Process Safety and Environmental Protection 1 1 1 ( 2 0 1 7 ) 283–291

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Process Safety and Environmental Protection

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/psep

Performance, combustion and emission analysis

on the effect of ferrofluid on neat biodiesel

Yuvarajan Devarajan a,∗ , Dinesh Babu Munuswamy b ,

Arulprakasajothi Mahalingam a
a Department of Mechanical Engineering, Vel Tech Dr.RR & Dr.SR University, Chennai, India
b Department of Mechanical Engineering, Panimalar Engineering College, Chennai, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The major drawbacks of using biodiesel as a neat fuel are low oxidation stability, high viscos-
Received 12 November 2015 ity, lower thermal efficiency and higher NOx emission. Many studies have been attempted to
Received in revised form 10 June reduce the drawbacks of biodiesel and to use it as a conventional fuel. The present work aims
2017 to reduce the problems associated with neat biodiesel using addition of non-polluting addi-
Accepted 19 July 2017 tives. Mahua oil has been chosen as a biodiesel due to its non-edible nature and properties
Available online 27 July 2017 similar to diesel. Mahua oil methyl ester (MOME) was prepared by conventional transesteri-
fication. Ferrofluid, comprising of magnetite of 14 nm size was added to the base fuel and is
Keywords: referred to as MOMEF (Mahua Oil Methyl Ester with the addition of Ferrofluid). The advantage
Combustion of ferrofluid is that, unlike other additives, it can be extracted from the exhaust gas. Fer-
Performance rofluid releases additional heat during the course of the combustion process which reduces
Emissions its conventional drawbacks. Furthermore, it can be easily diluted to biodiesel and as a result
Mahua oil it can collect the benefits of water-biodiesel emulsions. This fuel modification is expected
Ferrofluid to improve the properties of mahua oil methyl-ester and to eliminate problems associated
Ignition delay with it. Performance, combustion and emission tests were carried out in a 21 kW power,
four-stroke, twin-cylinder, direct-injection, compression-ignition engine. Experimentally, it
was observed that methyl esters of mahua oil can be combusted in an IC engine like other
biofuels without any major modifications. Experiments were conducted with MOME and
MOMEF and are compared with conventional diesel. The experimental analysis revealed an
increase in brake thermal efficiency of about 5.27% and a decrease in brake specific fuel
consumption of about 5.37%. In addition the HC, CO and NOx emissions were reduced by
10.8%, 6.44% and 9.49% respectively.
© 2017 Institution of Chemical Engineers. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction is superior to diesel. Biodiesel consists of long-chain fatty acid alkyl

Biodiesel is a renewable, biodegradable, cleaner burning alternative to
petroleum fuels. With tax incentives and the rising petroleum prices,
biodiesel is becoming more economically competitive (Yuvarajan and
Venkata Ramanan, 2016). It has a higher cetane rating, which promotes
easier cold starting and lower idle noise. Biodiesel is produced from
different raw materials and processes as a result of which there are
minor deviation in its properties. Lubricating properties of biodiesel
esters and is made from renewable vegetable oils, recycled cooking
oils or animal fats (Sonar et al., 2014). Of late, research work on non-
petroleum, renewable and non-polluting fuels is being carried out
owing to restricted and limited availability of raw materials and reser-
vation of fossil fuels. Biodiesel can be used in modern diesel engines
with minor or no-modifications (Yuvarajan et al., 2016). Vegetable oils
are used as straight fuel or blended with diesel fuel in compression-
ignition (CI) engines (Devarajan et al., 2016).

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: dyuvarajan2@gmail.com, dyuvarajan7@gmail.com (Y. Devarajan), dinesh198014@yahoo.com (D.B. Munuswamy),
mapj08@gmail.com (A. Mahalingam).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2017.07.021
0957-5820/© 2017 Institution of Chemical Engineers. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
284 Process Safety and Environmental Protection 1 1 1 ( 2 0 1 7 ) 283–291
The main drawbacks of neat biodiesel are high kinematic viscos-
ity, density, volatility, lower energy content and higher NOx emission
(Diyauddeen et al., 2012). High engine deposits and thickening of
the lubricating oil has been observed while using neat vegetable oil
(Devarajan et al., 2017). Combustion efficiency is reduced due to higher
kinematic viscosity, poor volatility and lower heating value of muhua
oil (Sonar et al., 2014). Further, it also increases carbon-monoxide,
hydrocarbon, nitrogen-oxide and smoke emissions. Neat biodiesel
results in increased delay period, inferior combustion rate and lower
brake thermal efficiency (Sonar et al., 2014).
Many techniques are followed to reduce NOx emissions from
biodiesel (Shafii, 2011; Aalam et al., 2015; Vairamuthu et al., 2016;
Mirzajanzadeh et al., 2015; Basha and Anand, 2011; Yuvarajan
and Ramanan, 2016). The concept of using nanofluid to reduce
NOx emission and to increase in performance characteristics in
compression-ignition engine is an evolving area of research. The addi-
tion of nano-particles in liquid fuels acts as a catalyst to promote
the combustion and result in complete burning of fuels (Shafii, 2011).
Studies have shown that by adding nanofluid to biodiesel results in
reduction in heat flux, thermal loading and metal temperature of
combustion chamber’s components (Basha and Anand, 2011). Nanopar-
ticles alter the chemical composition of fuel, which has encouraging
impact on emission characteristics (Vairamuthu et al., 2016). Moreover,
it has been reported that adding nano particles to diesel can drastically
increase the ignition probability of the mixture (Shafii, 2011).
Aalam et al. (2015) investigated the consequence of adding alu-
minum oxide nano-particles in diesel and jujube methyl-ester blends.
Zinc-oxide was added in 25 and 50 ppm (mass basis) in a common rail
direct injection constant-speed diesel engine. It was added with the aid
of ultrasonicator and mechanical homogenizer. All the analyses were
represented with brake-power. BSFC was reduced by 4.86 g/kWh by
adding aluminum oxide nano-particles to the blends. Further, 30 HSU
of smoke emission were reduced by incorporating aluminum oxide
nano-particles to the blends. At full-load conditions, the observed
value of smoke emissions with and without the addition of aluminum
oxide nano-particles was found to be 79 and 49 HSU respectively.
Similarly, observed value of HC emissions with and without addi-
tion of aluminum oxide nano-particles was found to be 8.599 g/kWh
and 13.459 g/kWh. Addition of aluminum oxide nano-particles has
significant improvement in heat release rate and brake thermal effi-
ciency. Vairamuthu et al. (2016) performed an experimental study on
calophyllum inophyllum biodiesel with the addition the of cerium
oxide nano-particles in direct injection constant-speed compression-
ignition engine. Cerium-oxide nano-particles (200 ppm) were added to
Calophyllum Inophyllum methyl-ester to observe its influences on per-
formance and emission characteristics. Brake thermal efficiency with
and without addition of cerium-oxide nano-particles in neat calophyl-
lum inophyllum at full-load conditions were found to be 25.09 and
21.61% respectively. The emission of carbon-monoxide oxidation and
nitrogen oxides was reduced with the addition of Cerium oxide nano-
particles. 25.08% reduction in NOx emissions were observed during the
experimental work. Mirzajanzadeh et al. (2015) investigated the con-
sequence of adding cerium-oxide and multiwall carbon nano-tubes
in bio-diesel and diesel blends in a varying speed diesel EU2 engine.
The speed of the engine was varied in steps of 200 rpm from 1000 to
2200 rpm. The obtained results were correlated with respect to load.
The maximum torque was observed at 1600 rpm when fueled with bio-
diesel and diesel blends. The size of the additives was in the range
of 40–50 nm. The concentration of cerium-oxide and multiwall carbon
nano tubes in biodiesel and diesel blends were 30, 60, and 90 ppm. The
results observed were 7.81 and 4.91% increase in power and torque
when fueled with 90 ppm cerium-oxide and multiwall carbon nano
tubes. A reduction of 4.50, 38.8, 18.9, 71.4 and 26.3% in BSFC, CO, NOx,
soot and HC were observed with the addition of additives to biodiesel
and diesel blends.
Basha and Anand (2011) carried out an experimental investigation
on jatropha methyl-ester (JME) emulsion fuel (5% of water along with
2% of surfactants (volume basis)) blended with different ppm (25, 50
and 100 ppm) of Carbon Nanotubes (CNT) in a constant-speed direct
injection single cylinder diesel engine. CNT doped emulsion fuel was
stable for a period of five days attributable to high speed shakeup at
3000 rpm. Brake thermal efficiency was found to increase by 2.1% (BTE
for 100CNT blended Jetropha Methyl-ester emulsion fuel was 28.45%,
while that from Jetropha Methyl-ester emulsion fuel and neat Jetropha
methyl-ester were 26.34 and 24.80% respectively). In addition to it, 29%
of NOx and 28% of smoke opacity was reduced with the addition of
carbon nano-tubes in Jetropha methyl-ester emulsion fuel. Yuvarajan
and Ramanan (2016) studied the effect of ferrofluid on the performance
and emissions characteristics of diesel engine using neat biodiesel
and found significant reduction in HC, CO, NOx and smoke emissions.
Further, brake thermal efficiency is increased by 2.2% by adding fer-
rofluid to neat biodiesel. Daneshvar et al. (2011) studied the effect of
water-based ferrofluid as an additive in diesel fuel and found gradual
reduction in fuel consumption.
It was experimentally found that the magnetic field improves the
physical and chemical properties of the liquid (Zeeshan et al., 2016;
Ellahi et al., 2016; Ellahi and Nadeem, 2015). In addition, magnetic field
improves the formation of fuel mixture by reducing the surface ten-
sion and kinematic viscosity of fuel (Khan et al., 2016; Uguru-Okorie,
2013; Farrag and Gad, 2010; Faris, 2012). Uguru-Okorie (2013) studied the
effect of magnetic field to enhance the combustion in diesel engine. He
found drastic reduction in ignition delay as magnetic field applied in
the fuel injection system reduces the viscosity and surface tension of
fuel during combustion. Farrag and Gad (2010) investigated the effect of
fuel magnetism on engine performance and emissions pattern of diesel
engine. They found drastic reduction in delay period as magnetic field
applied increases the atomization process. Faris (2012) investigated the
effect of magnetic field on fuel consumption and exhaust emissions in
constant speed two-Stroke Engine. They reported that magnetic field
converts hydrogen in the fuel into para hydrogen which interlocks with
oxygen present in the chamber during combustion which results in
improved combustion and lesser emissions. Patel (2014) investigated
the impact of magnetic field on performance and emission of single
cylinder four stroke diesel engine. He found that the magnetic field
improves the atomization of fuel by reducing its viscosity and surface
tension.
Based on the review of previous studies, it can be concluded that
the presence of nano-additives and ignition improver in methyl-esters
enhances combustion characteristics. Inclusion of nano-particles
exhibits a high catalytic activity because of its high surface-area-
to-volume ratio leading to improvement in the fuel efficiency and
reduction in the emissions. Nano-additives also reduce the ignition
delay, shorten burn times and rapidly release energy. Magnetite mineral
is one of the three common naturally occurring oxides of iron. Further
it can also be concluded that no study has been conducted on append-
ing magnetite based nanofluid to neat mahua oil biodiesel to view its
effects on combustion, performance and emission pattern. Hence, the
present experimental study is aimed to investigate the impact of mag-
netite based nanofluid on the physicochemical properties of biodiesel
and also its influence on the engine performance, emissions and com-
bustion.
2. Materials and reagents
2.1. Muhua oil
Mahua belongs to species of sapotaceae. It is an Indian tropical
tree found across the northern part (Sonar et al., 2014). It grows
20 m in height and grows at rapid pace. Hence, there is surplus
availability of mahua oil which can be considered as potential
candidate for alternative fuel. Moreover, by commercializing
the usage of mahua oil as an alternative fuel, the domestic and
rural agricultural economy will be strengthened. Mahua oil is
converted into biodiesel by conventional transesterification.
Fatty acid compositions of mahua oil biodiesel are illustrated
in Table 1.
 Process Safety and Environmental Protection 1 1 1 ( 2 0 1 7 ) 283–291 285

Table 1 – Fatty acid compositions of mahua oil biodiesel.

Fatty acids Mahua oil (wt%) Mahua biodiesel (wt%)

Palmitic 23.56 22.53

Stearic 16.77 17.96
Oleic 40.68 40.1
Linoleic 17.77 18.05
Linoleic 1.22 1.36

2.2. Synthesis of ferrofluid

The synthesis was made possible because of the reaction

between iron II (FeCl2 ) and iron III (FeCl3 ) ions in the pres-
ence of aqueous ammonia solution to form ferrofluid (Fe3 O4 )
as mentioned vide Eq. (1) comprising magnetite of 14 nm size
(Berger et al., 1999). Aqueous tri methyl ammonium hydrox-
ide ((CH3 )3 NOH) solution was used as surfactant (39.76 g of
FeCl2 + 4H2 O in 100 ml of 2 ml of hydrochloric acid, 48 ml
of concentrated aqueous NH3 diluted to 1 l with H2 O and
25% aqueous (CH3 )4 NOH solution were employed in this
Fig. 1 – Photograph of ‘as synthesized’ mahua oil
study). This facilitates surrounding of magnetite particles
methyl-ester.
with hydroxide anions and tetra methyl ammonium cations
to create electrostatic inter-particle repulsion in an aqueous
Table 2 – Details for ferrofluid.
environment. The synthesized MOMEF was black in colour.
Chemical name Fe3 O4

FeCl2 + 2FeCl3 + 8NH3 + 4H2 O → Fe3 O4 + 8NH4 Cl. (1) Average size of particle 14 nm
Appearance Black
Fe3 O4 (Ferrofluid) has a property to corrode the engine parts State Liquid
if its limit exceeds 1% by volume as listed in ASTM limit of class
1b. Accordingly, ferrofluid and surfactant used in the base fuel Table 3 – Properties of diesel, MOME and MOMEF.
(MOME) was limited to 1 and 0.3% respectively, by volume. The
Properties MOME MOMEF Diesel ASTM standards
average size of magnetite particles synthesized by the method
described in this paper is 14 nm. These magnetite particles are Kinematic 5.97 5.45 4.25 ASTM D445
viscosity in cst
small enough to sustain a colloidal suspension, and a good
Flash point in ◦ C 136 143 48 ASTM D93
ferrofluid can be produced.
Water content % 0.10 0.15 Nil ASTM D2709
Calorific value in 37147 38543 42641 ASTM D240
2.3. Base fuel synthesis kJ/kg
Cetane index 52 55 46 ASTM D976
Base catalyzed transesterification process is carried out to
convert the neat mahua oil into biodiesel. Molar ratio of 6:1 2.5. Comparisons on fuel properties of MOME and
(methanol to mahua oil) and potassium hydroxide of 0.3% MOMEF
(wt/wt) is employed in transesterification process. Sample
containing 500 ml of mahua oil is heated at atmospheric con- The physical and chemical properties of MOME and MOMEF
dition till the oil attains 60 ◦ C. Measured quantity of solution were quantified following ASTM standards. ASTM also details
containing catalyst dispersed in methanol is then added and the standards and specifications for biodiesels blended with
stirred at a constant stirring speed of 400 rpm for 1 h and kept middle distillate fuels. This specification standard specifies
untouched for formation of two layers (mahua oil biodiesel various test methods to be used in the determination of
and glycerol). Mahua oil biodiesel is then removed by grav- certain properties for biodiesel blends. Some of the tests men-
ity separation technique. Fig. 1 shows the photograph of ‘as tioned include density, kinematic viscosity, flash point and
synthesized’ mahua oil methyl-ester. cetane number. The biodiesel standards as earmarked by
ASTM are tabulated in Table 3. By incorporating ferrofluid to
2.4. Modified fuel synthesis biodiesel, there is a significant improvement in all the prop-
erties owing to its positive effect (Zeeshan et al., 2016; Ellahi
Synthesis of MOMEF was carried out by mixing a pre- et al., 2016; Ellahi and Nadeem, 2015).
measured quantity of MOME (same measure of alcohol, oil
and catalyst), ferrofluid and surfactant using an ultrasonic 2.6. Engine test set-up & procedure
agitator for 60 min to aid better mixing and homogeneous sus-
pension. The synthesized MOMEF was kept in a glass vessel Constant speed (1300 rpm), two-cylinder, four-stroke, water-
with stopper for a period of one month at room temperature cooled diesel engine is employed in this study. Technical
to observe any phase separation characteristics. Owing to the specification of engine employed in this study is listed in
presence of surfactants, ferrofluid showed long-term stabil- Table 4. Fig. 3 shows the layout of experimental setup. Gas
ity and homogeneity with MOME. The photographic view of analyzer (AVL 444 di gas analyzer) is employed to compute the
ferrofluid, MOME and MOMEF is depicted in Fig. 2. Details for pollutants in the exhaust gas. Smoke concentration is com-
ferrofluid are listed in Table 2. puted by employing AVL 437 Smoke meter. AVL 619 Indimeter
286 Process Safety and Environmental Protection 1 1 1 ( 2 0 1 7 ) 283–291

Fig. 2 – Photograph of (a) ferrofluid and (b) MOME, MOMEF.

Fig. 3 – Layout of engine and instrumentation set up.

combustion and performance were measured for MOME The

Table 4 – Engine specifications.
experiments were repeated for three times and the average of
Make Simpson-S127
these readings was taken for the analysis. The whole exper-
Stroke 4 imental work was performed at atmospheric conditions. The
Cylinder Two ambient temperature and pressure was 34 ◦ C and 1.01325 bar,
Rated power 21 KW respectively. Gas analyzer and the pressure transducer were
Rated speed 1300 rpm calibrated and verified well before the commencement of
Bore diameter (D) 91.44 mm
testing. Table 6 illustrates the estimated uncertainty for the
Stroke (L) 127 mm
Compression ratio 18.5:1
measured and calculated quantities.
Cooling Water cooled
3. Results and discussion
of software version 2.2 is used in the study. The volt, frequency
and power supply required for the analyzer is in the range The synthesized fuel MOMEF were subjected to performance,
of 85–265 V, 50–60 Hz and 60 VA, respectively. The measuring emission and combustion analysis using the developed exper-
range of the analyzer is 0–250 bar. Sensitivity, linearity and life- imental and instrumentation setup and the outcome were
time of the analyzer is 16.04 pc/bar, <±0.3% and 109 load cycles compared with MOME and diesel.
respectively. Crank angle is inferred using TDC encoder. Tech-
nical specification of gas analyzer and smoke meter is listed in 3.1. Pressure vs crank angle
Table 5. Error involved in the measurement of all the emission
is calculated by the procedure recommended by Moffat (1985). Fig. 4 shows the variation in instantaneous pressure with
AVL combustion analyzer is used to analyze the combustion crank angle for MOME, MOMEF and diesel at constant speed
characteristics of the engine. and full load conditions. Peak pressure of CI engine depends
The engine was started and warmed up with diesel to on combustion rate in initial stages which is influenced by
attain steady-state conditions. In order to fix the base-line the amount of fuel burnt in the premixed combustion that
all the parameters necessary for evaluating the emissions, depends on delay period and mixture preparation. Peak pres-

Table 5 – Gas analyzer and smoke meter details.

Parameters Model Range Percentage uncertainty Accuracy

CO AVL 444 di gas 0–10% volume ±0.2% ±0.02%

HC analyzer 0–20000 ±3% ±10 ppm
NOx 0–5000 ppm ±0.2% ±10 ppm

Smoke AVL 437 smoke meter 0–100% opacity ±1% full of scale reading –
 Process Safety and Environmental Protection 1 1 1 ( 2 0 1 7 ) 283–291
Fig. 4 – Variation of pressure with crank angle.
Table 6 – Estimated uncertainty for the measured and
calculated quantities.
Quantity Estimated uncertainty
Load ±1 N
Speed ±0.4%
Brake mean effective pressure (Mpa) ±1.1%
Cylinder pressure (bar) ±1.1%
Fuel injection start angle (◦ CA) ±0.6 ◦ CA
Temperature of exhaust gas (◦ C) ±3 ◦ C
Calculated results Calculated uncertainty
BTE (%) ±2.1%
BSFC (kg/Kwh) ±2.1%
Torque (Nm) ±0.5%
Brake power (Kw) ±2%
sure and its occurrence for MOME, MOMEF and Diesel are
found to be 69.02 bar at 8◦ a TDC, 66.13 bar at 6◦ a TDC and
65.38 bar at 5◦ a TDC respectively. Peak pressure of MOME
is higher than MOMEF and diesel by 4.18% and 5.34%. Since
the viscosity of MOME is higher by 5.94% comparing MOMEF
atomization and mixing of fuel with air is not in uniform
rate causing longer breakup length, lower dispersion rate and
increased ignition delay. Due to longer delay period more mea-
sure of fuel is accumulated causing rapid increase in peak
pressure. Similar results were cited on the experimental work
by Vairamuthu et al. (2016).
It is also inferred that the peak pressure of diesel is lesser
than MOME and MOMEF. This is due to reduced fuel consump-
tion of diesel in comparison with MOME and MOMEF ensuring
improved atomization and better combustion which result in
shorter ignition delay and lower peak pressure (Yuvarajan and
Ramanan, 2016). It is also inferred that by addition of fer-
rofluid the peak cylinder pressure is reduced by 3.35%. This
is due to shorter delay period and improved ignition prop-
erties of nanoparticles which initiate the early combustion
when compared to MOME as cited by Basha and Anand (2011).
Furthermore, cetane number of MOMEF is marginally higher
than MOME which initiates quicker evaporation and improved
combustion leading shorter ignition delay period. It is also
observed that the occurrence of peak pressure is advanced
with addition of ferrofluid. The presence of ferrofluid accel-
erates the combustion rate and reduces ignition delay period
(Yuvarajan and Ramanan, 2016). Moreover ferrofluid has sup-
plies surplus oxygen which promotes combustion rate.
287
Fig. 5 – Variation in heat release rate with crank angle.
3.2. Heat release rate
Heat release rate is used to identify start of combustion, mass
of fuel burned and the difference in combustion rate of fuels.
Fig. 5 shows the heat release rate for MOME, MOMEF and
diesel at constant speed and full load conditions. As it can be
observed the maximum heat release rate of MOME, MOMEF
and diesel are 76.44, 70.66 and 66.80 J/◦ CA respectively. Heat
release rate for MOME and MOMEF is higher than diesel. This
is due to longer delay period causing additional accumula-
tion of fuel and result in higher heat release rate. Due to
longer delay period peak heat release rate occurs in later
part for MOME and MOMEF in comparison with diesel. Fur-
thermore MOME and MOMEF have lower calorific value and
comparatively lesser efficiency which in turn increases the
fuel consumption and thereby releasing more heat comparing
diesel. It is also observed that HRR for MOME is high compared
to MOMEF. This is due to enhancement in premixed combus-
tion as a result of prolonged ignition delay for MOME. This is in
agreement with similar work done by Basha and Anand (2011).
Fig. 12 depicts the variation of ignition delay for tested
fuels with load. It is observed that addition of ferrofluid short-
ens ignition delay at all loads due to quicker evaporation and
improved ignition properties as cited by Shafii et al. (2011).
The other reason for shorter delay period is due to higher
octane number of MOMEF. In general fuel with higher octane
number value will reduce ignition delay in diesel engine. It
can be observed that rate of pressure rise is comparable for
MOME with that of MOMEF as pictured in Fig. 10. In the case of
MOME the rate of pressure rise is marginally higher compared
to MOMEF. This is due to longer ignition delay for MOME. The
above results are in agreement with the experimental work
done by Yuvarajan and Ramanan (2016). Table 7 illustrates
combustion parameters of all test fuels at full load conditions.
3.3. Brake thermal efficiency (BTE)
Brake thermal efficiency (BTE) indicates the ratio between the
power generated by engine with respect to heat supplied by
the fuel. Variations in brake thermal efficiency with load for
the fuels are shown in Fig. 6. It was inferred that the brake
thermal efficiencies of MOME and MOMEF is lower than that
of diesel at all loads. Characterization studies carried revealed
the presence of moisture in biofuels, which varied from 0.09
to 0.12% as compared to zilch content of moisture in diesel.
Moreover the calorific value of diesel is higher than MOME
and MOMEF. Higher calorific value leads to lesser requirement
of fuel for delivering any given rated power (Yuvarajan and
Venkata Ramanan, 2016). Hence, the requirement of biofuels
288 Process Safety and Environmental Protection 1 1 1 ( 2 0 1 7 ) 283–291

Table 7 – Combustion parameters of test fuels (1300 rpm and at peak conditions).
Fueltype Maximum Peak pressure occurrence Start of fuel Start of combustion Ignition
pressure (bar) (◦ BTDC) injection (◦ BTDC) (◦ BTDC) delay (◦ )

Diesel 65.38 5 17 8 9
MOME 69.02 8 17 3 14
MOMEF 66.13 6 17 5 12

Fig. 6 – Variation of brake thermal efficiency with loads.

Fig. 7 – Variation of brake specific fuel consumption with
loads.
for delivering the same power as that of diesel would be higher.
This leads to admission of higher moisture in-to the engine,
which does consume a part of the fuel for its phase transfor-
mation, thereby causing heat losses and paving way for lower
efficiencies (Devarajan et al., 2016).
It is also inferred that mean BTE for MOMEF is higher than
MOME by 2.27%. Higher BTE for MOMEF is due to the excess
availability of oxygen present in nano-fluid, which enhances
air–fuel mixing thereby increasing efficiency (Shafii, 2011;
Aalam et al., 2015). In addition, the ferrofluid promotes longer
and complete combustion as it releases heat at higher temper-
ature and enhances the efficiency (Yuvarajan and Ramanan,
2016). Faris (2012) investigated the effect of magnetic field on
fuel consumption and exhaust emissions in constant speed
two-Stroke Engine. They reported that magnetic field con-
verts hydrogen in the fuel into para hydrogen which interlocks
with oxygen present in the chamber during combustion which
results in improved combustion and higher BTE. The same Fig. 8 – Variation of exhaust gas temperature with loads.
trend has been observed in this trail. Further, the observa-
tions are in line with the experimental work of Sadhik Basha bustion in diesel engine. He found drastic reduction in ignition
and Anand (2011). BTE at full load is observed as 28.54% for delay as magnetic field applied in the fuel injection system
MOMEF whereas it is 25.25% and 29.01% for MOME and diesel reduces the viscosity and surface tension of fuel during com-
respectively. bustion. The fuel with lower viscosity aids the combustion and
lowers the fuel consumption (Basha and Anand, 2011). The
3.4. Brake specific fuel consumption average value of BSFC for MOMEF – at all-loads – is lesser than
MOME by 0.0732 kg/kWh (i.e., 5.11% lower). This is due to the
Brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) is a parameter, which reduced ignition delay caused by nano-sized ferro-additives
defines the fuel consumption and utilization per unit power (Basha and Anand, 2011). Experimental results of Shafli et al.
and time. Variations in brake specific fuel consumption with (2011) coincide with the observation.
loads for fuels are shown in Fig. 7. BSFC from MOME and
MOMEF were higher than diesel at all-loads. This was due to 3.5. Exhaust gas temperature
the lower calorific value of methyl-ester comparing with diesel
which results in an additional consumption of fuel to main- Higher exhaust gas temperature (EGT) indicates the poor
tain constant power output (Yuvarajan and Venkata Ramanan, energy utilization by the engine, which in turn led to lower
2016) BTE and BSFC are inversely proportional i.e., a fuel with thermal efficiency. Variations in EGT with load for the tested
higher BTE will have lower BSFC. Hence, the reasoning pre- fuels are shown in Fig. 8. EGT shows an increasing trend with
sented for the variation in BTE among the biofuels and biofuels loads for all the fuels, which is synonymous with the fact
with that of diesel is applicable for BSFC also. Uguru-Okorie that higher loads demands higher fuel consumption, result-
(2013) studied the effect of magnetic field to enhance the com- ing in higher EGT. The EGT for diesel was the lowest among
 Process Safety and Environmental Protection 1 1 1 ( 2 0 1 7 ) 283–291
Fig. 9 – Variation of CO emission with loads.
all the biofuels at all loads. The kinematic viscosity, density,
flash-point and ignition delay of diesel were lower than all the
biofuels. The lower values of the said parameters led to bet-
ter and rapid combustion of diesel (Yuvarajan and Ramanan,
2016). However, biofuel possesses higher kinematic viscosity,
density and flash-point thus leading to greater ignition delay,
inducing more ‘after burning’ phenomenon in the CI engine,
resulting in higher EGT. An average of 4.5% reduction in EGT
was observed by appending ferrofluid to MOME. The differ-
ence in EGT of MOMEF and MOME seems to vary from 13 ◦ C
at lower loads to 20 ◦ C at higher loads. In addition, magnetic
field in ferrofluid improves the formation of fuel mixture by
reducing the surface tension, kinematic viscosity of fuel and
lowers EGT (Khan et al., 2016; Uguru-Okorie, 2013). The cause
of lower EGT for MOMEF was the excess availability of oxygen
in the nano-additive aiding better efficiency and reduced ‘after
burning’ (Shafii, 2011; Aalam et al., 2015; Vairamuthu et al.,
2016; Mirzajanzadeh et al., 2015; Basha and Anand, 2011).
3.6. Carbon monoxide
CO emission predominantly arises from any deficiencies in
oxygen to convert all the carbon present in the fuel or
improper atomization of fuel. CO emissions indicate losses of
chemical energy in the fuel. CO emissions may be expected in
both lean and rich mixture. If the mixture is lean, sustaining
the flame propagation is arduous meanwhile rich mixture will
have insufficient quantity of oxygen to convert CO to CO2 . Vari-
ations of CO emissions with load for fuels are shown in Fig. 9.
The CO emission shows the increasing trend with loads for all
the fuels. With increase in load the quantity of fuel required
to meet out the constant power is more, leading to reduced
residence time for oxidation of CO. Further, at higher loads
the air-fuel ratio gets richer, causing higher emissions of CO
(Devarajan et al., 2017).
CO emissions of biofuels are lower than that of diesel at all-
loads. This is due to higher oxygen content in methyl-ester,
which promotes oxidation reaction, and leading to lesser CO
emissions. Experimental works of Diyauddeen et al. (2012),
Sonar et al. (2014) coincide with the observations. An aver-
age of 32.06% reduction in CO emissions was observed by
appending ferrofluid to MOME. The difference in CO emis-
sion of MOMEF and MOME seems to vary from 0.13 g/kWh
at lower loads to 1.55 g/kWh at higher loads. The cause of
lower CO emissions for MOMEF was due to its high surface-to-
volume ratio, which activates the catalytic activity, leading to
significant reduction in emissions (Shafii, 2011; Aalam et al.,
289
Fig. 10 – Variations of HC emissions with various loads.
2015; Vairamuthu et al., 2016). Further, ferrofluid undergoes
catalytic oxidation reaction leading to improved mixing rate
of fuel with air (Yuvarajan and Ramanan, 2016). Faris (2012)
investigated the effect of magnetic field exhaust emissions in
constant speed two-Stroke Engine. They reported that mag-
netic field converts hydrogen in the fuel into para hydrogen
which interlocks with oxygen present in the chamber during
combustion which results in CO emissions lesser emissions.
Similar trends were observed by incorporating ferrofluid to
biodiesel. The result of Mirzajanzadeh et al. (2015), Basha and
Anand (2011) seconds the experimental observations.
3.7. Unburned hydrocarbon
The main cause of HC emission is the non-homogeneity of
air–fuel mixture which is exacerbated by lack of oxidants.
Variations of HC emissions with load for fuels are shown in
Fig. 10. HC emission shows the increasing trends with load
for all the fuels. CI engines are quality governed engines i.e.,
the quantity of air intake to the engine remains constant irre-
spective of the load of the engine. At higher loads, to maintain
constant power output, the quantity of fuel supplied is more
with the same quantity of air. This in turn makes the air–fuel
mixture richer and result in higher HC emissions (Yuvarajan
and Venkata Ramanan, 2016). HC emissions from biofuels are
lower than that of diesel. This was due to higher oxygen
content in methyl-ester, which promoted oxidation reaction
and resulted in lesser HC emissions (Diyauddeen et al., 2012).
Aalam et al. (2015) observed a 23% reduction in HC emission
for methyl-ester, comparing diesel, citing ample availability of
oxygen as the cause.
An average of 16.72% reduction in HC emissions were
observed by appending ferrofluid to MOME. The difference
in HC emissions of MOMEF and MOME seems to vary from
0.033 g/kWh at lower loads to 0.073 g/kWh at higher loads.
Ferrofluid acts as an oxidation catalyst lowering the car-
bon combustion activation temperature and enhancing HC
oxidation (Shafii, 2011). A similar outcome was cited on exper-
imental work by Sajith et al. (2010). Further, ferrofluid has the
ability to undergo a transformation from the stoichiometric
to valance state, releasing the oxygen which aids the oxi-
dation reaction leading lower HC emissions (Yuvarajan and
Ramanan, 2016). Patel (2014) investigated the impact of mag-
netic field on performance and emission of single cylinder
four stroke diesel engine. He found that the magnetic field
improves the atomization of fuel by reducing its viscosity and
surface tension. Similar trends were observed by incorporat-
290 Process Safety and Environmental Protection 1 1 1 ( 2 0 1 7 ) 283–291
Fig. 11 – Variation of NOx emission with various loads.
ing ferrofluid to biodiesel. Kannan et al. (2011) reported similar
observations in experimentation with methyl-esters.
3.8. Oxides of nitrogen
Variations of NOx emissions with load for fuels are shown in
Fig. 11. It is evident that NOx emission increases with load
for all the test fuels. At higher loads the peak gas tempera-
ture is raised promoting NOx formation for all the test fuels.
Zelodvich NOx thermal mechanism suggests that the exor-
bitant temperature prevailing in the combustion chamber at
higher loads leads to higher NOx formation. NOx emissions
from biofuels are higher than that of Diesel. The possible rea-
son is due to higher availability of oxygen in methyl-esters
when compared to diesel (Yuvarajan and Venkata Ramanan,
2016). The other possible reason is due to higher peak cylin-
der pressure of methyl-esters over diesel originating high NOx
emissions (Diyauddeen et al., 2012). Further, it is observed that
peak cylinder pressure for MOME and MOMEF is high when
compared with diesel.
An average of 9.02% reduction in NOx emissions were
observed by appending ferrofluid to MOME. The difference
in HC emissions of MOMEF and MOME seems to vary from
0.647 g/kWh at no-loads to 0.861 g/kWh at full-loads. Since the
delay period of MOME is longer, more quantity of fuel is accu-
mulated favoring higher amounts of uncontrolled combustion
(Yuvarajan and Ramanan, 2016). This causes the rapid increase
in combustion temperature and peak pressure, paving way for
higher NOx emissions (Basha and Anand, 2011). The lower
NOx emissions of MOMEF may also be due to presence of
ferrofluid which enhances better thermal conductivity, facili-
tating lower ignition lag (Yuvarajan and Ramanan, 2016). The
outcomes are in line with the experimental works of by Shafli
et al. (2011).
3.9. Smoke opacity
Smoke opacity is strongly dependent on the amount of air in
the cylinder and oxygen in fuel. Variations of smoke emis-
sions with load for test fuels are shown in Fig. 12. The smoke
emission is found to increase with load for all the tested fuels.
As the load increases, the quantity of fuel injected is more
for the same quantity of air, causing inferior oxidation and
results in higher smoke emissions. The experimental works
of Diyauddeen et al. (2012), Devarajan et al. (2017) and Sonar
Fig. 12 – Variation of smoke emission with various loads.
et al. (2014) coincides with this observation. Smoke emissions
from biofuels are lower than that of diesel. This is due to
the inbuilt oxygen content in methyl-ester, which promotes
oxidation reaction and results in lesser smoke emissions
(Yuvarajan and Ramanan, 2016). Alam et al. (2015) observed
significant reduction in smoke emissions for methyl-ester,
compared with diesel citing ample availability of oxygen as
the reason. In addition, higher cetane index of methyl-esters
promoted combustion rate and resulted in lesser smoke emis-
sions (Vairamuthu et al., 2016).
The addition of ferrofluid to MOME has resulted in short-
ened ignition delay, better evaporation and better ignition
characteristics. An average of 14.28% reduction in smoke emis-
sion was observed by appending ferrofluid to MOME. This
result is in line with the work carried out by Sadhik Basha and
Anand (2011) and Yuvarajan and Ramanan (2016). The other
reason was due to the presence of surplus oxygen which acted
as oxidation catalyst and resulted in considerable improve-
ment in the oxidation of carbon, and subsequently reducing
smoke emission (Basha and Anand, 2011). Farrag and Gad
(2010) investigated the effect of fuel magnetism on emissions
pattern of diesel engine and found drastic reduction in delay
period as magnetic field applied increases the atomization
process. Reduction in ignition delay leads to lesser accumu-
lation of fuel which cause complete burning of fuels and
lower smoke emissions (Yuvarajan and Ramanan, 2016). Sim-
ilar findings were cited in the experimental works of Kannan
et al. (2011).
4. Conclusion
The major conclusions derived from this experimental work
are:
• Methyl-esters of mahua oil can be combusted in an IC
engine like other biofuels without any major modifications.
• The emissions of CO, HC and smoke are noticed to be of the
following pattern: MOMEF < MOME < diesel at all loads.
• The in-cylinder pressure was comparatively low for diesel
followed by MOMEF when compared to MOME. This was due
to shorter ignition delay period.
• The heat release rate of MOME was the highest among all
fuels for its BTE was low requiring more fuel for the same
output power. Higher kinematic viscosity of MOME caused
more ignition lag, leading to higher HRR.
• MOME upon subjected to appending of nano-additives
resulted in improvement in its properties. The BTE of
 Process Safety and Environmental Protection 1 1 1 ( 2 0 1 7 ) 283–291
MOMEF is superior to MOME at full load. Further, BSFC of
MOMEF is lower to MOME at all loads.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data associated with this arti-
cle can be found, in the online version, at
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2017.07.021.
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