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INDEPENDENT
STUDY
METHODS
Carrera de Pedagogía de los Idiomas Nacionales y Extranjeros
Unidad de Educación en Línea

Autor: Msc. Jairo Aguirre

Docente Tutor: Msc. Mauro David Villacrés

Universidad Técnica del Norte

Vicerrectorado Académico
Carrera de Pedagogía de los Idiomas Nacionales y Extranjeros

PhD. Marcelo Cevallos Vallejos

Rector

PhD. Miguel Naranjo Toro

Vicerrector Académico

MSc. Jairo Aguirre

Autor

M.Sc. Mauro David Villacrés

Docente Tutor

MSc. Omar Lara

Coordinador Unidad de Educación en Línea

MSc. Marcia Mantilla.

Coordinadora de la Carrera de Pedagogía de los
Idiomas

Derechos de autor
El contenido de este sitio está licenciado bajo las licencias:
• Copyright © 2020 por Universidad Técnica del Norte. Todos los derechos reservados.
• Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International
Contenido
Esquema.......................................................................................................................................4
Ideas clave ....................................................................................................................................6
1.1. Introduction and Objectives .........................................................................................6
1.2. Learning processes .......................................................................................................6
1.3. Know how to listen, speak, read and write ................................................................13
1.4. Study Techniques .......................................................................................................18
1.5. Main and secondary ideas ..........................................................................................28
1.6. Referencias bibliográficas ...........................................................................................70
Material Complementario ..........................................................................................................72
 Esquema

INDEPENDENT STUDY METHODS

EFFECTIVE STRATEGIES GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES FOR ONLINE LEARNING AUTONOMOUS LEARNING

Topics Topics
-Learning Process Topics Topics
-Cause and effect
-Mental Process -Virtual learning environment -Identify your own learning needs.
-Know how to listen, speak, write, and read. -Compare / contrast
-ICT -Set learning goals to address those needs.
-Study techniques -Conceptualizations
-Strategies focused on individualization of teaching, -Identify resources.
'Identification of the author's purpose -Conclusions strategies for group teaching and strategies focused on
-Evaluate the outcomes of your learning.
-Main Ideas or secondary ones. collaborative work.

Activities
- Synchronous Activities Activities Activities Activities
-Asynchronous Activities (Virtual Platform) - Synchronous Activities - Synchronous Activities - Synchronous Activities
-Asynchronous Activities (Virtual Platform) -Asynchronous Activities (Virtual Platform) -Asynchronous Activities (Virtual Platform)

Test
Test Test Test
-Diagnostic
-Diagnostic -Diagnostic -Diagnostic
-Formative (Quizzes)
-Formative (Quizzes) -Formative (Quizzes) -Formative (Quizzes)
-Summative
-Summative -Summative -Summative
 Ideas clave
1.1. Introduction and Objectives
Studying online requires students to be disciplined on their own learning. Probably it requires
an extra effort if students are working or have some responsibilities like taking care of children,
family or simply they have their own entrepreneurship.
To be effective in your learning, you have to learn some important aspects like the learning
processes, what the mental processes you have to apply are and the best way to learn how to
listen, speak, read and write. In life you have to apply different strategies to be successful; and
in your studies you have some processes you have to follow to be effective and productive.
For the first themes of this subject we will combine English and Spanish to start this demanding
program.
At the end of Independent Study Methods, students will be able to:
✓ Identify the learning and mental processes to be applied in your studies.
✓ Use the effective strategies (learning and mental processes) in your everyday academic
studies.
✓ Identify the effective strategies how to read, listen, write and speak.
✓ Conclude about the way you learn a second language
✓ Identify the best study techniques for studying online.
✓ Analyze the purpose of the author when applying effective strategies to learn on an online
program.
✓ Identify the main and secondary ideas.
✓ Summarize concepts learned about strategies (main and secondary ideas)

1.2. Learning processes

Lesson aims:

✓ Identify the learning and mental processes to be applied in your studies.

✓ Use the effective strategies (learning and mental processes) in your everyday
academic studies.

LEARNING PROCESSES

In the first topic referring to effective strategies for learning independently

we need to know some aspects such as learning and mental processes.

The world of studies requires a lot of effort, discipline and constancy to overcome all of the
obstacles and difficulties you will have in your way to be
professional of one of the best universities of the country.
 The students who belong to the online program must develop specific strategies for
learning on this new kind of modality which will be totally different from the traditional way of
learning (onsite). At the end, students need to be autonomous on their studies applying the best
strategies and techniques to succeed in each level and finally the program to which he or she
entered. We as teachers have to apply strategies to develop autonomy with the main purpose
to accomplish independent and creative learning (Campos Perales & Moya Ricardo, 2011).

In the following article, we are going to learn more about learning

processes.

Retrieved from:
http://oaji.net/articles/2016/3757-1472501941.pdf

The Four Stages of Learning

I recently had an interesting conversation about life and how life lessons occur in stages. We
compared it to learning to ride a bike. It was so difficult to learn, yet now you find it so easy
you’ve forgotten how you learned it in the first place. It got me thinking about what those stages
actually are. It turns out I’m not the first one to theorize about this. Technically, the term is
“Four Stages of Competence” and was originally established by Gordon Training International in
the 70s. (Lugo & Sarah, 2014)

The idea is that learners are not aware of how little or much they know. They go through the
four (or five) stages listed below, depending on how much they know about a given topic or skill.
In the end, the learner will be able to use the knowledge or skill without having to think about
what they’re doing. It is important to keep these stages in mind when developing eLearning
because different learners will be at different stages. (Lugo & Sarah, 2014)

1) Unconscious Incompetence

In this stage, the learner does not have a skill or knowledge set yet. They do not see any reason
to learn it because they don’t consider it a need. You don’t know what you don’t know. For
example, as a very young child you do not yet realize the usefulness of riding a bike. As an
educator, it is important to work with the marketing department on how to best market learning
offerings to those in this stage. (Check out this blog post on how education and marketing must
work together in eLearning). They may or may not realize the benefits of your education yet, but
the objective is to reveal that there ARE benefits. If you introduce potential learners to your
offerings, they may realize that they CAN gain value from those skills and knowledge sets and
reach stage two, conscious incompetence. (Lugo & Sarah, 2014)

2) Conscious Incompetence

By the second stage the learner is aware of the skill that they lack and can understand that there
is a deficit. Ignorance is no longer bliss. Ideally, this is who should be signing up for the majority
of your online courses. In this stage, the learner wants to learn because they are aware of their
lack of knowledge and it makes them uneasy. Selling courses to this demographic should be
easiest. (Lugo & Sarah, 2014)

3) Conscious Competence

The conscious competence stage takes place when a learner has acquired a skill but has not yet
mastered it to the point where it comes naturally. Imagine you are have learned the steps to
riding the bike, but you still need to go through the steps when getting on the bike, or you need
training wheels. This is when the learner usually needs testing, instructors, or other tools to hold
their hand through it, or even talking themselves through the steps. At this point the learner
uses your online courses to gain fluency in the skills and become an engaged learner who wants
to reach the fourth stage. Think of this learner as a student studying for a test. They feel prepared
but sometimes still rely on flash cards. (Lugo & Sarah, 2014)

4) Unconscious Competence

You know the phrase, “It’s like riding a bike. You never forget how to do it.” The fourth stage of
learning encompasses just that: you know it so well you don’t even realize you are doing it. The
skill is so embedded that the learner doesn’t even need to process what they are doing. Issues
can arise when you combine unconscious competence learners with unconscious incompetence
learners because neither of them can articulate the skill. (Lugo & Sarah, 2014)

5) Fifth stage

Some theorists believe there is a fifth stage as well — “conscious competence of unconscious
competence.” In this stage the learner is able to relate to learners in stages 1-4 enough to teach
them. A stage five learner has reached a point where they can reflect on how they reached their
level of mastery. This means that they can empathize with learners in other stages. In your
organization, your super volunteers or SMEs are the most likely to be “fifth stagers.” They can
be useful in mentoring new members or providing guidance. (Lugo & Sarah, 2014)

Remember, knowledge is power. Understanding the stages of learning can help you become a
better educator. Learning makes the world go around, so be sure to help your members reach
their full potential by making them conscious of their level of competence. Did you just move
from unconscious incompetence to conscious incompetence by reading this? Add your thoughts
to the comments section. (Lugo & Sarah, 2014)

Interactive components of the learning process

There are six components of the learning process, they are:

1. Attention,
2. Memory,
3. Language,
4. Processing and organizing,
5. Graphometer (writing) and
6. Higher order thinking.

These processes interact not only with each other, but also with emotions, classroom climate,
behavior, social skills, teachers and family. (Moos, 2019)

In order to engage, motivate and teach all learners at optimal levels, teachers must understand
the learning process in general, understand and respond to students’ individual emotional and
cognitive profiles and select instructional strategies and tactics that are effective for diverse
learners. (Moos, 2019)

Attention: Paying attention is the first step in learning anything. It is easy for most of us to pay
attention to things that are interesting or exciting to us while It is difficult for most of us to pay
attention to things that are not. (Moos, 2019)

When something is not interesting to us, it is easily become distracted, to move to a more
stimulating topic or activity, or to tune out. The teacher’s job is to construct lessons that connect
to the learner. (Moos, 2019)

Relating what is to be taught to the students’ lives can accomplish this. Relate Romeo and Juliet,
for example, to the realities in our communities of prejudice, unfounded hatred and gang wars.
Or relate today’s discrimination to The Diary of Anne Frank, and hold class discussions of
discrimination that students have personally experienced or witnessed. (Moos, 2019)

Physical movement can help to “wake up” a mind. When a student shows signs of
inattentiveness and/or restlessness, teachers can provide the student with opportunities to
move around. Many students with attention challenges actually need to move in order to remain
alert. It is wise to find acceptable, non-destructive ways for these students to be active.
Responsibilities such as erasing the board, taking a message to the office, and collecting papers
can offer appropriate outlets for activity. (Moos, 2019)

Memory: Memory is the complex process that uses three systems to help a person receive, use,
store, and retrieve information. (Moos, 2019)
The are three memory systems, which are:
1) short-term memory e. g. remembering a phone number you got from information just long
enough to dial it.
2) working memory (e. g. keeping the necessary information “files” out on the mind’s “desktop”
while performing a task such as writing a paragraph or working a long division problem.
3) long-term memory e. g. a mind’s ever expanding file cabinet for important information we
want to retrieve over time.

Children in school have to remember much more information every day than most adults do.
Adults generally have more specialized days mechanics use and remember mechanical
information, dentists use and remember information about dentistry, and so on. On the other
hand, school expects that children become experts in several subjects e. g. mathematics,
language, science, social studies, a foreign language, the arts. (Moos, 2019)

It is important to remember that when a student understands something, it does not guarantee
that he will remember it. For example, a person may understand a joke that he heard at a party
on Saturday night, but he may have trouble remembering it when he tries to tell it to his friends
on Monday. (Moos, 2019)

In order to enhance the likelihood that all students will elaborate on new information, teachers
should activate their prior knowledge and make new information meaningful to them. For
example, a teacher may ask second graders how to divide a pan of brownies evenly among the
20 students in the class, and then connect their solution to the concept of equivalent fractions.
Relating how algebraic equations need to be equal or balanced on both sides to the benefits of
dividing candy or cookies evenly between friends also connects to prior knowledge. (Moos,
2019)

Students who have difficulty with both short-term and working memory may need directions
repeated to them. Giving directions both orally and in written form, and giving examples of what
is expected will help all students. All students will benefit from self-testing. Students should be
asked to identify the important information, formulate test questions and then answer them.
This tactic is also effective in cooperative learning groups and has been shown by evidence-
based research to increase reading comprehension. (Moos, 2019)

Language: Language is the primary means by which we give and receive information in school.
The two language processing systems are expressive and receptive. (Moos, 2019)

We use expressive language when we speak and write, and we use receptive language when we
read and listen. Students with good language processing skills usually do well in school. Problems
with language, on the other hand, can affect a student’s ability to communicate effectively,
understand and store verbal and written information, understand what others say, and maintain
relationships with others. (Moos, 2019)

Most students, especially those with weaknesses in written language, will benefit from using a
staging procedure for both expository and creative writing. With this procedure, students first
generate ideas. Next they may organize their ideas. Third, they may look at sentence structure.
Then they examine their spelling. Finally, they attend to mechanical and grammatical rules. It is
also helpful for students to list their most frequently occurring errors in a notebook and refer to
this list when self-correcting. (Moos, 2019)

All students will benefit from systematic, cumulative, and explicit teaching of reading and
writing.
Students who have receptive language challenges such as a slower processing speed must use a
lot of mental energy to listen, and, therefore, may tire easily. Consequently, short, highly
structured lectures or group discussion times should be balanced with frequent breaks or quiet
periods. Oral instructions may also need to be repeated and/or provided in written form. (Moos,
2019)

Cooperative Strategic Reading is another way to engage students in reading and at the same
time increase oral language skills. This tactic is ideal for promoting intellectual discussion and
improving reading comprehension of expository text in mixed-level classrooms across
disciplines. Using this tactic, students are placed into cooperative learning groups of four to six
students of mixed abilities. (Moos, 2019)

The students work together to accomplish four main tasks:

(1) preview (skim over the material, determine what they know and what they want to learn),

(2) Identify clicks and clunks (clicks = we get it; clunks = we don’t understand this concept, idea
or word),

(3) Get the gist (main idea) and

(4) Wrap up (summarize important ideas and generate questions (think of questions the teacher
might ask on a test).

Each student in the group is assigned a role such as the leader/involver/taskmaster, the clunk
expert, the gist expert, and the timekeeper/pacer (positive interdependence). Each student
should be prepared to report the on the group’s conclusions (individual accountability). (Moos,
2019)

Broadening the way we communicate information in the classroom can connect all students
more to the topic at hand, and especially students with language challenges. Using visual
communication such as pictures and videos to reinforce verbal communication is helpful to all
students, and especially to students with receptive language challenges. Challenge students to
invent ways to communicate with pictures and other visuals, drama, sculpture, dance and music,
and watch memory of key concepts increase and classrooms come alive. (Moos, 2019)

Organization We process and organize information in two main ways: simultaneous (spatial)
and successive (sequential). Simultaneous processing is the process we use to order or organize
information in space. Having a good sense of direction and being able to “see” how puzzle pieces
fit together are two examples of simultaneous processing. Successive processing is what we use
to order or organize information in time and sequence. (Moos, 2019)

Concepts of time, dates, and order yesterday, today, and tomorrow, months of the year,
mathematical procedures such as division and multiplication, word order in sentences, and
sentence order in paragraphs are examples of sequential processing. (Moos, 2019)

Students who are good at successive organization usually have little or no trouble with time
management and usually find it easy to organize an essay in a sequence that is logical.
Students who have trouble with understanding spatial or geographical problems may need
successive verbal explanations given to them. They may benefit from writing written
explanations and descriptions of the information contained in charts, graphs or diagrams.
Teachers should model this process for all students. (Moos, 2019)

Students who have trouble remembering sequences of information but who are strong in
simultaneous processing should benefit from graphic organizers, and making diagrams or flow
charts of sequential information such as events in history rather than the standard timeline.
They may benefit from software programs such as Inspiration that organize concepts and
information into visual maps. (Moos, 2019)
Practicing cooperative learning allows each student’s processing and organizing strengths to be
utilized to the benefit of the group. For example, those who are strong in simultaneous
organization may create the group’s chart, visual, or map, and those strong in successive
organization may be the task step organizers, the taskmasters, timekeepers and pace setters.
Investigate about the las two components. (Moos, 2019)

Mental Processes

Another important strategy for being successful in students’ life refers to mental processes.
aking into account that brain processing during learning is complex, we know that students get
information better when they are younger.

Our left hemisphere of our brain processes primarily academic content information and
the right hemisphere processes content. A complaint about education is that teaching is focused
on content rather than context producing meaningless learning. To make learning meaningful
and activate neurons in our brain, teachers should incorporate context in the process of learning
(Schunk, 2012).

In the book “On Course, Strategies for Creating Success in College and in Life” we will
learn important information referring to mental process to be a successful learner. Much has
been discovered in the last decades about how our brain learns: there are some benefits we are
going to know in this book. (Downing , 2011) You are going to read the topic “Becoming an Active
Learner” from pages 12 to 18 first edition, 21 to 27 on second edition or 257 to 266 on third
edition.
1.3. Know how to listen, speak, read and write
Lesson aims:

✓ Identify the effective strategies how to read, listen, write and speak.
✓ Conclude about the way you learn a second language

Know how to listen, speak, read and write

University students must be concerned about the responsibilities they have in their studies.
Many of the subjects present a lot of information and effective strategies are required to
understand most of it. Studying online requires students extra effort to comply with all of the
activities presented in each subject.

Even though English learning in Ecuador is considered as a foreign language; in this program,
students will learn English the best way possible, so in this way we guarantee an appropriate
level at the end of the English program. For this reason students require developing
communication through the four skills: Listening and reading as receptive skills and speaking and
writing as productive skills. In an online program it is very essential to take advantage of learning
methodologies with the use of technology and the software programs available to all students
with the main purpose of being independent in language learning.

On the following link: https://youtu.be/IUuMf4EumsQ. How to Study English: Four Core English
Skills, you are going to listen to important information and recommendations about this four
core skills
 Source: How to Study English: Four Core English Skills. https://youtu.be/IUuMf4EumsQ

Once you have clear information about the development of four skills, we need to know some
strategies about each of the skills presented. Let’s start with how to listen actively.

According to Downing (2011) he mentions that to be an excellent listener, you have to follow
these four steps. We recommend you to apply the appropriate steps to study online.
Source: On course, strategies for creating success in college and in life (Downing , 2011)

Referring to the next receptive skill which is reading (Downing , 2011), the relevant information
about this skill is that you have to collect key concepts as well as the important ideas and finally
the supporting details.
Source: On Course. Strategies for creating Success in College and in Life. (Downing , 2011)
Now we need to know how to apply the best strategies with productive skills:

The writing skills are essentially important with university students due to they have to write
many different types of texts, such as: reports, essays, summaries, compositions, etc. For this
skill Downing (2011) proposes the CORE learning system when referring to writing.

The writing skill as Watkins mentions is another active skill, let’s read what he mentions in his
book Effective learning in classrooms. (Watkins, Carnell, & Lodge, 2007)

Prewriting (also called invention) includes any preparation you do before actually writing.
Guiding this process is an awareness of your audience and your purpose for writing.
Prewriting activities include Collecting ideas and supporting details, then Organizing this raw
material into a possible structure. Prewriting is a step that many novice writers unwisely skip.

Writing (also called drafting) is the act of creation—turning your raw materials into a
document that achieves your defined purpose. As you write, your mind both Rehearses the
ideas you want to express and Evaluates your understanding of them. Thus, while writing you
may realize that you need to Collect more information, re-Organize the information you
already have, or both. When the first draft is complete, novice writers often pat themselves
on the back and declare themselves done. Experienced writers know they have only just
begun

Revising (also called rewriting) means “seeing again.” When revising, you “re-see” in order
to Evaluate your present draft. Does it say what you mean?
Will it achieve your purpose for writing? If you have a poor understanding of your subject,
your writing will likely be muddy and unclear. Revising, which is
a kind of Rehearsing, helps identify what you don’t understand and encourages you to think
more critically about the subject. With this effort comes both a deeper understanding and the
ability to express that understanding more effectively in writing. That’s why experienced
 writers often spend as much (or even more) time revising as they took planning and writing
the first draft.

Editing (also called proofreading) eliminates surface problems (e.g., errors in grammar,
sentence structure, and spelling). When writing is littered with errors, your readers may
wonder if your thinking is as careless as your proofreading. Worse, they may not understand
what you mean. Either way, surface errors undermine the achievement of your purpose.
Editing is your final Evaluation of how well you think your writing will achieve its purpose.
Source: On Course. Strategies for creating Success in College and in Life. (Downing , 2011)

Finally, we have to complete the strategies referring to the speaking skill and the relevant
information is that people normally associate the development of speaking with the learning of
a language. If a student knows how to speak, he or she knows the language.

For speaking skill, the main strategy is not to think in your mother tongue and start thinking in
the language you are learning, the best way to develop this skill is by practicing, imitating and
paraphrasing (English, 2018). https://youtu.be/U3G5W2Kdr74

1.4. Study Techniques

Lesson aims:

✓ Identify the best study techniques for studying online.

✓ Analyze the purpose of the author when applying effective strategies to learn on an
online program.

Study Techniques

University students must be concern about the responsibilities they have in their studies. Many
of the subjects present a lot of information and it requires effective strategies to understand
most of the information. The way we learned in school is not going to be effective at university
and it is more difficult if you study online where autonomous learning is the key factor for being
successful in our everyday studies.

This topic focuses on knowing some techniques to study all subjects concerning to Pedagogy in
English Language. You have to accept what your responsibility is in this process. For instance, I
strongly advice that you should be concern about the amount of time you offer to each subject
every day and the available time you devote for it.

If you want to save yourself a valuable studying time and effort, how to broaden your horizons
and get full value from your time at college, you can find useful suggestions and tips in chapter
20 about ten time-saving techniques (Boulay, 2009). Let´s read about the techniques Boulay
offers:
 Source: Study skills for dummies. (Boulay, 2009)

Identification of the author’s purpose.

If teachers help students to become strategic learners, then they will accomplish with the
purpose of learning. Teaching students to learn involves students to acquire a repertoire of
attitudes, understandings and skills to be more effective, flexible and self-organized learners in
a variety of contexts. “To help students learn how to learn, teachers must help them access the
deep meaning structures of material they need to learn, become aware of assumptions, rules,
conventions, including social expectations that influence the way people perceive knowledge,
how they think, feel and act when learning” (Martin-Kniep & Picone-Zocchia, 2009)

If teachers want students to be strategic thinkers and planners, they must help students develop
the following 5 components: goals setting, planning, implementation, self-management, and
self-monitoring. (Martin-Kniep & Picone-Zocchia, 2009), let´s read information about them.
 Source: Changing the way you teach, Improving the way students learn. (Martin-Kniep &
Picone-Zocchia, 2009)

1.5. Main and secondary ideas

Lesson aims:

✓ Identify the main and secondary ideas.

✓ Summarize concepts learned about strategies (main and secondary ideas)
Main and Secondary ideas

Studying online requires students extra effort to comply with all of the activities presented in
each of the subjects. You have to classify what the main ideas are from the information
presented in any text, content or video as well as the secondary ideas which requires less time
and effort.
The necessity to learn better is a central human activity and there are implications in school and
life. Success and enjoyment of life depends on this necessity (Krasnic, 2012)

A clear result is presented by Krasnic about learning

Source: How to study with mind maps. Concise learning method, ( CLM )Tony Krasnic (2012).

To propose a method to learn better, Krasnic summarizes a diagram with 5 phases:

Source: How to study with mind maps. Concise learning method, ( CLM ) Tony Krasnic (2012)
https://books.google.com.ec/books?hl=es&lr=&id=ZmZvl13S3NkC&oi=fnd&pg=PT8&dq=concis
e+le
arning+method&ots=3Xmk6DkFui&sig=auSCP0nXk9pk6x4wH2X71eUzBis#v=onepage&q=conci
se% 20learning%20method&f=false
In these phases you will find the necessary engagement for a better learning any subject at
college. For this reason I invite you to read about them;

Source: How to study with mind maps. Concise learning method. Tony Krasnic (2012)

Most of information offered on internet refers to main and secondary ideas on texts and for this
theme we are going to use the strategies suggested to get these ideas, in the following video we
are going to see how to get the main and secondary ideas.
 Retrieved from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n5_l98pF_yw

The main idea of one paragraph states the most important information of an author. There is a
topic sentence which is called the main idea sentence and this is the sentence in a paragraph
with the main idea. Usually you can identify the topic sentence easily but sometimes you need
to reread, there are tips to locate the topic sentence or main idea of a paragraph (Wong, 2009).
Source: Essential study skills. (Wong, 2009)

There are some important details we need to identify in texts. Let’s read the following
information and some tips for identifying them.
Source: Essential study skills. (Wong, 2009)

13 Scientific Study Tips

Our brain can potentially memorize 2.5 petabytes of information, which is roughly the
equivalent of 3 million hours of YouTube videos. In order to use some of that
staggering capacity a little more effectively when you learn, here are some study tips
that are based on widely-accepted research by neuroscientists and learning experts.

THE FULL STORY

Our brain can potentially memorize 2.5 petabytes of information, which is roughly the
equivalent of 3 million hours of YouTube videos. In order to use some of that
staggering capacity a little more effectively when you learn, here are some tips that
are based on widely-accepted research by neuroscientists and learning experts.
SPACED REPETITION

Try out spaced repetition. To maximize your learning, study short but often.
Neuroscientists have proved that synapses, the million billion connections in your
brain that make you remember and understand stuff, grow mainly at night when you
are asleep. This means that it is more productive to study regularly with sleeping
breaks in between. Try it! Practice something for 15 minutes every day and you’ll be
surprised by your progress within just weeks.

FIND YOUR OWN STYLE

Make sure you find your own style. While listening to the history teacher, Tom
scribbles images and Jane finishes 1 kilo of nuts. Some enjoy watching videos over
reading books, others study with friends and some like sitting in silence among a
million books. Everybody is different.

GOOD NIGHT SLEEP

Make sure you get a good night sleep. Sleep and dreams are vital to processing and
storing new information. A Harvard study showed that students who had a good
night’s sleep remembered their study materials 35% better than those who studied in
the morning to take a test in the evening.
FOCUS

Train your focus. If you tend to procrastinate, which means that you tend to switch
from doing something hard like studying maths to something easy like browsing the
web, protect yourself from distraction. One way of doing this is to shut down your
mobile phone or go to a quiet place like a library.

POMODORO TECHNIQUE

Allocate your learning time with the Pomodoro Technique. Set a timer to 25 minutes
when you focus entirely on your studies. When the timer rings, relax for 5 minutes. If
you want to continue just set the timer again. The small breaks in between are relaxing
and motivating to keep going.

HARD STUFF FIRST

Start with the hard stuff first. Do the things that are difficult first. Because if you are
like most people, you have the strongest willpower in the morning. Once you are done
with the hard stuff you will feel better for the rest of the day and probably more
motivated to get other things done.
EXERCISE, MEDITATE AND CONVERSE

Cleanse your mind and try to exercise, meditate and converse. There are few activities
proven to grow your brain however physical exercise, regular meditation, and good
conversations apparently do exactly that. They lead to the creation of new neurons
inside your brain and therefore grow its potential.

GO PLACES

If you have the chance, get out and go places. You can create deeper memories of a
subject by learning in a richer environment that offers more visual clues. In an
experiment, two groups of students had to remember random words. One group
changed the classroom while studying, the other didn’t. The group that studied in two
different rooms (one was small and windowless, the other big and bright) was 40%
more likely to recall the words later.

TAKE FUN SERIOUSLY

Reframe your thinking and take fun seriously! Whatever it is, find a fun way to
practice. Modern learning science believes that positive emotions are very important
for increasing your learning potential. So do yourself a favor and have a good time!
SPACE YOUR STUDIES

Be organised and space your studies well. In order to remember things for a longer
time, repeat the material in spaced intervals. Facts or vocabularies, for example, are
best learned if you review them the first time 1-2 days after the initial study and then
again after 1 week and after 1 month.

30% READ 70% RECITE

Try the 30% read, 70% recite tip. If you have one hour to learn to recite a poem or
prepare for a speech, spend 20 Minutes of the time on studying the text and 40
minutes on practicing to recite. This ratio usually leads to the best results. In the case

of an emergency, put a glass of water next to you. Take a sip whenever you lose it

INSTANT SELF TEST

Tease your brain with an instant self test. After you study, finish up with a quick quiz.
Immediate recall in the form of a test or a short summary on what you’ve just learned
can increase retention by as much as 30%. Because it’s much harder for your brain to
reflect than to read, that extra effort creates deeper traces in your memory.
DON’T FORCE IT

Most importantly, however, don’t force it. Motivation is like hunger. You cannot force
yourself to be motivated just like you can’t tell someone else to be hungry. So if you
are not hungry right now, don’t worry. Take a break and do something else.
 UNIT 2
2. GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS

2.1. Cause Effect

A cause-effect diagram is a visual tool used to logically organize possible causes for a
specific problem or effect by graphically displaying them in increasing detail, suggesting
causal relationships among theories. A popular type is also referred to as a fishbone or
Ishikawa diagram. Cause-Effect can also be diagrammed using a tree diagram. (Juran,
2018)

When diagnosing the cause of a problem, a cause-effect diagram helps to organize

various theories about root causes and presents them graphically. (Juran, 2018)

The C-E Diagram is a fundamental tool utilized in the early stages of an improvement
team. The ideas generated during a brainstorming or affinity process are used to
populate the diagram. Since the list of issues on a C-E may be very large, the team should
use a prioritization or multi-vote technique to narrow the list of potential cause that
they desire to investigate farther. (Juran, 2018)

At the head of the diagram is the “Effect” that the team is investigating. The team
brainstormed potential causes for this effect. The skeleton becomes the various
potential causes and the headers are the column heads from the affinity diagram (Juran,
2018)

Cause and Effect Diagram Examples

A simple cause-effect diagram is shown in Figure 29. The phenomenon to be explained

is “Lost control of car.” Some of the possible major factors contributing to that lost
control are a flat tire, a slippery road, mechanical failures, and driver error. Each of these
major categories of causes may, in turn, have multiple causes. A flat tire may come from
a nail, a rock, glass, or a blow-out from material failure. The causal relationship can be
traced back still more steps in the causal chain if necessary or appropriate. Lost control
may arise from a mechanical failure; that failure may be a brake failure, which, in turn,
may come either from fluid loss or from worn pads. You can probably think of other
factors to add to this diagram. (Juran, 2018)
Cause and Effect Diagram Example: Lost Control of Car
Developing an understanding of how cause and effect inform the organisation of a text
enhances a student’s ability to fully comprehend what they have read. But, what exactly
do we mean when we speak of cause and effect in relation to reading? (Donnchaidh &
Shane, 2019)

Cause is the driving force in the text. It is the reason that things happen. In essence,
cause is the thing that makes other things happen. Effect refers to what results. It is the
what happened next in the text that results from a preceding cause. (Donnchaidh &
Shane, 2019)

To put it concisely, cause is the why something happened and effect is the what
happened. Cause and effect are important elements of a text that help the reader to
follow a writer’s line of thought, regardless of whether that text is fiction or nonfiction.
(Donnchaidh & Shane, 2019)

The concept of cause and effect relationships is so prevalent in our everyday lives that
students are usually quick to pick up on them. They may already display a good implicit
understanding of the concepts in their own reading and writing. However, the purpose
of this article is to make that understanding explicit; to offer a range of strategies that
will help students clearly identify the causes and effects that are woven throughout the
fabric of the texts they will read. (Donnchaidh & Shane, 2019)

A Word on Affect and Effect…

When teaching cause and effect be sure to take the chance to reinforce the difference
between the noun ‘effect’ and the verb ‘affect’. No matter how many times students
are exposed to this distinction, a few will always manage to avoid learning it. Don’t allow
your students to be affected by ignorance of the difference any longer! (Donnchaidh &
Shane, 2019)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OnSEFSk5VgQ

WHAT IS A CAUSE AND EFFECT? AND HOW TO TEACH IT.

Teaching cause and effect begins with defining both terms clearly for the students. Once
that is done, students should then be offered ample opportunity to practice this strategy
in discrete lessons. These practice sessions should utilize a wide range of reading
material in a variety of genres and of various complexities. (Donnchaidh & Shane, 2019)

The following is a useful template to follow when planning cause and effect focussed
lessons in a whole class context. (Donnchaidh & Shane, 2019)
To begin, provide students with an overview of the story detailing the main events.
Then, introduce the appropriate graphic organizer for the reading material chosen.
While reading a text with the class, have students identify the key events or actions in
the story. (Donnchaidh & Shane, 2019)
Next, students work to determine whether each event or action is a cause or an effect.
Finally, students record each of the events or actions on the graphic organizer.
Depending on the ability of the students and the sophistication of the text, you may find
it appropriate to make links with inference strategies here too. (Donnchaidh & Shane,
2019)

As a post-reading activity, you may also wish the students to form smaller groups to
compare their findings and discuss the reasons for their decisions.

If X, Then Y: Some More Activities for Teaching Cause and Effect

As with all the various reading comprehension strategies, becoming skilled in this area
takes time and practice – lots of practice! The following activities will help students
practice their cause and effect chops. While it is important to provide opportunities for
students to learn about cause and effect in discrete lessons, further opportunities to
reinforce their understanding will arise in all sorts of lessons. Be sure to take advantage
of those opportunities too. (Donnchaidh & Shane, 2019)

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2.2. Compare Contrast

Why Graphic Organizers? The Secret to Compare/Contrast

A graphic organizer is a visual representation of relationships between facts, concepts,

or ideas. It can guide learners as they fill in and build upon a graphical 'map' or diagram
of their thoughts. You may have heard it called by other names like concept mapping,
webbing, or mind mapping. Graphic organizers are scaffolds and supports for learning,
can be used for almost any subject and at any grade level, with the intellectually gifted
learner through to those with learning challenges, and are some of the most effective
learning strategies available today. (Woerner & Jack, 2019)

One of the most effective uses of graphic organizers is as a tool to compare and
contrast ideas, facts and concepts. This strategy has four key benefits:

• Provides simple structure: Graphic organizers help learners think through and
organize their thoughts as they compare and contrast.
• Increased comprehension: By adding their visual element, graphic organizers
make abstract ideas more concrete, and can also reduce any confusion
between related concepts (Example: safety vs. protection).
• Develops higher-order thinking skills (HOTS): Going beyond content
memorization or repeating it back, compare and contrasting with graphic
organizers serves as a stepping stone to higher level thinking- helping the
learner make connections and structure their thinking.
• Strengthens retention: By focusing learner thinking on just two ideas, learner
ability to remember key content is improved.

Some models of graphic organizers related to Compare and Contrast: chrome-

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0Contrast/Compare%20and%20Contrast.pdf

The two most popular graphic organizers are the Venn Diagram and the T Chart. Useful
for all ages of learners, they are very easy to create and customize to any content.
(Woerner & Jack, 2019)
T-charts are a simple compare and contrast chart type that compare two different
ideas. T-charts can be created very quickly and on almost any type of platform whether
physical or virtual. The diagram involves one horizontal line and one vertical line. The
horizontal line intersects the vertical line near the top of the vertical line to evenly
divide two sides. Someone can place two ideas and begin writing down ways they
contrast. One of the most common uses of a t-chart is to create a pros and cons list
when trying to make an important decision between two choices. (Woerner & Jack,
2019)

A basic Venn Diagram consists of two intersecting circles, although more circles can be
added for increased complexity. Each circle represents one of the two concepts being
explored. Learners list the differences between the two ideas in each of the respective
circles. Where the two circles intersect represents the ideas' commonality, and this is
where learners indicate everything that the two concepts being analyzed have in
common (compare).

In this simple example, we consider a dog and a fish. A dog differs from a fish in that it
lives on land and has fur, which is entered into the 'dog' circle. The fish circle shows
that the fish differs from the dog because it lives in the sea and has scales. What they
have in common is that both breathe air which is indicated in the common area where
the circles overlap.

2.3. Conceptualization

Analogies, Metaphors, and Frames Analogies, metaphors, and frames provide the
foundation upon which conceptualizations are constructed. Hofstadter and Sander
(2013) described analogies as the “fuel and fire of thinking” (p. 3) by building a case for
the proposition that thought requires concepts, and the formation of concepts
requires the use of analogies—the noticing that this is like that. They argued that all
concepts are the result of a multitude of analogies being made over time. When
we encounter a new situation, idea, or object, our minds automatically start making
analogies. Furthermore, because analogy-making is often an automatic, ncontrollable,
and unconscious process, analogies provide the lens through which we experience and
interpret situations and therefore determine our conclusions (Hofstadter and Sander
2013). Not only are analogies key to the formation of concepts, but they also are
necessary in the process of conceptual change (Gentner et al. 1997). We define
analogy as a cognitive process in which an experience is framed in terms of another
prior experience. (Donaldson & Allen-handy, 2019)
Metaphors are a class of analogical thinking with complex mapping of characteristics
from a source domain onto a target domain in which the source and target domains
are dissimilar. For example, in the metaphor time is money, the source domain is
economic transactions and the target domain is time. Metaphor has been considered
an important aspect of human thought since the days of Aristotle (Mahon 1999).
Theories of the relationship between metaphor and thought became widespread after
the publication of Lakoff and Johnson’s Metaphors We Live By (1980). (Donaldson &
Allen-handy, 2019)

Worldviews and Paradigms

Constellations of surface metaphors and analogies combine with our life experiences,
habits, and the common practices in our communities. These are what Kuhn (1996)
called paradigms and what Kearney (1984) called worldviews. These concepts are
related in that they both deal with the nature of knowledge (epistemology) and the
nature of reality (ontology) (Lincoln et al. 2011). Worldviews are the sets of beliefs and
assumptions held by societies and members of those societies about the physical and
social world (Cobern 1996; Kearney 1984). Koltko- Rivera (2004) in a review of the
literature articulated the consensus definition of worldview as a way of seeing the
universe and a belief system grounded in epistemic and ontological assumptions
regarding reality (what is) and ideal (what should be); what exists and does not
exist; what is good and bad; and the desirability of goals, actions, and relationships.
This definition of worldview overlaps with Morgan’s (2007) definition of paradigms as
beliefs and practices shared within a community of practice. Although paradigms have
sometimes been equated with worldviews, the practical differentiation is that
worldviews describe beliefs and assumptions held by a society and individuals within
that society, but paradigms are limited to a community of practice and include not only
beliefs and assumptions but also shared practices (Guba and Lincoln 1994; Morgan
2007). (Donaldson & Allen-handy, 2019)

Paradigms and worldviews can be best understood by looking at the tensions between
two major positions. On one side is the positivist position characterized by the belief
that there is one reality, and knowledge consists of objective truths discovered
through experiment and empirical observation (Giroux 2013; Lincoln et al. 2011). On
the other side is the constructivist position characterized by the belief that there are
multiple constructed realities, and knowledge consists of meanings constructed
through interpretation and making sense of experience (Kincheloe et al. 1999; Lincoln
et al. 2011). Although a positivist worldview is dominant in society (Giroux 2013;
Kincheloe 2008), positivist paradigms in academia have largely given way to a post-
positivism characterized by the belief that although there is one reality, it can only be
described approximately and imperfectly (Alise and Teddlie 2010; Guba and Lincoln
1994). Constructivist paradigms have gained traction in some academic disciplines,
such as those in the social sciences (Lincoln et al. 2011), but still represent a minority
of approximately one quarter of social sciences studies as analyzed by Alise and
Teddlie (2010). (Donaldson & Allen-handy, 2019)

We define worldview as sets of interrelated and interdependent beliefs in society

regarding the nature of reality, particularly social realities. We differentiate worldview
from paradigm in that we define paradigm as sets of interrelated and interdependent
beliefs and practices within communities of practice regarding the nature of physical
realities and the nature of knowledge. For instance, framing social reality in terms of
competition and survival of the fittest in contrast to a framing in terms of cooperation
and supporting the most disadvantaged members of society would be examples of
worldviews. Framing knowledge as truth about reality as determined through
objective scientific processes as opposed to framing knowledge as constructed through
sociohistorical, contextual, and individual processes would be examples of paradigms.
(Donaldson & Allen-handy, 2019)

The Formation of Conceptualizations

Conceptualizations—of learning, of science, of mind, of education, and so on—are

grounded in analogies and metaphors as interpreted and transformed by worldviews
and paradigms. The conceptualizations in society (or in communities of practice)
provide the analogies, metaphors, worldviews, and paradigms. The term
conceptualization will be used here to include what Lakoff and Johnson (1980, 1999)
called conceptual metaphor, as well as others such as figured worlds (Gee 2014b),
frames (Schön 1979, 1983), and cultural models (Bialostok 2002, 2008; Gee 2014b).
(Donaldson & Allen-handy, 2019)

El proceso de generación de ideas y las técnicas de creatividad

A todos nos ha pasado: en algún momento, cuando debemos desarrollar un proyecto,

las ideas no fluyen, no encontramos soluciones y nuestra imaginación no aparece ni da
muestras de vida por ningún lado. ¿Qué hacer, entonces? (Villalobos, 2019)

Las alternativas para salir de esta situación son varias: existen diferentes herramientas
para estimular nuestro cerebro y encender nuestra creatividad, tanto de manera
individual como grupal. Las técnicas de creatividad y de generación de ideas son varias,
pero hoy hemos escogido 15, las cuales con toda seguridad te ayudarán a incrementar
tu propia capacidad de generar soluciones originales a diferentes retos. (Villalobos,
2019)

1. Guion gráfico
Si estás tratando de diseñar un proceso, los guiones gráficos pueden ayudarte a ver de
qué manera tu comprensión colectiva de un problema avala una solución propuesta o
entra en conflicto con ella. También descubrirás qué aspectos necesitas investigar o qué
temas te conviene indagar en mayor profundidad. Al desarrollar un relato visual para
explorar el problema en cuestión en forma de historia, tu equipo será capaz de ver
cómo las ideas interactúan y se conectan para lograr una solución. (Villalobos, 2019)

Las notas autoadhesivas son tus aliadas en este método. Dedica unos minutos a pedir a
todos los miembros de tu equipo que escriban sus ideas en notas individuales. No tienen
que ser ideas completas: colocar físicamente en una pizarra citas, imágenes,
información de usuarios y otros datos puede ayudarte a detectar nuevas relaciones
entre los distintos componentes. (Villalobos, 2019)

Cuando ya tengas un grupo de notas adhesivas para trabajar, comienza a organizarlas

en la pizarra en forma progresiva. Organizar tus ideas en una serie continua te ayudará
a ver nuevas conexiones y a eliminar el material superfluo que no aporta nada al
objetivo final. (Villalobos, 2019)

2. Conexiones forzadas

En este ejercicio se conectan ideas con necesidades o intereses diferentes para formar
un concepto nuevo. Vemos este tipo de pensamiento todo el tiempo en productos como
el reloj Apple Watch, la navaja suiza, los teléfonos inteligentes o hasta los sofás cama.
Para poner en práctica este método, lleva un bolso con diversos artículos a tu próxima
reunión o dibuja dos listas de elementos no relacionados entre sí en la pizarra. Pídele a
los miembros del equipo que elijan dos o más elementos y exploren diferentes maneras
de conectarlos. Esta técnica puede dar como resultado ideas disparatadas, pero, en
última instancia, es una manera útil de reactivar la creatividad en el equipo. (Villalobos,
2019)

3. Lluvia de ideas por escrito o brainwriting

En este ejercicio los participantes simplemente escriben algunas ideas en una hoja de
papel para solucionar un problema en particular. Cada miembro del equipo le pasa su
papel a otra persona, quien lo leerá en silencio y añadirá sus propias ideas en él. El
proceso se repite hasta que todos hayan tenido la oportunidad de agregar alguna idea
a cada hoja de papel original. A continuación, se recopilan las notas y se abre el debate.
La gran ventaja de esta técnica es que permite garantizar que se consideren los
pensamientos e ideas de todas las personas en el equipo. Con esto, se evita que las
personas más abiertas o extrovertidas dominen involuntariamente las sesiones.
(Villalobos, 2019)

4. Primer borrador

El primer borrador es una técnica para generar ideas utilizada comúnmente por los
escritores; básicamente, es una forma de escritura libre centrada en un tema. En el caso
de los profesionales del marketing y las agencias puede ayudar a focalizar las primeras
etapas de un proyecto nuevo, ya que permite establecer tus conocimientos actuales y
plasmar las primeras ideas sobre papel. (Villalobos, 2019)
Parte del tema central y haz lo siguiente:
1. Escribe todo lo que sepas sobre el tema.
2. Escribe lo que no sabes del tema, pero necesitas o quieres saber.
3. Piensa por qué este tema es importante.
4. Agrega cualquier otra cosa que te llame la atención. Aquí tienes la posibilidad de
sacar a la luz todas las ideas que te ronden por la cabeza.
El método del primer borrador te permite plasmar por escrito todas tus ideas en relación
con un tema, de modo que no debes preocuparte si tiene un aspecto desorganizado o
inconexo. El objetivo es simplemente lograr superar ese bloqueo inicial que a menudo
sienten los profesionales creativos en las primeras etapas de un proyecto nuevo.
(Villalobos, 2019)

5. S.C.A.M.P.E.R.

S.C.A.M.P.E.R. es, en esencia, un proceso que permite expandir y mejorar las ideas
cuestionándolas y probándolas desde distintos ángulos. En cada letra de esta regla
mnemotécnica, haz una pregunta relacionada sobre tu proyecto o el problema en
cuestión. (Villalobos, 2019) Te proporcionamos unos ejemplos:
• Sustituir. ¿Qué sucedería con el proyecto si sustituyéramos X por Y?
• Combinar. ¿Qué sucedería con el proyecto si combináramos X e Y?
• Adaptar. ¿Qué cambios deberían llevarse a cabo para adaptar este proyecto a
un contexto diferente?
• Modificar. ¿Qué podríamos modificar para incrementar el valor de este
proyecto?
• Pensar en otros usos. ¿Qué otros usos o aplicaciones podría tener este
proyecto?
• Eliminar. ¿Qué podríamos eliminar del proyecto para simplificarlo?
• Revertir. ¿De qué manera podríamos reorganizar el proyecto para que sea más
eficaz?
Este método te obliga a pensar en un enfoque insospechado con respecto a tu proyecto
o problema. Cada pregunta te impulsa a investigar la cuestión un poco más a fondo y a
considerar nuevas posibilidades. (Villalobos, 2019)

6. Cuestionamiento de suposiciones
Todos hacemos suposiciones: suponemos qué es posible y qué no, qué quieren las
personas, qué funcionará y qué no. Este ejercicio nos obliga a desafiar las suposiciones
y a poner todas las cartas sobre la mesa. (Villalobos, 2019)
Diseña una lista de todas las suposiciones que se te ocurran sobre el proyecto actual (no
importa si no son ciertas). En grupo se puede analizar la lista y cuestionar cada
suposición. Si haces esto en distintas etapas del desarrollo de tu campaña podrás
generar ideas novedosas e identificar lagunas de conocimientos. (Villalobos, 2019)

7. Visualización creativa o wishing

Esta técnica motiva a tu equipo a dar rienda libre a su imaginación sin límites. Pídele a
los participantes que piensen en las soluciones más inalcanzables, extremas y poco
prácticas que se les ocurran para resolver un problema. Crea una lista con unos veinte
deseos relacionados con la tarea pendiente. (Villalobos, 2019)
Céntrate en una selección de deseos: considera y analiza las ideas en detalle, con el
objetivo de imaginar conceptos más realistas. ¿Qué hace que sean tan inalcanzables?
¿Cómo se puede lograr que esas ideas sean más realistas? ¿Qué características de ese
deseo podrían integrarse en este otro enfoque? Para tu sorpresa, podrías encontrar
soluciones aplicables y realistas entre los deseos más descabellados de tu equipo.
(Villalobos, 2019)

8. Alter egos/héroes

Este es un ejercicio divertido en el que pequeños grupos imaginan cómo podrían

resolver un problema determinado si su equipo estuviera liderado por un personaje
famoso, real o ficticio. ¿Qué haría Gatúbela para posicionar tu marca como líder
intelectual en una realidad virtual? ¿Qué haría Steve Jobs para mejorar tu más reciente
paquete de comunicaciones? ¿Cómo transmitiría Don Draper tus principales mensajes a
los millennials?
Puedes elegir a alguien que creas que cuenta con las cualidades adecuadas para
desarrollar tu visión, o bien alguien en el extremo opuesto de esta escala que te
permitirá explorar ideas menos convencionales. (Villalobos, 2019)

9. Bosquejo en grupo

No tienes que ser artista ni diseñador para disfrutar de las ventajas de los bosquejos. El
pensamiento visual puede ayudar a activar y desarrollar ideas que los debates y los
medios de escritura podrían pasar por alto. Al igual que con la lluvia de ideas por
escrito, los bosquejos grupales permiten a los participantes mejorar las ideas de otras
personas. (Villalobos, 2019)
Para empezar, pide a un miembro de tu equipo que haga un bosquejo con una imagen
relacionada estrechamente con un concepto, una idea o un tema que deseas explorar
con más profundidad; cuando termine, haz que pase su bosquejo a otra persona y pide
que dibuje otra imagen relacionada en el mismo trozo de papel. Este procedimiento se
repetirá dentro del grupo hasta terminar la ronda. A continuación, revisen y analicen
las imágenes finales con el objetivo de descubrir las conexiones que los individuos no
han podido detectar por sí solos. (Villalobos, 2019)

10. Seis sombreros para pensar

Al abordar un nuevo problema o proyecto, pídele a cada miembro de tu equipo que se

ponga uno de estos «sombreros» diferentes para el debate. Cada
«sombrero» representa un conjunto exclusivo de prioridades y perspectivas que
ayudarán a centrar el debate y a considerar el proyecto desde muchos ángulos diversos.
Por ejemplo, si estás usando el sombrero del «abogado o abogada del diablo», tu trabajo
será considerar las limitaciones y los desafíos del proyecto. Al principio podría ser
incómodo tener que adoptar una forma de pensamiento tan cerrada, pero los extremos
pueden ayudar a los equipos a explorar en profundidad un proyecto o una idea.
(Villalobos, 2019)

11. PNI

PNI proviene del acrónimo positivo, negativo e interesante. Esta técnica de creatividad
permite evaluar las ideas y elegir la mejor; con ella podrás evaluar tanto las fortalezas y
debilidades, como lo más original de cada propuesta. Una vez hecho, el grupo podrá
determinar cuál es la idea óptima para dar solución a un problema o situación
previamente planteado. (Villalobos, 2019)
Es una estrategia ideal para fomentar la buena toma de decisiones y el análisis
estructurado y organizado; requiere, además, un gran trabajo colaborativo. Puedes
utilizar una puntuación del 1 al 10 para valorar cada aspecto negativo o interesante
dentro del análisis. (Villalobos, 2019)

12. 4x4x4

Este ejercicio de creatividad es realmente popular y ayuda a fomentar el trabajo

colaborativo. La idea es que cada miembro del equipo escriba cuatro ideas sobre un
tema previamente seleccionado. Después deben formar parejas y ambos escriben
cuatro ideas más, basadas en las anteriores. El siguiente paso es formar grupos de cuatro
y repetir el proceso. ¿Qué sucede al final de la actividad? El grupo habrá elegido las
cuatro mejores ideas. (Villalobos, 2019)
Es indispensable que para realizar esta técnica de creatividad se cuente con un grupo
numeroso de personas, de lo contrario la actividad se vería muy limitada. Debe contar
con un moderador para mantener la organización de la dinámica. (Villalobos, 2019)
13. Cre-in

Cre-in es una técnica de creatividad que trabaja de forma muy personal con la mente,
pensamientos y creatividad de cada miembro del equipo. Su filosofía es «cree en ti
mismo para innovar», por lo tanto se apoya en la búsqueda de la paz interior y los
sentimientos positivos. (Villalobos, 2019)
Este ejercicio es ideal cuando se busca estimular el crecimiento interior de cada
individuo y es una excelente forma de romper la rutina en el trabajo y salirse un poco
de los métodos más convencionales para fomentar la creatividad. Puedes mejorar esta
dinámica aplicando técnicas afines como la musicoterapia o el yoga. (Villalobos, 2019)

14. Listado de preguntas

Esta es una técnica bastante simple, pero funcional. Ante cualquier idea, propuesta o
tema es bastante normal realizar interrogantes. Este ejercicio se basa precisamente en
la mente curiosa de cada miembro del equipo para cuestionar lo expuesto. Consiste en
formular diferentes preguntas ante una lista de ideas o temática. Conforme las
cuestiones vayan surgiendo, otras irán apareciendo para reforzar la dinámica hasta
llegar a nuevas ideas, perspectivas o un buen argumento. (Villalobos, 2019)
Entre las preguntas con las que se puede comenzar este ejercicio son:
• ¿Qué?
• ¿Por qué?
• ¿Para qué?
• ¿Para quién?
• ¿Cómo?
• ¿Dónde?
 •
¿Cuándo?
• ¿Con quién?
• ¿Hacia dónde?
15. Crear en sueños

Se dice que los sueños generan ideas y esta técnica de creatividad lo confirma. En este
ejercicio se plantea que al dormir el inconsciente puede manifestarse con mayor
libertad; fomenta aprovechar este proceso creativo para generar ideas novedosas. La
idea es crear una sesión de trabajo por la tarde (casi al finalizar la jornada laboral), hablar
del problema o situación a resolver y una vez en casa, antes de dormir, escribir las ideas
que surjan e inmediatamente, al despertar, anotar las imágenes que se recuerden. En la
próxima sesión son discutidas para analizar si alguna puede representar una posible
solución. (Villalobos, 2019)
Este ejercicio se realiza de preferencia cuando otras técnicas de creatividad han sido
utilizadas y no han funcionado. Crear en sueños puede parecer un ejercicio riesgoso o
poco confiable, pero es perfecto para equipos de trabajo realmente bloqueados y que
han llegado a su límite de ideas. (Villalobos, 2019)
Lo más interesante de esta técnica es que las ideas que surjan pueden parecer solo
disparates, pero al momento de hacer un análisis con los aportes de todos los miembros
del equipo, los resultados serán sorprendentes.
Ya cuentas con una gran serie de ejercicios de creatividad para usar con tu equipo de
trabajo. Recuerda crear sesiones regularmente para que las ideas de cada colaborador
sean más consistentes. (Villalobos, 2019)

2.4. Conclusions

3. INSTRUCTINOAL STRATEGIES FOR ONLINE COURSES

3.1. ICT

Definition of ICT

UNESCO defines ICT as “the scientific, technological and engineering disciplines and the
management technique used to handle transmit information with men and machines.”
According to the DIGITAL VIDEO TECHNICAL GLOSSARY, “ICT is the computing and
communication facilities and features that support teaching, learning and a range of activities in
education.”

According to the official IBM GLOSSARY, “ICT is the use of computer based information systems
and communication systems to , transmit and store data and information.”

What are ICTs and what types of ICTs are commonly used in education?

ICTs stand for information and communication technologies and are defined, for the purposes
of this primer, as a “diverse set of technological tools and resources used to communicate, and
to create, disseminate, store, and manage information.”4 These technologies include
computers, the Internet, broadcasting technologies (radio and television), and telephony. (Tinio,
2018)

In recent years there has been a groundswell of interest in how computers and the Internet can
best be harnessed to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of education at all levels and in
both formal and non-formal settings. But ICTs are more than just these technologies; older
technologies such as the telephone, radio and television, although now given less attention,
have a longer and richer history as instructional tools.5 For instance, radio and television have
for over forty years been used for open and distance learning, although print remains the
cheapest, most accessible and therefore most dominant delivery mechanism in both developed
and developing countries.6 The use of computers and the Internet is still in its infancy in
developing countries, if these are used at all, due to limited infrastructure and the attendant
high costs of access. (Tinio, 2018)

Moreover, different technologies are typically used in combination rather than as the sole
delivery mechanism. For instance, the Kothmale Community Radio Internet uses both radio
broadcasts and computer and Internet technologies to facilitate the sharing of information and
provide educational opportunities in a rural community in Sri Lanka.7 The Open University of
the United Kingdom (UKOU), established in 1969 as the first educational institution in the world
wholly dedicated to open and distance learning, still relies heavily on print-based materials
supplemented by radio, television and, in recent years,online programming.8 Similarly,the Indira
Gandhi National Open University in India combines the use of print, recorded audio and video,
broadcast radio and television, and audioconferencing technologies. (Tinio, 2018)

What is blended learning?

Another term that is gaining currency is blended learning. This refers to learning models that
combine traditional classroom practice with e-learning solutions. For example,students in a
traditional class can be assigned both print-based and online materials,have online mentoring
sessions with their teacher through chat,and are subscribed to a class email list.Or a Web-based
training course can be enhanced by periodic face-to-face instruction.“Blending”was prompted
by the recognition that not all learning is best achieved in an electronically-mediated
environment,particularly one that dispenses with a live instructor altogether. Instead,
consideration must be given to the subject matter, the learning objectives and outcomes, the
characteristics of the learners, and the learning context in order to arrive at the optimum mix of
instructional and delivery methods. (Tinio, 2018)

What is open and distance learning?

Open and distance learning is defined by the Commonwealth of Learning as “a way of providing
learning opportunities that is characterized by the separation of teacher and learner in time or
place, or both time and place; learning that is certified in some way by an institution or agency;
the use of a variety of media, including print and electronic; two-way communications that allow
learners and tutors to interact; the possibility of occasional face-to-face meetings; and a
specialized division of labor in the production and delivery of courses.” (Tinio, 2018)

How can ICTs help expand access to education?

ICTs are a potentially powerful tool for extending educational opportunities,both formal and
non-formal, to previously underserved constituencies—scattered and rural populations, groups
traditionally excluded from education due to cultural or social reasons such as ethnic minorities,
girls and women, persons with disabilities,and the elderly,as well as all others who for reasons
of cost or because of time constraints are unable to enroll on campus. (Tinio, 2018)

• Anytime, anywhere. One defining feature of ICTs is their ability to transcend time and
space. ICTs make possible asynchronous learning, or learning characterized by a time lag
between the delivery of instruction and its reception by learners. Online course
materials, for example, may be accessed 24 hours a day,7 days a week. ICT-based
educational delivery (e.g., educational programming broadcast over radio or television)
also dispenses with the need for all learners and the instructor to be in one physical
location. Additionally, certain types of ICTs, such as teleconferencing technologies,
enable instruction to be received simultaneously by multiple, geographically dispersed
learners (i.e., synchronous learning). (Tinio, 2018)
• Access to remote learning resources. Teachers and learners no longer have to rely solely
on printed books and other materials in physical media housed in libraries (and available
in limited quantities) for their educational needs. With the Internet and the World Wide
Web, a wealth of learning materials in almost every subject and in a variety of media
can now be accessed from anywhere at anytime of the day and by an unlimited number
of people. This is particularly significant for many schools in developing countries, and
even some in developed countries, that have limited and outdated library resources.
ICTs also facilitate access to resource persons— mentors, experts, researchers,
professionals, business leaders, and peers—all over the world. (Tinio, 2018)

How can the use of ICTs help improve the quality of education?

Improving the quality of education and training is a critical issue, particularly at a time of
educational expansion. ICTs can enhance the quality of education in several ways: by increasing
learner motivation and engagement, by facilitating the acquisition of basic skills, and by
enhancing teacher training.14 ICTs are also transformational tools which, when used
appropriately, can promote the shift to a learner-centered environment. (Tinio, 2018)

Motivating to learn. ICTs such as videos, television and multimedia computer software that
combine text, sound, and colorful, moving images can be used to provide challenging and
authentic content that will engage the student in the learning process. Interactive radio likewise
makes use of sound effects, songs, dramatizations, comic skits, and other performance
conventions to compel the students 7to listen and become involved in the lessons being
delivered. More so than any other type of ICT, networked computers with Internet connectivity
can increase learner motivation as it combines the media richness and interactivity of other ICTs
with the opportunity to connect with real people and to participate in real world events. (Tinio,
2018)

Facilitating the acquisition of basic skills. The transmission of basic skills and concepts that are
the foundation of higher order thinking skills and creativity can be facilitated by ICTs through
drill and practice. Educational television programs such as Sesame Street use repetition and
reinforcement to teach the alphabet, numbers, colors, shapes and other basic concepts .Most
of the early uses of computers were for computer-based learning (also called computer-assisted
instruction) that focused on mastery of skills and content through repetition and
reinforcement.(See section below on Computer Based Learning.) (Tinio, 2018)

Enhancing teacher training. ICTs have also been used to improve access to and the quality of
teacher training. For example, institutions like the Cyber Teacher Training Center (CTTC) in South
Korea are taking advantage of the Internet to provide better teacher professional development
opportunities to Inservice teachers. The government-funded CTTC, established in 1997,offers
self-directed, self-paced Web-based courses for primary and secondary school teachers. Courses
include “Computers in the Information Society, “Education Reform, “and “Future Society and
Education. “Online tutorials are also offered, with some courses requiring occasional face-to-
face meetings.15In China, large-scale radio and television-based teacher education has for many
years been conducted by the China Central Radio and TV University,16the Shanghai Radio and
TV University and many other RTVUs in the country. At Indira Gandhi National Open University,
satellite-based one-way video- and two-way audio-conferencing was held in
1996,supplemented by print-materials and recorded video, to train 910 primary school teachers
and facilitators from 20 district training institutes in Karnataka State. The teachers interacted
with remote lecturers by telephone and fax. (Tinio, 2018)

How can ICTs help transform the learning environment into one that is learner-centered?

Research has shown that the appropriate use of ICTs can catalyze the paradigmatic shift in both
content and pedagogy that is at the heart of education reform in the 21st century.19 If designed
and implemented properly, ICT-supported education can promote the acquisition of the
knowledge and skills that will empower students for lifelong learning. (Tinio, 2018)

When used appropriately, ICTs—especially computers and Internet technologies— enable new
ways of teaching and learning rather than simply allow teachers and students to do what they
have done before in a better way. These new ways of teaching and learning are underpinned by
constructivist theories of learning and constitute a shift from a teacher-centered pedagogy—in
its worst form characterized by memorization and rote learning—to one that is learner-
centered. (See Table 2 for a comparison of a traditional pedagogy and an emerging pedagogy
enabled by ICTs.) (Tinio, 2018)
• Active learning. CT-enhanced learning mobilizes tools for examination, calculation and
analysis of information, thus providing a platform for student inquiry, analysis and
construction of new information. Learners therefore learn as they do and, whenever
appropriate, work on real-life problems in-depth, making learning less abstract and
more relevant to the learner’s life situation. In this way, and in contrast to
memorization-based or rote learning, CT-enhanced learning promotes increased learner
engagement. CT-enhanced learning is also “just-in-time “learning in which learners can
choose what to learn when they need to learn it. (Tinio, 2018)
• Collaborative learning. CT-supported learning encourages interaction and cooperation
among students, teachers, and experts regardless of where they are. Apart from
modeling real-world interactions, ICT-supported learning provides learners the
opportunity to work with people from different cultures, thereby helping to enhance
learners ‘teaming and communicative skills as well as their global awareness. It models
learning done throughout the learner’s lifetime by expanding the learning space to
include not just peers but also mentors and experts from different fields. (Tinio, 2018)

• Creative Learning. ICT-supported learning promotes the manipulation of existing

information and the creation of real-world products rather than the regurgitation of
received information. (Tinio, 2018)

• Integrative learning. ICT-enhanced learning promotes a thematic, integrative approach

to teaching and learning. This approach eliminates the artificial separation between the
different disciplines and between theory and practice that characterizes the traditional
classroom approach. (Tinio, 2018)

• Evaluative learning. ICT-enhanced learning is student-directed and diagnostic. Unlike

static, text- or print-based educational technologies, CT-enhanced learning recognizes
that there are many different learning pathways and many different articulations of
knowledge. ICTs allow learners to explore and discover rather than merely listen and
remember. (Tinio, 2018)

What is teleconferencing and what have been its educational uses?

Teleconferencing refers to “interactive electronic communication among people located at two

or more different places.”31 There are four types of teleconferencing based on the nature and
extent of interactivity and the sophistication of the technology: 1) audioconferencing; 2) audio-
graphic conferencing,3) videoconferencing; and 4) Web-based conferencing. (Tinio, 2018)
Audioconferencing involves the live (real-time) exchange of voice messages over a telephone
network. When low-bandwidth text and still images such as graphs, diagrams or pictures can
also be exchanged along with voice messages, then this type of conferencing is called audio
graphic. Non-moving visuals are added using a computer keyboard or by drawing/writing on a
graphics tablet or whiteboard. Videoconferencing allows the exchange not just of voice and
graphics but also of moving images. Videoconferencing technology does not use telephone lines
but either a satellite link or television network (broadcast/cable).Web-based conferencing, as
the name implies, involves the transmission of text, and graphic, audio and visual media via the
Internet; it requires the use of a computer with a browser and communication can be both
synchronous and asynchronous. (Tinio, 2018)

Teleconferencing is used in both formal and non-formal learning contexts to facilitate teacher-
learner and learner-learner discussions, as well as to access experts and other resource persons
remotely. In open and distance learning, teleconferencing is a useful tool for providing direct
instruction and learner support, minimizing learner isolation. For instance, an audio graphic
teleconferencing network between Tianjin Medical University in China and four outlying Tianjin
municipalities was piloted in 1999 as part of a multi-year collaboration between Tianjin Medical
University and the University of Ottawa School of Nursing funded by the Canadian International
Development Agency. The audio graphic teleconferencing network aims to provide continuing
education and academic upgrading to nurses in parts of Tianjin municipality where access to
nursing education has been extremely limited.32 Other higher education institutions using
teleconferencing in their online learning programs include the Open University of the United
Kingdom, Unitar (Universiti Tun Abdul Ruzak) in Malaysia, Open University of Hong Kong,and
Indira Gandhi National Open University. (Tinio, 2018)

Impact of ICT in Education

• No nation can develop without ICT based education. It is regarded as the fuel of
development.

• ICT based education is the essential ingredient in developing new ideas, in course
content and curriculum and in the creation of materials and methods of learning and
teaching.

• Students need ICT for pursuing academic studies where as teachers need ICT based
information for teaching.

• ICT has made more easier to process and disseminate knowledge. It has increased the
efficiency of the knowledge professionals in organizing and managing knowledge.

• It has saved the space of library by creating the library materials in digital formats.
3.2. Strategies focused on the individualization of learning

Individualized Instruction

Pace, Method, Content, Examples of Individualized Instruction, Final Issues

The improvement of instruction has been a goal of educators as far back as the teachings of the
Greek philosopher Socrates. Although there are a wide variety of approaches, in most cases
instruction can be characterized by the following tasks: setting objectives, teaching content
based on these objectives, and evaluating performance. This formula is indeed the most
common; however, there have been many advocates of alternative approaches. Among the
alternative approaches there is a focus on a more individualized approach to instruction, where
the traits of the individual learner are given more consideration. (Ho, Tomlinzon, & Whipple,
202) Each approach to individualizing instruction is different, but they all seek to manipulate the
three following fundamental variables:

• Pace: the amount of time given to a student to learn the content

• Method: the way that the instruction is structured and managed

• Content: the material to be learned

Pace

There are two basic extremes when the pace of instruction is considered. The first is when
someone other than student, usually a teacher or instructor, controls the amount of time
spent learning the material. In this case specific due dates are defined before instruction
begins. This is currently the predominant model in most educational systems. The opposite
extreme would be if the learner had exclusive control over the pace of instruction, without a
time limit. Between these two extremes are situations where control of the pace of instruction
is shared or negotiated, not necessarily equally, by the teacher and learner. (Ho, Tomlinzon, &
Whipple, 202)

Method

As theories of learning and instruction develop and mature, more and more consideration is
given to the way in which learning occurs. In an attempt to account for the way that students
learn, instructors may apply a combination of theories and principles in preparing instruction.
This can influence whether instruction is designed for one homogenous group, or is flexible, in
anticipation of individual differences among learners. In the majority of cases, instruction is
designed for the average learner, and is customized ad-hoc by the teacher or instructor as
needed once instruction begins. This type of instruction, although it does give some
consideration to individual differences among learners during instruction, does not fall into the
typically accepted definition of individualized instruction. For instruction to be considered
individualized, the instruction is usually designed to account for specific learner characteristics.
This could include alternative instructional methods for students with different backgrounds
and learning styles. (Ho, Tomlinzon, & Whipple, 202)

To help clarify this point, the instructional method used can be considered in terms of
extremes. In the first extreme, one instructional method is used for everyone. Terms like
inclusion and mainstreaming have been used to describe this first case. In the second extreme,
a specific instructional method is used for each individual. Between these extremes lie
situations where students are arranged into groups according to the their characteristics.
These groups can vary in size, and the instructional method is tailored to each group. (Ho,
Tomlinzon, & Whipple, 202)

Content

Perhaps the least frequently modified component is the actual learning content. However, it is
possible to vary the content taught to different learners or groups of learners. Both "tracking"
and "enrichment" are examples of customizing instructional content. A renewed movement
toward learner-centered principles in education has given this component more consideration
in the 1990s. It has become possible to find examples of instructional settings in which
students define their own content, and pursue learning based on their own interests. In most
cases, however, this opportunity is limited to high-achieving students. In terms of extremes,
content can be uniform for everyone, or unique to each individual. Between these extremes lie
cases where the content can be varied, but only within a predefined range. The range of
activities available to the learner is an indicator of how individualized the content is in an
instructional setting. (Ho, Tomlinzon, & Whipple, 202)

Examples of Individualized Instruction

There are many examples of instructional approaches that have modified some or all of these
three components. In all of these examples, the goal was to improve the instructional experience
for the individual learner. Some of the most historically notable approaches are discussed below.
Within each example both the benefits and criticisms of each approach are discussed. (Ho,
Tomlinzon, & Whipple, 202)

Personalized System of Instruction. Introduced in 1964 by Fred Keller, the Personalized System
of Instruction, or the Keller Plan, is perhaps one of the first comprehensive systems of
individualized instruction. Keller based his system on ten accepted educational principles
(McGaw, p. 4): (Ho, Tomlinzon, & Whipple, 202)

• Active responding

• Positive conditions and consequences

• Specification of objectives

• Organization of material
• Mastery before advancement

• Evaluation/objectives congruence

• Frequent evaluation

• Immediate feedback

• Self-pacing

None of these ten principles should be considered unique, as they all can be easily found in other
more traditional educational settings. Rather, it is the components of the Keller planbased on
these ten principlesthat makes the Keller Plan somewhat different: self-pacing; unit mastery;
student tutors; optional motivational lectures; and learning from written material. It is the first
component, self-pacing, that is the most obvious attempt at individualizing the instruction. From
the second component, unit mastery, it can be seen that the content does not vary, as the unit
content is fixed. To illustrate the static nature of the content, Mike Naumes describes the basic
design of a course using Keller's personalized system of instruction: (Ho, Tomlinzon, & Whipple,
202)

The last three components indicate that the method of instruction does vary slightly from
individual to individual. Although all students learn from written material and student tutors,
the motivational lectures are optional. Making these lectures optional does constitute some
flexibility in terms of instructional method, albeit extremely limited. Fundamentally, it is the self-
pacing that more or less stands alone as the individualized component of this instructional
system. (Ho, Tomlinzon, & Whipple, 202)

Proponents of the Keller Plan cite many benefits, including better retention and increased
motivation for further learning. At the same time, there are others with criticisms of the Keller
Plan such as the following: limited instructional methods, high dropout rates, and decreased
human interaction. The debate over the effectiveness of Keller's Personalized System of
Instruction, with its advantages and disadvantages, raises fundamental questions about the
nature of self-contained, self-paced learning. There are indeed opportunities for designing
instruction that lend themselves to the Personalized System of Instruction approach. This would
apply especially to cases where enrollment is high, course material is standardized and stable,
and faculty resources are scarce. On the other hand, when there is not a shortage of faculty, or
the class size is not large, the course would be better taught with more conventional methods,
yet still based on sound educational principles. Where the line is drawn on the continuum
between these two extremes is a matter of opinion, and should be based on the context in which
the instruction is to take place. It would be inappropriate to claim that one of the extremes is
completely right, and the other wrong, given the vast number of studies and evaluations that
support either side. (Ho, Tomlinzon, & Whipple, 202)

Audio-Tutorial. Audio-Tutorial is a method of individualized instruction developed by Samuel N.

Postlethwait in 1961 at Purdue University. His goal was to find an improved method of teaching
botany to a larger number of college students and to effectively assist the students who
possessed only limited backgrounds in the subject. The development of an Audio-Tutorial
program requires a significant amount of planning and time by the instructor. Although there is
some room for modification for each specific program, the general principles remain the same.
Students have access to a taped presentation of a specifically designed program that directs
their activities one at a time. The basic principles of Audio-Tutorial are "(1) repetition; (2)
concentration; (3) association; (4) unit steps; (5) use of the communication vehicle appropriate
to the objective;(6) use of multiplicity of approaches; and (7) use of an integrated experience
approach" (Couch, p. 6). (Ho, Tomlinzon, & Whipple, 202)

The major benefits of Audio-Tutorial are that "students can adopt the study pace to their ability
to assimilate the information. Exposure to difficult subjects is repeated as often as necessary for
any particular student" (Postlethwait, Novak, and Murray, p. 5). In addition to taking more time
if they wish, students can also accelerate the pace of their learning. Other benefits are that
students feel more responsible for their learning, and more students can be accommodated in
less laboratory space and with less staff. (Ho, Tomlinzon, & Whipple, 202)

Some of the major criticisms that are common to Audio-Tutorial courses were illustrated by
Robert K. Snortland upon evaluating a course in graphics design. The primary criticism concerns
the claim of responsibility. It seems that some students respond to the responsibility placed
upon them, while others do not. There was a problem with the initial dropout rate, which
seemed to be explained by the lack of willingness of some students to take on the amount of
responsibility that was required in order to complete the course. Snortland advised that "since
many freshmen students are not ready for additional self-discipline required of them in the A-T
format, the choice of either a structured approach or an individualized approach should always
remain open" (p. 8). Many other criticisms of Audio-Tutorial courses are concerned with teacher
control. The instructor dictates all of the material including the learning and feedback
procedures. The criticism is that this is a severe form of teacher control over the student. (Ho,
Tomlinzon, & Whipple, 202)

Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI). Most proponents of individualized instruction saw the

computer as a way to further improve the design and delivery of individualized instruction–now
in an electronic environment. With the advent of the computer came the potential to deliver
individualized instruction in a more powerful way. This potential was anticipated long before the
proliferation of the home computer. John E. Coulson wrote in 1970: "A modern computer has
characteristics that closely parallel those needed in any educational system that wishes to
provide highly individualized instruction"(p. 4). He also noted the specific benefits that the
computer could offer (p. 5): (Ho, Tomlinzon, & Whipple, 202)

1. "It has a very large memory capacity that can be used to store instructional content
material or…to generate such material."
2. "The computer can perform complex analyses of student responses."
3. "The computer can make decisions based on the assessments of student performance,
matching resources to individual student needs."
R
Although there were many anticipated benefits to using the computer to deliver instruction, in
practice, CAI has been heavily criticized for its hidden side-effects. These are nicely articulated
by Henry F. Olds: (Ho, Tomlinzon, & Whipple, 202)

Learning is in control of some unknown source that determines almost all aspects of the
interactive process. To learn one must suspend all normal forms of interaction and engage only
in those called for by the program. Learning is an isolated activity to be carried on primarily in a
one-to-one interaction with the computer. Normal inter-human dialogue is to be suspended
while learning with the computer. Learning involves understanding (psyching out) how the
program expects one to behave and adapting one's behavior accordingly. One must suspend
idiosyncratic behavior. Learning (even in highly sophisticated, branching programs) is a linear,
step-by-step process. In learning from the computer, one must suspend creative insights,
intuitions, cognitive leaps, and other nonlinear mental phenomena. (p. 9) (Ho, Tomlinzon, &
Whipple, 202)

Olds even offered some solutions to these problems, indicating that "time on-line needs to be
mixed with plenty of opportunities for human interaction" and that computer should allow
people to "jump around within the program structure" (p. 9). (Ho, Tomlinzon, & Whipple, 202)

CAI became the forerunner in individualized instruction during the 1980s and early 1990s, as the
home computer became more powerful and less expensive. The changes that the computer
environment helped to make were predominantly a change in the delivery mechanism of
individualized instruction, rather than a fundamental change in purpose or method. In a sense,
the computer, especially the home computer, offered a convenience that other delivery
mechanisms lacked. This convenience was accelerated with the proliferation of the Internet in
late 1990s. Starting as an extension of computer-based instruction, online education became
increasingly popular and eventually began to supplant CAI as the predominant form of
individualized instruction. (Ho, Tomlinzon, & Whipple, 202)

3.3. Virtual Learning Environment

The current computer and communication technologies have been used very successfully in
many application areas but are not being utilized to their fullest capability for delivering
instruction to a widespread student population [1-4]. The new technologies enable the
interaction between students and instructors almost free of time and location constraints.
Moreover, the existing technologies have the potential to provide a cost-effective and flexible
learning environment. This work is an effort in that direction to provide a cost-effective teaching
paradigm the Virtual Learning Environment, hereby referred as VLE. (Kumar & Pakala, 2016)

Flexible Learning Environment

There are several possibilities for interaction between the student and teacher for providing an
effective learning environment. In a regular class room environment, the teacher and student
meet at the same place (classroom) and at the same time (schedule). Here, the instructor can
use any presentation style, such as on a blackboard or with an overhead projector, to teach the
students. One of the limitations of this approach is that students must adjust to the time and
location requirements of the course. (Kumar & Pakala, 2016)

The distance learning method in which the course is offered at one location and the students
can take the course at geographically different places is also very popular. This method is
achieved by using video, fax, phone, and data interaction between the students and teacher [5].
One of the restrictions of this approach is that the student must meet the time requirement for
the class. Moreover, the students will have to go to a particular location to take such a class due
to the elaborate requirement of audio visual equipment. (Kumar & Pakala, 2016)

To overcome the shortcomings of the regular class room environment and the distance learning
method, it was perceived that the existing Internet and multimedia tools can be used to build a
new educational environment called the Virtual Learning Environment (VLE) in which the
students and teachers do not have to meet at the same time (schedule) or in a specified
classroom (location). However, the students can retrieve the course contents (lectures plus
study material) at their own convenience and interact with the professors according to their
needs (personally and electronically). This paradigm has great potential but has not yet being
fully developed and tested. (Kumar & Pakala, 2016)

Objectives of the Virtual Learning Environment

The objective of VLE is to make education available to vast population [7,8]. Hence definitely in
this project, the Internet will be used as the delivery medium for the virtual learning
environment courseware. Now with most part of the world connected to Internet and the
remaining part of the world too can not sit in dark for long and sooner or later would join the
Internet. The popularity of the Internet is growing at a very fast rate and it is estimated that
there are millions of computers connected to the Internet. Based on current projections, most
households in the U.S. will be using the Internet for one purpose or other by the end of the next
decade. This popularity is due to the user-friendly access to the Internet as well as the availability
of useful information such as free software, library access, and weather forecasts. Hence the
objective of VLE, education for all, can be achieved only through Internet. (Kumar & Pakala,
2016)

The focus of this project is to design and implement a new and innovative teaching paradigm in
order to provide a cost-effective, flexible, and high quality learning environment for education.
In VLE, students not only can take the course from remote locations at any time, but also can
provide feedback to the instructor about the course design. Moreover, the VLE will keep track
of student's progress through a VLE support software module. (Kumar & Pakala, 2016) The
overall objectives of the virtual learning environment are as follows:

1. Provide a learning environment for students so that they can take the courses without
the time and location constraints of a traditional teaching environment.
2. Allow students with special needs and restrictions to participate in the courses offered
through this learning environment.
 3. Provide geographically widespread access to various courses offered through this
learning environment.
4. Provide a flexible and cost-effective learning environment for the students through the
Internet.
4. Develop a learning environment where students can learn the material at their own
pace and provide universities with an environment in which they can improve their
enrollment by involving many more students in the learning process [6].
5. Provide a course repository for many universities that do not have the expertise to offer
a large number of provider university elective and special courses by signing an
agreement with the VLE.

The Advantages and Disadvantages of VLEs

The key to constructing a successful VLE module and a fruitful teaching implementation is to
detect the advantages and disadvantages of VLEs. VLEs have a lot of advantages as opposed to
classical teaching methods. For instance, teachers can track if learners are engaging with the
internet-based communication and related materials by submitting evaluations online and
providing quick feedback. The message services can inspire teamwork and communication both
between instructor and learner and learner and learner. Teacher and learner can also involve
more enthusiastically in a course at a time and place that is suitable for both (Becta, 2005).
Moreover, Course information such as past exam papers, timetables, and administrative
information can all be found in one place, and are accessible from one authoritative source.
Careful signposting (such as including links with course material) can provide extra care for
learners, or inspire learners to study at an intensive level. With a VLE, it is possible save time for
teachers by dropping time required for photocopying, course material delivery and updating
course material (Becta, 2005). The main benefit of virtual learning environments appears to be
that they can present information at a variety of scales and present images from a variety of
perspectives at once (for example aerial views, cross-sectional views, animated rotating block
diagrams, etc.). Consequently, extremely varied forms of information from the field, laboratory
or library can be unified together to form immediately obtainable material. (Qiu & Hubble, 2005)

Expectedly, the apparent and most thoughtful shortcoming of VLEs is that they are less effective
at informing mere based skills than actual world (Shroder et al. 2002). The material presented
on a computer is only an abstraction of the real thing’ and ‘being on a VLE does not have the
same impact as a real world or face-to-face education. VLEs can be designed to be interactive,
but ‘there is limited give-andtake interaction with a computer, in contrast to the interaction
between real field trip leaders and participants’ (Hurst 1998).
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hltvryZ-Llc

3.3. Referencias bibliográficas

Boulay, D. d. (2009). Study skills for Dummies. West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Can we learn a second language like we learned our first? Robert William McCaul.
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our-first

Campos Perales, V., & Moya Ricardo, R. (Junio de 2011). La formación del profesional desde una
concepción personalizada del proceso de aprendizaje. Obtenido de
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Condidorio, K. (2010). Fisher Digital Publications. Obtenido de Education Masters:

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Downing, S. (2011). On Course. Strategies for Creating Success in College and in life. Boston:
Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

English, H. D. (27 de 08 de 2018). Helena Daily English. Obtenido de

https://youtu.be/U3G5W2Kdr74

How to Study English: Four Core English Skills: https://youtu.be/IUuMf4EumsQ

Krasnic, T. (2012). How to Study with Mind Maps. Concise Learning Method. Concise Books
Publishing.
Las ideas principales y secundarias: https://www.slideshare.net/Lilianasvt/las- ideas-
principales-y-secundarias-8768502 (Lilianasvt, 2011)

Learn english with songs: https://www.esolcourses.com/content/topics/songs/michael-

jackson/you-are- not-alone-gap-fill.html

Main ideas: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n5_l98pF_yw

Martin-Kniep, G., & Picone-Zocchia, J. (2009). Changing the way you teach, Improving the way
students learn. Alexandria VA: ASCD.

Schunk, D. (2012). Learning Theories. Boston: Pearson.

Watkins, C., Carnell, E., & Lodge, C. (2007). Effective Learning in Classrooms. London: Paul
Chapman Publishing.

Wong, L. (2009). Essential study skills. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.

12 técnicas avanzadas para aprender mejor: https://youtu.be/oXVeCSl1H_Q

Donaldson, J., & Allen-handy, A. (2019). The Nature and Power of Conceptualizations.
Educational Psychology Review. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-019-09503-2

Donnchaidh, & Shane. (2019). LITERACY IDEAS for teachers and students. Retrieved from
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english/#:~:text=The%20Cause%20and%20Effect%20Chain%20is%20a%20simple%20g
raphic%20organizer,subsequent%20event%20it%20causes%20easily.

Juran. (2018, may 1). The Ultimate Guide to Cause and Effect Diagrams. Retrieved from
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Lugo, & Sarah. (2014, September 30). Digitec Interactive Knowledge Direct. Retrieved from A
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Moos, J. (2019, January 14). ASAOLUSAM SCIENCE EDUCATION AND SOCIAL ISSUES BLOG.
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Tinio, V. (2018). ICT in Education. In V. Tinio. Philippines.

Villalobos, C. (2019, Marzo). Hubspot. Retrieved from Técnicas de creatividad: 15 ejercicios

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creativos-eficaces
Woerner, & Jack. (2019, Febrero). Study.com. Retrieved from
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template.html

Material Complementario
Online Activity – You are not alone
(ESLcourses. You are not alone, n.d.)
Use the following resource for you to have an extra practice about the topic. You will have the
chance to review the topic and improve your comprehension about it.
Accede al documento a través del aula virtual o desde la siguiente dirección web:
https://www.esolcourses.com/content/topics/songs/michael-jackson/you- are-not-alone-gap-
fill.html

Video – Técnicas de estudio avanzadas para aprender mejor.

(Técnicas de estudio avanzadas para aprender mejor, n.d.)
Use the following resource for you to have an extra practice about the topic. You will have the
chance to review the topic and improve your comprehension about it.
Accede al documento a través del aula virtual o desde la siguiente dirección web:
https://youtu.be/oXVeCSl1H_Q

Slideshare Presentation – Ideas principales

(Lilianasvt, 2011. Las ideas principals y secundarias.)
Use the following resource for you to have an extra practice about the topic. You will have the
chance to review the topic and improve your comprehension about it.
Accede al documento a través del aula virtual o desde la siguiente dirección web:
https://www.slideshare.net/Lilianasvt/las-ideas-principales-y-secundarias- 8768502 (Lilianasvt,
2011)