LEZIONE 1

CAPITOLO 1 E 2
p.6
It takes both vision and analysis to construct a new building. On such a project, the architects will stress the
way the structure stimulates the imagination, while the contractors will be more conscious of daily working
conditions.

General English (Cambridge Dictionary)

Vision: an idea or image in your mind / the ability to see Analysis: a detailed examination of something
To construct: to build something from many parts
Project: a planned piece of work that has a particular purpose To stress: to show something is important
To stimulate: to make someone feel interested and excited Conscious: awake and able to think and notice
things
Conditions (pl.): the situation in which people live, work, or do things

English for psychology

Vision: mental picture of imaginary objects and people
Analysis: exploring the structure and functions of the mind
Construct (n): a mental structure or image (Personal Construct Theory) To project (v): to attribute one’s
beliefs and feelings to another person Stress (n): the organism’s response to overstimulation
Stimulus (n): something that produces a response
Conscious (n): one of the levels of mental awareness according to Freud
Conditioning (gerund): a process of training through stimuli and positive or negative reinforcement

Prefixes and suffixes

1
Prefixes and suffixes help
•recognise grammar category of a word
•predict meaning
BUT
•the meaning of a word is usually contained in the word itself rather than in the prefix/suffix
•exceptions: refuse, transfer, transmit

2.1 p. 14-15
Levels of psychology
-Pure and applied science Process and person approach
-Behaviourist/ cognitive/ psychodynamic/ humanistic/ social constructivist theory
-Biopsychology/ neuropsychology
-Social/ developmental/ educational/ forensic/ organisational/ occupational/ clinical psychology

Homework for Week 2

a. 1.1. Vocabulary p. 6, ex. B
b. 1.2 Listening p. 8, exs. B, C, D, E
c. Carefully read the articles on pp.17 and 19and identify terms including prefixes and suffixes identify noun
phrases belonging to the general field of psychology

2
LEZIONE 2
CAPITOLO 3 E 8

To indicate the order of points or reason

-to being with
-first (of all), firstly
-secondly
-next/then
-in brief
-finally
-lastly
-in sum
-to sum up/to summarise
-to conclude

In conclusion…the person approach provides a wealth of information not available…(p.19)

To add information/ reinforce a point

-also
-as well/too
-as well as
-additionally
-in addition (to this)
-apart from (that)
-moreover
-furthermore

In addition (to these categories) psychology can be divided into specialist field (p.17)
As well as being classiefied as a science psychology can …
Psychology can be classified as a science, and it can be divided into two approach as well/too
Psychology can be classified as a science, and it can also be divided into two approaches.

To say something happens because of something else

-therefore
-consequently
-as a result
-hence
-thus
-as a matter of fact
-indeed
-in fact
-as
-since

As psychology is such a wide discipline, it can be classified in a variety of ways (p.17)

To show exception/give another point of view

-but
-although
-however
-even though
-yet

3
-nevertheless
-in spite of, despide

Although (= even if) psychology may be classed as a pure science, it can also be an applied science.
Despite its possible classification as a pure science, psychology ca also be an applied science.

To talk about differences

-alternatively
-coversely
-in contrast
-on the contrary
-on the one hand/side..on the oder hand/side..
-whereas, while

Occupational psychology
See also industrial, organisational, work psychology Application of psychological concepts and methods to
the work environment
Sub-branches
• organisational psychology: impact of work environment and management styles on employees and
productivity
• personnel psychology: application of psychological methods in personnel selection and evaluation
procedures

Occupational psychologists....
design and give psychometric tests
investigate and solve organisational issues
design reward systems and appraisal systems
plan staff selection and evaluation procedures
examine and advise on stress management at work develop organisational and management systems

4
Clinical psychology
Aims
• to prevent, assess, diagnose and treat mental disorders
• to promote subjective well-being and personal development
Activities
• psychological assessment and psychotherapy
• consultation with other professionals
• administration and interpretation of test measures
• research and teaching
Areas
• child mental health
• adult mental health
• learning disabilities
• emotional disturbances
• substance abuse
• health psychology
• geriatrics

Homework for Week 3

a. 3.1 Vocabulary p. 22, exs A, D, E, F
b. 3.4 Extending skills p. 26, ex. G

MENTAL DISORDER: FACTS VS FICTION

Pshycological terms p.62
-Autistic: affected by a mental disorder which inhibits social interaction, communication and emotional
development
-Psychotic: affected by a mental illness which is characterized by delusions, hallucinations and losing touch
with reality
-Insane=not ability
1. The condition of being seriously mentally ill, e.g.
(he was found noy guilty of murder by reason of insanity)
(he suffered from periodic bouts of insanity)
2. An action that is stupid and likely to have extremely bad results, e.g.
(it would be insanity to expand the business now)

Colloquial inappropiated terms

-crazy = insane (US) and mad=angry (UK): mentally unbalanced (to go mad)
-Deranged (or unhinged): insane
-Lunatic: mentally ill or used to indicate someone who is affected by drastic mood swings
-Retarded: a very derogatory term for people with learning difficulties or brain and/or physical
disabilities if not used specifically in a medical sense

Homework for Week 3

8.1 vocabulary p.62 exsC-D
8.2 Reading p.64 ex A

5
LEZIONE 3
CAPITOLO 4
Vocabulary p.30 ex A

Cross-reference: a reference within a text to another part of the text.

Also used as a verb (to cross-refer/ to cross- reference), e.g.
The main entry also cross-refers you to the appendix on page 259.
These make the book much more user-friendly, easy to use and to cross-reference.
Log in: closed systems.
Users were required to log in to access the service.
Log on: open systems.
You can log on to the Internet with a smartphone.

Advantages and disadvantages of using books

+ -
Plenty of specific information Outdated information
Reliable information Books cannot be accessed from home
Prestige Books might not be available when you need them
Critical research Books take up space

Advantages and disadvantages of using the Web

+ -
Many different sources Not always reliable
Material is easy to download Sometimes you need to pay for accessing material
It can be accessed from home Difficult to retrieve the right information
Always updated Web pages might disappear

Vocabulary p. 30, ex. C

Abbreviations: CT, DVD, HTML, HTTP, ISP, LCD, PDP and URL (letter by letter)
Acronyms: CAL, PIN, ROM and WAN (is made up of acronyms while group two is composed of
abbreviations.)
An acronym is similar to an abbreviation but pronounced as a word.
An abbreviation is a shorter version of a noun or an expression.

6
CAT: computer-assisted learning__using computers to help you learn
CT: computerized tomography____a method of examing the human brain through a series of. X-rays taken
from different angles
DVD: digital versatile disk___a disk for storing data including sound and pictures
HTML: hypertext markup language__a way to write documents so they can be displayed
HTTP: hypertest transfer protocol___a set of rules for transferring files on thexxx, usually included at the
beginning of a website address
ISP: internet service provider__a company that enables access to the interne
LCD: liquid cystal display___the kind of screen you get on many laptops
PDP: parallel distributed processing___a model of mental processing in which individual conceptual
rappresentation relate to the complete network rather than to each other individually
PIN: personal identification number___a collection of numbers or letters which are used like a password to
identify someone
ROM: read-only memory__a type of permanent computer or disk memory that stores information that can
be read or used but not changed
URL: uniform resource locator___a website address
USB: a standard way to connect things like printers and scanners to a computer
WAN: a way of connecting computers in different places, often very far apart
WWW: world wide web__a huge collection of documents that are connected by hypertext links and can be
accessed through the internet

Homework for Week 4

4.1 Vocabulary p. 30, exs. B and E 4.2 Reading p. 32:
exs. B-F for self-study
ex. E – see key in Week 4
ex. G – forum in Psy-Net “Computers and psychology”
Quiz in Psy-Net for reading comprehension
Study pp. 36-37

Vocabulary p. 94, ex. A

avatar blackmail
bully chat
room chatter
cyberbullying instant messaging
online real-life
face-to-face gamer
harassment mobile
technology offline
peers predator
teasing texting unmoderated
virtual victimization
Textual cohesion p.95. “Virtual relationship”
This: “For some, online friendships are as real as a personal contact. This can have consequences on the
real world too”.
This/ these: “Nathalie got anonymous threatening text messages. These had been sent by a group of girls”
Some: “Nathalie got anonymous threatening text messages. Some had been sent by a group of girls.”

Some more homework for Week 4

12.2 Reading p. 96, ex. A – Forum in Psy-Net “Cyberbullying”
Exs. D to G
Quiz in Psy-Net for reading comprehension + Study p. 100

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LEZIONE 4
CAPITOLO 5

Word sets
• Synonyms: same meaning (disorder, illness, condition)
• Antonyms: opposite meaning (true vs false, pass vs fail)
• Hypernyms (or superordinate): broad meaning/ category (colour is a hypernym of red, blue, yellow...)
• Hyponyms (or subordinate): specific meaning (schizophrenia is a hyponym of illness)

Vocabulary p. 38, ex. B

• to analyse = to interpret (to break down, to understand) – V
• (to) approach = method (attitude, system, means, way) – N
• aspect = component (part, element, characteristic) – N
• aware = conscious (mindful, knowing) – Adj.
• collective (also N) = universal (communal, common, joint, shared) – Adj.
• to compromise (also N) = to mediate (to negotiate, to concede, to cooperate) – V
• (to) drive = (to) urge (to impel / impulse, instinct, motivation) – V/ N
• legend = myth (fable, traditional folk tale) – N
• mysticism = spirituality (religion) – N
• personality = self (character, traits, identity / personal – adj.) – N

Homework for Week 5

• 5.1 Vocabulary p. 38, exs. C and E
• ex. D – forum in Psy-Net “Interpretation of dreams”
• Quiz in Psy-Net for reading comprehension (sentence level gap filling)

Sigmund Freud
Psychoanalysis and the psychodynamic approach to psychology
•psychoanalytical=Freud’s formulations and therapy
•psychodynamic= refers to both Freud’s theories and those of his followers

In contrast to behavioral psychology, psychodynamic psychology ignores the trappings of science and
instead focuses on trying to get “inside the head” of individuals in order to make sense of their relationships,
experiences and how they see the world. (aggiunto dalle slide dell’anno scorso)

Human behavior viewed from the standpoint of unconscious motives that

•shape the personality
•influence attitudes
•produce emotional disorders.

Carl Gustav Jung

Psyche interpreted in terms of
•philosophical values
•primordial images and symbols
•a drive for self-fulfillment

(i) Frd. = uncon. = conflict ÷ id/ ego/ superego

Id (= it): represents our inherited (= biological) and unconscious wishes (aggression = Thanatos and sexual
desires = Eros) based on “pleasure principle”
2. Ego (= I): conscious aspect of our personality modified by direct contact with the outside world that
mediates and permits us to live in a community by controlling the Id through the “reality principle”; has no
concept of right and wrong

8
3. Superego (= above I): incorporates learned values and morals of society; controls the id’s impulses and
persuades the ego to turn to moralistic goals (compromise) and consists of two systems: conscience and
ideal self (or egoideal) (aggiunto dalle slide dell’anno scorso)

(ii) Jng. = indiv. uncon. = part of coll. uncon.

Jung: unconscious fulfils a positive therapeutic function by showing the conscious mind what needs to be
done to get rid of unease and unhappiness and to achieve fuller satisfaction in life.
In order to round out your personality, you must bring the unconscious part of your psyche into your
consciousness. At the same time, the unconscious, as well as containing deep wisdom and inexhaustible
energy, may also contain forces (“complexes”) that, if unleashed, will destroy the psyche – that is, produce
madness.
The ideal situation consists in completeness and wholeness. It branches out into myths (legends) and
mysticism (spirituality).
Jung distinguishes from more superficial and deeper layers of the unconscious mind personal unconscious:
things that have been repressed, rejected from consciousness; it is therefore something that is built up
during the individual's lifetime collective unconscious: older than the individual and older than
consciousness; it consists of the whole spiritual heritage of mankind’s evolution born anew in the
brainstructure of every individual (aggiunto dalle slide dell’anno scorso)

-Dreams
(i) Frd. uncon.>cons.
For Freud the underlying energy guiding behavior is unconscious and motivated by unfulfilled sexual urges;
dreams may be recalled and analyzed and allow patients to become aware of their unconscious instincts (id)
and bring them under the control of the ego. The psychotherapist encourages the patient to relate
images in their dreams with the first words that come to their mind (free association) (aggiunto dalle slide
dell’anno scorso)

(ii) Jng. ego > id>control

Jung believed the individual conscious is part of the collective unconscious, i.e. the unconscious
accumulation of human experience throughout the evolution of the species. Dreams link us with the
accumulated knowledge and past teachings of our ancestors through archetypal images. (aggiunto dalle
slide dell’anno scorso)

Some more homework and interactive activities

• 5.3 Extending skills p. 41, ex. C (study p. 28)
• Listening activities
• “History vs. Sigmund Freud” – Todd Dufresne
• “Why do we dream?” - Amy Adkins
• Question and answer forum “Freud, Jung, Like Skywalker, and the Psychology of Myth”

Introduce the graph

One or two sentences that state how the graph looks like
•Paraphrase the title of the graph
•Indicate time frame, source, axes, etc. if relevant.

Give an overview
The main trend or trends in the graph.
NO detail such BUT describe what is happening overall.
>What is the main thing that stands out?

9
Give the detail and conclude
Refer to the data and group them together where there are patterns.
>What things are similar and what things are different? Final sentence to
•Wrap up OR
•Highlight one final detail

Language to describe charts, graphs, and tables

How to refer to the graph

The graph/ The table/ Figure 1
shows reports
that...

•The table reports information about child protection features of social networking sites.
•The graph shows that the majority of young people interviewed were never threatened online.

How to refer to the graph

As can be seen .. It can be seen We can see
from in
the
chart,table, the graph, figures, statistics,
that

•As can be seen in the graph, the population of women in senior position at Hadford University...
•It can be seen from the figures that the population of women in senior position...

How to refer to the graph

can be seen/ ... is shown
from in
the
chart,table, graph, figures, statistics.

•A sharp increase in teenagers suffering from eating disorders is shown in the statistics.

How to refer to the graph

From the
Table, graph, figures, chart
it
can may
be
seen, shown estimated , calculated, inferred, graph
that ...

•From the figures in the pie chart it may be concluded that arson is the most frequent violent crime among
patients with severe mental illness.

How to describe trends

How to describe trends

•There + be + adj. + noun + in + noun phrase
•Noun phrase + verb + adverb
•Using fractions and proportions and percentages

10
•There was a gradual rise in children with additional needs related to language development.
•There has been a sharp drop in the proportion of large primary school classes.
•There was a dramatic decline in Scottish school inspection figures over the period...

Noun phrase + verb + adv.

•School fees increased suddenly after the introduction of the single currency.
•Women’s employment figures fell sharply in the second half of the year.

11
LEZIONE 5
CAPITOLO 6

Prefixes
Anti- (against): anti-social
De- (do the opposite): demotivate Dis- (not): disadvantage
Extra- (beyond): extrasensory
Il-/ Im-/ In-/ Ir- (not): irrational
Sub- (under): subconscious
Trans- (across): transaction
Over- (above/ more): overstimulate Un- (not): unfeeling

Suffixes
-able (adj from verb): treatable
-al (adj from noun): criminal
-ed (adj. from verb): acquired
-en (verb formation): threaten
-ify (causative verb): identify
-ing (adj from verb): accommodating -ion (noun from verb): acquisition -ise (verb from adj): stabilise
-ory (adj formation): sensory
-tic (adj from noun): schematic

12
Homework
• Reading comprehension – quiz based on the text p. 49
• Forum for brainstorming: “Advantages and disadvantages of learning in a group” – based on ex. F p. 46)

Cognitive psychology
• Jean Piaget
• Lev Vygotsky
• Jerome Bruner

6.2. Reading p. 48, ex. B

Jean Piaget:
- was born in Switzerland.
- trained as a biologist.
- is famous for his research into cognitive development.
Lev Vygotsky:
- was born in Russia.
- was a psychologist.
- investigated the relationship between language and
thought.

Cognitive development in children: Jean Piaget

• Child: active learner
• Knowledge: actively constructed (not in-born)
o Action is internalised
o Thought derives from action

• ASSIMILATION: the child solves problems presented by the environment relying on existing skills or
knowledge.
• ACCOMODATION: the child alters his/her behaviour to solve the problem

Jean Piaget’s 4 stages of mental growth

1. birth to age 2: sensory-motor stage
2. age 2 to 7: pre-operational stage
3. age 7 to 11: concrete operational stage
4. age 11 onwards: formal operational stage

Criticism to Piaget’s theory

Lack of socio-cultural dimension
Fixed stages

(slide dell’anno scorso)

•Both methods have been applied to the field of education (structuring of curricula for pre-school and
primary education, introduction of social interaction in lessons, development of peer teaching and
collaborative learning methods)
•Piaget bases his theory on an idealized child in absence of social interaction: here all children
acquire determined cognitive skills at certain stages and in a certain order

13
Social development theory: Lev Vygotsky
• Child: active learner in the context (people)
• Development of the child’s first language in the second year of life (essential shift in cognitive
development)
• Language: a new tool which gives new opportunities for doing things and organising information through
the use of words and symbols
INNER SPEECH vs SOCIAL SPEECH

People surrounding a child help him/her learn; ex. adults

• bring objects and ideas to children’s attention
• talk while playing and about playing
• read stories
• ask questions.
Adults as a MEDIATORS: they “mediate the world for children and make it accessible for them. The ability
to learn through instruction and mediation is characteristic of human intelligence” (Cameron 2001, p. 6)

ZPD: Zone of proximal development

(slide dell’anno scorso)

• Vygotsky believed that cognitive and linguistic skills are developed through social interaction.
• Vygotsky claimed that cognitive development is culturally determined and domain dependent.
• Moreover, Vygotsky suggested that the teacher’s role is that of a “mentor” who should provide
“scaffolding”, i.e. support and guidance, within the zone of proximal development.

Social development theory: Jerome Bruner

Scaffolding: talk that helps a child in carrying out an activity.
Routines: repetitive events that help a child understand the new.

Homework for Week 5

• Interactive task on Psy-Net: Q&A forum “Jerome Bruner – How does teaching influence learning”
Important: make sure you rephrase Bruner’s words
• 6.3 Extending skills p. 50, exs. A, B, C
6.2 Reading p. 48, ex. G
1. Par. 5, sentence 1 to 4. 2. Student B

Reporting sources (in-text citation): word by word

According to Cameron, adults “mediate the world for children and make it accessible for them” (2001: 6).
OR
The author indicates that adults “mediate the world for children and make it accessible for them”
(Cameron 2001: 6).
Cameron, L. (2001), Teaching Languages to Young Learners. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Reference examples
Journal article
Grady, J. S., Her, M., Moreno, G., Perez, C., & Yelinek, J. (2019). Emotions in storybooks: A comparison of
storybooks that represent ethnic and racial groups in the United States. Psychology of Popular Media
Culture, 8(3), 207–217.
Edited book chapter
Dillard, J. P. (2020). Currents in the study of persuasion. In M. B. Oliver, A. A. Raney, & J. Bryant (Eds.),
Media effects: Advances in theory and research (4th ed., pp. 115–129). London: Routledge.

14
APA Style
More examples of in-text citation and references
https://apastyle.apa.org/
https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/apa_for
matting_and_style_guide/general_format.html
https://www.mendeley.com/guides/apa-citation-guide

Reporting sources (in-text citation): paraphrasing

According to Cameron, adults “mediate the world for children and make it accessible for them” (2001: 6).
-> According to Cameron, children can understand the world thanks to adults’ intervention (2001).
OR
Children can understand the world thanks to adults’ intervention (Cameron 2001).

Reporting sources
• Introductory verbs in the Vocabulary Bank p. 100
• Other verbs
-To add: to develop/ to contribute to sth
- To agree: to admit/ to acknowledge/ to recognise/ to confirm that...
- To believe: to assume/ to maintain that
- To emphasise: to highlight/ to underscore sth, to stress that
- To examine: to evaluate/ to investigate sth
- To suggest: to put forward sth/ to imply/ to hypothesise/ to posit that...

• Other useful expressions

- According to...,
- In the author’s opinion, ...
- As indicated/ claimed/ argued by ... o Research by .... demonstrates that... o Studies conducted by ... show
that...

Paraphrasing: strategies (Vocabulary bank p. 52)

Synonyms
Negative to positive and vice versa Active to passive and vice versa
Different information order
Different subject
A combination of the above

How to describe trends

1. There + be + adj. + noun + in + noun phrase
2. Noun phrase + verb + adverb
3. Using fractions and proportions and percentages

3. Using fractions and proportions and percentages

• The number of women in senior positions fell by 20% over a 2- year period.
• The number of employees reporting feeling burnt out has risen 30% to 350.
• This represents an increase of 16.3% from 2017.
• From January to March the percentage of children using supplements remained fairly static at
approximately 10%.

Note
• The 25% of people: WRONG!
• About a quarter of people – GOOD!

15
• 25% of people – WRONG!
• It can be seen that 25% of people... – GOOD!

Percentages → fractions
• 73% nearly three quarters
• 51% just over a half
• 49% just under a half
• 32% nearly a third
• 3% a tiny fraction
• 50% exactly a half
• 26% roughly one quarter
• 49% around a half
• 24% almost a quarter
• 77% approximately three quarters

Percentages → proportions
• 70% a large proportion
• 71% a significant majority
• 15% a small minority
• 3% an insignificant minority

Summarising
• To summarise, the most marked change is.... • Overall, it is clear....
• Overall, the majority/minority....
• In sum, the most noticeable trend is....
DO NOT write ‘to conclude’ (discursive essays only).

Other useful vocabulary: stable trends

• The increase levelled off (stopped) in the second period
• School fees remained fairly/ relatively (adv.) unchanged/ stable/
constant/ fixed/ static/ steady (adj.) between 2015 and 2020.
• Truancy rate sreached a plateau in April.

Other useful vocabulary: upward trends

• Female teachers’ applications have gone up from 2,300 to 3,800.
• The number of teenagers reporting being bullied has soared another 20%.
• The period between June and August saw a dramatic growth in the use of dietary supplements.
• The percentage of teenagers truanting was at its highest level in April.
• Supplement use peaked at close to 25% in April. (OR reached a peak of nearly 25%)

Other useful vocabulary: downward trends

• Supplement use experienced a dramatic fall between August and October.
• Truancy rates fell to a low of only 5% in December.
• Between October and December, the decrease in the number of teenagers being bullied at school was at
a much slower pace than in the previous two months.
• Male teachers’ applications dropped by half (OR halved).

Tenses
They will depend on the information displayed in the graph.
One point in the past (January 1990): past tense.
Projections for the future (2045): future forms.
No time: present simple.

16
Tenses – Revision
Present Perfect: action that happened at an unspecified time before now. The exact time period is not
important.
E.g. The number of teenager being bullied has risen by 10% .
Present Perfect Continuous: something which started in the past and has continued up until now.
E.g. The number of teenagers being harassed online has been rising since 2018.
Future Perfect: something which will be finished by a particular time in the future. We often use it
with ‘by’ or ‘in’.
E.g. School fees will have reached £700.00 a month by 2021.
Past Simple: action that started and finished at a specific time in the past. E.g. School fees rose from
£13,400 in 1992 to £22,100 in 2008.

Mid-term peer assessment

Workshop “Reporting statistical data”
a. Select a chart, graph, table
b. Write your report – due date: 19 Nov.
c. Assess your mates’ work (also yours, if you like) – due date: 3 Dec.
o Has the question been answered? Are the contents in line with the task?
o Is language accurate from the point of view of lexico-grammar? Has the right terminology been used?
o Is the report well organised (introduction-macro&micro picture-conclusion)? Have linkers been used?
d. You will receive a score for your work and a score for your assessment

17
LEZIONE 6

Compare and contrast essays

Two types
• write about the similarities (comparison)
• write about and differences (contrast)
In the final exam you might be asked to do both!

Aims
The comparison or contrast should make a point or serve a purpose, i.e.
clarify something unknown or not well understood;
lead to a fresh insight or new way of viewing something; bring one or both of the subjects into sharper
focus.

Organisation patterns
1. Block arrangement of ideas
2. Point-by-point (or alternating) arrangement of ideas

1. Block arrangement
Ex.: What similarities and/or differences are there between the cognitive approaches to cognitive
development proposed by Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky?
• Jean Piaget in one paragraph
• Lev Vygotsky in the next.
Remember: if you mention a particular point in the paragraph about Piaget, mention the same point in the
paragraph about Vygotsky in the same order.

Block Organisation in Four Paragraphs

1- Introduction: get your reader's attention and state your purpose/thesis statement (to discuss the
similarities/differences between two approaches to cognitive development: Piaget and Vygotsky).
2 -Jean Piaget: (A) role of context, (B) role of language (C) impact on teaching methodology
3 -Lev Vygotsky: (A) role of context, (B) role of language (C) impact on teaching methodology
4- Conclusion: sum up your ideas and leave the reader with a good impression.

2. Point-by-point pattern
1. Discuss a particular point about Piaget, and then...
2. ... immediately discuss the same point about Vygotsky (same paragraph).

Point-by-Point Organization in Five Paragraphs

1-Introduction: get your reader's attention and state your purpose/thesis statement (to discuss the
similarities/differences between two approaches to cognitive development: Piaget and Vygotsky).
2-The first difference/ similarity between Piaget and Vygotsky: context
3-The second difference/ similarity: language
4-The third difference/ similarity: impact on teaching methodology
5-Conclusion: sum up your ideas and leave the reader with a good impression.

Other possible topics

• Compare and discuss the job of an occupational psychologist with that of a clinical psychologist.
• Discuss similarities and differences between the process approach and the person approach to human
behaviour.
• Compare and contrast the approaches by Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung in the context of psychoanalysis.

18
Language for comparing and contrasting (revision)
On the one hand/ side, Piaget claimed that..., on the other (hand/ side), Vygotsky argued that...
Piaget posited that... while/ whereas Vygotsky postulated that...
While Piaget assumed that... Vygotsky proposed...
Piaget theorised... . In contrast, Vygotsky indicated...
Piaget believed that.... . In the same way, Vygotsky emphasised that...
Both Piaget and Vygotsky assumed that...

How to use the word ?assumption’ in context

Note: assumption

“The theories by both Freud and Jung have been criticised, because Freud’s theory seems unrealistic: not
many boys want to marry their mothers, and not all people are, of course, boys. There are many
assumptions in Freud’s theory.”

A thing that is accepted as true or as certain to happen, without proof.

• People tend to make assumptions about you when you have a disability.
• ...the scientific assumption on which the global warming theory is based.

Assumptions can be...

• basic, fundamental, key (assumption)
• common, shared, widespread
• false, flawed, incorrect

Note: to assume

Suppose to be the case, without proof

• It is reasonable to assume that such changes have significant social effects
• We can safely assume that this situation will continue.

MEMORY
CAPITOLO 7

Memory = (the mental capacity to encode, store and retrieve information)

the ability to retain information or a representation of past experience, based on the mental processes of
learning or encoding, retention across some interval of time, and retrieval or reactivation of the memory.
Short-term memory STM(primary)= the reproduction, recognition, or recall of a limited amount of
material after a period of about 10 to 30 seconds
Long-term memory LTM= a relatively permanent information storage system that enables one to retain,
retrieve, and make use of skills and knowledge hours, weeks, or even years after they were originally
learned. Various theories have been proposed to explain the biological processes by which this occurs (e.g.,
the perseveration–consolidation hypothesis), and a major distinction is made between LTM and short-term
memory. Additionally, LTM is divided into several categories, including declarative memory and procedural
memory. See also secondary memory.
Declarative memory = the ability to retain information about facts or events over a significant period of
time and to consciously recall such declarative knowledge, typically in response to a specific request to
remember. It generally is divided into two subtypes: episodic memory and semantic memory. Declarative
memory depends on the integrity of a set of highly interconnected structures in the medial temporal lobe

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and adjacent cortical areas—specifically, the hippocampus, dentate gyrus, subiculum, perirhinal cortex,
entorhinal cortex, and the parahippocampal gyrus.
Iconic memory = the brief retention of an image of a visual stimulus beyond cessation of the stimulus. This
iconic image usually lasts less than a second. In a multistore model of memory, iconic memory precedes
short-term memory. Also called visual sensory memory.
Procedural memory = long-term memory for the skills involved in particular tasks. Procedural memory is
demonstrated by skilled performance and is often separate from the ability to verbalize this knowledge
(see declarative memory). Knowing how to type or skate, for example, requires procedural memory. Also
called sensorimotor memory.
Working memory = the structures and processes used for temporarily storing and manipulating
information necessary for performing complex cognitive tasks such as learning, reasoning, and
comprehension.
According to their multicomponent conceptualization, working memory comprises a phonological loop for
temporarily manipulating and storing speech-based information and a visuospatial sketchpad that performs
a similar function for visual and spatial information. Both are supervised by a limited capacity central
executive, a control system responsible for the distribution of attention and general coordination of
ongoing processes. A fourth component, the episodic buffer, was added to the model in 2000; it binds
together information about the same stimulus or event from the different subsidiary systems to form an
integrated representation that is essential to long-term memory storage.

(definizioni tratte da APA Dictionary of Psychology)

Vocabulary 7.1 p. 54, ex. A

• Brain tissue
• Information retrieval /rɪˈtriːvl/
• Learning disability
• Maintenance rehearsal
• Memory bank
• Storage capacity
• Word association
• Working memory

Noun ’S noun
• Piaget’s paradigm
• A child’s learning style
• Clinical psychologists’ duties
• Today’s teenagers
• Italy’s problem with working women
• The APA’s glossary

Noun OF noun
• A piece of equipment, an item of news
• A word of advice, a mountain of work
• The bottom of the page, the middle of the meeting
• A glass of wine (≠ a wine glass!)

Nouns in numerical expressions

• A two-day workshop
• A 90-minute lecture
• A group of 12-year-old children OR A group of 12-year-olds

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Vocabulary 7.1 p. 54, ex. B
• As shown (demonstrated) in the table... / by recent research
• As well as introducing new ideas, this book reviews...
• In addition to this... / In addition to presenting new ideas, this article discusses...
• In order to ensure the reliability of...
• The research was conducted in such a way that all participants were informed that...
• In the case of addiction... / In the case of bullying...
• Freud is known as...
• The end of the test was...
• The use of the new data will lead to...

Homework Week 7
• Vocabulary 7.1. p. 54, exs. D, F, G

p. 56, ex A
Signpost language (see p. 45)
• To start with, ...
• Firstly,...
• I’ll begin/ start by... (+ gerund)
• Then, ...
• Next, ...
• After that, ...
• Moving on from this, ...
• As I was saying, ...
• I’ll finish/ conclude by ... (+ gerund)

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Emphasis (cleft sentences)
• It was William James who distinguished between short-term and long term memory.
• It was the difference between short-term and long term memory that/ which William James
distinguished.
• It was as far back as 1884 that William James distinguished between short-term and long term memory.
• What William James introduced was the difference between short-term and long term memory.

Extending skills 7.3 p. 57, ex D

• It was Freud who claimed that hypnosis was an effective method for accessing repressed memories.
• What hypnosis can do is help eyewitnesses return to the moment of a traumatic event and see it again ‘in
the mind’s eye’.
• What’s very important is a full understanding of the disadvantages of hypnosis.
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• It’s very easy to confuse the memory. The reason (for this) is that it depends on so many factors.
• The advantage of hypnosis is that it can remind people of the feelings they had at the time they
witnessed an event.

Homework Week 7
• 7.3 Extending skills p. 57 ex. A
• Interactive tasks on Psy-Net
- Q&A forum “Remembering and forgetting”
- Vocabulary quiz “The human brain

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LEZIONE 7

PERSONALITY

What is personality?
“relatively stable and enduring aspects of individuals which distinguish them from other people, making
them unique, but which at the same time allow people to be compared with each other.”
(R. Gross, Psychology and the science of mind and behaviour, 2009)

Personality (APA Dictionary of Psychology)

n. the enduring configuration of characteristics and behavior that comprises an individual’s unique
adjustment to life, including major traits, interests, drives, values, self-concept, abilities, and emotional
patterns. Personality is generally viewed as a complex, dynamic integration or totality shaped by many
forces, including hereditary and constitutional tendencies; physical maturation; early training; identification
with significant individuals and groups; culturally conditioned values and roles; and critical experiences and
relationships. Various theories explain the structure and development of personality in different ways, but
all agree that personality helps determine behavior.

Vocabulary 9.1 p. 70, ex. A

1. Personality traits
2. Identical twins
3. Genetic inheritance 4. Self actualisation
5. Factor analysis
6. Trait theory
7. Social cognition
8. Emotional stability

Vocabulary 9.1 p. 70, ex. B

• To start with – to begin talking about several points
• Many/ some people think – to mention an idea
• On the other hand – to introduce the second of two ideas
• To some extent – to agree only partly with a point
• On the one hand – to introduce the first of two ideas
• The real question is – to focus on the most important point
• On the grounds that – to give a reason for a point
• In a case like this – to talk about a particular example
• In this/ that sort of situation – to talk about certain circumstances

Vocabulary 9.1 p. 70, ex. C

• Self-efficacy – Bandura -> A
• Trait-theory – Eysenck -> C
• Humanism – Rogers -> E
• Self-actualisation – Maslow-> B
• Situationism – Mischel -> D
Social construction: Bandura, Rogers, Maslow, Mischel

Vocabulary on personality (slide scorso anno)

• Self-efficacy: a person’s belief in his or her ability to succeed in a particular situation. It emphasizes the
role of observational learning, social experience, and reciprocal determinism in the development of
personality.
• Trait theory: according to this theory, personality is made up of a number of broad traits. A trait is
basically a relatively consistent characteristic that causes an individual to behave in certain ways.

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• Humanism: emphasizes the importance of free will and individual experience, in other words of the
individual, in the development of personality.
• Self-actualization: refers to a person’s desire for self-fulfillment, i.e., the tendency for him or her to
become actualized in what he or she is potentially.
• Situationalism: a theory that holds that personality is influenced more by external factors and situations
than by internal traits or motivation.

Vocabulary 9.1 p. 70, ex. D

A. Microanalytical: the detailed analysis of specific elements of a personality
B. Multivariate: the study of the interaction of several aspect of personality
C. Self-efficacy: an individual’s view of their ability to realistically achieve their aims
D. Genetic: throught the inheritance of a chromosome pattern which determinates a characteristic
E. Idiographic: the approach to personality that focuses on individual characteristics
F. Twin studies: research that compares the response of monozygotic (identical) or dizygotic (fraternal
siblings
G. Traits: personal qualities that make people unique, but which are also shared with others
H. Extrovertion: the quality of being sociable and open to others
I. Situationism: the teory that personality is not fixed, but determined by circumstances

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Summary
Trait theory assumes a limited number of consistent patterns of behaviour. Through factor analysis,
Eysenck found two main traits, Cattell sixteen.

The Big Five are extroversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience.

In staff selection personality is measured by psychometric tests, reports of past behaviour, and direct
observation.

Digression: the lecturer’s experience of the limitations of psychometric tests.

26
Homework Week 8
1. 9.3 Extending skills p. 73 exs. A-B-C
2. Interactive tasks on Psy-Net
• Reading comprehension (sentence-level gap-fill) “Personality: Where Does it Come From and How Does it
Work?”
• Listening comprehension (multiple choice) “How does the Rorschach inkblot test work? - Damion Searls”
(TED-Ed)

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Cause and effect essays
To determine causes "Why did this happen?“
To identify effects "What happened because of this?"
e.g.
Cause - You did not study.
Effect -You did not pass your exam.

Chain reaction
Many causes contributing to a single effect
OR
Many effects resulting from a single cause
e.g.
lots of friends... too many parties... no time... get up late... missed lessons... forgot to ask about notes.... got
the flu... couldn't study...
->ailed exam.

Tip
Keep the number of major points to 2 or 3 even of a situation can have several causes/ effects.

How to organise your essay

Type 1. Multiple causes One effect.
Type 2. One cause Multiple effects.

è Type 1: Multiple causes -> one effect

1. Introduction:
a. Catchy opening - something to keep the reader interested
b. Outline of essay - do not repeat the title, but say what your essay is about
c. Thesis statement - your claim.
2. Body (par 2, 3,...):
Causes in separate brief paragraphs, linking each cause to the effect.
Do not simply list causes, BUT discuss how they are linked!
3. Conclusion:
a. What conclusion can be made? Or how is your thesis statement resolved?
b. Catchy closure

è Type 2: One cause multiple effects

1. Introduction:
a. Catchy opening b. Outline of essay c. Thesis statement
2. Body (par 2, 3,...):
Effects in separate brief paragraphs, linking each effect to the cause.
Do not simply list effects, BUT discuss how they are linked!
3. Conclusion:
a. What conclusion can be made? Or how is your thesis statement resolved?
b. Catchy closure.

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Checklist
1. Form a clear idea of the causes and effects.
2. State whether you are discussing causes, effects, or both (use terms "cause"
and/or "effect”).
3. Substantiate your thesis with relevant and sufficient details.
4. Organise your details
a) Chronologically. Details in the order in which the events occurred.
b) Order of importance. From least to most important detail or vice versa.
c) Categorically. The topic is divided into parts or categories.
5. Use appropriate transitions (linking words and phrases).
6. (perso per strada?)
7.Limit yourself to causes/effects that are close in time and related
8.Strengthen your essay by using supporting evidence (e.g. terms, facts and statistics, examples, etc. to
support your ideas).
9.Qualify your statements with phrases such
a. "It appears that the cause is“
b. “It seems likely“
c. "The evidence may indicate“
d. "Availableevidencesuggests."

10.Evaluate the effectiveness of a cause and effect essay by asking:

a. Are there single or multiple causes? Single or multiple effects?
b. Is a chain reaction involved?
c. What are the causes?
d. What are the effects?
e. Which should be emphasised?

Sample essay
The effects of watching TV too much

Introduction
Discoveries and invention of devices are always welcome till we, humans, find a way to abuse its benefits
and be adversely affected by it. This was the case when Wilhelm Roentgen discovered x-ray and within five
years, the British Army was using a mobile x-ray unit to locate bullets and shrapnel in wounded soldiers in
the Sudan. TV was also invented with positive thoughts in mind: there would be no national borders, and
education and communication would be worldwide. However, we are now trying to overcome its
physiological and psychological adverse effects on human beings.
Body
(par. 2) One of the physiological effects of watching TV is excessive amounts in eye-strain. It is true that
there are specifications for watching TV. For instance, TV should be 5 metres away from the eye, the room
should be adequately lit, and TV should be placed at the same height with our eyes. However, these do not
prevent our eyes from getting tired if we keep watching TV for a long time.
(par. 3) Another effect is obesity, which is widely observed in people who like watching TV and eating
snacks everyday (there is even a term “TV snacks” to refer to fast food that is suitable for eating in front of
the TV). TV is such a powerful machine that people cannot get away from it – it is addictive.
(par. 4) Apart from the physiological effects, TV also causes psychological effects. One is a result of being
exposed to violence. After seeing so many violent scenes on TV, people start considering violent actions
normal and they lose their sensitivity to their environment.
(par. 5) Partly connected to this effect, the interpersonal communication among people decreases. Being
insensitive to the suffering of other people causes people to become alienated. Moreover, after coming
home from work people seek to relax in front of the TV, and generally people prefer watching TV to talking
to each other. This issue is very important since lack of interpersonal relationships mostly end with divorces

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Conclusion
Shortly, inventions are meant to be beneficial for human beings, if we know how to benefit from them. TV
is one of such inventions that need to be used for the right purpose only – being educated and entertained
for a reasonable (according to age) period of time. We may, then, be safe from or at least reduce the
adverse physiological and psychological effects of watching too much TV.

Possible topics for essays

• The causes of mental illness
• The consequences suffered by children and adolescents who experience cyberbullying
• The effects of modern addictions

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LEZIONE 8
Advantages & disadvantages-Pros & cons essays

Pros/Cons versus Advantages/Disadvantages

Similar outline, BUT
• Pros and cons: information in favour of (the pros of) and against (the cons of) a given proposition.
• Advantages and disadvantages: possible positive or negative consequences of a particular action or
situation.

Outline: introduction
a. Opening line: a catchy statement which will appeal the reader.
b. Brief introduction of the topic in general and acknowledgment of both pros/ cons or advantages/
disadvantages.
c. Thesis statement and few reasons why you your thesis statement is true.

Outline: body
Two possibilities:
• several paragraphs, each giving the pros/ cons of a particular point of view;
• 2 paragraphs, one for the pros/advantages, the second for the cons/disadvantages with examples and
discussion.
give examples and discuss them!

Outline: conclusion
• Sum up, but don’t repeat!
• Finish off with a strong sentence referring to your opening line.
• You can express your point of view BUT in an indirect and objective way: avoid "I think...”, use indirect/
objective language!

Sample essay: advantages and disadvantages (adapted from IELTS)

Many young people today leave their own countries to work abroad.
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of working abroad and give your own opinion.
Which areas should you focus on?

Incorporate your own experience (indirectly)

• Do you want to go abroad and why to work or study?
• What are the advantages for you in going abroad? Are there any disadvantages?
• What might happen while you are in a foreign country?

Some dos and don’ts

• Make some notes under the headings Advantages and Disadvantages
• Keep your language formal and indirect!
• Use linking words and phrases
• For each topic, start a new paragraph.

Suggested outline
I. Introduction (Paragraph 1)
II. Body
i. Advantages for young people working abroad (Paragraph 2)
ii. Disadvantagesforyoungpeopleworkingabroad (Paragraph 3)
III. Conclusion: a summary of the essay (Paragraph 4).
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Introduction
It is now fairly common for young people to leave their own countries in order to find work abroad. As with
most important decisions, there are both advantages and disadvantages in the choice that is made.

Body: advantages
There are several advantages of moving to another country to work. (topic sentence) The financial aspect
to migrating might well be the most important. (advantage 1) A young person who lives in a still-developing
country can earn more if he or she works in a country with an advanced economy. Currencies in such
countries tend to be stronger than in the migrant’s homeland and so money can be sent back to families in
the form of remittances. These will enable the family to have a better standard of living. (discussion of
advantage 1)
A second advantage to working abroad is that one gets to meet new people and make new friends from
different cultures. (advantage 2) This can be exciting and it will broaden one’s horizons and outlook. [...]
(discussion of advantage 2)

Any other advantages?

• You can become more tolerant and understanding of people from cultures other than your own.
• You will gain work experience and learn new skills, (useful if they decide to return to their homeland).
• You will (probably) have learned a new language and become proficient in its use.

Body: disadvantages
However, there could be disadvantages for a young person who decides to work abroad. (topic sentence).
First of all a young person might find that although wages are higher than in their own country, so is the
cost of living. (disadvantage 1) It might, therefore, be difficult to make ends meet. This might mean that no
(or very little) money can be sent home, and this might lead to feelings of regret and guilt at having left.
(discussion of disadvantage 1)
Secondly, while it may be that at first a young person might be excited about being in a foreign country,
ultimately he or she might suffer from culture shock, which can be extremely unpleasant. (disadvantage 2)
The person might wish to return to their own country but perhaps this is financially impossible.
Homesickness is a very common feeling. (discussion of disadvantage 2)
These negative feelings might also occur if the young person meets people, perhaps colleagues, who are
racist and resent foreigners. Although people are generally tolerant, some people are not. (further
discussion of disadvantage 2)

Conclusion: positive opinion

There are both advantages and disadvantages for young people who work abroad. (see Introduction)
However, it seems that the advantages by far outweigh the disadvantages, as the experience a young
person gains from working abroad and becoming independent will be invaluable. (your opinion)

Conclusion: negative opinion

There are both advantages and disadvantages for young people who work abroad. (see Introduction)
However, it is apparent that the disadvantages outweigh the advantages. Young people who have never
left their families before might well suffer from homesickness, and if they encounter difficulties while in the
foreign country this could lead to a state of despair. Young people should try to work in their homeland and
stay close to their families. (your opinion)

Possible topics for essay writing – final test

• The pros and cons of the process approach and of the person approach to psychology.
• The advantages and disadvantages of computers for diagnosing mental illness.

32
CAPITOLO 10: MODERN ADDICTION

Vocabulary 10.1 p. 78
• Abuse (N / V): to use improperly or excessively, despite negative consequences
o drug abuse
o to abuse alcohol
• Addiction: a condition involving use of a substance, such as a drug or alcohol, or engagement in a
behavior, such as gambling, in which a person has strong cravings, is unable to stop or limit the activity,
continues the activity despite harmful consequences, and experiences distress upon discontinuance.
o To be addicted to social media o A (drug) addict
• Dependence/y: the condition of being psychologically or physiologically dependent on a substance such
as a drug or on a given behavior, so much so that you cannot function without it.
• Impulse control disorder: when a person is unable to control his/her urge to do things, even when s/he
knows they may be destructive, antisocial, or criminal (e.g. stealing things you don’t need or buy items you
can’t afford)

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Vocabulary 10.1 p. 78, ex. C
1. Internet addiction neglecting social responsibilities
2. Compulsive shopping disorder financial problems
3. Mobile phone addiction isolation from friends and immediate environment
4. Gaming addiction aggressive behaviour
5. Eating disorder (anorexia/ bulimia) inability to socialise; long
term harmful effects on the sufferer’s health
6. Kleptomania neglecting social responsibilities, committing unintentional crimes

Neutral and marked vocabulary

-DENOTATION (cognitive meaning)

Objective or factual meaning (e.g. the one found in dictionaries)
Direct relationship between terms and object, person, idea, ... it designates
o Lion: a large wild member of the cat family
-CONNOTATION (affective meaning)
Subjective and emotional meaning.
o Lion: a courageous, strong, or bellicose person
2 types
• Personal (swimming: fear of drowning VS recreational activity/ competition)
• Common to a group (emotions raised by a politician’s name)

Compare
• There is a small problem with the program.
• There is an insignificant problem with the program.

Neutral words:
• basic, frequent
• learnt early on
• used with no particular connotation

34
Marked words:
• complex, detailed
• learnt later
• used in particular contexts (collocation constraints)
• they imply the author’s stance

Reading 10.2 pp. 80-81

1. Reading comprehension quiz in Psy-Net
2. Exs.AtoG

Stance and confidence levels

1. Discourse markers, e.g. but, however, therefore, ...(see p. 37)

2. Stance markers, e.g. unfortunately, interesting, ...(see p. 37)
3. Neutral and marked vocabulary
4. Other phrases (see ex. E p. 78)

Reading 10.2 p. 80, ex. A

1. probably caused: ** confident
2. may have contributed to: * tentative
3. was possibly one of the factors which contributed to: * tentative
4. could have been a factor which led to: * tentative
5. caused: *** very confident
6. seems to have caused: ** confident

Reading 10.2 p. 80, ex. D

1. Peyote produces hallucinations which are similar to visions and may results in new perceptions. (par. 1)
2. They took opium to stimulate their perceptions and creativity. (par. 1)
3. The addictions that have resulted from modern technology and lifestyle are Internet addiction, eating
disorders, and compulsive shopping. (par. 2)
4. Substance dependencies cause physiological damage as well as psychological and social harm. (par. 2)
5. Griffiths thinks that the majority of Internet addicts may be using the Internet to compensate for other
disorders. (par. 4)
6. South Korean research found that 86% of Internet addicts had other psychiatric disorders, but in China
Internet addiction was recognized as a specific disorder. (par. 5)

35
Reading 10.2 p. 80, ex. E
1. Withoutdoubt...Confident
2. It is important to recognize... Confident
3. Many writers seem to agree... Tentative
4. ...may be considered similar... Tentative
5. It could be claimed that... Tentative
6. It can be argued that... Tentative
7. This analysis is largely supported... Confident
8. Researchhasidentified...Confident

Identifying the parts of a long sentence

Although / drug dependency / and / impulse control disorders, / such as obsessive texting, / may be
considered similar, / it could be claimed that / there is / a major difference.
• Drug dependency and impulse control disorders may be considered similar.
• Obsessive texting is an impulse control disorder.
• There is a major difference.
• Coordinating conjunctions: and, or, but, ...
• Correlative conjunctions: both... and..., either... or..., neither... nor...
• Subordinating conjunctions: that, if, although, while, ...

Reading 10.2 p. 80, ex. G

-A
Whereas / drug abuse / involves / ingesting substances / that / have / a direct effect on brain function / and
/ cause / physiological / as well as / psychological harm, / behavioural addictions / have / only psychological
and social consequences.
• Drug abuse involves ingesting substances.
• Substances have a direct effect on brain function.
• Substances cause physiological harm.
• Substances cause psychological harm.
• Behavioural addictions have psychological consequences.
• Behavioural addictions have social consequences.

-B
However, / it must be noted / that / a decidedly different view / has been adopted / in China / where /
research / has identified / massive levels of Internet addictions.
• A different view has been adopted in China.
• Research has identified massive levels of Internet addiction.

36
Homework for Week 9
Q&A forum “Eating and body dysmorphic disorder”.

37