The Atom

You will remember that the basic atom consists of a …………………….. surrounded by ………………… going
round the nucleus in orbit.  Electrons are …………………………..charged.  Here is a Lithium atom:
 
The nucleus consists of:
 Protons which are …………….. charged.
 Neutrons that have …………….. charge.
The protons and neutrons have very nearly the same
relative mass. 
The neutron has slightly more mass than the proton,
but at this level we are going to say that the relative
mass of both the proton and the neutron is 1. 
The mass of a proton or neutron in kilograms is about
1.6 × 10-27 kg.
The mass of an electron is about 1/1800 the mass of a proton.  The mass of an electron is about 9.1 ×
10-31 kg.
 
The charges are as follows:  
Particle Charge  The protons and neutrons are the nucleons.
Proton +1
Neutron 0
Electron -1
Atoms and Ions
Elements are often written like this:

A is the total number of nucleons.  This is called the mass ……………………. or the nucleon
number.

Z is the total number of protons.  This is called the ……………………number or the proton number.

The number of protons determines the element.  If we change the number of protons in the nucleus
from 6 to 7, we change the element from carbon to nitrogen.  This will change the chemistry radically.
 
To work out the number of neutrons we take away the number of protons from the number of
nucleons:
 
No of neutrons =
……………………….. number -
If the number ……………….. number of electrons is the same as the number of protons,
the atom carries zero overall charge.  It is described as neutral.
 
If we change the number of electrons, the atom is charged.  It becomes an ion:
 Remove an electron, the overall charge is …………………...  We have a positive ion.
 Add an electron, we have a ……………………………… ion.
Ions are NEVER made by adding or taking away protons.
Isotopes

Isotopes have the same number of ………………………, but different numbers of ……………………...  If we
change the number of protons, we change the element completely. Isotopes have the same chemical
properties as the normal element.

In some types of atom, the nucleus is unstable, and will decay into a more stable atom. This radioactive
decay is completely ……………………………and random.

When an unstable nucleus decays, there are three ways that it can do so.
It may give out:
 an alpha particle (we use the symbol α)
 a beta particle (symbol β)
 a gamma ray (symbol γ)

Many radioactive substances emit α particles and β particles as well as γ rays.

Alpha particles are made of ………………… and 2 neutrons. It is a

………………nucleus.
This means that they have a charge of +2, and a mass of 4

Alpha particles are relatively slow and heavy. They have a low
penetrating power - you can stop them with just a sheet of paper.
Because they have a large charge, alpha particles ionise other atoms strongly.

Beta particles have a charge of minus 1, and a mass of about 1/2000th

of a proton. This means that beta particles are the same as an
………………... They are fast, and light.

Beta particles have a medium penetrating power - they are stopped by

a sheet of aluminium or plastics such as perspex. Beta particles ionise
atoms that they pass, but not as strongly as Alpha particles do.

Gamma rays are ………………………………. waves, not particles. This means

that they have no mass and no charge.

Gamma rays have a high penetrating power - it takes a thick sheet of metal
such as lead, or concrete to reduce them significantly. Gamma rays do not
directly ionise other atoms, although they may cause atoms to emit other
particles which will then cause ionisation. Particles that ionise other atoms strongly have a low
penetrating power, because they lose energy each time they ionise an atom. Radioactive decay is not
affected by external conditions.
Type of Radiation Alpha particle Beta particle Gamma ray
Symbol α β γ

Mass (atomic mass units) 1/2000 0

Charge
Speed
Ionising ability
Penetrating power
Stopped by
Effect of electric or
magnetic field

When the ionizing ability is greater, Energy of the particles are

greater. It collides with the other particles more frequently and it
releases a small amount of ………………………………. at
each………………………………So energy is lost and particles stops,
therefore the range is ………………………………..

Background radiation

The low level radiation ………………………………. in

the ………………………………. is called background
radiation.

Most of the background radiation dose we

receive in the UK is from natural sources
(about half is inhaled as radon gas). About 15% of
our annual dose comes from human activities
such as X-rays in hospital or at the dentist or
emissions from nuclear establishments.

The background dose comes from five main sources:

 Food and drink
 Human activity
 Cosmic rays
 Rocks and Soil
 Radon
 Sources of background radiation can be categorized in to two types. They are Natural sources and
Artificial sources

Natural sources

 cosmic radiation - high energy particles and rays that bombard the Earth from space. Mostly absorbed
by our atmosphere
 the Earth - rocks and soil in some areas are naturally radioactive, notably the granite in the Aberdeen
area and the rocks of Cornwall
 the atmosphere - radon gas is produced as part of the radioactive decay of uranium. Radon can build up
to dangerously high levels in poorly ventilated buildings
 our bodies - the air we breathe, the food we eat and the liquids we drink contain radioisotopes, mainly
potassium-40 and carbon-14

Artificial Sources

 medical sources - the main source of man-made radiation, mainly due to X-rays and cancer treatment
 industry - man-made sources which include nuclear reactors for generating electricity, and radioactive
tracers used for monitoring purposes

Half-life (t1/2)

The ………………………………. time taken for the ………………………………. (or mass or the number of undecayed
nuclei in the sample) to become ………………………………. of its ………………………………. value is called the half
life.

Half life differs from one radioactive isotope to another.

Uses of radioactivity

Carbon dating
Carbon-14 is a naturally occurring beta-emitter with a half-life of 5700 years. It is formed in the
atmosphere from nitrogen, due to the action of cosmic rays, and becomes incorporated in
radioactive carbon dioxide. During photosynthesis, plants and trees take in carbon dioxide from
the atmosphere; this includes carbon-14. The amount of carbon-14 present as a proportion of
the total amount of carbon will be, on average, the same in a living plant as in the atmosphere
as a whole. However, when the plant dies, it stops interacting with the atmosphere, so it
doesn’t acquire any more carbon-14. The activitity level then declines exponentially. By
measuring the residual activity, it is possible to estimate how many half-lives there have been
since the plant died, and hence how long ago it lived. Carbon-14 is particularly suitable for this
use due to: its presence in all living things the length of its half life – sufficiently short that
changes can be observed over thousands of years, but sufficiently long that there is still
significant residual activity after this period. This method assumes that the proportion of
carbon-14 in the atmosphere has stayed the same; this depends on whether the amount of
cosmic rays penetrating the atmosphere was the same.

Radioactive tracers
Radioactive tracers are used to follow the path of a compound in a system such as pipelines or
the human body. They rely on the fact that radioactive isotopes behave identically to non-
radioactive ones in physical and chemical processes. For example, a radioactive tracer can be
used to detect a leak in a pipe, since the count-rate will increase where the leak occurs as the
pipe will block and emissions. A emitter would not be suitable, since the pipe would not block
this. Isotopes used for this purpose need to have a suitable half-life, so that the count rate will
not become so low as to be almost undetectable during the course of the investigation.

Sterilization
Gamma rays can be used to sterilize medical instruments or keep food fresh for a longer period.

Radiotherapy -cancer treatment

Radiotherapy involves using gamma sources to attack cancer cells. It relies on the cancerous
cells being more affected by the radiation than the normal ones, but obviously the normal cells
are affected too, so it does produce some unpleasant side effects, like those described in the
“Dangers of radioactivity” box. Again, a short half-life is required.

Hazards from radioactive materials

Radioactive materials in the environment, whether natural or artificial, do expose people to
risks.
 This can happen in two ways:
 The radiation from the material can damage the cells of the person directly. This is damage
by irradiation.
 Some of the radioactive material can be swallowed or breathed in. While inside the body, the
radiation it emits can produce damage. This is damage by contamination.

Irradiation versus contamination

The two processes of irradiation and contamination are often confused. However they are very
different and useful in their own right.

Irradiation Contamination

Occurs when an object is exposed to a source Occurs if the radioactive source is on or in the
of radiation outside the object. object.

Doesn't cause the object to become A contaminated object will be radioactive for as
radioactive. long as the source is on or in it.

Can be blocked with suitable shielding or Once an object is contaminated, the radiation
moving away. cannot be blocked from it.

It can be very difficult to remove all of the

Stops as soon as the source is removed.
contamination.

Dangers of radioactivity

Since radiation is so easily absorbed, it is not dangerous unless the radioactive source is inside
the body. Although radiation is more penetrating, most of its energy is usually absorbed by
clothes, and it is easy to protect people further by using aluminium shielding. The greatest
danger arises from gamma radiation; although it is not strongly ionising, it can penetrate deeply
into the body.
Damage from radiation can include:
 radiation burns (like normal burns, but caused by gamma rays)
 hair loss
 damage cells and tissues
 mutations in living organisms
 damage to reproductive organs
  delayed effects such as cancer and leukemia

The level of danger depends on the amount of radiation absorbed; people likely to be exposed
to radioactive materials, such as workers in nuclear power plants, have their radiation dosage
carefully monitored to ensure it does not exceed safe levels.

The hazard represented by a particular radioisotope is therefore dependent on:

the nature of its emissions, and of the emissions of its decay products its level of activity its
half-life, since long half-life radioisotopes will continue to be highly active for a long period of
time, and hence potentially be a danger for this time.
This has implications for the disposal of nuclear waste, which includes long-half-life isotopes.
The canisters used to contain nuclear waste need to be resistant to naturally occurring
phenomena like landslides or earthquakes, since the contents would still represent a danger for
many years to come.

Nucler Fission

Larger nuclei are unstable, and some can randomly split into smaller nuclei-This is called
nuclear fission.

This process is called spontaneous which

means it is not affected by any
…………………. Like physical factors.

Energy is ………………………… during nuclear

fission.
In general larger the nucleus, the more unstable it will be-so larger nuclei are more likely to
spontaneously fission.

NUCLEAR FISSION REACTOR

In a nuclear reactor, energy released

from fission is extracted and used to
produce steam which drive turbines to
run generators which produce
electricity

The equation shown below is that for a

typical nuclear fission reaction. A U-
235 nucleus is split into a barium
nucleus, a krypton nucleus and three
fission neutrons, with the release of energy.

FUEL RODS

Uranium is a naturally-occurring metal which is mined in several parts of the world,to be used
in unclear reactors.

The fuel is contained in cylindrical, stainless steel rods which are inserted into tubes in the
reactor core. Once the uranium in a rod has been used up, it can easily be removed and
replaced

MODERATOR

The neutrons released by each fission are travelling too fast to be captured by the U-235 nuclei
and so cause further fission. They must therefore be slowed down by absorbing most of their
kinetic energy.
The moderator is a material which is incorporated into the reactor core in order to reduce
the high speeds of the fission neutrons to ‘thermal’ speeds and so enable them to cause
further fission.

CONTROL RODS

The control rods are made of neutron-absorbing materials, such as boron and cadmium and
they are used to control the number of neutrons available to cause fission. This control is
achieved by raising or lowering the control rods into the reactor core.

Lowering the rods increases the number of neutrons which are absorbed and so reduces the
reaction rate, whereas raising them has the opposite effect.

The reactor can be shut down completely by lowering the rods fully into the core.

SHIELDING AND SAFETY

The core of the reactor is contained within a steel pressure vessel which contains the highly
pressurised coolant. A 5 metre thick concrete shield surrounds the reactor and this stops
harmful radiation and neutrons from escaping and the whole system is housed in a steel and
concrete containment building which is designed to prevent the escape of any radiation even
in the extreme event of core meltdown.

Nuclear fusion
Nuclear fusion involves two atomic nuclei joining to make a large nucleus. Energy is released when this
happens.
The Sun and other stars use nuclear fusion to release energy. The sequence of nuclear fusion reactions
in a star is complex, but overall hydrogen nuclei join to form helium nuclei. Here is one nuclear fusion
reaction that takes place:
hydrogen-1 nuclei fuse with hydrogen-2 nuclei to make helium-3 nuclei
A nuclear fusion reaction showing the nuclei involved