AFTERMATH OF REFORMATION: PURITAN

AND METAPHYSICAL TRADITIONS IN

ENGLISH LITERATURE

Ankur Pal

DISSERTATION 2022

School of Education
Tripura University (A Central University) , Suryamani Nagar,
Agartala, Tripura.
 AFTERMATH OF REFORMATION: PURITAN AND
METAPHYSICAL TRADITIONS IN ENGLISH LITERATURE

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED BY

ANKUR PAL

Roll No: 1956000016

TO

School of Education

Tripura University (A Central University) , Suryamani Nagar , Agartala ,

Tripura

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE

B.A-B.ED INTEGRATED DEGREE IN ENGLISH

2022
 PREFACE

The basis for this dissertation originally stimulated from my interest in the
Protestant Reformation which was a religious reform movement that swept through
Europe, and the changes it bought to the field of English Literature. The age saw new
traditions which stimulated and emerged into the face of English Literature with
emergence of some prominent literary figures like John Milton.

As I focus on the works of 17th century pioneers like John Milton , I find an
essence of the moral and ethical purity and Biblical reference in the contents and
characters in the works. The Metaphysical and Puritan traditions are thoroughly
focused along with reference to the major works of some great literary leaders like John
Donne and Sir Thomas Browne of the respective literary age. …………………………
 DECLARATION

I , Ankur Pal , hereby declare that I had personally carried out the work depicted
in the Dissertation entitled , “Aftermath of Reformation: Puritan And Metaphysical
Traditions in English Literature”. No part of the Dissertation has been submitted for
the award for any other degree or diploma from any other institution prior to this
date.

Signature
Ankur Pal
Date:

[i]
 CERTIFICATE

Name of the guide : Sreerup Rudra Pal

Faculty , School of Education

This is to certify that , Ankur Pal in the School of Education of this Institute has
fulfilled the requirements prescribed for the B.A. B.Ed in English degree of the
School of Education , Tripura University (A Central University),
Suryamani Nagar , Agartala , Tripura. The Dissertation entitled , “Aftermath of
Reformation: Puritan And Metaphysical Traditions in English Literature” was carried
out under my direct supervision. No part of the Dissertation was submitted for the
award of any degree or diploma prior to this date.

Signature of the Guide

Date:

[ii]
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This project has been a long time in the making and would not have been
possible without the supervision and support from a number of people. First, I
want to thank my guide , Mr. Sreerup Rudra Pal for assigning me to work on
“Aftermath of Reformation: Puritan And Metaphysical Traditions in English Literature”
and also for his constant encouragement , guidance and patience in helping me
from the very beginning till the completion of the project. His generous feedback
and keen insights have helped me to have a deeper understanding of the topic
and hence helped me to complete the work with ease and a level of interest.

I express my deepest gratitude to Dr. Tinku De (Gope) , coordinator , School of

Education , Tripura University ; Dr. Subhash Sarkar , Assistant Professor , School of
Education, Tripura University ; Mr. Jantu Das , PhD Scholar , School of Education,
Tripura University for their direct and indirect guidance in working on this
project, without them this project would never have been possible.

I feel extremely lucky to be surrounded by a generous group of friends who have

played no small role in shaping the ideas in this project. In particular I would like
to thank for their offers of encouragement.

Then, there is my family without whose constant support this project would have
suffered greatly. My deepest gratitude goes to my mother , Mrs. Maya Majumder Pal,
my father, Mr. Asit Pal for their constant and genuine care , support, encouragement
and for providing me with the motivation I needed for completion of the work on
time.

I would also like to thank Central Library , Tripura University , Agartala, Tripura,
for providing me with the available sources relevant to the subject of this study.

[iii]
 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page

1.1 20
2.1 32
2.2 33
3.1 46

[iv]
 LIST OF TABLES

Table Page
1 45

[v]
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents Page
Declaration by student i
Certificate of guide ii
Acknowledgements iii
List of Figures iv
List of Tables v
Introduction 1
Literature Review 3
Materials and Methods 5
Results 6
Chapter 1 – Metaphysical Poetry
• Meaning and Background
• Characteristic Features
• Some Poets and Their Attainments 6
• Metaphysical and Elizabethan Lyrics
• Metaphysical Poets: Leaders

Chapter 2 – English Prose in the Puritan Age

• Origin and Historical Background of Puritan
Tradition
• Growth of Prose 21
• Important Prose Writers
• John Bunyan: Puritan
• Authorized Version of The Bible
Chapter 3 - Great Works and Importance of Milton
• Milton’s Importance
• The Works of Milton
• A Wonderful Fusion of Reformation Elements 34
• Characteristics of Poetry
• Milton’s Contribution
Conclusion 48

References 50

[vi]
 INTRODUCTION

Had we but world enough, and time,

This coyness, lady, were no crime

(Andrew Marvell, To His Coy Mistress)

Reformation, also called Protestant Reformation, was the religious revolution that

took place in the Western church in the 16th century. Its greatest leaders undoubtedly
were Martin Luther and John Calvin. Having far-reaching political, economic, and
social effects, the Reformation became the basis for the founding of Protestantism, one
of the three major branches of Christianity.

The Protestant Reformation was a religious reform movement that swept through

Europe in the 1500s. It resulted in the creation of a branch of Christianity
called Protestantism, a name used collectively to refer to the many religious groups
that separated from the Roman Catholic Church due to differences in doctrine.
Reformation means the movement for bringing about reforms in the Christian Church.
From the historical point of view, Reformation is a very important revolution which
led to the establishment of religions. The Reformation was a great 16th century
religious revolution in the Christian Church which had political, social and literary
effects.

The Reformation, like the Renaissance, left distinct marks on the national literature of
England. Under its impact came the Authorised Version and the Book of Common Prayer as
also a number of tracts, treatises, sermons and devotional books. But it had its impact, strong
enough, on the national life of England, too, and brought about some religious as well as
political upheaval. In fact, it fostered the trend of critical and constructive revolt in religion,
resulting in the upsurge of Puritanism. …………………………………………………....

The rise of the Puritans led to the confrontation between the King and Parliament. During the
earlier years of the reign of Charles I, a reckless authoritarian, there were quarrels and alarms,
and the actual hostility between the Royalists and the Parliamentarians, mainly Puritans,
started in 1642. There were spasmodic clashes and conflicts till the execution of Charles I by
his Parliament in 1649. ………………………………………………………………………

[1]
The end of the monarchy led to the establishment of the Commonwealth, under the authority
of Cromwell. The Puritans had the supreme command on all matters, religious as well as
literary and cultural. There was the abrupt end of the romantic tradition of the Elizabethan age
and the imposition of Puritan austerity was inevitable.

In literature the Age of Milton was the period of decline from the high Elizabethan standards
and ideals. The romantic fervour of the Elizabethan age died out and poetry became an
intellectual play of fancy. The youth, hope and vitality with which the Elizabethan literature
throbs disappeared under the impact of somber Puritan philosophy, and the literature that
followed speak of age, sadness and gloom. Specially in prose of this age, there is a matured
melancholy which one is apt to associate with advancing years.

The age saw the collapse of the drama. Many factors contributed to this. "Chief among them
were the civil disturbances and the strong opposition of the Puritans. In temper the age was
not dramatic. It is curious to note that Milton's greatest work, which in the Elizabethan age
would probably have been dramatic in form, took on the shape of the epic."

While theatre was the most public literary form of the period, poetry tended to be more
personal, more private. Indeed, it was often published for only a limited circle of readers. This
was true of Shakespeare's sonnets, as we have seen, and even more so for the Metaphysical
poets, whose works were published mostly after their deaths. John Donne and George Herbert
are the most significant of these poets.

The term 'Metaphysical' was used to describe their work by the eighteenth-century critic,
Samuel Johnson. He intended the adjective to be pejorative. He attacked the poets' lack of
feeling, their learning, and the surprising range of images and comparisons they used. Donne
and Herbert were certainly very innovative poets, but the term 'Metaphysical' is only a label,
which is now used to describe the modern impact of their writing. After three centuries of
neglect and disdain, the Metaphysical poets have come to be very highly regarded and have
been influential in recent British poetry and criticism. They used contemporary scientific
discoveries and theories, the topical debates on humanism, faith, and eternity, colloquial
speech-based rhythms, and innovative verse forms, to examine the relationship between the
individual, his God, and the universe. Their 'conceits', metaphors and images, paradoxes and
intellectual complexity make the poems a constant challenge to the reader.

Puritan literature is the result of this movement and lifestyle. Much of it is in the form
of letters and journals written by Puritans regarding their experiences. Puritan writing is
primarily made up of sermons, poetry, and historical narratives, but Puritan writers created
very little fiction.

[2]
Literature Review

[3]
Materials and Methodology

[4]
Results

[5]
 Chapter 1
METAPHYSICAL POETRY

Meaning and Background

The Concise Oxford Dictionary defines 'metaphysics' as 'theoretical philosophy of being and
knowing' and 'metaphysical as based 'on abstract general reasoning over-subtle incorporeal.
The term 'metaphysical' was applied more or less accidentally to designate a particular group
of poets. John Dryden, while writing on John Donne, mentioned the 'metaphysics'-'He affects
the metaphysics'. Dr. Samuel Johnson subsequently employed the word to attach it to a race of
writers that may be termed the metaphysical poets. Since then a group of poets, who wrote
under the influence of John Donne, has been termed as metaphysical poets.

Metaphysical poetry has, thus, come to mean a specific type of poetry, with certain
characteristic features, common to the group of poets, following Donne. Of course, it is very
often loosely defined as something fantastic, abstruse, or vague. But this is no true account,
and this poetry does not denote any queer or vague trend, but rather bears, as noted already, a
number of special features which give it distinctive merit and become the source of its
originality. In metaphysical love poetry as well as religious verses, such characteristic features
are sufficiently indicated, and they may well be illustrated with reference to some such
masters, as Donne, Vaughan, Herbert, Crashaw and Marvell. ………………………………

John Donne is generally acclaimed as the founder of the metaphysical school of poetry,
although his lumping with other metaphysical poets, who succeeded him, is hardly appropriate
chronologically. In fact, he came nearly a generation before other metaphysical poets of whom
Robert Herrick, Thomas Carew, Richard Crashaw, George Herbert, Henry Vaughan and
Andrew Marvell were prominent. Of course, those poets came in different phases, and there
was a gap of nearly fifty years between the emergence of Donne and that of Marvell.

The metaphysical poets are, thus, generally grouped together not because they lived at a
particular age, but because they seem to have some common features. Their poetry is often
characterized as fantastic, but fantastic poetry is witnessed in the works of a good many poets
who are not at all metaphysical. Indeed, the essence of metaphysical poetry is found embedded
in a number of special qualities which are seldom noticed in other poets. What stands out
prominently in them is a blend of emotional and intellectual qualities, of a sensitively alert
heart and a vigorously active mind. ……………………………………………………..

[6]
Characteristic features
As a matter of fact, metaphysical poetry does not denote any particularly fantastic trend but
bears several special features, which constitute its originality as well as popularity. The
important metaphysical poets Donne, Herbert, Vaughan, Crashaw, Carew and Marvell bear
some common trends in their thoughts and indicate some common techniques in their mode of
expression.

The first characteristic that metaphysical poetry bear is concentration. There is no elaboration,
but rather a concentration on metaphysical poetry. In fact, this has precision as one of its
singular marks. The metaphysical poet does not muse or debate upon a particular idea or point.
He rather keeps his reader confined to an idea or a line of argument. He tends to be brief, and
his poetry is always characterized by its closely concentrated ideas. This concentration-- this
concision-- marks the specialist of eminent metaphysical poets, including Donne, Vaughan,
Crashaw and Marvell. Their poetry has a stark precision. There is no attempt to indulge in
long reflections on a particular event or thing. It is finely and truly said that a good
metaphysical poem is an expanded epigram, and herein lie both the brevity and the profundity
of metaphysical poetry. The spiritual triumph over death is asserted in an extremely pithy and
precise statement by Donne-

"One short sleep past, we wake eternally ………………………………

And death shall be no more, death thou shalt die." ……………………..

The second characteristic element of metaphysical poets is found in their constant use of
conceits. A conceit invites an extraordinary comparison between the objects in which there is
more incongruity than likeness. This is like a flash made by two completely unlike stones.
Such a conceit causes a startle that forms much of the novelty of the metaphysical poetic
technique. Donne finds the total unification of the two lovers in the conceit of two
hemispheres, 'without sharp North, without declining West'. Metaphysical poetry, as evident in
Donne, Vaughan, Marvell and Crashaw, abounds in such flashes. Their poems present
comparisons which invite the mind to stay beyond the common point of resemblance and
thereby offer a pleasant shock.

The metaphysical poetry is predominantly intellectual and analytical. In it emotion or feeling

is expressed through the working of intellect. Sometimes the poet's intellect appears to
dominate his feeling to such an extent that the latter is completely lost sight of. Because of this
analytic habit the metaphysical poets preferred to use words that call intellect into play rather
than those that appeal to the senses…………………………………………………………

[7]
The pre-eminence of conceits has given an intellectual bias to metaphysical poetry. In fact,
intellectualism forms a distinct feature of metaphysical poetry. This is well perceived both in
metaphysical secular verses and in metaphysical religious poems. The intellectual aspect of
metaphysical poetry is evident not merely in the use of conceits but also in its deeply reflective
notes and pointed wit, with occasional mildly satiric strokes. Metaphysical poets are reflective
and they exhibit more intellect and less emotion. Their conceits are often the expression of the
inner psychology of the human mind. Their poetry is analytical as well as intellectual, and
here they cover a wide range of thoughts and ideas in varied moods and fashions. But the
effect is not to disinfect the emotion which is genuine but to clarify and intensify it with
intellectual arguments.

The reflective aspect of metaphysical poetry, as noted, has more characteristics. This is seen
particularly in the presence of wit in metaphysical poetry. Of course, the element of wit is
marked equally in all the metaphysical poets, although it is not absent even from
metaphysical religious verses. There smacks some delightful wit even in the sacred poems of
Donne, Herbert not and Vaughan. The sharpness of metaphysical wit is well borne out in the
concluding line of Donne's religious verse Thou hast made me …………………………….

"And thou like adamant draw my iron heart." ……………………

Again, metaphysical wit carries occasionally a slight sling of satire, expressed in a quite
diverting way. Marvell's comment, in his poem To His Coy Mistress, on the ultimate effect of
the foolish effort of the ladylove to preserve her virginity in a transitory world, is witty as
well as sharply sarcastic - …………………………………………………………………

And your quaint Honour turn to dust; ……………………………..

And into ashes all my lust. ………………………………………

Lastly, the analytical habit of the metaphysical poets is the very cause of the peculiarity of
their imagery, diction and versification. Their imagery appears often extravagant and far-
fetched. They are found to employ only those words that strike the mind with thoughts. In
fact, metaphysical poets evoke poetical moods and feelings, not with conventional phrases
and images, but rather with intellectual or commonplace matters, with geographical and
scientific facts or terms. Again, the very pattern of their rhythm is the pattern of thought,
analytical, and probing. Their rhythm, in fact, appeals through the ear to make intellect play,
and this is the conspicuous element in metaphysical poetry.

[8]
Some Metaphysical Poets and Their Attainments

John Donne

Donne is well known as the founder of the metaphysical school of English poetry. His poetical
genius is patent in whatever he wrote - in his love songs, elegies and sacred verses. His poetry
bears the originality of a true metaphysical poet, and his influence on subsequent poets is
clearly evident. He is a truly unconventional poet by the side of Elizabethan lyricists. His
poetry has, no doubt, variety- songs, sonnets and elegies - both secular and religious, but his
poetical treatment and technique are not at all conventional. The essence of metaphysical
poetry lies in its technique, and Donne's technique is new in English poetry and affects
considerably the pattern of English poetry, particularly modern English poetry.
Donne's importance in English poetry is found much enhanced by his immense influence on
twentieth-century English poetry. T.S. Eliot finds in him the just blend of emotion and
intellect which is an example of and an inspiration for the revivification of the poetic
tradition. His principal innovations in the poetic pattern-- in imagery, diction and versification
are found freely imitated by a good many poets. ……………………………………………..

Robert Herrick

Robert Herrick is a close follower of Donne, although his poetry stands far behind Donne's.
Herrick's poetic powers are best manifested in his love poems which are rich in quaint yet
graceful fancies. His religious works as also philosophical poems bear the characteristics of
the metaphysical school, although they do not exhibit any grave inner tension or grappling
between divine vocations and human weaknesses. …………………………………………

Thomas Carew

Herrick's contemporary Carew is found to bear, in large measures, Donne's influence. He is

primarily a lyric poet, and, in the matter of fine workmanship, he is not an incompetent
follower of his mighty master, Donne. There is much accomplishment, rather than depth, in
his poetry, which may be characterized as the poetry of disengagement. ……………………

George Herbert …………………………………………………

[9]
George Herbert, a notable name in metaphysical poetry, is mainly a religious poet. The
essence of his poetic creation is perceived in his unfailing devotion and piety. His poetic gifts,
as asserted by Herbert himself, are dedicated to God's glory, and his poetry is all through tied
to his deep and simple Christian faith. As a matter of fact, with the exception of a few didactic
poems, dealing with the church rituals, all his poetry is a kind of spiritual autobiography. Of
the metaphysical poets, Herbert is certainly the easiest and clearest to common readers. There
is no lashing or flailing of intellectual diversity in him. His poetry is without the twisting and
turning, so common in Donne. His works are marked with simplicity, wit and brightness. His
well-known poems are the plain, spontaneous expression of his profound Christian faith.

Henry Vaughan

Henry Vaughan, another great name in metaphysical is also a religious poet. Herbert's
influence on him is well perceived. Yet, his poetry, unlike Herbert's, is mystical, and his
poetry, conceits are all in keeping with the typical metaphysical fashion. His poetry
sufficiently testifies to his creative vigor, intellectual potency and profound piety. Vaughan's
poetic vein has a deeply rooted mystical note, but its spiritualism is intimately personal.
An interesting element in Vaughan's poetry is his spiritual vision of the world of nature. He is
found to approach, like Wordsworth, a spiritual visualization through nature and childhood
and here he is distinctly different from other metaphysical poets. He resembles Wordsworth,
in his nature mysticism, while in lyricism he surpasses most of his fellow poets.

Thomas Traherne

Thomas Traherne, like Vaughan, dwells on nature and childhood innocence and insight in his
poetry. He appears a devout Christian in his delight in God's creation as well as love and looks
upon both childhood and nature as God's delightful gifts and creations.

Richard Crashaw

Crashaw is, perhaps, a perfect exponent of metaphysical poetry, both in his secular verses and
in his religion. His conceits are more elaborate and pointed, but less precise than Donne's, and

[10]
in him is found a perfect exhibition of metaphysical outlook, imagery and technique. His
poetry bears a rare imaginative sensitivity and is drenched in colour, varied yet enchanting.
But he is found to lack Donne's range and variety. His poetry, despite metaphysical logicality,
is sensuous, both in imagery and in diction. ……………………………………….

Abraham Cowley

In Abraham Cowley is found an original master, whose lyrics are particularly graced with
thought and imagination, distributed in equal proportions. His imagery and pattern of
versification are found quite original, and in regard to the play of wit and humour, he stands
foremost among the metaphysical poets, by the side of John Donne and Andrew Marvell. His
technical mastery is well evident his interests and his poetic expertise.

Andrew Marvell

Andrew Marvell, the last great name in metaphysical poetry. is mainly a philosophical poet.
But his poetry remains admirable for its lyrical fervour and technical grace, and on this plane,
he comes closer to Donne and stands higher than Herrick, Herbert and Vaughan. As a
metaphysical poet, he is outstanding, as an intellectual poet, who plays with wit and satire with
the same ease and exhibits a rare logical structure, a sort of syllogism.

The originality of metaphysical poets is found actually not in their theme but in their way of
expressing the theme in the very pattern of their presentation. They are more intellectual and
analytical in their imagery and poetic diction and the element of sensuousness or
impulsiveness is least perceived in them. Their poetry comprises an analysis as well as a
logical co-relation of emotions. Their poetic impulse is conditioned by the pattern of thought,
rather than by the pressure of emotion. In them is found a unique power to blend the abstract
with the concrete, the remote with the near, the sublime with the commonplace, and this
constitutes, in the main, the novelty of the metaphysical style. ………………………

Dr. Johnson has not meaninglessly said that 'to write on the plan of metaphysical poets, it is at
least necessary to read and think. Knowledge and thinking, in no narrow sense, are the
cardinal constituents of metaphysical poetry. In Donne, Vaughan, Cowley, Marvell and other
metaphysical poets richly demonstrated the metaphysical gifts of knowledge and thought,
brought together and harmonized absolutely. The extent of the influence of metaphysical
poetry is well discernible in modern English poetry. The concise approach and the intellectual

[11]
bias of metaphysical poetry are found to characterize much of modern English poetry,
including Eliot's poetry. Here the significance of the metaphysical poets is not at all ignorable.

George Herbert (1593-1633)

Herbert was born as Montgomery Castle in.1593. He was educated at Westminster School
and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was appointed Fellow and Reader. He took holy
orders in 1626. In 1630 he became rector of Bemerton, near Salisbury.

None of his poems was published during his life-time. The collection of his religious poems,
The Temple: Sacred Poems and Private was published in 1633. The Temple shows his zeal
for the Church of England and his concern with practical theology. In it is to be found a
picture of the many spiritual conflicts which passed between God and Herbert's soul before he
could submit his will to the will of Jesus his master in whose service he has at last found
perfect freedom. Here we have the strong personal note as in Donne, and as a poet Herbert
was the follower of Donne. The poems in The Temple are homely, quiet and colloquial, and
touched with a quaint humour. They are often marred by metaphysical conceits. One of the
poems Prayer, for example, consists of a mere string of images in which prayer is called "the
church's banquet" "the soul in paraphrase, heart in pilgrimage", "exalted manna" and so on.
His style often recalls that of Donne. But his poetry is more musical, more simple in
expression and more precise than Donne's. It has also none of Donne's violence. Herbert's
characteristics are unaffected, serene piety, and human sympathy, leavened with humour. The
poem which best shows his spirit and his poetic gift is Vertue.

Metaphysical Lyrics and Elizabethan Lyrics ……………… ……

Lyricism is found preponderant in English poetry. Elizabethan poetry, in particular, is rich in

lyrical gifts as manifested in sonnets, songs, elegies and other specific forms.

The lyric proper is a kind of personal poetry. It contains the poet's intensely intimate
[12]
experiences, feelings and ideas. This is the keynote of the conspicuous lyrical poems of the
great Elizabethan masters, such as Shakespeare, Spenser, Sidney, Surrey, Daniel and many
others.
This lyrical note is heard no less intense in metaphysical poetry. Eminent metaphysical poets,
like Donne, Vaughan, Cowley and Marvell, have demonstrated their poetic efficiency in
lyrical poems, secular as well as sacred. ……………………………………………………..

Love forms the central point in Elizabethan as well as metaphysical lyrics. The Elizabethan
sonnets, which comprise the bulk of Elizabethan lyrical poetry, are all on love. Of course,
Shakespeare's sonnets mainly register a distinct departure. A good many of them- one
hundred and twenty-six sonnets -- is addressed to a male friend of rather an uncertain identity.

Metaphysical lyrics are also on the familiar subject of love, as evident in Donne and Marvell
particularly. Of course, their approach to and treatment of the conventional theme of love is
definitely unconventional and differ from the mighty Elizabethans'. ………………………

Again, metaphysical lyrics, like Elizabethan, are not all related to sex love. Donne's lyrics, as
noticed specifically in his Holy Sonnets and Divine Poems, have sacred themes and divine
communications. From the thematic aspect, there is not any significant difference between a
typical Elizabethan lyric and a typical metaphysical lyric. As a matter of fact, the difference
between these two types of lyrics actually lies not in their matter, but in their manner of
presentation, not in their theme, but in their very technique of treatment and expression. In
tone, imagery and versification, this is distinctly discernible. ………………………………..

Elizabethan lyrics are primarily impulsive. Emotion runs all through them and animates them
with a specific mood of joy and hope or wrath and despair. Metaphysical lyrics, too, have an
emotional bearing. After all, lyricism repose impulsiveness. Yet, metaphysical poets are less
impulsive than their Elizabethan predecessors. Donne and Marvell are definitely not as
impulsive and overflowing as Spenser or Shakespeare. ……………………………………..

In fact, in metaphysical lyrics, emotion and intellect are found perfectly balanced and
intermingled. Intellectualism goes close to impulsiveness and even controls it in metaphysical
poetry. An emotive element is treated intellectually in metaphysical poetry, and this is where
it differs from Elizabethan poetry. This difference is well witnessed in metaphysical conceits
as well as images. The logical method of syllogism, a form of reasoning to deduce a
particular conclusion, is well marked in Marvell. Such a logical treatment of a matter of
feeling or emotion is quite unknown in the Elizabethan lyric, where the poet speaks out
emotionally. Whereas the Elizabethan lyric is emotionally inspired, the metaphysical lyric is
steered by rationality and logicality.
……………………………………………………………………..

[13]
There are, however, other potential differences between these two types of lyrics. In
Elizabethan lyrics, analogies and images are conventional and natural to the poetical world.
But metaphysical lyrics have hardly conventional analogies or images. These are rather rare,
extraordinary and even unpoetical. ………………………………………………………….

Lastly, in rhythmic beats, the two types of lyrics differ immensely. In Elizabethan lyrics,
music and rhyme are often overflows with powerful emotion, but in metaphysical lyrics, as
evident in characteristic works of Donne or Marvell, there is much restraint in rhyme and the
pattern of music is intellectual rather than emotional. All this bears out decisively the
intellectual restraint of the metaphysical lyric as opposed to the emotional exuberance of the
Elizabethan.

METAPHYSICAL POETS: LEADERS

The leading metaphysical poets include Donne, Herbert, Vaughan and Marvell. Their poetical
characteristics are briefly assessed below. …………………………………………………

(i)John Donne ……………………………………………………….

The name of John Donne, although not much celebrated in his own days, has become quite an
important one in English poetry in recent times. Today he is well-known as the founder of the
Metaphysical school of English poetry. He is recognized now as a brilliant wit and serious
intellectualist. His poetry has a variety- secular as well as religious- sonnets, songs and
elegies-and is read with a good deal of interest by a modern lover of English poetry, in its
dramatic as well as subjective aspects. ……………………………………………………….

Donne belonged actually to the Elizabethan age. Many of his readers, however, seem
unwilling to associate him with Elizabethan literature and prefer to take him primarily as a
seventeenth-century poet. But, as Ben Jonson observed, Donne wrote 'all his best pieces'
before he was twenty-five, and, thus, before the end of the sixteenth century. This attitude of
Donne's readers is, however, quite natural, and not at all difficult to understand. In fact,
Donne's metaphysical style, with its geographical and scientific analogies, allusions and
insistently dialectical manner of expression, appears almost completely at odds with the
emotive approach, the richly evocative language and the imaginative dazzle, so profusely
found in Spenser, Sidney, Marlowe and Shakespeare, the great Elizabethans.

In fact, the poet in Donne is called a revolutionary. Indeed, he is a revolutionary for his age.
None, except Shakespeare among the great Elizabethans, has enriched the domain of poetry
with his profound reflections. Donne introduced thought in the fanciful, romantic world of
Spenser, Sidney and Shakespeare. He revolted against the conventional conceptions of the

[14]
poets of his age. In his love poems as well as religious poems, he steered a new path and gave
out novelty both in his theme and in his technique. …………………………………………

Donne's secular verses, no doubt, treat the conventional theme of love. But his approach to
and treatment of this conventional theme is somewhat exceptional and diverting. He is
definitely subjective, but there is also much that is dramatic in him. His poetry expresses his
personal experience as well as dramatic detachment. The varied moods of love, from the most
idealistic to the most grossly cynical, are expressed wonderfully to him, with an intense
personal attachment as also with an interesting dramatic detachment. His poetry bears out a
strange assortment of diverse moods, as given out in diverse themes and feelings. At the same
time, the unity of his total experience is nowhere missed. In the poem, The Good-Morrow, his
declaration of attachment to his love is emphatic, not least swayed by the diversity of his
moods and experiences: ………………………………………………………………………..

"If ever any beauty I did see,

which I desired, and got, 'twas but a dream of thee."

There is also seen in his love poetry a successful fusion of the flash of wit and the depth of
love as in the poem The Sunne Rising -

"She is all States, and all Princes, I,

Nothing else is."

There is nothing of the monotony of conventional love poetry in Donne. His variety of
treatment has made his love poetry diverting and deep. Again, Donne is found a revolutionary
in his treatment of the devotional theme, too. The other poets of his time are found to have
laid a great emphasis on the sharp distinction between secular and religious themes. But in
Donne is assimilated a display of a common feeling, with a common interest in secular and
sacred verses. His cry to God is in the accent of earthly love -

"Take mee to you, imprison mee, for I

Except you, enthrall mee, never shall be free,
Nor ever chast, except you ravish me."

The theme is religious, but the poet's mode of approach has the touch of secular sensuousness.

In fact, in his religious poetry, Donne's feeling toward God is akin to his feeling toward the
earthly beloved. As in his secular poetry, emotion and intellect are found to harmonies and
work together in his sacred verses as a sort of stimulant.

Donne's poetry is also revolutionary in its technique. His contemporaries followed a

conventional way of describing love and feelings. But, with Donne, came an intellectual

[15]
fervour in the poetic world of the Elizabethans. None before him could dare to frame and
express amorous feelings by means of logical reasoning and witty imagery. None before him
could dare compare the parted lovers to the legs of a compass. None before him could bring
geographical facts in the field of love. None before him could express the feelings of love in
such a manner- ……………………………………………………………………………….

"This flea is you and I, and this

Our marriage bed and marriage temple is."

Donne's technique is really revolutionary for his age. His poetic pattern seems to rest on
thought, rather than on passion. The framework of his poetry is logical and intellectual, rather
than fanciful or emotional. The easy or emotionally exciting rhythms of the Elizabethans are
hardly found in Donne's poetry. His phrasing and conceits are bold and seldom found
excelled by t any other poet. Donne's chief works include The Pseudo Martyr, The Progress
of the Soul, An Anatomy of the World, etc., and they all well serve the range as well as the
diversity of his poetry.
……………………………………………………………………………..

(ii) Henry Vaughan

The name Vaughan occupies a prominent position in English metaphysical poetry. He started
his poetic career by writing amorous verses, but, about 1650, a long and dangerous illness
deepened his religious conviction. A deeply religious fervour thereafter appeared in his
poetry. He was drawn to the contemplation of the mysteries of nature, of life and death, and
of eternity.

Vaughan's poetic reputation mainly lies not in his secular verses, but in his sacred ones. As a
religious poet of the seventeenth century, he is placed just below Donne and, along with
Herbert, whom he had taken as his poetical preceptor. Both Donne and Herbert are found to
have influenced his poetry.

The religious poet in Vaughan is essentially a mystic. His mysticism is noted in his
conception of God and heaven and of man's relation with Him. His poetical intuition is found,
like Herbert's, absorbed in constructing a relationship between divine power and human
nature, between the eternal and the temporal. His poetry contains a sudden illumination, a
glimpse of eternity. In this respect, he may be taken as a forerunner of Francis Thompson, as
a spiritual mystic. ……………………………………………………………………………..

This note of mysticism is found continued in Vaughan's treatment of nature. In his mystical
mood, nature reveals herself, not as a museum of spiritual analogies, a garden of religious
simples, but, as a creature, simpler than man, yet in virtue of its simplicity and innocence, in
closer harmony with God. His poetry recognizes a distinct kinship between nature and God
[16]
and represents the revelation of His grace and will in its beauty and variety. Here, again, he
may be taken also as an early forerunner of the Romantic Movement in the nineteenth
century.

The same mystical mood is found prevalent in Vaughan's approach to childhood. In his
conception, as in Wordsworth's, childhood is in perfect harmony with eternity. The child
perceives and bears the glory of heaven. In this respect, Vaughan's The Retreat is a fine
example. The poet claims here unequivocally the celestial vision of childhood days -

When yet I had not walkt above.

A mile, or two, from my first love.
And looking back
Could see a glimpse of his bright face;

Indeed, Vaughan's treatment of nature and childhood instantly reminds one of Blake and
Wordsworth. It brings out his imaginative and mystical vision like those great romanticists.
The poet in Vaughan is no less a visionary, a romantic visionary, so to say.

Vaughan is essential in lyrical. His own spiritual experience and intensity of feeling are
echoed in his verses. In impulsiveness and imaginative range, even in his spiritual themes, he
bears much of the spirit of the romantic poets of the nineteenth century.

Vaughan's poetry is metaphysical, both in its fervour and in its frame. His indebtedness to
Donne is remarkable in this respect. His conceits and imagery belong essentially to
metaphysical poetry and bespeak particularly the influence of Donne. The conceit, that serves
to indicate the likeness between two utterly unlike elements, is a remarkable presence in
Vaughan's poetry, as in Donne's. ……………………………………………………………..

But the poet, whose influence is most potent on Vaughan, is George Herbert. Vaughan's
religious poetry bears a close analogy to Herbert's. In fact, Herbert's influence is remarkably
traceable in him. He is found to remanded Herbert's theme, borrow his phrases, and copy his
metrical structure. …………………………………………………………………………...

Of course, it is not proper to label Vaughan as a mere Imitator of Donne and Herbert. His
poetry is not bereft of the originality of a good poet. His imagery as well as rhythm cannot be
dismissed as simply imitative. His theme has certainly nothing new in comparison with the
religious poetry of the seventeenth century. But his mode of presentation and treatment of
materials is not without some daring originality. His poetry certainly lacks Donne's vigour
and variety. It does not bear, too, Herbert's sobriety and completeness. Nevertheless, it has its
own qualities-emotion, imagination and music. Vaughan's poetry is animated with a lyrical
fire which the poetry of his masters scarcely possesses. Again, Vaughan's imaginative height
often excels the usual imaginative resources of metaphysical poetry. ………………………..

[17]
Vaughan has a gift of music, which is missed often in Herbert and even in Donne. This
music, no doubt restrained, is enlivened with spontaneity and grace. With his imagery and
rhythm, he offers a variety that is strikingly novel and thoroughly metaphysical and makes his
poetry impressive even to the readers who have the least of his faith and nothing of sympathy
for his age. His important works include Siles Scintillans, Sacred Poems and Private
Ejaculations, Olor Iscanus, etc. ………………………………………………………………

(iii) Andrew Marvell

In Andrew Marvell is found a poet of an age of transition, whose conspicuous gifts have
secured him a place next to Milton among the poets of his age. His poetry bears out his
Puritan patriotism, broad humanism, metaphysical wit and commendable technique, with the
novelty of the syllogistic structure in poetry. …………………………………………………
Andrew Marvell is usually classed with the metaphysical poets, although the lyrical element
of the Elizabethans is notably marked in him. He is certainly one of the most successful
lyricists, who flourished in the middle of the 17th century. Marvell's great lyrics can be
ranked with the best works of his contemporaries and bear fully the varied characteristics of
lyrical poetry. In poems, like The Garden, his lyrical appreciation of natural beauty reaches
the height of excellence. The poet seems to throw himself into the very soul of the garden
with the imaginative splendour of Shelley, as seen in Ode to the West Wind. At the same
time, his poem is as meaningful, as Shelley's, although this is much more restrained in
impulsiveness and much more intellectual in approach. The moral, derived by him from the
quiet bosom of nature, is as deep as found in Wordsworth.

"Society is all but rude,

To this delicious solitude." (The Garden)

As a poet, Marvell is as much versatile as Donne. He is, of course, no religious poet, like him
or his followers Herbert and Vaughan. He is chiefly a secular poet, with highly poetic
speculations on diverse matters of interest. But, like Donne, he is no less prominent, as a love
poet, and among the metaphysical love poets, his place is very close to Donne's. Two of his
love poems, The Definition of Love and To His Coy Mistress, reveal the marvel of his poetic
treatment of love, which is as original as Donne's. The poet proceeds to construct a sort of
syllogism, a form of reasoning, in which the conclusion is deduced from different
propositions. It is not the outburst of any passion, but the play of intellect that determines the
strength of his love poetry. ………………………………………………………………..

Marvell possesses the characteristic features of a great poet. His poetry has both imaginative
excellence and emotional profundity, both lofty thoughts and melodious. versification, both
majestic utterances and intellectual restraint. He may not be claimed as an equal to his great
contemporary Milton. But he comes very close to him in his pregnant and scholarly
expressions and majestic style. Moreover, his poetry has an element of wit and subtlety,

[18]
which is absent in Miltonic verses. He is also the just descendant of Donne as a metaphysical
poet and displays, like him, a rare- combination of wit and seriousness, poetry and intellect.
Some of Marvell's remarkable poems include Horatian Ode upon Cromwell's Return from
Ireland, The Garden, Dialogue Between the Soul and the Body Bermudas, The Definition of
Love, On a Drop of Dew, Eyes and Tears, To His Coy Mistress and a good many other lyrics.
What is, however, to be noted is that all his poems clearly bear out that Marvel is a true poet
who does not conform to any tradition but remains unmistakably new and individual.

[19]
Figure 1.1: The poet Abraham Cowley, in whose biography Samuel Johnson first named and
described Metaphysical poetry, by Sir Peter Lely Created: between circa 1666 and circa
1667 

[20]
 Chapter 2

ENGLISH PROSE IN THE PURITAN AGE

Origin and Historical Background of Puritan Tradition:

The Puritans were English Protestants in the 16th and 17th centuries who sought to purify
the Church of England of Roman Catholic practices, maintaining that the Church of England
had not been fully reformed and should become more Protestant. Puritanism played a
significant role in English history.

Puritans were dissatisfied with the limited extent of the English Reformation and with the
Church of England's toleration of certain practices associated with the Roman Catholic
Church. They formed and identified with various religious groups advocating greater purity
of worship and doctrine. In church polity, some advocated separation from all other
established Christian denominations in favour of autonomous gathered churches.
These Separatist and independent strands of Puritanism became prominent in the 1640s, when
the supporters of a Presbyterian polity in the Westminster Assembly were unable to forge a
new English national church.

By the late 1630s, Puritans were in alliance with the growing commercial world, with the
parliamentary opposition to the royal prerogative, and with the Scottish Presbyterians with
whom they had much in common. Consequently, they became a major political force in
England and came to power as a result of the First English Civil War (1642–1646). Almost all
Puritan clergy left the Church of England after the restoration of the monarchy in 1660 and
the 1662 Uniformity Act. Many continued to practice their faith
in nonconformist denominations, especially in Congregationalist and Presbyterian churches.
The nature of the movement in England changed radically, although it retained its character
for a much longer period in New England.

The Puritan age is named after the rise of the Puritan movement in England in the 17th
century. Puritans were a group of English speaking Protestants who were dissatisfied with the
religious reformation movement carried out during the reign of Queen Elizabeth. They
wanted a complete purification of Church of England and removal of practices such as
hierarchical leadership, clerical vestments and various rituals of the church, which were
associated with Rome. They stood for what they believed was pure Christianity (hence, the
name Puritan). The Puritans emerged as a strong political force during the English Civil War
(1642-1651). The English Civil war was a series of conflicts between Charles I and his

[21]
supporters called the Cavaliers on the one hand and the Parliamentarians or the Roundheads
on the other hand. The Roundheads mainly comprised the Puritan middle classes. The war
ended in 1651 with the victory of the Parliamentarians. Charles I was executed while his son,
Charles II fled to France. Any hopes of monarchy were demolished and the monarchical rule
was replaced first with Commonwealth of England (1649 – 53) and then with a Protectorate
(1653-59), under Oliver Cromwell’s personal rule. The establishment of a Protectorate under
Cromwell was a victory for the Puritans. The Puritans remained in ascendancy till 1660,
when Charles II was restored to the throne. Though, the Puritans as a group are often
denounced as narrow-minded and repressive, yet in reality they also aimed for religious and
civil liberty. According to WH Hudson, The Puritans ‘had strict rules regarding life and
conduct’ and ‘an uncompromising spirit’, which sought to ‘confine literature within the
circumscribed field of its own particular interests’. …………………………………………

Growth of Prose
English prose, despite its late, loose and unimpressive beginning, with the Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle, found a happy impetus under the leadership of the great English King Alfred. The
foundation, laid firmly by him, appears to have been much strengthened by the prose writers
of subsequent times. The history of English prose literature marks a steady development in
the fifteenth century and in the sixteenth century and reaches its height of excellence in the
Jacobean period. ……………………………………………………………………………..

Of course, the prose literature of the Jacobean period has a distinctive and original character.
It has nothing of the narrative romances of the Elizabethan. It contains no lighter element in,
any form in its matter or manner, and is quite serious, grave and dignified. It is rich in ideas
as well as ideas, both political and religious, and presents, too, their conflict. It is analytical,
argumentative and rather didactic. It is inspired by scholasticism, intellectualism and
humanism. At the same time, this prose literature marks vigour in outlook, variety in contents
and vivid in description.

"The characteristic prose of the mid-seventeenth century is nearer the romantic eccentricity
and extreme individuality of the poetry of Donne and his school than to the classic precision
of Jonson. It is extremely loose in structure, over-colored, elaborate wayward. In subject-
matter the prose represents the self-consciousness and personal interest of the time. It prose
was a period of autobiography, personal essay, biography, and history." ……………………
……………………………………………………………………

[22]
IMPORTANT PROSE WRITERS OF THE AGE

(I) Sir Thomas Browne

Among the prose writers of the period, Sir Thomas Browne is, perhaps, the first notable
name. He was a physician by profession and theologian by temperament. He was a great
scholar and studied science and natural phenomena with great care and diligence. Although
he was well versed in science, and. had specifically an aptitude for natural sciences; he did
never set aside the popular matters of interest of his age. He had a taste for miracles and a
bright sense of humour. …………………………………………………………………….

Among the great masters of English prose, Thomas Browne is. a well-celebrated name. He is
noted particularly for his two great works Religio Medici and Urn Burial. Religio Medici,
meaning the religion of a physician, is a highly original work. It treats religious faith, without
any religious bias, and remains singular in its queer mixture of religious devotion and
scientific skepticism. Browne's other work Urn Burial, considered commonly to be his
masterpiece, and contains his reflections on human vanity and mortality. The entire
conception of the work suggested by the discovery of certain Roman burial urns at
Walsingham, is quite novel. Browne's other works include The Garden Cyrus, a quite
enjoyable treatise on the quincunx, Vulgar Errors, an intellectual probe into popular
superstition, and Christian Morals, a didactic work on Christian morality.

Browne's subjects are quite serious-- philosophical as well as theological-- but his treatment
nowhere appears to be dry and colourless. The artist in him is found superior to the thinker in
him. The writer in him possesses an admirable prose style which is, no doubt, ornate but has
the cadence of poetry in it. In the making of a felicitous style in English prose, his role is,
indeed, immensely significant. ………………………………………………………………..

Vulgar Errors, the usual name for Pseudodoxia Epidemica appeared in 1646, It is Browne's
longest work. Browne first analyses the causes of popular beliefs and superstitions attributing
them to the common infirmity of human nature and the inclination of mankind to error, to
false deductions, to credulity and to the endeavours of Satan. He then deals with a vast
number of legends, beliefs and superstitions; for example, that crystal is nothing else but ice
strongly congealed; that a diamond is softened or broken by the blood of a goat; that an
elephant has no joints; that a man salutes after sneezing etc. He discusses these legends and
beliefs, scientific and otherwise, with a pleasant irony and quaint fancy.

[23]
Urn Burial (Hydriotaphia), considered to be Browne's best work was published in 1658. It is
a short piece suggested by the discovery of some ancient Roman funeral urns buried in the
neighborhood of Norwich. It began as an enquiry into the various methods of disposal of the
dead recorded in history and practiced in Britain; but in ends in a dissertation on the vanity of
earthly hope and ambitions, specially the hope of survival in memory, which Browne calls a
mad hope. The tone is meditative and mystical and the style from the first words to the last,
reaches the highest level of rhetorical prose. In this treatise Browne sometimes recalls
Montaigne by his confessions, sometimes foreshadows Pascal by the greatness of his cosmic
visions.

He gives free rein in The Garden of Cyrus which is a fantastic learned treatise on the mystic
imports of the quincunx and the number five. His last work Christian Morals was published
after his death.

Browne mirrors the temper of men of his time. In him we see how far the temper of men had
departed from the Elizabethan zest of life, from the Renaissance delight in the stir and bustle
of human activity. "Methinks", he says, "I begin to be weary of the sun...... The world to me is
but a dream and mock-show, and we all therein are but pantaloons and antics." He represents
the weariness that seized the mind of man of his time.

Of all the men of his time Browne is the only one of whom we can say for certain that he held
the manner of saying a thing more important that the thing said. He is the first English
deliberate and conscious stylist, the forerunner of Charles Lamb, of Stevenson and of the
stylistic school of the 1890s and 1900s. Moreover, he shows the ornate style of the time in its
richest bloom. His diction is Latinized so much so that it sometimes borders on obscurity. He
has the scholastic habit-so characteristic of his time of introducing Latin tags and references.
His diction resembles Burton's. Unlike Burton's however, his sentences are carefully knit and
artistically combined into paragraphs. His diction has a richness of effect hitherto unknown in
the history of English prose.

(II) Jeremy Taylor

Jeremy Taylor's name needs to be mentioned just after Browne's. He was an Anglican
preacher, opposed to Puritanism, and expounded ardently the Royalist cause. He was even
imprisoned for a time by the Parliamentary party. …………………………………………..

Taylor was an eloquent preacher, and eloquence is what marks his racy and lucid prose style.
He is best remembered for his Holy Living and Holy Dying, which constitutes an essential
part of English religious literature. His earlier work The Liberty of Prophesying, conceived on

[24]
a noble line, is a fine plea for tolerance in religion. Taylor's Collection of Sermons, rich in
splendour and passion, has won him a high position among the English pulpit authors.

Jeremy Taylor is finely characterized as a poetic prose author, with a delicate sensibility and a
rich imagination. His diction is felicitous and forceful, with stately and sonorous sentences.
He has rightly attributed a lofty position among the makers and masters of English prose.

In the eighteenth century he was dubbed "the Shakespeare of divines" and in the nineteenth
Lamb, Coleridge and Hazlitt ranked his genius very high, with the result that he has since
been overrated and underread. "His style is not always great or even easily readable, though
always clear; but when he is deeply moved his mighty sentences unroll themselves like a
work of nature- like a sunrise or the incoming of a tide." His writings are full of quotations
and allusions and figures of speech such as simile, exclamation and apostrophe. His sentences
are long but stately and sometimes pleasing.

(III) Thomas Fuller

Among the pulpit authors of the age may be mentioned Thomas Fuller, known specifically for
his historical works on religion. His The History of the Holy War deals with the Crusades,
while The Church History of Britain traces the history of Christianity in England. The Holy
State and the Profane is another notable work. It is chiefly a record of different. historical
examples relating to Christianity. The work is didactic, emphasizing what examples are to be
followed and what, are to be avoided. Fuller's most popular work is The Worthies of England,
published posthumously, and contains a felicitous account of the important men of England.
His pamphlets include Good Thoughts in Bad Times and An Alarm to the Counties of
England and Wales. …………………………………………………………………………..

Fuller's style is racy and impressive. His historical details are made interesting and lively by
the introduction of numerous anecdotes and illustrations and his sense of humour. Fuller, in
fact, nowhere appears dull even in his hard treatises. ………………………………………….

(IV) Richard Baxter

Richard Baxter is another religious author of the age. He was a Puritan who worked for his
cause and remained thoroughly busy in his preaching to common people. His two most
famous works are The Saints' Everlasting Rest and A Call to the Unconverted. His style is not
rich like Taylor's but has a straight appeal to common readers. At his age, he was one of the
most widely read authors. …………………………………………………………………

[25]
(V) John Milton
But John Milton, the famous epic poet, is, perhaps, the most stirring literary figure in the
English prose of the Puritan age. He is not merely a great poet, but also a mighty maker of
English prose. ………………………………………………………………………………..

Milton's most celebrated prose work is Areopagitica, published in 1644. The work is a clarion
call for the liberty of the press by one who remained ever a great defender of liberty,
religious, political, or civil. The work is cast in the form of an address to Parliament for the
liberty of unlicensed printing. Milton's passion for liberty is deep and warm, and rings.
Powerfully in his demand- "Give me the liberty to know and to argue freely according to my
conscience, above all liberties." This is really a monumental specimen of rich, impulsive
English prose. …………………………………………………………………………………

A word must be said in this connection about prose style of Milton. Areopagitica is enlivened
with a flowing and poetic style and possesses all those qualities which give distinctions to his
poetry. Milton remains a master of English prose, and his significance in English literature is
truly great in this respect. …………………………………………………………………….
Of course, Milton has other prose works, including some thought-provoking tracts.

(VI) John Bunyan

In the prose literature of the seventeenth century, Bunyan is another notable name. Of course,
from a chronological standpoint, he belongs to the Restoration, but he is essentially a Puritan
prose writer. He is, however, a great master, and, in the manner of Bacon, he is found to give
racy, forceful and argumentative prose. ……………………………………………………

The most remarkable work in English prose, after the Restoration, was certainly Bunyan's
'The Pilgrim's Progress'. Though written in the days of the license of Charles's court, the book
had a tremendous appeal to the people by its religious ideal and moral tone. The Pilgrim's
Progress allegorizes the journey of a truly Christian soul through the worldly obstacles of life.
The progress of the pilgrim symbolizes the onward journey of the soul to perfection.

The Pilgrim's Progress bears the germs of the novel, although it is not a real novel. The
significance of the work lies in the presentation of a simple tale, with a serious design, to
propagate a highly spiritual moral. Moreover, the work is a fine instance of Bunyan's
command over a simple, racy and vigorous prose style. …………………………………….

[26]
Bunyan was a prolific prose writer. Besides his masterpiece, The Pilgrim's Progress, he wrote
several other works-- The Holy War, The Life and Death of Mr. Badman, Grace Abounding,
etc.
Bunyan is claimed as the greatest English prose writer of the seventeenth century. This is no
exaggerated honour. In his writing is found almost the Shakespearean artistry combined. wit
with serious subjects. His phrases have a happy knack and his imagination is rich, indeed.
Along with Milton, he constitutes the chief literary glory of the Puritan age. Milton is the
author of the singular modern epics, while Bunyan gives a great modern allegory.

The history of the prose literature of the age is rich in variety. Different literary forms are
found in this respect. There is the famous work of Edward Hyde, Earl of Clarendon, on. the
political history of the time, entitled The History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England.
The work, which had been started in 1646, could be published only in 1704. In its vigorous
narratives and wonderful character sketches, it has remained one of the most important
English works of a historical nature. ……………………………………………………….

(VII)Robert Burton
Robert Burton was the son of a country gentleman. He was educated at Oxford where he
spent almost all his life. He seems to have lived entirely among books, devouring and
abstracting from Greek, Roman and modern writers. …………………………………….

Burton is famous chiefly as the author of the Anatomy of Melancholy, one of the most
astonishing books in all literature, which appeared in 1621. Into this book, he gathered the
out-of-the-way learning and the dreamy speculation of fifty years of recluse life he lived at
Oxford. It is divided into three 'partitions'. The first 'partition' deals with the definition,
causes, and symptoms of melancholy; the second with its cure; and the third with the
definition, symptoms, and cure of the melancholy of love and the melancholy of religion.

The treatment of the theme is marked by a sense of humour and pathos and a spirit of
religious tolerance. In the exposition and illustration of his argument, Burton uses quotation
to an extreme degree, drawing on a very wide field of literature, from the Bible and Greek and
Latin classics to Elizabethan literature. Anatomy thus becomes a storehouse of the most
miscellaneous learning. The third and last partition on love melancholy and religious
melancholy is, indeed, a digest of the best stories in the world, from the Alexandrian Greek
romancers to the works of such moderns as Spenser, Marlowe, Jonson and Shakespeare. If all
the Elizabethan literature were lost, it would be possible to put together a fairly good account
of the chief writers from Burton's quotations and allusions.¹ The Anatomy has become a
haunting ground for writers on the lookout for plots. …………………………………………..

[27]
Through a hodgepodge of quotations and references, The Anatomy of Melancholy has
exercised a strong fascination over many scholarly minds including those of Dr. Jonson and
Charles Lamb. The style is discursive; the sentences are long-winded and involved. But it is
free from that windy vagueness belonging to many of his predecessors and contemporaries.
William Osler described it as "the greatest medical treatise written by a layman."

(VIII) Izaak Walton (1593-1683)

No figure in the literature of the Caroline period is more endearing than Izaak Walton who is
still the most popular. This ever-enduring popularity is due to his book, The Complete Angler
which appeared in 1653. The book is ostensibly designed for the instruction of fishermen; but
it has been long popular with countless readers who care nothing for fishing on account of its
pleasant gossipy style, its simple painting of an English countryside, its meadows and
streams, its clean inns where the fare is excellent. "The book is good-humoured as a holiday
in the open air." It is in the form of a dialogue between an angler and a hunter. The latter
becomes the former's disciple and learns the fishing craft by the easy method of hearing the
angler.

In the history of English literature Izaac deserves more note as the first literary biographer in
his Lives of Donne, Wotton, Hooker, George Herbert and Bishop Sanderson, which appeared
between 1640 and 1678. He is at his best in portraying Herbert and Hooker; but he is not so
successful in portraying Donne whose depth of passion he could not plumb.

Other Prose Writers ……………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………
Materialistic writings-works on sociology and politics are also found to develop in the age.
Thomas Hobbes and John Locke are well remembered for their remarkable social and
political studies. Hobbes's chief work Leviathan expounds his political theory, with ardour
and arguments. Locke's An Essay Concerning Human Understanding is an interesting
intellectual work. ……………………………………………………………………………

Owen Felltham's Resolves, contains short miscellaneous essays and James Howell's Familiar
Letters may be referred to in this connection.

[28]
  JOHN BUNYAN

The restoration of the monarchy in England in 1660 brought about much humiliation and
suffering, including imprisonment, for the austere Puritans who had been consistently
opposed to the royalist regime. Yet, it was against the triumph of the monarchial authority
that some authentic Puritan litterateurs: shone. John Bunyan, along with John Milton, was one
of such Puritan men of letters, who had to bear immense oppression, after the restoration of
kingship.

In fact, Bunyan was much more unfortunate than Milton. The latter was fortunate enough to
remain out of the prison bars, but Bunyan suffered imprisonment on two occasions for his
Puritan zeal in the reign of Charles II. But, like Milton's, his literary talent came out in
adversity, and he remains today a well-remembered name in the history of English prose,
although he does not enjoy the eminence of his illustrious literary contemporary. It was
during the hard days of his imprisonment and persecution that Bunyan devoted himself
ardently to literature, and could produce some literary works of outstanding originality and
lasting fame. ………………………………………………………………………………..

During the first spell of his imprisonment, from 1660 to 1672, Bunyan wrote his first great
work Grace Abounding, a kind of his own autobiography. Here he is found to set forth his
own religious experience and conviction. The work signifies his conversion to the truly
Puritan faith as well as his Christian piety. …………………………………………………….

The Pilgrim's Progress

It was during the second spell of his imprisonment, of course for a much shorter period, that
Bunyan produced his memorable work The Pilgrim's Progress (in 1678). This is a sort of
allegory in which he traces a Christian's arduous pilgrimage from the City of Destruction to
the Celestial City. The implication is the journey that a devout Christian is to undergo to pass
from the mortal world of dangers, temptations, weaknesses, sins and sufferings, to realise the
perpetual bliss of Heaven. Such a journey is naturally associated with hard experiences and
bitter shocks. Bunyan presents the journey, in an allegorical way, through the Slough of
Despair, the Valley of Humiliation, the Valley of the Shadow of Death and the Vanity Fair.
All these places are used symbolically to indicate certain sufferings and temptations in the life
of a pious Christian. As a matter of fact, Bunyan presents here, allegorically the progress of a
Christian soul, with its aspirations, its struggles, its despondencies and its recoveries, along
the path of life. This pilgrim's progress is eventually accomplished with the aid of nobler
forces and the strength of character and Christian piety. ………………………………

[29]
Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress is truly a great endeavour. It is a sort of religious literature
itself. Written in an extremely simple and straightforward manner, it remains a handbook for
all devout Christians. The work is also taken as a form of the novel and may be characterised,
in that light, as an allegorical novel. Of course, the essential features of a true novel may not
all be traced in The Pilgrim's Progress. But it contains much of the force of narration, the
dramatic exposition and the psychological introspection that a good novel is found to possess.
What is more, Bunyan has a telling style, simple yet sober, that impresses as well as instructs.

Other Works ………………………………………………………..

Bunyan's other remarkable works include The Life and Death of Mr Badman (1680) and The
Holy Wars (1682). These works, too, are much better than other contemporary writings, well
bear out the author's deeply Christian conviction and genuinely Puritan enthusiasm. In the
former work, The Life and Death of Mr Badman, Bunyan gives out, in the form of a dialogue
between Mr Wiseman and Mr Attentive, a good deal of plain preaching, with incidental
anecdotes. There are much variety, fictional attraction and dramatic novelty in the writing,
yet, above all this, the Puritan tone is strikingly heard. …………………………………..

Significance and contribution

Bunyan, as a man of literature, is not a grand figure, but a sound one. The works, he
produced, have not certainly grandeur or splendour, but they are all sufficiently purposive,
convincing and impressive. This is where his literary activity has both soundness and depth.

In fact, Bunyan's contribution to English literature is discerned in more than one way. It is to
him that simple, devotional prose literature in English owes its origin. Again, among the
makers of allegorical literature in English, his position is surely very high. Although
Langland's influence may be readily traced to him, he is found much simpler and more
convincing than his great preceptor in the allegorical treatment of divine subjects.

Lastly, Bunyan's prose is simple, pointed, yet picturesque and free from all sorts of
scholasticism and ornamentation, with which religious literature is found often burdened.
Biblical faith and homiletic fervour go with colloquial sturdiness in his writing, and, as a
result, his style is at once vital, vigorous, yet plain and effective, equally in narratives and in
dialogue. Indeed, Bunyan has a secure place among the makers of a strong and simple prose
style in English.

THE AUTHORIZED VERSION OF THE BIBLE

[30]
Nothing in the religious prose of the Renaissance equals the literary beauty and importance
the 'authorized' version of the Bible published in 1611. It was the work of fifty-four scholars
appointed by James I. This board of scholars was presided over by Bishop Andrews. The
1611 translators used not only the original Hebrew and Greek texts and the Latin Vulgate, but
also the translations of Wyclif, Tindale and Coverdale. They rejected those words and phrases
of the earlier English translations, which had become too archaic and retained the words,
phrases and grammatical uses which were still intelligible. "They succeeded in blending the
peculiar excellences of all of these, with the result that in the King James Bible we possess a
monument of English prose holding of no particular age, but gathering up into itself the
strength and sweetness of all ages. It is difficult to exaggerate the benefit of 1611 Bible to
literature. The shortness of the Biblical verses compelled restraint and curbed the tendency of
the language to overflow into unending and formless sentences.

The extent to which the Authorized version has influenced the subsequent writers can hardly
be exaggerated. Ruskin's magnificent, rich prose owed a good deal to it. It was Bunyan's sole
master. The grandeur and beauty of Milton and Browne's is largely due to it. "The Authorized
version revealed to English writers the wealth of Eastern pastoral imagery, and because the
translators did their work with restraint, those whom their version influenced learnt to enrich
their style without being too lavish."

[31]
Figure 2.1: The Westminster Assembly, which saw disputes on Church polity in England (Victorian
history painting by John Rogers Herbert).

[32]
Figure 2.2: interior of the Old Ship Church, a Puritan meetinghouse in Hingham, Massachusetts.
Puritans were Calvinists, so their churches were unadorned and plain.

[33]
 Chapter 3

GREAT WORKS AND IMPORTANCE OF MILTON: AN

OVERVIEW

Milton's Importance
Shakespeare and Milton are the two figures that tower head and shoulder above the
great company of authors who have made English literature famous. Each represents
the age which produced them and together they serve as a commentary upon the two
forces that govern humanity- the force of impulse and the force of a fixed purpose.
"Shakespeare is the poet of impulse, of the loves, hates fears, jealousies and
ambitions that swayed the men of his age. Milton is the poet of steadfast will and
purpose who moves like a god amid the fears and hopes and changing impulses of the
world, regarding them as trivial and momentary things that can never swerve a great
soul from its course.

As a poet Milton forms a class all by himself. He has neither any master nor any
follower. Many take Spenser to be his 'original', but truly speaking he has no
connection with Spenser save and except a general similarity of purpose, moral and
religious. He had no regard for the metaphysicals, had any turn for the love lyrics of
the Cavaliers. In everything he wrote he was himself his own master. He devised his
own subjects and wrote in his own style. He shines alone in the vast firmament of
English literature, Milton is the last and the greatest figure in the English
Renaissance.

The Renaissance passion for the classical art and letters which is seen in its fumbling
beginnings in the poetry of Surrey and Sackville reaches its full and splendid and
perfect end in Milton's work. It is he who finally accomplished the transplantation of
classical forms into English, which had been the aim of Sidney and the endeavour of
Jonson. "There was no poet of the time but wanted to do for his country what Vergil
had planned to do for Rome, to sing its origins and to celebrate its morality and its
citizenship in the epic form." Spenser had tried it in The Faerie Queene and failed
splendidly. Where he failed, Milton succeeded, though his epic (The Paradise Lost)
does not deal with the origins of England, but on the origins of mankind. It redounds
to the credit of Milton that he wrote an epic which stands on the same eminence as
the ancient epics, and a tragedy modelled on the Greeks.

[34]
Another importance of Milton lies in the fact that he represents the fourth great
influence in English prosody. Chaucer had transformed Middle English into a robust
force. Shakespeare and Spenser had given to the dramatic and narrative poetry
respectively a sweetness and variety almost impossible to attain. Then English poetry
saw a period largely of imitations and elaborations rather than of originality. English
poetry between the time of Shakespeare and Milton has many gifts and graces, but
lacks that quality which makes for greatness. And it was left for Milton to restore this
quality to English poetry but lacks that quality which makes for greatness. And it was
left for Milton to restore this quality to English poetry.

The Works of Milton

a) Milton’s Early Works
In his early work Milton appears as the inheritor of all that was best in Elizabethan
literature. His first work, the ode On the Morning of Christ's Nativity was composed
while he was still an under graduate student of Oxford. It approaches the high water-
mark of English lyrical poetry and is reminiscent of the Elizabethans- of Spenser,
Ben Jonson and the metaphysical. It was composed in 1629. Two years later Milton
left Cambridge and went to Horton where his father was passing his retired life.
While at Horton he composed L'Allegro and Il Penseroso (1631), the twin poems, in
Octosyllabic couplets, dealing respectively with the experiences of the gay and
thoughtful man. They are full of lyrical feeling and description of the English
countryside and its customs. L' Allegro takes us out on excursion into the English
countryside at sunrise, and Il Penseroso at twilight and moonrise.

Comus is in many respects the most perfect of Milton's poems. It was written in 1634.
In form it is a masque, like those gorgeous products of the Elizabethan age, of which
Ben Jonson was the master. In the poem the heroine loses her brothers in a forest and
is taken captive by Comus, the lewd god. The god attempts to transform her into a
strange halfbestial creature but fails. She is at last rescued by her brothers with the
help of a spirit who watches over her.

Lycidas (written in 1637) is an elegy upon the death of Edward king, a college-mate
of Milton's drowned in the Irish sea. Here Milton follows the pastoral convention
descending to him through Spenser, Fletcher and Browne from Theocritus and Virgil.
The real subject of the poem is the uncertainty and torment occasioned in Milton's
mind by his realization that death might forestall the achievement of fame which was
his ambition. The poem is a fine interplay of various moods- of doubt, fear, anger,
and finally a peaceful belief that true fame rests on God and is only to be found in

[35]
heaven. It gathers up all the iridescent colour and varied music of the whole
Spenserian school, proving that Milton was truly the last of the great Elizabethans.

Besides these well-known poems Milton wrote in this early period a fragmentary
masque called Arcades and his famous sonnets which brought this Italian form of
verse nearly to the point of perfection. In the sonnets Milton wrote to patriotism,
duty, music and politics. The best-known of his sonnets are On his Deceased wife,

To the Nightingale, On Reaching the age Twenty-three, The Massacre in Piedmont

and on his Blindness.

b) Milton's Prose
On his return to England from the continent, Milton, then a young man of 31,
plunged into the fierce political and religious controversies of the hour. Involved in
these controversies, he turned from poetry completely and for the next twenty years
continued active as a prose-writer. His prose-works are not today worth reading; nor
are they readable at all. Their style is heavy and cumbrous. They are full of involved
constructions, the parenthetic expressions and Latin inversions. One of his prose
works- Areopagitica stands altogether apart. Directed against on order of Parliament
which established a censorship of books, it is essentially a plea for freedom of
thought and speech.

c) Milton's later poetry

Milton's later poetry was all produced after the restoration of monarchy which drove
him into private life and obscurity. Paradise Lost was finished in 1663 or in 1665. To
write an epic had been Milton's dream in poetry ever since his college days. Paradise
Lost is the greatest, indeed the only generally acknowledged epic in English literature
since Beowulf. In theme it deals with the fall of Adam (man) from a state of
innocence into a state of sin; but by means of introduced narratives it covers the
rebellion of Lucifer, the warfare in heaven and the expulsion of the rebel angels from
heaven, the creation of the terrestrial universe and the setting of man in the garden of
Eden to take the place of apostate angels in God's love.

Paradise Lost is a colossal epic, not of a man or of a hero, but of the whole race of
men. The characters of Milton are such as no human hand could adequately portray.
"But the scenes, the splendours of heaven, the horrors of hell, the serene beauty of
Paradise, the sun and planets suspended between celestial light and gross darkness,
are pictured with an imagination that is almost superhuman. The abiding interest of

[36]
the poem is in these colossal pictures and in the lofty thought and the marvelous
melody with which they are impressed on our minds." The epic is written in blank
verse which is new and wonderful. This type of blank verse has founded a tradition.
It has been imitated and modified, but never paralleled.

The characters in the epic are few. Satan is the most magnificent figure. He towers
head and shoulders above other characters. The rebel in Milton seems to have gone
into the making of this character. His heroism is the reflection of Milton's heroic
spirit of his independence, his fierce, indomitable spirit, his pride, his unbending
dignity and his combativeness.

Paradise Lost is a glory and wonder to the modern world. With the Exception of
Dante no modern mind has conceived an action so immense and so sublime.

Paradise Lost is divided into twelve books. In 1671 appeared Milton's last volume of
poetry containing Paradise Regained and Samson Agonistes. Paradise Regained
(1665-67) is in four books and a tame sequel to Paradise Lost. It was written in
response to the suggestion of his friend, Thomas Ellwood-

"But what hast thou to say of Paradise Found?"

It shows how mankind, in the person of Jesus Christ withstands the temptation of
Satan and win readmission to divine grace. Though it was Milton's favorite it lacks
the cosmic imagination, the splendid imagery and the musical rhythms of Paradise
Lost. "There is little action, the characters are uninteresting and the work approaches
Paradise Lost only in a few outstanding passages." In it the poet's weariness is
manifest and his epic vein seems exhausted.

Samson Agonistes is a venture in a new field of poetry and shows Milton's genius at
its maturest. In it he uses all his strength and all the accumulated wisdom of a lifetime
and at long last he came back to his old project of a sacred tragedy. "It is his most
flawless single work of art, in which he openly challenges comparison with
Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, 'the three tragic poets unequaled yet by any' and
in which he comes near to making his challenge good." Structurally Samson
Agonistes reproduces the form of a Greek tragedy, as Aristotle conceived it and
resembles in great details Oedipus at Colonus of Sophocles. His spiritual affinity is,
however closest with Aeschylus, the strictest and sternest of the Greek dramatists.
"Like Aeschylus he greatly magnifies the importance of the hero and of the chorus,
who between them speak two-thirds of the lines, and like him limits the speaking
characters to two in any scene. The unity and gravity of the play are also Aeschylean,
but the play, as a whole is not Aeschylean; it is Greek."

[37]
The interest of the play also lies in its autobiographical significance. The story of
Samson is really the poet's own story. Like Samson he has fought against the enemies
and has taken a wife from among his enemies and suffered bitter loss at her hands.
Like Samson he has suffered blindness and been delivered into the hands of godless
enemies, and lives a life of disgrace amid the triumph of the Cavaliers.

Milton's poetry-a wonderful fusion of the Reformation

elements
Milton's poetry is a perfect blend of the elements of the Renaissance and the
Reformation. The Renaissance movement was characterized by an awakened interest
in the ancient Greek and Roman writings. The writers nurtured in the Renaissance
culture had love for beauty, romance, music and art. Humanism which recognizes
both the virtues and vices of the human-nature, accepts pleasure, even bodily, as good
in itself, upholds man's freedom of will and reason and asserts the dignity of man as
man was one of the greatest aspects of the Renaissance. The Reformation was a
religious movement, just as the Renaissance was an intellectual and aesthetic one. It
aims at the cultivation of stern, grave, hard and other-worldly outlook. It seeks to
justify the ways of God above man's and spurns love, romance, art, culture-all that
tend to beautify, uplift and give value to human life. It was opposed to all that the
Renaissance stood for. The Reformation found sectarian expression in Puritanism.

Milton was the child both of the Renaissance and the Reformation. In his works the
moral and religious influences of Puritanism were blended with the generous culture
of the Renaissance. It is this blending which contributes to the greatness of Milton's
poetry. Milton began to write chiefly under the inspiration of the learning and art of
the Renaissance. In his earlier poetry the Puritan element is quite subordinate. But
gradually it gained in strength and depth till it became at last the dominant element.

The theme of his first great poem, the Ode on the Morning of Christ's Nativity is a
Christian one. It describes the flight of the pagan gods at the advent of Christ. But it
uses classical mythology and pagan imagery. In its imaginative brilliance and its
occasional tenderness it reveals the Renaissance influence. It exhibits a wonderful
fusion of the Renaissance and Reformation elements. The Renaissance spirit is to be
seen at its height in L' Allegro and II Penseroso. In these twin poems, "with their
charming contrasted pictures of man, nature and art as seen through the medium of
the mood, in the one case of gladness, and in the other of melancholy, there is little
that is characteristically Puritan and a good deal that is really un-puritan; for the poet
dwells frankly upon the pleasures of romance and rustic sports, upon the delights of
the playhouse and the Greek drama, and upon the beauty of church architecture and
music"- all of which were objects of uncompromising hatred to the Puritans.
[38]
With Comus we mark a distinct stage of development of Milton's mind. The puritan
which was so far latent only makes its influence felt, not alone in the poet's increased
earnestness, but also in the specific quality of his moral teaching. In form it is a
masque, like those gorgeous products of the Elizabethan age, of which Ben Jonson
was the master. England bad borrowed the idea of the masque from Italy and had
used it as the chief entertainment at all festivals. "But though he wrote in the forms of
Renaissance art, he filled them with a strenuous moral spirit and meaning; for his
simple story of the lady lost in the woods, lured away by Comus and his band of
revellers and rescued by her brothers with the help of an attendant spirit and the river
nymph is a patent allegory of virtue attacked by sensuality and conquering by divine
aid. Here, then, we see the two streams of influence by which Milton's genius was
fed, running together, and note that while the drama (i.e. Comus) is loaded with
classical learning, the nobility of its tone and the superb faith in God which is
expressed through it" testify to the growing influence of Puritanism over his thought.
Thus while the vehicle adopted in Comus shows the persistance of his Hellenism, the
matter and purpose exhibit the growth of his Hebraism. Like Spenser's Astrophel,
Lycidas, a monody on the death of Milton's college friend, Edward king, is in the
conventional style of the classical pastoral elegy. In form, therefore, it belongs with
Comus to the Renaissance, but the religious accent in it throughout is unmistakably
Puritan. The famous speech of St. Peter accusing strongly the corrupt Roman
Catholic clergymen of the time openly shows Milton's adherence to the Puritan.

Paradise Lost, the greatest English poem, shows a perfect blending of Hellenism and
Hebraism. The inspiration and the subject-matter of the epic alike come from
Milton's Puritanism. In it Milton undertakes to "assert Eternal Providence and justify
the ways of God to men. But its form and style, its machinery and method are all
taken from the great epics of classical antiquity. The epic amply demonstrates that the
puritan in Milton had not killed the humanist. Milton's Satan embodies the
Renaissance love for romance, chivalry and adventure and above all, the humanist
ideal of individualism. When Christ asked God if he would like to stop Satan from
working havoc on Adam and Eve, God replied that he would not stop him, because
he left the will of all his creatures, Satan included, free. In Paradise Regained Milton
set aside the claims of beauty, wealth and learning bequeathed by the Renaissance
and stresses the cultivation of the Christian virtues. In this poem Milton's humanism
appears totally eclipsed by Puritanism.

In the dramatic poem Samson Agonistes (Samson the Wrester) Milton applies the
forms of classic art to the treatment of a biblical subject. The drama is fashioned
strictly upon the principles of Greek tragedy, while the purpose is to justify the ways
of God to men. The poetry of Milton is thus a harmonious blend of the elements of
the Renaissance and Reformation.
[39]
Characteristics of Milton's Poetry

Milton is undoubtedly one of the greatest poets of England. He is next only to

Shakespeare. The following are the chief characteristics of his poetry.

The supreme quality of Milton's poetry is its sublimity- the loftiness of thoughts and
ideas expressed. Milton deals with such grand and sublime subjects as God, heaven,
hell, religion, morality, fall and salvation of man etc. His poetry has nothing to do
with the common objects of daily life or the common concerns of our terrestrial
existence. Lovers and lasses, the favorites of poetry down the ages find no entry into
his poetic world. His imagination soared high and moved in the celestial world, far
removed from the one he lived in bodily. There are poets who excel him in many
features of poetry, but in sublimity he surpasses all the ancient and modern poets
except Dante.

Milton's poetry is distinguished by a stateliness of manner, which imparts a high

dignity, a dazzling majesty to his poetry. In the stateliness of manner Milton has no
parallel. The manner he handles the blank verse is stately, majestic, almost
superhuman. It is the stateliness of manner which leads Matthew Arnold to call his
style grand. While commenting on Milton's treatment of blank verse Compton
Rickett says, "He is like a great organist who, while never losing sight of the original
melody, adorns it with every conceivable variation which serves to exhibit, in place
of obscuring, the freshness and sweetness of the simple theme."

Milton possessed a sense of beauty as keen, though not so unrestrained, as that

possessed by the Elizabethans. In a letter to his friend of Diodati Milton expresses his
passion for beauty: "What ever the Deity may have bestowed upon me in other
respects he has certainly inspired me, if any were ever inspired, with a passion for the
good and the beautiful. Nor did Ceres, according to the fable, ever seek her daughter
Proserpine with such unceasing solicitude as I have sought this idea of the beautiful
in all the forms and appearances of things, for many are the shapes of things divine.
Day and night I am wont to continue the search." This passion for the beautiful has
been best displayed in his early poems- 'L Allegro, Il Penseroso, Comus and Lycidas.

They have all the freshness and charm of youth and shows the lighter and more
fanciful side of Milton's genius. Milton's poetry is intensely autobiographical. He
constantly expresses himself in his poems- his religious beliefs, his firm faith in God,
his high sense of morality and duty as well as the tragedy of his own life.

[40]
Unlike Shakespeare he was completely incapable of the dramatic self-detachment. It
is interesting to note that Satan in Paradise Lost is Milton himself. He represents
Milton's love for liberty, his indomitable spirit, and his unflinching devotion to his
cause. In Samson Agonistes Milton unrolls before us the vast pageant of his own life.
Samson Agonistes is the most personal of Milton's poems.

There was in Milton's nature a strong bent for the classics, which is pagan and
sensuous. His classical bent is seen in

(1) his choice of His classicism classical and semi-classical forms- the epic, the
masque, the pastoral, the sonnet and the Greek tragedy;

(2) the fondness for classical allusion which runs riot through all his poetry;

(3) the dignity of his style and its precision and care.

"His very egoism takes a high classical turn. In his blindness he compares himself
with.

Blind Thamyris and blind Maeonides

And Tiresias and Phineus, prophets old.

In his choice of diction we have the classical element abundantly apparent: and lastly,
the same element appears in the typical Miltonic grandeur and frigidity, the arrogant
aloofness from men and mortals."

Milton's Contribution

As a poet Milton was not an innovator. Rather he performed the function which was
to refine and perfect the poetical forms. Every form he touched acquired a finality of
grace and dignity. His achievements in the epic, the classical tragedy, the pastoral, the
sonnet, the masque have never been improved upon and seldom approached. As a
metrist he stands all alone- he has neither any predecessor nor any follower.

Milton occupies a transitional position in the history of English literature. He came

immediately after the glorious Elizabethan era, when the Elizabethan methods were
falling into chaos. He rescued English poetry from this chaotic state and gave it order
and accuracy as well as dignity and majesty. The next generation "found in him the
necessary stimulus to order and accuracy; and from him, to a great extent, sprang the
new 'classicism' that was to be the rule for more than a century."

[41]
Milton had imitators, but he had no followers. No one has been big enough to find the
secret of his art. Long wonderfully writes, "Milton is like an ideal in the soul, like a
lofty mountain on the horizon. We never attain the ideal; we never climb the
mountain; but life would be inexpressibly poorer were either to be taken away."
Milton had imitators, but he had no followers. No one has been big enough to find the
secret of his art. Long wonderfully writes, "Milton is like an ideal in the soul, like a
lofty mountain on the horizon. We never attain the ideal; we never climb the
mountain; but life would be inexpressibly poorer were either to be taken away."

Paradise Lost
Paradise Lost is a big and ambitious project to write an epic by Milton. It remains an
outstanding literary creation in modern English and has secured an eminent place by the side
of the great epics of the classical masters, like Homer, Virgil and others. ………………

Milton's chief source in Paradise Lost is The Book of Genesis of the Holy Bible. The original
Biblical story is simple and vivid. It is all about the creation of Man, his transgression of the
divine commandment and his consequent expulsion from the Garden of Eden.
……………………………………………………………………..
This simple Biblical theme is turned into the materials for a world epic by Milton's poetic
genius. The work remains, as already implied, an outstanding literary work, and there is no
other author, who is found to have attempted, in prose or rhyme, such a unique subject for
literature. In Dr Johnson's opinion, Milton has chosen 'a subject mightier than the Iliad or, the
Aeneid, greater than the story of a destruction of a city or that of the foundation of an Empire.'
………………… ……………………………

Milton's literary source of inspiration is, however, the great classical poets-Homer, Virgil and
Ovid. He is certainly indebted to them for his conception of the epic pattern, his use of
extended similes and his presentation of different mythologies and allusions. Of course, his
creative originality remains: always, and the epic bears out the excellence of his artistry that is
rich with rare imagination and majestic melody. ……………………………………….

Paradise Lost is an ambitious epic, and as such, it has an epical structure. Milton's plan is
quite comprehensive, and the whole epic is composed of twelve Books, dealing with different
well-connected aspects of a sublime theme. …………………… ……………………………

Milton's epic, however, has a moral purpose, consistent with his own deeply religious nature
and Puritan conviction. His aim here, as he himself states, is to 'Justify the ways of God to
men'. In religious literature in English, Paradise Lost must have a high position for its grand,
inspired Christian objective. ……………………...... ……………………………….

[42]
Paradise Lost is truly a very ambitious work of a great literary genius. No other English poem
can claim to have transcended Milton's conception of a very great and universal theme- Man’s
disobedience and fall and the prospect of his redemption through the sacrifice of one 'Greater
Man'. There is no other English poet to attain his moral elucidation of the cause of human sin
and suffering and to represent his poetical portraits of Heaven and Hell and of Adam and Eve
in the Garden of Eden. …………………………..……………………………………………..

The inspiration of Paradise Lost for subsequent literary men is found not least. Both in its
theme and in its technique, the epic depicts splendour of literary achievement which has
remained the much-desired goal for many a literary aspirant. ……………………………...

Samson Agonistes
Milton's fame, no doubt, is secured by his great epic Paradise Lost. But his poetic tragedy
Samson Agonistes has added no less to his literary genius. ……………………………..

The exact time of the composition of the play is not known, but it was possibly written after
Paradise Lost and came forth after the publication of that famous epic.
Milton's source in Samson Agonistes is the Book of Judges of the Old Testament. He has
chosen here the old celebrated Hebrew story of a dedicated hero who laid down his life
heroically for the sacred cause of his race and religion. Samson, according to the scriptural
account, was a devout and noble Jew, who stood heroically for the honour of his race and
religion against the idolatrous Philistines. He was, however, seduced by a Philistine woman,
Dalila, whom he had married, and he was subsequently subjected to torture and
imprisonment. But Samson, by means of his faith and conviction, avenged upon his foes and
pulled down the entire structure where the Philistines were holding the festival of their god
Dagon. Along with the Philistines, he was killed by the collapse of the structure.

This Biblical story is well represented by Milton in his poetic tragedy, with utmost fidelity
and reverence. Different episodes and situations are more or less conceived from the.
scriptural materials available. Samson's grand feat and great sacrifice have the right sort of
representation in Milton in the Hebrew spirit. This is truly a great scriptural drama.

Of course, Milton's drama is concerned with Samson's last phase-- his heroic suffering,
profound faith and triumphant death. He calls his hero "agonistes' to indicate his heroic
triumphs in death over his faithless foes. ……………………………………………..
…………………….
In Samson Agonistes, no doubt, Milton's source is the Hebrew scripture, but his dramatic art
belongs to the classical tragedy of Greece. The play is written on the model of the classical
Greek tragedy. It is, perhaps, the most perfect English play, on the model of the classical
tragedies of Greece. The introduction of the chorus and the messenger, the maintenance of the
three unities, the portraiture of the hero, the structural division of the play by means of

[43]
different choric odes and the happening of the catastrophe outside the stage are the essential
features of its Greek character. Milton successfully animated his tragedy with the grandeur of
the great Greek masters, like Aeschylus and Sophocles.

Of course, there may be certain objections to the dramatic structure or quality of the play. But
its poetry is unalloyed gold. Its choric odes are rich gems of English poetry. Its lyrical fervour
is truly great and secures it in a high position as a lyric. As a versifier, Milton is majestic, and
Samson Agonistes testifies to his genius as a majestic versifier.

Areopagitica

Milton is mostly celebrated as a great poet. Yet, he is also a great master of

English prose and in this respect, his Areopagitica, published in 1644, is a
renowned work. The work is found strengthened with an inspiring theme and a
telling style. …………………………………………………………………

Areopagitica, indicating the freedom of the press, is a clarion call for the liberty
of the press against monarchial or despotic authoritarianism. Milton, as a great
champion of Individual liberty, religious, political, or civil, addresses here
Parliament for the liberty of printing. His theme is definitely original and quite
ennobling for his age.

Milton's high theme is expressed in a language that marks equally his profundity
and impulsiveness. His high thoughts are found echoed in his powerfully chosen
words, and his voice seems. often overwhelming, as in the following instance
"Give me the liberty to know and to argue freely, according to my conscience,
above all liberties." Indeed, Areopagitica bears out Milton's command over a
forceful, impulsive prose style, and the work remains a monumental edifice in
the powerful, profound prose literature of the Puritan Age
…………………….. . ……………………………………………………………

Milton's prose style, as marked in Areopagitica, is animated with grace and

force. It is possessed of a poetic ardour and seems to bear all the distinctive
qualities that make his poetical style so grand and majestic. There is not the least
of doubt that Milton's prose style in Areopagitica is of immense importance in
the growth of English prose literature.

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 Chronological order of John Milton’s Poetry, Prose and Drama

Sl. Number Name of Work Publication Year

1. On the Morning of Christ's Nativity 1629

2. On Shakespeare 1630

3. L'Allegro 1632

4.  Il Penseroso 1632

5.  Comus 1634

6.  Lycidas 1637

7. Of Reformation 1641

8. Animadversions 1641

9. Of Education 1644

10. Areopagitica  1644

11. Tetrachordon 1645

12.  When I Consider How My Light is Spent 1652

13. On the Late Massacre in Piedmont 1655

14.  Paradise Lost 1667

15.  Paradise Regained 1671

16. Samson Agonistes 1671

17. Of True Religion 1673

18. Epistolae Familiaries 1674

19. Prolusiones 1674

Table 1: Works Of John Milton

[45]
Figure 3.1: Title page of the 1644 edition of  Areopagitica by John Milton
……. …..............

[46]
 CONCLUSION

Literature in the true sense of term is that kind of writing which is charged with human
interest, and characterized by permanence, colouring of imagination, and artistic
embellishment. It deals with the life of man and his destinies on earth. It expresses thoughts,
feelings, emotions, and attitudes towards life, which are permanent and universal. Human life
experiences can be portrayed in any form of literary works such as poetry, drama, novel, etc.
Those literary works develop as well as the development of civilization because literary works
are the creation of human being and human being always develops every time. This condition
can be seen in English Literature.

Metaphysical poets created a new trend in history of English literature. These poems have
been created in such a way that one must have enough knowledge to get the actual meaning.
Metaphysical Poets made use of everyday speech, intellectual analysis, and unique imagery.
The creator of metaphysical poetry john Donne along with his followers is successful not
only in that Period but also in the modern age. Metaphysical poetry takes an important place
in the history of English literature for its unique versatility and it is popular among thousands
of peoples till now.

There is no 'school' of Donne and yet it is of Donne that most people think when the word
'metaphysical' is mentioned in connection with poetry. Indeed, far more studies of Donne's
poetry and individual poems have been written than of all the other metaphysical poets put
together. If there were any 'school' of metaphysical poetry it might well have been the school
of Herbert. It was for Herbert, not Donne, that both Crashaw and Vaughan expressed their
admiration. Crashaw wrote some laudatory verses on Herbert's The Temple and entitled his
first volume of religious poetry The Steps to the Temple after Herbert's work. Vaughan
acknowledged the debt he owed Herbert in his Preface of 1655 and borrowed from him to an
extent unsurpassed in the history of English literature.

When the politicians called home the king the plain style triumphed; but while to the Royal
Society must be given the honour of definitely hall-marking the new style, to the more
temperate among the Puritan preachers belongs the praise of having demonstrated to large
masses of the nation, learned and unlearned, the possibilities of a simple, straightforward,
unencumbered prose. Unattractive as it often was in itself, the Puritan sermon became a dam
from which might be led the smooth but powerful current that was to set in motion English
prose of a slightly later time.

Speaking of the work of all the prose-writers of the period in general, and disregarding
for the moment their individual qualities we may say that nowhere we recognize in
their style the characteristic tone and manner of modern English prose.

[47]
 REFERENCES

History of English Literature, Edward Albert , Revised by J.A.

Stone, Fifth Edition, Oxford University Press (1979).

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE, Prof.

MANINDRA NATH SINHA, Shreedhar Prakashani (Reprint 2015).

The Routledge History of Literature in English, RONALD CARTER AND

JOHN MCRAE, SECOND EDITION, Routledge Taylor & Francis Group
(Reprint 2009).

CASSELL'S HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE, PETER CONRAD,

WEIDENFELD & NICOLSON (Reprint 2006)

The Puritans and the Reform of Prose-Style, Harold Fisch, Vol. 19, No. 4 (Dec.,
1952), Published by: The Johns Hopkins University Press (Journal).

https://doi.org/10.2307/2871897

Journal of Academia in English Education Volume 1 No 1, Ruly Adha, June

2020

https://journal.iainlangsa.ac.id/index.php/jades

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https://www.uou.ac.in/lecturenotes/humanities/MAEL-17/
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https://www.allassignmenthelp.com/blog/restoration-period/

https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/protestant-reformation

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%20construction.

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Patna Women’s College

https://content.patnawomenscollege.in/eng/Puritan%20Age,%20E-content.pdf

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puritans

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Reformation

britannica.com/topic/Calvinism

SOME ASPECTS OF THE HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE, Prof.

Kalyannath Dutta, SRIBHUMI PUBLISHING COMPANY, Revised Edition:
June, 2004

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