Topics in Algebra Assignments 9/16

105201010
張誌麟

Exercise 1.1. Let M be an abelian group and let End M be the set of all endomorphisms
on M , i.e., the set of all group morphisms f : M → M . Show that End M is an abelian
group under the law of composition (f, g) 7→ f + g where
(∀x ∈ M ) (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x).
Show also that
(a) (End M, +, ◦) is a unitary ring;
(b) M is an End M -module under the action End M × M → M given by (f, m) 7→ f · m =
f (m);
(c) if R is a unitary ring and µ : R → End M is a ring morphism such that µ(1R ) = idM ,
then M is an R-module under the action R × M → M given by (λ, m) 7→ λm =
[µ(λ)](m).

Solution. Clearly the function (f, g) 7→ f + g is a binary operation on End M . We show that
(End M, +) forms an abelian group. Let 0M be the identity in M .
(i) Let f, g and h in End M . Then (f + (g + h))(m) = f (m) + (g + h)(m) = f (m) +
g(m) + h(m) = (f + g)(m) + h(m) = ((f + g) + h)(m) for every m ∈ M . Hence
f + (g + h) = (f + g) + h in End M .
(ii) Let ψ0 ∈ End M be the homomorphism x 7→ 0M for every x ∈ M . Then for every
f ∈ End M , (f + ψ0 )(m) = f (m) + ψ0 (m) = f (m) = ψ0 (m) + f (m) = (ψ0 + f )(m) for
every m ∈ M . Hence ψ0 is the identity in End M .
(iii) Let f ∈ End M . Let −f ∈ End M be the homomorphism x 7→ −f (x) for every x ∈ M .
Then (f + (−f ))(m) = f (m) + (−f )(m) = f (m) − f (m) = 0M = −f (m) + f (m) =
(−f )(m) + f (m) = (−f + f )(m) for every m ∈ M . Hence −f is the inverse element
of f in End M .
(iv) Let f and g in End M . For every m ∈ M , (f + g)(m) = f (m) + g(m) = g(m) + f (m) =
(g + f )(m) where the second equality holds as M is abelian. Hence f + g = g + h in
End M .
By (i),(ii),(iii) and (iv), (End M, +) is an abelian group.

(a) Clearly the function (f, g) 7→ f ◦ g is a binary operation on End M .

(i) (End M, +) is an abelian group by the discussion above.
(ii) Let f, g and h in End M . Then ((f ◦ g) ◦ h)(m) = (f ◦ g)(h(m)) = f (g(h(m))) =
f ((g ◦ h)(m)) = (f ◦ (g ◦ h))(m) for every m ∈ M . Hence ((f ◦ g) ◦ h) = (f ◦ (g ◦ h)).
(iii) Let f, g and h in End M . For every m ∈ M , (f ◦ (g + h))(m) = f ((g + h)(m)) =
f (g(m) + h(m)) = f (g(m)) + f (h(m)) = (f ◦ g)(m) + (f ◦ h)(m) = (f ◦ g + f ◦ h)(m)
where the third equality holds as f ∈ End M . Hence f ◦ (g + h) = f ◦ g + f ◦ h in M .
Similar for (g + h) ◦ f = g ◦ f + h ◦ f .
(iv) Let idM ∈ End M be the homomorphism x 7→ x for every x ∈ M . Then for every
f ∈ End M , (idM ◦f )(m) = idM (f (m)) = f (m) = f (idM (m)) = (f ◦ idM )(m) for
every m ∈ M . Hence idM is the unity in End M .
By (i),(ii),(iii) and (iv), (End, +, ◦) is a unitary ring.

(b) Clearly (f, m) 7→ f · m = f (m) is a function from End M × M into M .

(i) Let f, g ∈ End M and let m ∈ M . Then (f + g) · m = (f + g)(m) = f (m) + g(m) =
(f · m) + (g · m).
(ii) Let f ∈ End M and m, n ∈ M . Then f ·(m+n) = f (m+n) = f (m)+f (n) = f ·n+f ·m
where the second equality holds as f ∈ End M .

1
(iii) Let f, g ∈ End M and m ∈ M . Then (f ◦ g) · m = (f ◦ g)(m) = f (g(m)) = f (g · m) =
f · (g · m).
(iv) idM ·m = idM (m) = m for every m ∈ M .
By (i),(ii),(iii) and (iv), M is an End M -module.

(c) Clearly (λ, m) 7→ λ · m = [µ(λ)](m) is a function from R × M into M .

(i) Let r, s ∈ R and m ∈ M . Then (r + s) · m = µ(r + s)(m) = (µ(r) + µ(s))(m) =
µ(r)(m) + µ(s)(m) = r · m + s · m where the second equality holds as µ is a ring
homomorphism from R to End M .
(ii) Let r ∈ R and m, n ∈ M . Then r · (m + n) = µ(r)(m + n) = µ(r)(m) + µ(r)(n) =
r · m + r · n where the second equality holds as µ(r) ∈ End M .
(iii) Let r, s ∈ R and m ∈ M . Then (rs)·m = µ(rs)(m) = (µ(r)◦µ(s))(m) = µ(r)(µ(s)(m))
= µ(r)(s · m) = r · (s · m) where the second equality holds as µ is a ring homomorphism
from R to End M .
(iv) 1R · m = µ(1R )(m) = idM (m) = m for every m ∈ M .
By (i),(ii),(iii) and (iv), M is an R-module.