metal parts.
Six combustion liners (cans) are positioned within an annulus created by inner and outer combustion cases. Combustion takes place in
forward end / primary zone of cans. Primary air (amounting to about one fourth total airflow) is used to support combustion process.
The remaining air, referred to as secondary or dilution air, is admitted into the liners in a controlled manner.
The secondary air controls the flame pattern, cools the liner walls, dilutes the temperature of the core gasses, and provides mass.
This cooling air is critical, as the flame temperature is above 1930 degC (3500'F), which is higher than the metals can endure.
It is important that the fuel nozzles and combustion liners control the burning and mixing of fuel and air under all conditions to avoid
excess temperatures reaching the turbine or combustion cases. The rear third of the combustion liners is the transition section.
The transition section has a very convergent duct shape, which begins accelerating the gas stream and reducing the static pressure in
preparation for entrance to the turbine section.

The Turbine and Exhaust Section

The turbine converts the gaseous energy of the air/burned fuel mixture out of the combustor into mechanical energy needed to drive
the compressor, driven accessories, and through a reduction gear, the propeller.
The turbine converts gaseous energy into mechanical energy by expanding hot, high-pressure gases to lower temperature & pressure.
Each stage of turbine consists of a row of stationary vanes followed by a row of rotating blades. This is reverse of order in compressor.
In the compressor, the energy is added to the gas by the rotor blades then converted to static pressure by the stationary stator vanes.
In the turbine, the stator vanes increase gas velocity, and then the rotor blades extract energy.
The vanes & blades are airfoils that provide for smooth flow of gases. As airstream enter turbine section from the combustion section,
it is accelerated through the first stage of stator vanes. The stator vanes (also called nozzles) form convergent ducts that convert the
gaseous heat & pressure energy into higher velocity gas flow (Pi). In addition to accelerating the gas, vanes "turn" the flow to direct it
into the rotor blades at the optimum angle. As the mass of the high velocity gas flows across the turbine blades, the gaseous energy is
converted to mechanical energy. velocity,temperature,pressure of gas are sacrificed in order to rotate turbine to generate shaftpower
The use of properly positioned airfoils allows a smooth flow and expansion of gases through the blades and vanes of the turbine.
All the air must flow across the airfoils to achieve maximum efficiency in the turbine. In order to ensure this, seals are used at base of
vanes to minimize gas flow around the vanes instead of through the intended gas path. In addition first three stages of turbine blades
have tip shrouds to minimize gas flow around the blade tips.
In an ideal gas turbine, gases undergo 3 thermodynamic processes: isentropic compression, isobaric(constant pressure) combustion &
an isentropic expansion. Together these make up the Brayton cycle.
In practical gas turbine, mechanical energy is irreversibly transformed in heat when gas is compressed (centrifugal/axial compressor),
due to internal friction & turbulence. Passage through combustion chamber, where heat is added & specific volume of gas increases,
is accompanied by slight loss in pressure. During expansion phase, stator & rotor blades of turbine, irreversible energy transformation
once again occurs.

Open Cycle or Closed Cycle

Most gas turbines operate in an open-cycle mode where, air is taken in from the atmosphere and discharged back into atmosphere,
with the hot air being cooled naturally after it exits the turbine.
In a closed cycle gas turbine facility the working fluid (air) is continuously recycled by cooling exhaust air through heat exchanger and
directing it back to the compressor inlet.
In the closed cycle system, the combustion cannot be sustained and the normal combustor is replaced with a second heat exchanger
to heat the compressed air before it enters the turbine. The heat is supplied by an external source such as a nuclear reactor, fluidized
bed of a coal combustion process, or some other heat source.

Direct Drive and Mechanical Drive

Direct Drive
With land-based industries, gas turbines can be used in either direct drive or mechanical drive application.
With power generation, the gas turbine shaft is coupled to generator shaft, either directly or via a gearbox application.
A gearbox is necessary in applications where the manufacturer offers the package for both 60 and 50 cycle (Hertz, Hz) applications.
The gear box will use roughly 2 percent of the power developed by the turbine in these cases. Power generation applications extend
to offshore platform use. Minimizing weight is a major consideration for this service and the gas
(derived from lighter gas turbines developed for aircraft use).

Mechanical Drive
For mechanical drive applications, the turbine module arrangement is different.
In these cases, the combination of compressor module, combustor module and turbine module is termed the gas generator.
Beyond the turbine end of the gas generator is a freely rotating turbine. It may be one or more stages. It is not mechanically
connected to the gas generator, but instead is mechanically coupled, sometimes via a gearbox, to the equipment it is driving.
achinery items.

Industrial gas turbines that are used solely for mechanical drive or used in collaboration with a recovery steam generator differ from
the general power generating sets in that they are often smaller and features a dual shaft design as opposed to single shaft design.
These gas turbines are connected directly or via a gearbox to either a pump or compressor assembly.
The majority of installations are used within oil and gas industries. Mechanical drive applications increase efficiency by around 2%.
Oil & Gas platform require these to drive compressors to inject gas into wells to force oil up or to compress the gas for transportation.

Advances in technology
Gas turbine technology has steadily advanced and development is actively producing smaller, powerful and efficient gas turbines.
Aiding in these advances are computer based design & development of advanced materials: Base materials with high temp strength
(e.g. single-crystal superalloys that has yield strength) or thermal barrier coatings that protect structural material from higher temp.
These advances allow higher compression ratios and turbine inlet temperatures, more efficient combustion & better cooling of parts.
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) has contributed to substantial improvements in the performance and efficiency of Gas Turbine
components through enhanced understanding of the complex viscous flow and heat transfer phenomena involved. For this reason,
CFD is one of the key computational tool used in Design and development of gas turbine.
simple-cycle efficiencies of early gas turbines were doubled by incorporating inter-cooling, regeneration (or recuperation), reheating.
These improvements of course, come at expense of increased initial & operation costs, and they cannot be justified unless decrease in
fuel costs offsets increase in other costs. The relatively low fuel prices, general desire in industry to minimize installation costs, and
the tremendous increase in the simple-cycle efficiency to about 40 percent left little desire for opting for these modifications.
On the emissions side, the challenge is to increase turbine inlet temperatures while at same time reducing peak flame temperature in
order to achieve lower NOx emissions and meet the latest emission regulations.
STEAM TURBINES
STEAM TURBINES
Steam turbine is device that extract thermal energy from pressurized steam & uses it to do mechanical work on rotating output shaft.
The interior of a steam turbine comprises several sets of blades or buckets. One set of stationary blades is connected to the casing &
one set of rotating blades is connected to shaft. The stationary & rotary sets intermesh with certain minmum clearances, with the size
and configuration of sets varying to efficiently exploit the expansion of steam at each stage.
A steam turbine is a rotary type of steam engine, having a rotating wheel to which is secured a series of buckets, blades or vanes, and
uniformly spaced on its periphery. Steam from nozzles or guide passages is directed continuously against a buckets, blades, or vanes,
thus causing their rotation. The expansion of steam inside the nozzles or buckets converts its heat energy into energy of motion and
gives it a high velocity which is expended on the moving wheel or buckets. The difference in the various types of steam turbines is due
to different methods of using the steam. depending upon construction & arrangement of the nozzles, steam passages and buckets.
Steam turbine is a pinwheel driven by high-pressure steam rather than by air. It consists of a rotor from which project several rows of
closely spaced buckets/blades. Between each row of moving blades there is a row of fixed blades that project inward from housing.
The fixed blades are carefully shaped to direct the flow of steam against the moving blades at an angle & a velocity that will maximize
the conversion of the steam's heat energy into the kinetic energy of rotary motion.
The advantages of steam turbines : low initial cost, low expense for maintenance, small floor space required, large overload capacity,
exhaust steam is free of oil contamination as no internal lubrication is needed & high efficiency over a wide range of load conditions.

Types
Turbine blades are of 2 types, BLADES and NOZZLES. Blades move due to impact of steam on them and their profiles do not converge.
This results in a steam velocity drop and essentially no pressure drop as steam moves through the blades.
A turbine composed of moving blades alternating with fixed nozzles is called impulse turbine, Curtis, Rateau, BrownCurtis turbine.
Nozzles are similar to blades, but profile converge at exit, results in pressure drop & velocity increase as steam moves through nozzle.
A turbine composed of moving nozzles alternating with fixed nozzles is called reaction turbine or Parsons turbine.
The nozzles move due to both the impact of steam on the nozzles and the reaction forces, due to high-velocity of the steam at exits.
The turbine blades are generally arranged in multiple stages in series, called compounding, which improves efficiency at low speeds.
A reaction stage is a row of fixed nozzles followed by a row of moving nozzles. Multiple reaction stages divide pressure drop between
the steam inlet and exhaust into numerous small drops, resulting in a pressure-compounded turbine.
In impulse turbines, Impulse stages may be either pressure-compounded, velocity-compounded, or pressure-velocity compounded.
A pressure-compounded impulse stage is row of fixed nozzles followed by row of moving blades with multiple stage for compounding.
This is known as Rateau turbine, after its inventor. A velocity-compounded impulse stage (invented by Curtis & called "Curtis wheel")
is a row of fixed nozzles followed by two/more rows of moving blades alternating with rows of fixed blades. This divides velocity drop
across the stage into several smaller drops. A series of velocity-compounded impulse stages is pressure-velocity compounded turbine.

Blade Design Challenges

A major challenge in turbine design is reducing creep experienced by blades. Because of high temperatures & high stresses operation,
steam turbine materials become damaged through these mechanisms. As temperatures are increased to improve turbine efficiency,
creep becomes more significant. To limit creep, thermal coatings & superalloys with solid-solution strengthening and grain boundary
strengthening are used in blade designs.
Protective coating are used to reduce thermal damage & limit oxidation. Coating are often stabilized zirconium oxide-based ceramics.
Using thermal protective coating limit temperature exposure of nickel superalloy. This reduce creep mechanism experienced in blade.
Oxidation coatings limit efficiency losses caused by buildup on outside of blade, which is important in high-temperature environment.
Nickel-based blades are alloyed with aluminum & titanium to improve strength & creep resistance. Microstructure of these alloys is
composed of different regions of composition. A uniform dispersion of gamma-prime phase-combination of nickel,aluminum,titanium
promotes the strength and creep resistance of the blade due to the microstructure.

Steam Supply and Exhaust Conditions

These types include condensing, non-condensing, reheat, extraction and induction.
Condensing turbines are most commonly found in electrical power plants. These turbines exhaust steam from a boiler in an partially
condensed state, typically of a quality near 90%, at a pressure well below atmospheric to a condenser.
Non-condensing or back pressure turbines are most widely used for process steam applications. The exhaust pressure is controlled by
a regulating valve to suit the needs of the process steam pressure. These are commonly found at the refineries, pulp and paper plants,
and desalination facilities where large amounts of low pressure process steam are needed.
Reheat turbines used exclusively in electrical power plants. In reheat turbine, steam flow exits from high pressure section of turbine
& is returned to boiler where additional superheat is added. The steam then goes back into intermediate pressure section of turbine
and continues its expansion. Using reheat in a cycle increases work output from the turbine and also expansion reaches conclusion
before steam condenses, there by minimizing erosion of blades in last rows. In most of cases, maximum number of reheats employed
in a cycle is 2 as the cost of super-heating the steam negates the increase in the work output from the turbine.
Extracting turbines are common in all application. In an extracting type turbine, steam is released from various stages of turbine, and
used for industrial process needs or sent to boiler feedwater heaters to improve overall cycle efficiency.
Extraction flows may be controlled with a valve, or left uncontrolled.
Induction turbines introduce low pressure steam at an intermediate stage to produce additional power.
Turbine Efficiency
To maximize the turbine efficiency the steam is expanded, doing work, in a number of stages. These stages are then characterized by
how the energy is extracted from them and are known as either impulse or reaction turbines. Most steam turbines uses a mixture of
the reaction and impulse designs: each stage behaves as either one or the other, but the overall turbine uses both.
Typically, higher pressure sections are reaction type and lower pressure sections are impulse type design.

CLASSIFICATION OF STEAM TURBINES

Shaft Position : Horizontal or Vertical
Method of Drive : Direct Connected or Geared
Action of the Steam : Impulse or Reaction
Exhaust Pressure : Non-Condensing, Condensing, Extraction

IMPULSE TYPE STEAM TURBINE

In the impulse type steam turbine, the expansion and consequent change in the pressure of the steam occurs entirely within nozzles
which direct the steam in jets against moving set of blades/buckets. In as much as the expansion of the steam takes place in nozzles,
the clearance between the rotating and stationary surfaces is greater than the reaction type steam turbine.
Thermal energy of steam is converted to kinetic energy in the turbine nozzle. Kinetic energy converted to the mechanical energy and
transferred through rotor, shaft and coupling to the load.

An impulse turbine has fixed nozzles that orient the steam flow into a high speed jets. These jets contain significant kinetic energy,
which is converted into shaft rotation by the bucket-like shaped rotor blades, as the steam jet changes direction.
A pressure drop occurs across only the stationary blades, with a net increase in steam velocity across the stage. As the steam flows
through nozzle its pressure falls from inlet pressure to exit pressure (atmospheric pressure, or more usually, the condenser vacuum).
Due to this high ratio of expansion of steam, the steam leaves nozzle with very high velocity. The steam leaving the moving blades has
a large portion of maximum velocity of steam when leaving the nozzle. The loss of energy due to this higher exit velocity is commonly
called the carry over velocity or leaving loss.

REACTION TYPE STEAM TURBINE

In the reaction type steam turbine, the expansion and consequent change in pressure of the steam occurs entirely in blading section
where steam is directed against moving buckets/blading by guide valves or orifices. The expansion of steam takes place through both
the stationary and moving guide vanes, and therefore the clearance space between the stationary and moving surfaces is very small,
to cut down on the pressure drop by leakage between stages, to a minimum.

In the reaction turbine, the rotor blades themselves are arranged to form convergent nozzles. This type of turbine makes use of the
reaction force produced as steam accelerates through nozzles formed by rotor. Steam is directed onto rotor by fixed vanes of stator.
It leaves the stator as a jet that fills the entire circumference of the rotor. The steam then changes direction and increases its speed
relative to the speed of the blades. A pressure drop occurs across both the stator & the rotor, with steam accelerating through stator
and decelerating through rotor, with no net change in steam velocity across stage but with decrease in both pressure & temperature,
reflecting the work performed in the driving of the rotor.

In the reaction turbine the fixed blades and the moving blades that constitute one stage are practically identical in design & function;
each accounts for about half of the pressure drop that is converted to kinetic energy in the entire stage.
In the fixed blades the pressure is harnessed to increase velocity of the steam so that it slightly exceeds the velocity of moving blades
in the direction of rotation. In moving blades the pressure drop is again used to accelerate steam but at same time to turn it around
(with respect to the blades), so that its absolute tangential velocity is almost zero as it enters the next bank of the stationary blades.
Thrust is imparted to moving blades as steam's absolute tangential velocity is reduced from slightly above blade speed to approx zero.
An imaginary observer moving with the steam could not tell whether he was passing through the fixed blades or the moving ones.

In the impulse turbine the fixed blades are quite different in shape from the moving ones because their job is to accelerate the steam
until its velocity in direction of rotation is about twice that of moving blades. The moving blades are designed to absorb this impulse
and to transfer it to rotor in form of kinetic energy. In this arrangement most pressure drop in each stage takes place in fixed blades;
the pressure drop through the moving blades is only sufficient to maintain forward flow of steam. The amount of energy transferred
to the rotor in each stage is proportional to the change in absolute steam velocity in the direction of rotation.
It turns out that value is about twice as high for impulse blading as it is for reaction blading. This means, that an impulse turbine will
need fewer stages for the same power output than a reaction turbine; the efficiency, however, will be about the same for both types.
In turbine design one of the major secondary problems is providing seals to keep the steam from leaking through the narrow spaces
between the rotor and the stator. In impulse blading the complete expansion in each stage takes place in the fixed blades. It is thus
desirable to place the seals on as small a diameter as possible. This has led to a turbine design known as the diaphragm type.
Because pressure differential is large the diaphragm needs considerable space in axial direction. Therefore the width of fixed blade
must be made larger than it would otherwise have to be. A circumferential shroud is often placed around each ring of moving blades.
Speed regulation
The control of the turbine with a governor is essential, as turbines need to be run up slowly to prevent damage and some applications
(such as the generation of alternating current electricity) require precise speed control. Uncontrolled acceleration of the turbine rotor
can lead to an overspeed trip, which causes nozzle valves that control the flow of steam to turbine to close. If this fails then a turbine
may continue accelerating until it breaks apart, often catastrophic. Turbine requires precision manufacture & special quality material.
During normal operation in synchronization with the electricity network, power plants are governed with a 5 % droop speed control.
This means full load speed is 100% and no-load speed is 105%. This is required for stable operation of network without hunting and
drop-outs of power plants.

Operation and Maintenance

Because of the high pressures used in steam circuits and materials used, steam turbines and their casings have high thermal inertia.
When warming up steam turbine for use, the main steam stop valves (after the boiler) have a bypass line to allow superheated steam
to slowly bypass the valve and proceed to heat up the lines in the system along with the steam turbine. Also, a turning gear is engaged
when there is no steam to slowly rotate the turbine to ensure even heating to prevent uneven expansion.
After first rotating turbine by turning gear, allowing time for rotor to assume straight plane (no bowing), the turning gear is disengaed
and steam is admitted to the turbine, first to the astern blades then to the ahead blades slowly rotating the turbine at a 10 15 RPM
(0.17 0.25 Hz) to slowly warm the turbine. The warm up procedure for large steam turbines may exceed ten hours.
During normal operation, rotor imbalance can lead to vibration, because of high rotation velocity, blade could break away from rotor
and through the casing. To reduce risk, considerable effort is spent to balance turbine. Also, turbines are run with high quality steam:
either superheated (dry) steam, or saturated steam with a high dryness fraction. This prevents rapid impingement & erosion of blades
which occurs when condensed water is blasted onto the blades (moisture carry over). Also, liquid water entering blades may damage
the thrust bearings for the turbine shaft. To prevent this, along with controls and baffles in the boilers to ensure high quality steam,
condensate drains are installed in the steam piping leading to the turbine.
 COMPRESSORS
BASIC GAS LAWS
Before discussing Compressors and their working principles, it is helpful to know some of the basic laws, which effect the compressor.
Law of Thermodynamics:
Energy is neither created nor destroyed, but can be converted from one form to another form.
Second Law of Thermodynamics:
Energy, which exists at various levels, is available for use only if it can move from a higher to a lower level.
Ideal or Perfect Gas Laws
Gases may consist of one specific gas or may be constituent of number of gases.
An Law. Perfect gases do not exist in practice.
: states that at constant temperature, volume of an ideal gas decreases with increase in pressure. P1V1 = P2V2 = Const.
C : states that at constant pressure, volume of an ideal gas will increase as temperature increases. P1/V1 = P2/V2 = Constant
Amont : states that at constant volume, pressure of an ideal gas will increase as temperature increases. P1/T1 = P2/T2 = Constant

Compression of gas is a thermodynamic process, and can be done in many ways; some of them are listed below.
Isobaric Process a process wherein pressure remains constant.
Isothermal Process a process in which there os no change in temperature.
Isentropic Process a process in which there is no change in entropy.
Adiabatic Process a process during which there is no external exchange of heat. PVk = Constant

Compressors are the machines required for transportation / movement of gases in a system. The purpose of compression is simply to
increase the pressure of a gas from one level to another. Depending on a host of circumstances and situations, the pressure increase
imparted to a gas will be from a fraction of a bar in laboratory equipment to literally tens of hundred of bars as in hypercompressors.
Two principal methods are used to compress gases.

Dynamic type compressor are machines in which gas is compressed

by the dynamic action of the rotating vanes or impellers imparting
velocity to flowing gas. Velocity head is converted into pressure.

The Second method is to trap a volume of gas and displace it by

positive action of piston or rotating members and are known as
positive-displacement compressors.

Positive displacement machines below 3000 m3/hr

Axial compressors above 30,000 m3/hr
Flow region 3000-12,000 m3/hr is usually over-lapping
between positive displacement & centrifugal compressors.
Flow region 30000-120000 m3/hr is usually overlapped
between centrifugal and axial compressors.
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS
Machine in which velocity and pressure are imparted to air or gas in a radial direction by one or more impeller diffuser combination.
The Centrifugal compressors imparts velocity to the gas through rotating impellers. The gas is introduced the eye of the impeller and
discharged radially at the outer circumference (impeller tip) at a higher velocity and kinetic energy.
The gas then passes through a stationary diffuser where its velocity is reduced, and its kinetic energy is converted to static pressure.
Part of the static pressure rise occurs in the impeller and part in the diffuser. Impeller diameter and width, rotational speed and the
angle of the vanes that make up the impeller are important parameters in the design of centrifugal compressors.
One or more impellers (stages) may be required to obtain desired discharge pressure. The temp. of gas increases as it is compressed.
If discharge temperature is likely to increase beyond maximum allowable temperature before desired discharge pressure is achieved,
the gas must be cooled before it can be compressed further. Heat exchangers called intercoolers, may be required to cool the gas/air.
Typically, these intercoolers are installed between compressor sections (one or more stages typically make up a compressor section).
Maximum allowable temperature is determined by following factors:
1. Design or materials
2. Avoiding excessive temperatures in the process
3. Fouling
4. Polymerization of the process
A seal system contains the process gas within the compressor as well as prevents any contamination of the gas by bearing lubricants.
These compressors can be designed to be non-lubricating if the process gas is required to be oil-free.

COMPRESSOR TRAINS
Large pressure ratios cannot be handled by one single casing alone.
Similarly it is not possible to split the compression cycle into more than two or three stages within one casing.
The major compressor manufacturers therefore build compressor trains that may consist of upto four separate casings.
These separate compressors, which need not be of same type, are interconnected by couplings, & can be powered by common driver.
When additional timing gearing are used, the compressors casings may also be run at different speeds. The train is designed so that a
minimum of dismantling is necessary for maintenance, i.e, when a vertically split casing is used, it is located at opposite end of driver.

AXIAL COMPRESSORS
Gas moves axially (parallel) along compressor shaft (parallel to machine axis) through alternating rows of rotating & stationary blades.
Each set of blades (one rotating blades row which then is followed by one stationary blades row) represents a stage of compression.
The rotating blades impart velocity to gas or air, the stationary blades slows the gas and direct it into the next row of rotating blades.
As the gas passes through each stage, its pressure and temperature are further increased until it finally exits the axial compressor at
desired pressure and associated temperature.
Axial compressors require more stages to develop same pressure rise as centrifugal compressors, but handles high flows efficiency.
Axial compressor design does not lend itself to inter-cooling and attainable discharge pressures are generally limited by temperature
and bearing span (which limits the number of blade rows). Axial compressors are mainly used for air or clean gases.
As centrifugals , they have a wide range of capacity and can handle very high flows, but generally operate at much lower pressures.
As axial compressors are turbo compressors, they have same problems concerning unstable operation at reduced flow called Surging.
Axial types are more susceptible to erosion, corrosion and solids buildup than centrifugals.

Axial flow compressors has a massive rotor with several rows of blades rotating in a casing containing rows of stationary blades also.
Gas/Air is drawn into an intake nozzle and passed in an axial direction through a series of moving and stationary rows of blades and is
fully discharged through a discharge nozzle. Axial compressors are generally driven by electric motors, steam and gas turbines.
Axial compressors are large volume compressors that are characterized by the axial direction of the flow passing through machine.
The energy from rotor is transferred to gas by blades. Axial compressor have higher capacity&comparatively low pressure application.
Axial compressors offer higher efficiency and smaller foundation requirements in weight and space and more efficient drive selection
because of its higher speed and lower power requirements.

SURGING
There are definite limitations of the ability of a centrifugal compressor. Limiting the minimum capacity of a centrifugal compressor is
%-55% of the design inlet capacity at design speed.
This extremely complex phenomenon called surging is probably still one of the most difficult problems in the field of fluid dynamics.
The maximum head developed by a compressor depends only on the speed of the compressor and its impeller design.
When the head in system increases beyond the head developed, the compressor will no longer be able to deliver the gases to system.
Or we can say that, when the static pressure (Head) in compressor volute becomes lesser then the compresser outlet pressure (Head)
At this stage, gas will try to flow back into impellers whereas impellers try to blow gases out. This causes unsteady condition urging
By examining characteristic curves of a centrifugal compressor, it can be observed as capacity or flow through compressor decreases,
its discharge pressure increases. But beyond a point when flow further reduces, discharge pressure falls sharply giving rise to surging.
All this condition, the system back pressure exceeds that of the compressor delivery, causing a momentary back flow conditions.
At this time, however back pressure can be lowered enabling the unit to be again capable of delivering flow at which the surge began.
If obstruction to flow downstream of the compressor is unchanged then the operation flow back along the head characteristic curve
until the peak head delivery is reached again giving rise to surge.
When compressors is operated under prolonged / repeated surge conditions, the pressure force can damage the internals of machine
due to excessive vibrations. During operation under surge condition, the power requirement goes up by 10% & is converted into heat.
This causes excessive temperature build up inside the compressor and in matter of few seconds, if the conditions are severe enough,
could melt shaft labyrinth seals, which controls the internal leakage. Excessive temperature damage the balance piston labyrinth also.
This will affect the rotor balancing and also overload the thrust bearings. If the thrust bearing fails/damages, the rotor will shift axially
and the impellers will rule against the stationary parts of the casing causing severe damage.
Hence a centrifugal compressor unit can operate stable to the right of the surge limit. The greater is the load demand on compressors,
pressure. The upper limit of capacity is determined by the phenomenon known as
Stone wall occurs when the velocity of the gas approaches its sonic velocity somewhere in the compressor (sonic barrier is reached at
the eye of first impeller) Shock waves result which restrict the flow, cause the rapid fall of in the discharge pressure
for a slight increase in volume through put. Stone wall is usually not a problem when compressing the air and lighter gases.
However, in compressing gases heavier than air, the problem becomes more prevalent as the molecular weight increases.

Antisurge Control
In order to protect the centrifugal machines from excessively high mechanical loading due to unstable operating conditions (surging)
which primarily stresses and damages the bearings, the compressors need to be equipped with antisurge control.
If the delivery required is below the minimum delivery volume of the compressor, the surplus is led away as a side stream via a valve.
Depending on the nature of the gas, the surplus is either discharged to the atmosphre or it is cooled and returned to the suction side.
The Anti-Surge Control System is the system that prohibits compressor to operate in unstable surge zone, by means of opening the
anti-surge control valve(s) ensuring that the compressor flowrate remains on the right-hand side of the surge limit line.
In the example shown the valve is operated by a controller that uses the volume flow rate and discharge pressure as input parameters
The blow-off or recycle limit in the compressor curve envelope is normally an approximate simulation of the surge limit.
Pneumatic, hydraulic, electro pneumatic, or electro hydraulic control systems may be employed.
Depending on the cross-sectional area of the discharge, control valves or flaps are employed as regulating units.
RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR (Piston or Diaphragm type)
Reciprocating positive displacement compressors have a piston in cylinder or diaphragm operating in shaped cavity to compress gas.
The compressors have suction & discharge valves that control gas flow. They require special process & piping design considerations
because of pulsating nature of flow. Other considerations may include foundation design, compressor valve speed, piston rod loads,
inter-cooling and safety relief valves.
A reciprocating compressor consist of crankcase, crank, piton rod,cylinder, piston, valve. The input power to reciprocating compressor
is in form of rotary motion. Earlier reciprocating compressors were single acting i.e gas/air was handled on one side of piston/cylinder.
Now double acting is commonly used due to inherent advantages and higher efficiency.
Ideally speaking one revolution of crank involves four cycles i.e. suction, compression, discharge, expansion.
Suction:
When the piston moves towards BDC (bottom dead centre), the pressure within the cylinder drops below suction pressure thereby
forcing suction valve to open and allows gas in the cylinder. This movement of piston is plotted as 4 and 1 on p-v diagram.
Compression:
The movement of the piston from BDC towards TDC (top dead center) starts increasing pressure thereby closing open inlet valve and
compressing trapped gas. This movement of the piston is plotted as 1 to 2 on the p-v diagram.
Discharge:
As the piston approaches TDC, the discharge valve opens due to higher pressure in the cylinder, than the discharge pipeline, thereby
discharging the trapped gases. This piston movement is marked as 2 to 3 on p-v diagram.
Expansion:
To avoid contact of the piston with cylinder end cover, a small gap is maintained between the two.
This results in small quantity of gas get trapped & not discharged.
movement from TDC to BDC. This expansion of gas is plotted as 3 to 4 on the p-v diagram.

Components
Frame - : piston, rider & Bearing
Valves ng box packing
Frame
The function of the frame is to provide rigidity and hold all moving and static parts in accurate alignment during operations.
It is designed with suitable supports or ribbings to mount the compressor cylinders, crankshaft and running gears.
Main oil pump driven by crankshaft is provided at the non-drive end of the frame for the lubrication of the moving parts.
Frame houses crankcase for holding the lube oils and is normally provided with removable top covers.
A glass and valve provided in the crankcase allows inspection of oil level and draining of oil.
In big compressors level transmitter is provided in crankcase for auto monitoring of oil level.
Breather is also provided in top cover to remove oil vapours and avoid pressurization of frame or crankcase.
Crankshaft
The function of the crankshaft is to convert rotary motion into reciprocating motion jointly with connecting rod.
Unlike frame, crankshaft is rotating part and (may have intermediate bearings depending on construction) and drives connecting rod.
Crankshaft has drilled hole for conveying oil from main bearing journal to connecting rod big end bearings.
Counter weight are attached to crankshaft to compensate for rotational irregularitis due to reciprocating motion of crosshead/piston.
Bearings
The function of the bearings is to support the crank and take all load, minimize friction, permitting transmission of forces.
Bearings can be single piece or in two piece, depending on the size of the crank pin.
Bearings are normally pressure lubricated & operated on principle of hydrodynamic lift. Most bearings comprise of steel shell coated
with soft material, to protect the pin during startup phase. Reciprocating compressors have bearings installed at three places, that is
main bearings, big end bearing, small end bearing.
Crosshead
The function of the crosshead is to maintain the reciprocating motion of the piston and rod in a horizontal plane.
The crosshead guides on rectilinear axis, small-end of connecting rod & bears the force the latter produces in direction perpendicular
to the axis of the motion. At other end it is connected to piston and rod assembly. Crosshead reciprocates in the crosshead guide and
is lubricated by a pressurized lubrication system. As crosshead is in continues reciprocating motion, wear is likely to take place hence,
it is provided with renewable white metal lined shoes. Crosshead is generally made of cast Grey iron or nodular iron or cast steel.
In small compressors it is made of aluminum and does not need white metal lining provided guide is of cast steel. Shoes or slippers of
cast iron or aluminum with white metal overlay are bolted at top & bottom of crosshead & can be replaced when clearance increases.
Connecting rod
The function of connecting rod is to transfer rotating motion of the crankshaft to linear motion at crosshead.
Connecting rod is subjected to combination of tension and compression load. Connecting rod connection to the crankshaft is called
big end due to its size and the part connected to crosshead is called as small end . Connecting rod is mostly drop forged steel.
Piston rod
The function of the piston rod is to transmit reciprocating motion from crosshead to piston. Piston rods are subjected to combined
bending & compressive stress. Piston rod to crosshead & piston rod to piston connection is of prime importance due to cyclic loading.
Hence torque tightening at specified torques with wrenche or hydraulic jack should be done. Piston rod can have screwed connection
or as flanged connection with crosshead. Piston rod surface is hardened as it is in contact with stuffing box packing, which is provided
to prevent gas leakage. Rod surface is induction hardened, the hardness is generally in the range of 45-60 HRC is most preferred, and
is suitable for service upto 200 bar. Material selection for piston rod depends on the gas being handles and rod loading.
Cylinder
A double acting cylinder consists of barrel, water jacket, front & rear heads. In some design rear end is integral part of cylinder barrel
and in some design it is bolted & is separable. Cylinder heads may be water cooled depending on location of suction/discharge valves,
clearance pocket valves and pressure ratio. Provision is made in the rear head for pressure packing which seals leakage of gas due to
linear motion of the piston rod. Valves are installed on the barrel and in some cases on the head. Cylinder material is governed by gas
to be handled and pressure. Other factors that influence cylinder material is bore diameter, pressure differentials, lubrications etc.
Cylinders are normally modular iron or cast steel depending on the application. High pressure cylinders are made from forging.
Big cylinders have replaceable liners (sleeve), which is replaced when bore increases or liner surface gets damaged.
Piston
The primary function of piston is to try to squeeze the trapped volume of gas thereby increasing the pressure.
Piston reciprocates within cylinder and is supported on rider rings provided in grooves. Piston may be of single piece, 2 piece, 3 piece,
it can be solid or hollow. One piece pistons are used for small bore & high pressure differential application & made of cast iron/steel.
Two piece piston are generally used for bore diameter above 250mm & aluminum is used when reciprocating weight is to be reduced.
Three-piece pistons are used in high-pressure service where cylinder bore diameter are also high. Three piece pistons can very easily
accommodate rider rings for support and piston rings for sealing on it due to length. Following parameters influence piston design:

Normally pistons are made up of cast iron and aluminum. Following factors influence piston material selection
Weight . Compression/ & wear resistance
Aluminium is used when lightweight pistons are required in order to balance reciprocating weights or to reduce inertia forces so they
do not exceed frame load limits. Cast Iron/Steel is the most common material used for piston due to its high strength and good wear
and corrosion resistance. Steels are used for high differential pressure when strength requirement is very high.
Normally cast iron pistons have rider rings to avoid contact with cylinder and rider ring is must in non-lubricated type.
In some lubricated cylinders with aluminum cylinders, rider rings are not provided.
Riders Rings
Rider rings are provided on piston for supporting the weight of the piston and piston rod assembly. Location & number of rider rings
are dictated by the design, diameter, length and weight of the piston. Rider rings are available in several styles.
Solid rider rings or bands are made in single piece and are machined with an interference fit so that, once expanded over piston end,
they will contact like a rubber band to provide a snug fit on the piston. This type does not require pressure relief grooves.
Cut type rider rings are snapped over piston with the same care as piston rings. Cut-type rings are supplied as butt cut or as angle cut,
similar to piston rings. Both type require side relief grooves to relieve the gas pressure from behind the ring.
Piston Rings.
The main function of piston rings is to prevent gas leakage from one side of piston to other side during compression and acts as a seal
between both sides of piston. Piston rings installed in piston grooves. To ensure proper operation, good contact is required between
the rings and the side of the piston grooves and with ring OD in contact with cylinder wall. During operation the primary sealing force,
is a result of gas pressure in ring bore and against the side. This serves to hold the ring against cylinder and against flat groove face.
The number of piston rings is decided considering suction and discharge pressure, gas composition, speed etc.
Generally rider ring & piston rings are made of PTFE/CFT (Carbon filled Teflon) etc. Normally rider ring width is higher than piston ring
As rider ring is for supporting the weight of the piston, hence it wears in the bottom portion, which is in contact with cylinder liner.
Hence rotating rider ring by 180 degrees, it can be further used.
Piston Rod Packing (Stuffing Box)
Packing set consist of series of sealing arranged in series in compressor stuffing box (area where piston rod projects out from cylinder)
Piston rod packing are always floating and consist of annular cups, segmented rings and a flange like gland.
1. Radial & Tangential set: This sealing ring is made in pairs. The first one is radially cut & second is tangentially cut with gap between
the two rings. Rings segments have match marks and are packing pairs are doweled.
2. Double Tangent ring set: This type consists of two tangent rings doweled together. This kind of assembly seals in both directions,
making it double acting. This type packing are used in vacuum service and low pressure service.
3. Pressure breaker type: This is the simplest form of packing ring and because it does not have any overlapping or seal type joints,
it acts to break or slow down gas passage. This ring may be installed either face towards the pressure side.
Rings should not be allowed to operate without end clearance because its life will be short.
ROTARY COMPRESSORS (Screw, Root Blower, Sliding Vane, Scroll, Claw, Liquid Ring type)
Rotary compressors generally have no suction or discharge valves and use suction and discharge ports that are alternately exposed &
covered by the rotating or sliding elements. Screw, rotary lobe, sliding vane-type, and liquid-ring compressors fall into this category.
Screw Compressor: rotation of male & female helical screws causes axial progression of successive sealed cavities in between screws.
During the spin, the volume of the cavities decreases, which compresses the gas to the end of the rotor housing.
The relatively small-diameter rotors allow high speeds and these screw compressors are also suitable for a varying-speed operations,
which give the advantage, that these machines can handle different capacities. Screw compressor are usually easier to install than e.g.
centrifugals/piston types, small in size, lower capital cost than piston/centrifugals & give good air quality if used as air compressors.
On other hand, compressors are always with acoustic insulation, otherwise they would be noisy. Pressure working range is moderate.
Usually, the energy consumption is higher than piston types. The lubricated types of screw compressors need frequent maintenance.
The non-lubricated types can operate at higher speeds than the lubricated ones. This is required to minimize the backflow losses, but
gives the additional benefit over the lubricated types of higher capacities and pressures. While the lubricated screw compressors are
cooled with air or water, the oil-free compressors are cooled with water only. Besides the oil-injected lubricated screw compressors,
water-injected types do exist, but are rarely used. In non-lubricated types, rotors have to be positioned by synchronized gear system.
Roots Blowers (Lobe Compressors) have rotors coupled by a gear system. The rotors have lobes, which moves gas from inlet to outlet
by gripping in each other during the spinning of the rotors. The pressurization is done at the outlet of the housing.
Pressure ratios of root blowers are rather small; therefore they are typically application in vacuum services and pneumatic conveying,
sometimes with multiple units in series, but occasionally for process gas. The cost price of roots blowers is low as compared to others.
Advantage is that roots blowers operate oil-free. Disadvantages are high energy consumption,noisy operation,pulsations in air supply.
Sliding Vane Compressors consist of eccentric rotor containing radial slots with vanes. The vanes move against inner wall of housing,
shoving in and out of the slot during a spin, hereby decreasing the volume enclosed between the vanes and thus pressurizing the gas.
Sliding vane compressors have to be lubricated, so the air is not oil-free. Capacities and pressure are lower than screw compressors.
Generally they are not used for process gases.
Scroll Compressors operate by compression of gas between 2 spirals. One spiral is fixed & other rotates eccentric around static spiral.
Scroll compressors are usually air-cooled. They have very small capacities and moderate pressures, but work oil-free, with low noise.
Claw Compressors have 2 rotors with claw teeth gripping in each other during spinning movement. They are used for small capacities.
Liquid Ring Compressors are typically used for corrosive gas, applications with high product temperatures and wet-vacuum services.
Gases to be handled by these types are e.g. chlorine, carbon disulfide, hydrogen sulfide, and sulfur dioxide.
The compressor has an eccentric impeller. The housing is continuously supplied with liquid that seals the chambers of the impeller.
Inlet and discharge ports are located in impeller hub. As vaned impeller rotates, centrifugal force drives sealing liquid against the walls
of the elliptical housing. By a eccentric position of the impeller changes gas volume of chambers continuously, causing the process gas
to be successively drawn into the cavities and to be expelled against discharge pressure. The liquid can be water, liquid or oil.
Oil is used in vacuum applications. The liquid functions also as cooling medium. The separator is usually employed in discharge line to
minimize carryover of entrained liquid; liquid is externally cooled unless it is used in a once-through system. High energy consumption

Piston Compressors are of oldest designed types and were initially widely used in industry. They are used in process gas applications.
In the cylindrical housing a crosshead is connected to the piston by a piston rod. This will provides a linear motion for the piston rod,
aspirating and compressing gas in cylinder. Because of typical high operating temperature, piston compressors are cooled externally;
small types are cooled with air, the large types are cooled with water.
An advantage of the small types is the low capital cost, but disadvantages are the high-energy consumption, noisy operation coupled
with vibrations and short lifetime. The larger types have a better power number (especially slow-moving models) and longer lifetime,
but the purchase price, installation cost, and maintenance cost is high. Transmissions and cooling systems can be complicated.
Piston compressors are available for wide range of operating pressure, can go up to highest discharge pressure among all compressors
because of stalwart construction of machine. Typically have low specific speeds. Most are lubricated, non-lubricated are also available
Diaphragm compressors are typically employed for dangerous/corrosive gases. A plunger pump actuates the diaphragm hydraulically.
In other models, piston moves to/fro over a membrane that is fixed to circumference of housing & fixed to piston in heart of machine.
An important advantage the diaphragm compressors possess is that they have no seals for the process gas and no leakage problems,
which makes them suitable for hazardous products.
Diaphragm compressors are mostly air-cooled; temperature is not a serious problem, as large wall area relative to gas volume permits
sufficient heat transfer to approach isothermal compression. Small models are constructed in plastic, while bigger types are metallic.
They supply oil-free air and can handle very high pressures. Their application, however is limited to very small capacities.

Selection Considerations:
SAFETY: Process considerations, Economical considerations, Site and location.
LUBRICATION SYSTEM : Centrifugal compressors lubrication, Reciprocating compressors lubrication, Rotary compressors lubrication.
SEAL SYSTEMS : Dry shaft seals , Liquid film seal (oil film seal) , Packing glands.
ANCILLARY EQUIPMENT : Drivers (electrical motor, steam turbine), Couplings, Gearboxes, Cooling Systems (inter- and after coolers,
cooling on jacketed cylinders, motor cooling) , Pulsation Suppressors or Dampeners (typical for positive displacement compressors),
Separators (process gas, seal and lube oil) , Systems including Anti-Surge Systems , Monitoring Systems (performance and vibration),
Safety Valves , Foundation, Mounting Plates, Suction Strainers, Filters, Silencers (vent silencers, suction/discharge noise suppressors).
CABLES
* Circuit integrity test as per IEC 331/ BS 6387-CAT.C, cables are subjected to fire at 750°C for 3 Hrs. with electricity flowing through it.
The conductor is the metallic component of cables through which electrical power or electrical signals are transmitted.
Conductor size is usually specified by American Wire Gauge (AWG), circular mil area, or in square millimeters.

AWG
The American Wire Gauge (AWG) (also called Brown and Sharpe or B&S) is used exclusively in U.S.A for copper and aluminum wire.
The Birmingham Wire Gauge (BWG) is used for steel armor wire.
The diameters according to the AWG are defined as follows:
The diameter of size 4/0 (sometimes written 0000) equals 0.4600 inch and that of size #36 equals 0.0050 inch; the intermediate sizes
are found by geometric progression. That is, the ratio of diameter of one size to that of the next smaller size (larger gauge number) is:

Circular Mil
Sizes larger than 4/0 are specified in terms of the total area of a cross-section of the copper in circular mils (cmil).
A circular mil is a unit of area equal to the area of a circle one mil in diameter. It is p/4 (0.7854) of a square mil (one mil 5 0.001 inch).
The area of circle in circular mils is equal to square of its diameter in mils. A solid wire 1 inch in diameter has an area of 1,000,000 cmils

Square Millimeters
Metric sizes are given in terms of square millimeters (mm2).

STRANDS TYPES
Concentric Strand
A concentric stranded conductor consists of a central wire or core surrounded by one or more layers of helically laid wires.
Each layer after the first has 6 more wires than preceding layer.
Except in compact stranding, each layer is applied in a direction opposite to that of the layer under it.
If the core is single wire and all of the outer strands have same diameter, first layer will contain 6 wires, second-12, third-18 etc.

Bunch Strand
The nt.

Rope Strand
A rope stranded conductor is a concentric stranded conductor each of whose component strands is itself stranded.
A rope stranded conductor is described as number of groups laid together to form a rope with number of wires in each group.

Sector Conductor
A sector conductor is a stranded conductor whose crosssection is approximately the shape of a sector of a circle.
A multiple conductor insulated cable with sector conductors has a smaller diameter than corresponding cable with round conductors.

Segmental Conductor
A segmental conductor is a round, stranded conductor composed of three or four sectors slightly insulated from one another.
This construction has the advantage of lower AC resistance (less skin effect).

Annular Conductor
An annular conductor is a round, stranded conductor whose strands are laid around a suitable core.
The core is usually made wholly or mostly of nonconducting material.
The advantage is lower AC resistance for given cross-sectional area of conducting material by eliminating greater skin effect at center.

Compact Strand
A compact stranded conductor is a round or sector conductor having all layers stranded in the same direction and rolled to a
predetermined ideal shape.
The finished conductor is smooth on the surface and contains practically no interstices or air spaces. This results in a smaller diameter.

Compressed Strand
Compressed conductors are intermediate in size between standard concentric conductors and compact conductors.
In a concentric stranded conductor, each individual wire is round and considerable space exists between wires.
In a compressed conductor, the conductor
In a compact conductor each wire is preformed into trapezoidal shape before wires are stranded together into a finished conductor.
This results in even less space between wires. A compact conductor is therefore smallest in diameter (except for a solid conductor).