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Performance combustion and emission characteristics of novel biofuel

peppermint oil in diesel engine

Article  in  International journal of Environmental Science and Technology · February 2019

DOI: 10.1007/s13762-019-02270-1

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International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-019-02270-1

ORIGINAL PAPER

Performance combustion and emission characteristics of novel biofuel

peppermint oil in diesel engine
P. Purushothaman1 · V. Gnanamoorthi2 · A. Gurusamy3

Received: 27 June 2018 / Revised: 1 February 2019 / Accepted: 13 February 2019

© Islamic Azad University (IAU) 2019

Abstract
In this experimental work, the performance, combustion and emission characteristics of a novel peppermint oil blends are
evaluated at different load conditions in a direct injection diesel engine without any engine modifications. The peppermint
blend proportions are named as P10, P20, P30 and P40 based on the ratio of the peppermint oil in the diesel fuel. Suitability
of the selected novel peppermint oil blends is determined based on its physical and chemical properties. The number of
experimental trials is conducted at different load conditions; from the results, it is found that Brake thermal efficiency of
P20 (31.89%) is comparatively better than conventional diesel fuel at full-load condition. Considering the emission aspects
at full-load condition, reduction in smoke emission values was observed for all peppermint blends compared to diesel fuel.
The smoke emission values are 51.0, 49.1, 43.6, 41.9 and 52.8 HSU for P10, P20, P30, P40 and diesel, respectively. However,
the oxides of nitrogen emission are higher than those of diesel fuel at full-load condition. Through combustion analysis, it
was observed that all the peppermint blends exhibit higher ignition delay compared to conventional diesel fuel. From this
study, it is evident that the selected novel peppermint oil has meritorious advantages over conventional diesel fuel in terms
of performance and emission.

Keywords  Biofuel · Peppermint oil · Combustion · Emission

Introduction (Demirbas 2009a). Forecasting the future consumption

The research on sustainable power source is accepting more
extensive consideration as of late. The key reason behind
this evolution is high demand for energy, financial and eco-
logical consideration that will benefit the society. The use
of petroleum products had witnessed a drastic increase in
these years, and the consumption is much higher than the
total crude oil generation (Satyanarayana et al. 2011). If
the world starts using the fuel at this rate, the availability
of crude oil in the earth’s crust will get depleted in 2050
Editorial responsibility: Parveen Fatemeh Rupani.
* P. Purushothaman
purushothice2014@gmail.com
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Agni College
of Technology, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University College
of Engineering, Villupuram, Tamilnadu, India
3
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Mohamed Sathak
A.J. College of Engineering, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India
of oil, it could be said that the rate of consumption is to
increase by 25% in 2040 for developing countries (OPEC
2017). The countries that are dependent on other countries
for fossil fuels are much worried about the fast diminution
of the fossil fuel. They fear about the crumbling of their
economic growth if an alternative is not found for the fossil
fuels in the near future (Konwar et al. 2014). Unearthing an
alternative for the fossil fuel has become essential for the
nations to become an energy independent nation (Demirbas
2009b). Biofuels are liquid or gaseous fuels produced using
farming yields, metropolitan squanders and biological waste.
Biofuels not only reduce emissions but also help to diminish
the oil imports. In addition to the support offered to the local
agro-based industries, biofuels also offer the energy secu-
rity for the developing nations. Among the widely studied
biofuels, vegetable oils and bio-alcohols or their inferred
bio-diesels are considered as an extremely promising sub-
stitution for crude-based fuels. Alternative fuels, namely
vegetable oils and alcohols, are used as substitutes for the
existing conventional fuels that can be used in the transport
sector (Reijnders 2006). The viscous nature of neat vegetable

13
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 International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology

oil makes them unfavorable to the direct replacement for
the diesel fuel. This nature of high viscosity causes poor
fuel atomization, inadequate combustion and deposition of
carbon over the valve seats which leads to severe engine
choking (D’Alessandro et al. 2016). These problems can be
overwhelmed by chemically modifying the vegetable oil into
biodiesel through a transesterification process. An alkali
catalyst such as potassium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide
was used in the conventional transesterification process to
produce biodiesel (Abomohra et al. 2017), whereas some
researchers proposed enzyme-catalyzed transesterification
to be a potential alternative for alkali catalyst-based bio-
diesel production (Murillo et al. 2018). Biodiesel normally
includes alkyl fatty acid esters of short-chain alcohols, pre-
dominantly ethanol or methanol (McCarthy et al. 2011).
Apart from being renewable, it possesses other advan-
tages like, vast availability, portability, biodegradability
along with better combustion and emission characteristics
(Demirbas 2007). However, there are some disadvantages;
for example, energy present in a unit mass of biodiesel falls
10–12% low when compared to conventional diesel fuels
(Ozsezen and Canakci 2011). Due to poor qualities such as
high viscosity, injector choking, engine compatibility, usage
of biodiesel becomes costlier and non-attractive (Yusuf et al.
2011). To attempt the broad utilization of biofuels, scientists
are thoughtful to blend diesel for the CI engines at differ-
ent proportions with alcohol-based fuels such as methanol
­(CH3OH), ethanol ­(C2H5OH), butanol ­(C4H9OH), as a clean
alternative fuel source (Emiroğlu and Şen 2018; Rakopou-
los et al. 2010; Sayin 2010). Enhanced combustion can be
achieved when alcohol blended with diesel due to the reduc-
tion in fuel viscosity. The previous studies on this blend con-
firm an apparent improvement in exhaust emission reduc-
tion, particularly CO, ­NOx and smoke density and increase
in the BSFC. Besides alcohol fuel, essential oil such as pine
oil is used in the diesel engines. The neat pine oil reduces
the unburnt HC, CO and smoke emissions by 30%, 65% and
70%, respectively, whereas BTE and H ­ RRmax for pine oil
blends increase by 5% and 27%, respectively (Vallinayagam
et al. 2013). The researchers (Purushothaman and Nagarajan
2009) tested the orange oil in a CI engine, whose results
revealed that orange oil exhibited an extended ignition delay
and higher combustion duration. Investigators (Dhinesh
et al. 2016) studied that Cymbopogon flexuosus usage in
diesel engine shows decrease in BTE and increase in N ­ Ox
emission. Also its blends show reduced ignition delay and
lower peak pressure.
In this study, the peppermint oil is introduced as a novel
and promising biofuel alternative for the diesel engines.
The thermophysical properties such as viscosity, density,
boiling point, calorific value, cetane index and flash point
for the peppermint oil have been calculated by using stand-
ard ASTM methods and are summarized in Table 1. This
research work was carried out in February 2018 at Univer-
sity College of Engineering, Villupuram, Tamilnadu, India.
Materials and methods
Peppermint oil: overview
The peppermint plant which belongs to the family Lami-
aceae is widely been grown and cultivated widely in vari-
ous parts of India for producing peppermint oil. It is a
non-indigenous herbaceous perennial plant having a four-
sided stem which can reach up to 100 cm in height. Oil was
extracted from the raw peppermint leaves using a unique
extraction technique called steam distillation. The chemical
formula for peppermint oil is ­C62H108O7, and its molecular
weight is 965.5. Peppermint oil has a lower boiling point
than diesel, ameliorating the fuel evaporation, atomization
and subsequent combustion process. Peppermint oil does not
possess any fatty acids; hence, transesterification process is
not required to reduce it. The total acidity of peppermint oil
is very low, and the oil is toxic free. Remarkably like other

Table 1  Properties of test fuels

Properties Density (g/m3) Calorific value (MJ/kg) Kinematic vis- Flash point (°C) Cetane index Boiling point (°C)
cosity (Cst)

Testing standards ASTM D1298 ASTM D240 ASTM D445 ASTM D92 ASTM D976 ASTM D1160
Diesel 0.83 42.5 2.9 54 52 180–340
Peppermint oil 0.89 32 3.3 82 18 140–230
P10 0.836 41.5 2.94 57 49 –
P20 0.843 40.4 2.99 62 46 –
P30 0.85 39.35 3.03 68 42 –
P40 0.855 38.3 3.1 75 37 –

13
International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology
Fig. 1  Schematic diagram for extraction of peppermint oil and experimental setup of tested engine
biofuels, the chemical structure of peppermint oil has car-
bon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms. The layout for the produc-
tion of peppermint oil is presented in Fig. 1a.
The peppermint oil was subjected to compositional anal-
ysis using a Hewlett Packard GC systems (HP6890 series
II) and Mass Spectrometer (MSD 5973) equipped with a
HP-5MS capillary column (5% phenyl methylsiloxane,
30 m × 0.25 mm id., 0.25 μm film thickness) with operat-
ing temperature 240 °C and 50:1 split ratio. Helium at a
flow rate of 1 mL/min was used as a carrier gas. The com-
parison of the retention time of each constituent obtained
through GC–MS spectrum for peppermint oil with standard
NIST database is presented in Fig. 2. The constituents of
peppermint oil were inspected using GC–MS, and the test
13

Fig. 2  Gas chromatography–
mass spectrometry (GC–MS)
analysis of peppermint oil
revealed that menthol, menthone and eucalyptol are its major
constituents.
Experimental setup
Figure  1b demonstrates the experimental setup of the
test engine in which an unmodified Kirloskar TV1 model
single-cylinder compression ignition diesel engine was
directly attached to AG 250 model water-cooled eddy cur-
rent dynamometer along with measuring and control system.
The engine produces a power of 5.2 kW at a rated speed of
1500 rpm with an injection pressure of 220 bar and injection
timing of 23°bTDC. It consists of hemispherical open-type
combustion chamber, mechanical fuel pump with Bosch
injector. The injector consists of three holes with a diameter
of 0.3 mm. The parameters such as exhaust gas tempera-
ture, cylinder pressure, crank angular position, fuel flow rate,
exhaust emission, smoke level are measured as follows. A
calibrated ‘K’-type thermocouple is used in this experiment
to measure the temperature of the exhaust gas. The engine
in-cylinder pressure is measured with a pressure transducer
of a piezoelectric type which is placed inside the engine
cylinder head with reference to crank angle measured by an
encoder which is fastened in the flywheel. An average of 50
combustion cycles has been considered for the crank angle
13
International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology
measurement and cylinder pressure. The volume flow rate
of fuel is measured with the help of a stopwatch and burette.
­NOx and HC (ppm) and CO (vol%) were measured using
NDIR-based AVL 444 DI gas analyzer. Smoke level (HSU)
was measured using a calibrated AVL437C smoke meter.
Test procedure
The diesel engine is warmed up for a period of 15 min along
with maintaining a constant cooling water outlet tempera-
ture. Using normal diesel, the engine is started initially and
then it is fueled with biofuel blends at various ratios, namely
P10-D90 (peppermint oil 10% + diesel 90%), P20-D80 (pep-
permint oil 20% + diesel 80%), P30-D70 (peppermint oil
30% + diesel 70%), P40-D60 (peppermint oil 40% + diesel
60%) to evaluate its combustion phenomenon, performance
and emission characteristics at constant speed. The com-
mercial diesel fuel used in this study was purchased from
Indian Oil Corporation Limited, Chennai. An eddy current
dynamometer is used to vary the load from 0 to 100% in
steps of 25% each. In order to maintain the constant speed of
1500 rpm, the supplied fuel is regulated by adjusting the fuel
pump rack position. The experiments were repeated for five
times, and the average values were used for all calculations.
Uncertainty analysis is mandatory to ensure the reliability of
International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology

80 120
Diesel Diesel
70 P10 100 P10
Cylinder Pressure (Bar) P20 P20
60 P30 P30

HRR (KJ/m3deg)
80
P40 P40
50
60
40
40
30
20
20

10 0

0 -20
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 -30 -10 10 30 50 70 90
a b
Crank Angle (Degree) Crank Angle (Degree)
25
Diesel
P10
20 P20
Ignition Delay (Degree CA)

P30
P40
15

10

0
c 0 25 50 75 100
Load (%)

Fig. 3  Variation of cylinder pressure (a), heat release rate (b) and ignition delay (c) for peppermint oil blends and diesel fuel

the measured readings. Using the percentage uncertainties of in a CI engine, the peak cylinder pressure relies upon the
various instruments, computed the percentage uncertainties ‘burned fuel fraction’ (Sinha and Agarwal 2007). It could
of various parameters by using the equation suggested in be observed from Fig. 4a that the in-cylinder pressure for
Holman (2004). Percentage uncertainties for various meas- P40 blend is maximum due to its increased proportion of
ured quantities such as BTE ± 2.5, BSFC ± 3.5, CO ± 3, peppermint oil in the blend. The higher volatility and better
HC ± 3, ­NOx ± 3, smoke ± 2, cylinder pressure ± 1, ignition atomization character of peppermint oil lead to raise the in-
delay ± 2, HRR ± 1.5, respectively. cylinder pressure for P40 blend. The effective evaporation
and mixing properties of peppermint oil during the ignition
delay period resulted in maximum cylinder peak pressure.
Results and discussion Improved combustion due to lower boiling point also con-
tributes to higher cylinder pressure. Most of other research-
Combustion analysis ers also reported that cylinder pressure increases for essen-
tial oil blends (Vallinayagam et al. 2013; Purushothaman
Figure 3a depicts the deviation of cylinder pressure with and Nagarajan 2009). The blends P10, P20, P30 and P40 ran
reference to crank angle at maximum load condition for the smoothly without any sign of engine knocking.
peppermint oil blends. During the premixed burning phase

13
 International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology

10 40
P10
8 30
P20

Variation in CO (%)
Variation in BSFC (%) P30 20
6 P40
10
4
0
2 -10 P10
0 -20 P20
-30 P30
-2
P40
-40
-4
-50
-6
-60
25 50 75 100
a d 0 25 50 75 100
Load (%)
Load (%)
8 35
P10 P10
6
P20 30 P20
P30 P30
Variation in BTE (%)

Variation in NOX (%)

25 P40
2
20
0
-2 15

-4 10

-6 5
-8 0
25 50 75 100
b e 0 25 50 75 100
Load (%)
Load (%)
40 0
30
-5
20
Variation in HC (%)

Variation in Smoke (%)

10 -10
0
-15
-10
P10
-20 P20 -20
P10
-30 P30 P20
P40 -25 P30
-40
P40
-50 -30
0 25 50 75 100 0 25 50 75 100
c f
Load (%) Load (%)

Fig. 4  Variation of BSFC (a), BTE (b), HC (c), CO (d), ­NOx (e) and smoke (f) for peppermint oil blends in comparison with diesel fuel

From Fig. 3b, it is found that the maximum HRR of pep-
permint oil blends is higher than that of baseline fuel diesel,
particularly 78.18 kJ/deg CA for P10, 91.73 kJ/deg CA for
P20, 95.54 kJ/deg CA for P30 and 97.32 kJ/deg CA for P40
compared with 75.12 kJ/deg CA for diesel. This tendency
may be ascribed to the extended ignition delay with the
better volatility characteristics of peppermint oil during the
premixed combustion phase that resulted in the maximum
rate of heat release. This trend concurs well with Rakopou-
los et al. (2007) who investigated low cetane fuel in a diesel
engine conceived higher heat release rate. In general, higher
peak heat release exhibited by lower cetane fuels due to its

13
International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology
delayed start of combustion (Arul Mozhi Selvan et al. 2009;
Lapuerta et al. 2008).
Ignition delay refers to the time period between the begin-
ning of fuel injection to the initiation of combustion. In the
time period of ignition delay, the fuel gets prepared for
combustion by properly mixing with air (Bittle et al. 2010).
Figure 3c clearly indicates the ignition delay variation for
all the fuels tested at different load conditions. It is inferred
that ignition delay decreases with increase in load. The pre-
vailing of higher in-cylinder temperature at high-load condi-
tion may attribute toward quick vaporization of fuel which
reduces ignition delay. It may be noted that the increased
proportion of peppermint oil in the blend results in higher
ignition delay due to the reduction in its cetane number. The
ignition delay at 100% load for D100, P10, P20, P30, and
P40 was found to be 10.10, 11.50, 12.30, 14.0, 15.20 CA.
This increasing trend of ignition delay for peppermint oil
diesel fuel blends matches with previous researchers (Puru-
shothaman and Nagarajan 2009; Mbarawa 2010).
Performance analysis
Figure 4a portrays the percentage deviation of BSFC for the
peppermint oil blends with reference to diesel for different
loads. BSFC was found to be 0.281 kg/kWh, 0.275 kg/kWh,
0.258 kg/kWh, 0.294 kg/kWh, 0.312 kg/kWh for diesel, P10,
P20, P30 and P40 at full-load condition. From the results,
it is noted that the BSFC for the blends having lower pep-
permint oil concentration was lower than that of diesel for
all load conditions. This may be attributed to inbuilt oxygen
presence in the peppermint oil promotes the combustion and
leads to lower BSFC for P10 and P20 blends. Converse to
lower peppermint oil blends, P30 and P40 blends are found
to have higher BSFC in the complete load range. This is
owing to the consolidated impact of density and calorific
value of peppermint oil blends and so more amount of fuel
is provided to the engine to produce constant power output.
The experimental results were found to be in correlation
with the research carried out by Vallinayagam et al. (2013)
and Karthikeyan and Mahalakshmi (2007).
Brake thermal efficiency relies on effective conversion
of combusted fuel into mechanical output (Al-Dawody
and Bhatti 2013). It could be noted from Fig. 4b that BTE
increases with the increase in proportion of peppermint oil
up to P20 and then starts decreasing. BTE was found to be
30.14%, 30.96%, 31.89%, 29.82% and 28.54% for diesel,
P10, P20, P30 and P40 at full-load condition. On an aver-
age BTE for the blends, P30 and P40 is found to be 2.85%
and 5.35% lower than diesel. The enhanced oxygen content
in the P10 and P20 blends aids to improve the combustion;
particularly during the diffusion combustion, phase precedes
the improvement in brake thermal efficiency. But this factor
is being suppressed by lower energy input in case of P30
and P40 blends which reduce the brake thermal efficiency
of the engine at all load conditions. These results are in good
agreement with results obtained by previous research work
(Sathiyamoorthi and Sankaranarayanan 2014; Devan and
Mahalakshmi 2008).
Emission analysis
Figure 4c depicts the percentage deviation of hydrocarbon
emission for the peppermint oil blends with reference to
diesel at different load conditions. From the investigation, it
is found that the HC emission increases for the peppermint
oil blends for the load condition 0% and 25% due to pre-
vail of lower temperature and insufficient oxidation inside
the cylinder, but at higher loads the peppermint oil blends
showed lesser HC emission due to improved evaporation
and mixing with air. HC emission was found to be 61 ppm,
58 ppm, 52 ppm, 45 ppm and 40 ppm for diesel, P10, P20,
P30 and P40 at 100% load condition, respectively. Similar
HC emission profile was obtained by Sathiyamoorthi and
Sankaranarayanan (2014) for lemongrass oil diesel blends.
Figure 4d shows the percentage deviation of carbon
monoxide emission for peppermint oil blends with ref-
erence to diesel at different load conditions. Carbon and
oxygen content of the fuel, low reaction temperature and
short reaction time are the major factors influencing the
formation of CO (Sakthivel et al. 2014). CO emission for
diesel, P10, P20, P30, P40 fuel blends at full-load condi-
tions is 0.28%, 0.26%, 0.2%, 0.18% and 0.15% by volume,
respectively. It is evident from Fig. 4d that CO emission
increases at lower load condition and decreases at higher-
load condition when compared to conventional diesel. The
potential reason for high emission rate at lower load is due
to overall fuel–air equivalence ratio which was overcome
during the higher-load condition because of increase in
cylinder temperature and increased oxidation character of
peppermint oil blends. This CO emission pattern agrees
well with the results of Devan and Mahalakshmi (2008)
for eucalyptus oil diesel blends.
At higher in-cylinder temperature, oxygen reacts with
nitrogen which was present in the air leads to the formation
of ­NOx. Low cetane number in the fuel also may be the
reason for the formation of ­NOx (Ban-Weiss et al. 2007).
­NO x emission was found to be 1056  ppm, 1098  ppm,
1163 ppm, 1256 ppm and 1328 ppm for diesel, P10, P20,
P30 and P40 at full-load condition, respectively. From
Fig. 4e, it can be noted that N ­ Ox emission increases with
13
 International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology

Table 2  Comparative analysis of peppermint oil diesel blends with previous studies

Present study Vallinayagam et al. Purushothaman Devan and Sathiyamoorthi Anand et al. (2010)
(2013) and Nagarajan Mahalakshmi and Sankarana-
(2009) (2008) rayanan (2014)

Blend composition Diesel–peppermint Diesel–pine oil Diesel–orange oil Diesel–eucalyptus Diesel–lemon- Diesel–turpentine
oil (P10, P20, (P25, P50, P75 (O100) oil (E20, E30, grass oil (L25, oil (T30, T40,
P30 and P40) and P100) E40 and E50) L50, L75 and T50 and T100)
L100)
BSFC Lower (up to P20) Lower Lower Lower Higher Lower
BTE Higher (up to P20) Higher Higher Higher Higher Lower
HC Lower Lower Lower Lower Lower –
CO Lower Lower Lower Lower Higher –
NOx Higher Higher Higher Higher Higher Higher
Smoke Lower Lower Lower Lower – Higher

increase in proportion of peppermint oil owing to pro-
longed ignition delay, the accretion of air–fuel mixture in
the combustion chamber occurs which leads to increased
premixed combustion in the engine cylinder. Due to longer
premixed combustion, the temperature rise will be more in
the engine cylinder. Another predictable cause for higher
­NOx emission may be due to the increase in cylinder pres-
sure leading to higher peak combustion temperature. And
also peppermint oil contains menthol as a major compo-
nent that comprises of oxygen in the form of hydroxy (OH)
radicals. During combustion process, this OH disintegrates
into O and H that leads to the formation of NO, thereby
increasing ­NOx emission in the exhaust. The literature also
shows an increase in ­NOx emission for lemongrass oil die-
sel blends (Sathiyamoorthi and Sankaranarayanan 2014).
Figure 4f reveals that smoke emission decreases with
the increase in percentage of peppermint oil. This increas-
ing proportion of peppermint oil in the blend leads to the
development of lean mixture in the engine cylinder which
in turn improves the diffusion combustion. The oxygen
present in peppermint oil disintegrates during the diffusion
combustion and helps to improve the overall combustion
which will contribute to reducing the smoke emission.
This is in good agreement with Vallinayagam et al. (2013),
for pine oil–diesel blends and described a decline in smoke
emission owing to the rich oxygen content in the fuel. And
also similar trends are reported for low cetane fuels such
as ethanol and eucalyptus oil (Emiroğlu and Şen 2018;
Dhinesh et al. 2016).
Comparative analysis with previous studies
Comparison of the outcomes from the present study with
that of the studies carried out earlier using various low
cetane biofuel is shown in Table 2. From the table, it is
evident that the selected novel bio fuel peppermint oil
showed higher brake thermal efficiency, thereby reducing
the fuel consumption and reduced smoke and CO emis-
sion, whereas it was higher for lemongrass oil and turpen-
tine oil blends. In view of these better performance and
emission characteristics, the peppermint oil is a promising
novel biofuel alternative for diesel engine.
Conclusion
An experimental study was performed to analyze the via-
bility of using peppermint oil in the diesel engine with-
out any modification in it. The engine was functioned
smoothly, and no erratic combustion was observed. The
experimental analysis indicates that the brake thermal
efficiency was increased for P10 and P20 blend by about
2.7% and 5.8% with reference to diesel fuel at full-load
condition. The smoke emission of peppermint oil blends
P10, P20, P30 and P40 was found to be lower than die-
sel by 3.4%, 7%, 17.4% and 20.6% at full-load condition,
respectively. Likewise, CO emission of peppermint oil
blends P10, P20, P30 and P40 was found to be lower than
diesel by 7%, 28.5% 35.7% and 46% at full-load condi-
tion, respectively. However, N­ O x was found to increase

13
International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology
unvaryingly for all peppermint oil blends compared to
diesel fuel. Peppermint oil and its blends exhibited higher
heat release rate, peak pressure and longer ignition delay
due to the prolonged premixed phase of combustion. In
future, the long-term effect of peppermint oil in diesel
engine can be studied by material compatibility test and
durability test.
Acknowledgments  The authors thank the management of University
College of Engineering, Villupuram, for allowing them to carry out
the experiments.
Abbreviations
BTE Brake thermal efficiency
CI Compression ignition
CO Carbon monoxide
DI Direct injection
GC–MS Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry
HRR Heat release rate
HSU Hartridge smoke unit
HC Hydrocarbon
NDIR Non-dispersive infrared
NOx Oxides of nitrogen
P10 Peppermint oil biofuel 10% and diesel 90%
P20 Peppermint oil biofuel 20% and diesel 80%
P30 Peppermint oil biofuel 30% and diesel 70%
P40 Peppermint oil biofuel 40% and diesel 60%
TDC Top dead center
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