Research Methods in Education and Educational

Leadership

EdLM 6131
Crhr 3

Bahar A (PhD) HU CEBS EdPM CEP Harar

2021/22
 1. Nature and Purpose of Educational Research
Research is an intellectual activity & responsible for:
• bringing light to create knowledge,
• correcting the present mistakes,
• removing existing misconceptions and
• adding new learning to the existing knowledge.
Educational research is:
• the systematic and scholarly application of scientific
methods to the solution of problems in the existing
education system.
• a careful, critical inquiry or examination in seeking
facts or principles through investigation to find out
solutions for problems in and around education
systems.
 Types of Research
Classification of research by methods:
1. Historical Method: is concerned with the past.
 attempts to find out the past in the perspective of the present.
 involves investigating, recording, analyzing and interpreting
the events of the past for discovering generalization.

2. Descriptive Survey Method: is concerned with the present.

 attempts to find out the present position of the phenomena
 involves description, recording, analyzing and interpreting
conditions that exist currently.
 often involves some types of comparison or contrasts and
may attempt to discover a cause and effect relationship.
Case study: an intensive investigation of a social unit such as an
individual, a family, a school, etc.
• examine an individual or unit in depth
Causal comparative study: compare the likeness & differences
among phenomena to discover what factors or circumstances
seem to contribute the occurrence of certain events conditions
or practices.
Correlation study: used when the researcher proposes to
determine the extent of relationship between variables.
• The researcher has to set up two sets of measurements of
the subjects in which he wants to see the relationship.
• The magnitude of the relationship is determined through
the use of the coefficient of correlation.
 Classification of research by methods (contd.)
3. Experimental Method: is oriented towards what will be
when attempts are made to find out cause and effect
relationship.
 can be studied under pre-experimental designs, true
experimental designs, factorial designs, quasi-
experimental designs and time series designs.
• Pre-experimental designs provide little or no control of
extraneous or situation variables.
• True experimental designs employ randomization to provide
for control of the equivalence of group and exposure to
treatment.
 Although it is difficult to arrange a true experimental
design, particularly in school classroom research, it is the
strongest type of design
 Classification of research by methods (contd.)

• Factorial designs: enables the researcher (experimenter) to

evaluate or manipulate two or more variables simultaneously
in order to study the effects of independent factors singly as
well as the effects due to interactions with one another.

• Quasi- experimental research designs: provide control of

when and to whom the measurement is applied, but because
random assignment to experimental & control treatments have
not been applied, the equivalence of the group is not assured.

• Time series designs: at a periodic interval, observations

(measurements) are applied to individuals or a group.
Classification of research by purposes or objectives:

1. Basic or Fundamental research: is designed to add to an

organized body of scientific knowledge; theory formulation.
 does not necessarily produce results of immediate practical
value; has little concern of the application of the findings.
 a formal & systematic process of deductive-inductive analysis
and leading to the development of theories.
2. Applied research: is undertaken to solve an immediate
practical problem.
 the goal of adding to scientific knowledge is secondary.
 directed towards the solution of immediate, specific and
practical problems.
 performed in relation to actual problems and under the
conditions in which they are found in practice.
 Classification of research by purposes or objectives (contd.)

3. Action research: is a type of applied or decision oriented

research but with the stipulation that the researcher is the same
person as the practitioner who will make & live with the
decision.

 mostly conducted by teachers, supervisors & principals for

dealing with classroom problems & improving classroom
practices.
 Action research focuses on immediate application, not on the
development of theory or on generalization of applications.
 Its findings are to be evaluated in terms of local applicability
not universal validity.
 Classification of Research by Types of Data
1. Quantitative research: consists of research in which the
data can be analyzed in terms of numbers.
 A numerical method of describing observations of materials
or characteristics is known as quantification.
 When a defined portion of the material or characteristic is
used as a standard for measuring any sample, a valid and
precise method of data description is provided.
 There are four levels of measurement scales: nominal scale,
ordinal scale, interval scale and ratio scale.
 The dominant method is to describe & explain features of this
reality by collecting numerical data on observable behaviors
of samples & by subjecting these data to statistical analysis.
 Classification of research by types of data (contd.)

2. Qualitative research: is an approach in social science &

humanities that emphasizes collecting descriptive data in
natural settings, uses inductive thinking & focuses on the
understanding of the subjects’ points of view.
 Describes phenomena in words instead of numbers or measures.
 It consists of three kinds of data collection: in-depth open ended
interviews, direct observation & written documents.
 The data from interview consist of direct quotations from
people about their experiences, opinions, feelings &
knowledge.
 The data from observations consists of detailed descriptions
of people’s activities, actions & the full range of interpersonal
interactions & organizational processes that are part of
observable human experience.
 Qualitative research (contd.)
 Document analysis in qualitative inquiry yields excerpt
quotations or entire passages from organizational, clinical or
program records, reports, personal diaries & open ended
written responses to questionnaires & surveys.
 Qualitative studies use the above mentioned data collecting
techniques in isolation or in combination.
 Qualitative research is descriptive;
 involves fieldwork; follows the naturalist paradigm;
 concerned primarily with process rather than outcomes or
products;
 is inductive as the researchers build abstractions, concepts,
theories & hypotheses from details;
 the researcher is the primary instrument for data collection and
analysis & interested in meaning on how people make sense of
their lives experiences and their structures of the world.
 Classification of research by types of data(contd.)
3. Mixed method: combines quantitative & qualitative methods.
 Using multiple approaches can capitalize on the strengths of
each approach and offset their different weaknesses.
 It could also provide more comprehensive answers to research
questions, going beyond the limitations of a single approach.
 In a mixed method study, you might conduct a series of semi-
structured interviews with a small number of students & also
carry out a large-scale survey.
 This kind of integration, of qualitative with quantitative
methods, is referred to sometimes as multi-strategy research.
 Mixed methods may provide a basis for triangulation but, more
often, they become the source of different ways of
conceptualizing the problem.
 They might set out to look at the same things from different
points of view.
 The Qualitative – Quantitative Research Continuum in Education
• Inductive Inquiry Deductive Inquiry
• Understanding social phenomena Relationships, effects, causes
• Atheoretical or grounded theory Theory based
• Holistic inquiry Focused on individual variables
• Context-specific Context- free (generalizations)
• Observer-participant Detached role of the researcher
• Narrative description Statistical analysis

QUALITATIVE Ethnographic Experimental QUANTITATIVE

Historical Survey Quasi-Experimental

Bahar A (PhD) HU CEBS EdPM CEP Harar

2021/22
 2. Research Problem
2.1. Research problem: must be identified & defined without
any ambiguity.
• First select the broad area of the problem and then narrow it
down to a highly specific research problem.
• Ill-defined problems may end up with misleading conclusion
or termination of the research project in the middle.
• Sources of a research problem include:
 Professional experience
contacts and discussions with research oriented people,
attending seminars, …
 Inference from theory
 Professional literature
 Technological and social changes
 Considerations for selecting a research problem
• should be of interest to the researcher; researcher’s competencies
• interest to at least some recognized segment of the education
profession;
• originality; is the problem a new one? is the answer already
available?
• can be an extension of some already completed research;
• significance for education from either a practical or theoretical
viewpoint;
• researchable (some are philosophical in nature & can be
discussed but not researched);
• Feasibility (the necessary data may be excessive or too difficult
to obtain; ethical considerations may affect the collection, etc.)
The selection of a research problem involves reading, discussing, and
conceptualizing.
Statements of the problem: is an attempt to focus on a clear goal.
• primarily be an expansion to the title.
• defines & delimits the specific area of the proposed research.
• begins with the general background of the problem and with a
specific statement of the problem.
• structured that it should begin with a broad base of general
problems & explanations, followed by a survey of related
research literature and it should end with problem statement.
• The background of the research problem should identify the
variables of the research problem.
• Statement of the problem gives direction to the research process
& it is considered as the last stone in the pyramid of the research
problem.
• The research questions/hypotheses and objectives of the study
should be clearly stated at the end of this section.
Research questions or hypotheses
• Research problems may be stated in a declarative or descriptive
manner or in question form.
• The basic questions that the research is designed to answer are
usually framed as hypotheses to be tested on the basis of
evidence.
• This step establishes the problem and the logic underling the
research study.
• It gives the direction to the data gathering procedure.
• It is also in the light of the hypotheses that the relevance of data
to be collected is judged.
 hypotheses
• Hypothesis: is made up of two words, “hypo” means “less than”
and “thesis,” which means “less than a thesis”.
a theory based prediction about observed phenomena.
the most common use of hypothesis is to test whether an
existing theory can be used to solve a problem.
formulation of research hypotheses is typically determined by
the implications of the related literature and the deductive
reasoning of the problem under investigation.
helps the researcher to relate theory to observation and
observation to theory.
Example: “Children who are taught through discovery
method will learn more than children who are taught through
representative method”.
• A research hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an
independent variable to a dependent variable.
 Hypotheses (Continued)
• Directional hypotheses: indicates the directional comparison.
E.g.. Children who learn in discovery method will have better academic
achievement than children who learn in representative method
• In general, there are four forms of stating hypotheses
Positive form:
 Students who learn in small class size will perform significantly better in
mathematics test than who learn in large class size.
Negative form:
 Students who learn in small class size will not perform significantly better
in mathematics test than who learn in large class size.
Null form:
 There is no significant difference b/n students who learn in small class size
& those in large class size in performing in mathematics test
Question form:
 Will students who learn in small class size perform significantly better in
mathematics test than those who learn in large class size?
• Non-directional hypothesis: does not specify the direction of
expected differences or relationships b/n variables.
E.g. There will be a difference between children who learn in
discovery method and children who learn in representative method
 Research questions or the hypotheses (contd.)

• All the terms which are used in any research questions or

hypothesis should be:
Clearly and precisely stated
Testable
Depicting the expected relationship between variables
Limited on scope
Consistent with most known facts
Stated as far as possible in simple terms
Amenable to testing within a reasonable time.

 the language used should be simple & precise.

Research objective
• A research objective is a clear, concise, declarative
statement, which provides direction to investigate the
variables under the study.
• It focus on the ways to measure the variables, such as to
identify or describe the.
• It summarize what is to be achieved by the study.
Characteristics
• It is a concrete statement describing what the research is
trying to achieve.
• A well known objective will be SMART
• S – Specific • M – Measurable. • A – Attainable. • R –
Realistic. • T – Time Bound
Bahar A (PhD) HU CEBS EdPM CEP Harar
2021/22
• Research objective should be Relevant, Feasible, Logical,
Observable, Unequivocal & Measurable.
• Objective is a purpose that can be reasonably achieved
within the expected timeframe and with the available
resources.
• It summarizes what is to be achieved by the study.
• they are the specific accomplishments the researcher hopes
to achieve by the study.
• The objectives include obtaining answers to research
questions or testing the research hypotheses.
Focus
• A clearly defined research objective will help the researcher
to focus on the study.
• The formulation of research objectives helps in narrowing
down the study to its essentials.
Bahar A (PhD) HU CEBS EdPM CEP Harar
2021/22
• Gives Direction • A well formulated objective will facilitate
the development of research methodology and will help to
orient the collection, analysis, interpretation & utilization of
data.
Types Of Research Objectives
• General objectives are broad goals to be achieved.
• The general objectives of the study states what the
researcher expects to achieve by the study in general terms.
• Specific objectives are short term and narrow in focus.
• General objectives are broken into small logically connected
parts to form specific objectives.
• The general objective is met through meeting the specific
objectives stated.
• Specific objectives clearly specify what the researcher will do
in the study, where & for what purpose the study is done.
Bahar A (PhD) HU CEBS EdPM CEP Harar
2021/22
Example
General Objective :
“ Assessment on the effects of leadership on 2nd school
performance among selected regions in Ethiopia”.
Specific Objectives :
• 1. To identify the effects of leadership on 2nd school
performance among….
• 2. To sort out challenges of leadership among…
• 3. To compare the effect of leadership among…
• 4. To identify the relationship of leadership with age or
other selected demographic variables.

Bahar A (PhD) HU CEBS EdPM CEP Harar

2021/22
Method Of Stating Objective
The following guideline must be taken into account while
stating the objectives…
• it should be presented briefly and concisely.
• It should cover the different aspects of the problem and its
contributing factors in a coherent way and in a logical
sequence.
• It should be clearly phrased in operational terms,
specifying exactly what the researcher is going to do,
where and for what purpose.
• The objectives are realistic considering the local conditions.
• The objectives use action verbs that are specific enough to
be evaluated.

Bahar A (PhD) HU CEBS EdPM CEP Harar

2021/22
• Scope or Delimitation of Study: the boundaries of the study
should be made clear with reference to:
 the scope of the study by specifying the areas to which the
conclusions will be confined and
• the procedural statement including the sampling procedures, the
techniques of data collection & analysis, the development of
measuring tools and their uses in the study.
• discuss the variables which are selected for research study and
other important variables which are not included in the study.
 It should be made clear that which criteria were used for the
selection of the variables.
• Significance of Study: state the significance of the problem.
 Who will get benefit from the research findings and how?
 The worth and urgency of the study should be clearly
described.
 indicate clearly how the results of the research can influence
educational theory or practice.
• Definitions of key/Important Terms and Concepts: define all
unusual terms & concepts that could be misinterpreted.
The technical terms or words & phrases having special
meanings need to be defined operationally.
We seldom come across unanimous definitions or modes of
measurement for some concepts & terms such as intelligence,
motivation, achievement etc & in such situations, provide an
operational definition of such terms or concepts by stating
how the variables will be measured & interpreted.
 3. Review of Related Literature
• The theoretical & empirical framework of the problem area described
by the researcher provides evidence that the researcher is familiar with
what is already known and what is still unknown and untested.
• Citing studies shows substantial agreement & those that seem to
present conflicting conclusions which help to sharpen & definite
understanding of existing knowledge in the problem area.
• effective research is based on past knowledge, this step helps to
eliminate the duplication of what has been done & provided useful
hypothesis & helpful suggestions for significant investigation.
• It provides a background for research projects and makes the reader
aware of the status of a particular issue.
• Only those studies that are clearly relevant, completely executed and
clearly reported should be included.
• In searching related literature, the researcher should take note of:
 reports of closely related problems that have been investigated;
 design of the study, including procedures employed and data
gathering instruments used;
 populations that were sampled and sampling methods employed;
 Review of Related Literature (continued)
variables that were defined;
extraneous variables that could have affected the findings;
faults that could be avoided;
recommendations for further study.
• It familiarizes the reader with the depth, breadth and scope of the
research topic;
• It defines key concepts; and establishes the body of knowledge
that the research will contribute to.
• The purpose of a literature review is not simply to describe or
summarize the literature in the field, it is an active process of
construction.
• It involves defining and problematizing the field within which
you will situate your own research.
• The aim of a literature review is to persuade the reader that your
research is informed, coherent, necessary and innovative.
 Review of Related Literature (continued)
• Your reading of the literature will guide your search.
• You should start reading, analyzing and drafting your literature
review in the very early stages of research.
• Unless your study explicitly builds up on the work of other
researchers in your area of inquiry, it is unlikely to contribute to
research knowledge.
• A thorough review of the literature has various importance:
1. Delimiting the research problem: Studies are doomed to
failure if the researcher does not limit sufficiently the scope
of the problem.
2. Seeking new lines of enquiry: determine what research
has already done in your area of interest. You should also be
alert to research opportunities that have been overlooked.
 Review of Related Literature (continued)
3. Avoiding fruitless approaches: Literature searches sometimes
identify several similar studies done over a period of years, all
of which employ approximately the same research method and
all of which failed to produce a significant experimental or
correlation result.
4. Gaining methodological insights: While reviewing research
reports, some individuals give scant attention to anything but
the result report.
 Such an act would be erroneous b/c the other information in
the report can help you to the design of your research.
5. Identifying recommendations for further research:
Researchers often conclude their report with a discussion of
issues raised by their study and recommendations should be
considered carefully, because they represent insights gained by
the research after a considerable study of the given problem.
 Review of Related Literature (continued)
6. Seeking support for grounded theory: Many research studies
are designed to test a theory that has been developed to
explain the learning process or other educational phenomena.
• A literature review conducted in this fashion, after researchers
have developed grounded theory, might generate support for
the theory, might lead them to question their own theory or the
theories of others, or might cause them to refine their theory
and develop ideas for further investigation.
 Review of Related Literature (continued)
Major Steps in a Literature Review
Prior to initiating a literature review, you should write a
preliminary statement of your research problem.
1. Identify
• Start by compiling a list of references. Think about the kind of
‘filing’ system that you will use; hard copy, an index system…
• Keeping your research topic and research questions in mind.
• Work through the key catalogues, databases, bibliographies,
indexes & web-sites for relevant resources.
• Check the references used in the articles you read. Are there any
that are recurring? If so, they could be worth looking at.
• Locate and use research reviews; most journals dedicate a
section to reviews and these are worth looking at to see what
other people think of a piece of research.
2.Record
• Make a record of any literature that relates to your topic.
 Major Steps in a Literature Review (continued)

• At the very least, you should have the citation details and where
it is located (catalogue number, database, book shop).
• A tool that has found to be useful is the reading log, feel free to
maintain these so that there is one for every citation and then
systematically file them in a folder.
3. Ensure relevance
• While and after reading the titles and abstracts, prioritize the
literature that you have identified and make a note of why it has
a high, medium or low priority (at this stage).
• Develop the habit of screening the literature for relevance before
you download it, print it out or order a hard copy.
• For your proposal, you are likely to focus on the literature that
you have identified as being vital, the key theories/research in
your area, the most recent developments & the most accessible.
 Major Steps in a Literature Review (continued)

• Differentiate b/n textbooks, research articles & books, & books

written for a non-academic audience.
4. Retrieve
• Make hard copies of the most important literature and work
through this first. Print off relevant journal articles from the
databases, photocopy articles (making sure you comply with
copyright regulations) and borrow books.
5. Review
• Develop a systematic method for reviewing the literature.
• Make up your own or use the reading log which allows you to
record different kinds of information: the bibliographic details, a
description & the relationship to other readings, your critical
analysis & any questions that it raises in your own research.
 Major Steps in a Literature Review (continued)
• While taking notes be sure to be clear about when you are quoting and
when you are paraphrasing.
• One cannot risk unintentionally plagiarizing ideas and information,
the penalties are harsh and the damage to your reputation could be
irreversible.
• Always keep the page numbers of anything taken from the literature
so that one can easily check back to the quote or
idea paraphrased when editing.
6. Write: the literature review has its own internal structure.
• It starts with an introductory paragraph;
• discusses the literature in a logical and coherent way; and
• concludes with a paragraph that relates the literature to the research
project.
• In searching related literature the researcher should note:
 Reports of studies of closely related problems that have been
investigated;
 Design of the study including procedures employed and data
gathering instruments used;
 Populations that were sampled and sampling method employed;
 Variables that were defined;
 Extraneous variables that could affect the findings;
 Faults that should be avoided and
 Recommendations for further research.

• Review of related literature is appropriate to formulate

research hypothesis, to clarify the nature of the problem,
recognizing the significance of the study and gives direction to
the data gathering process.
 Major Steps in a Literature Review (continued)

• When reading relevant texts and writing the literature

review, you should ask yourself the following questions:
How will I organize my discussion of the literature?
What headings will I use?
What are the grounds for including and excluding
literature?
How will my research contribute to the knowledge
community within which I have situated my research?
What are the main perspectives & methodological
approaches adopted in relation to the problem?
What is my point of view in relation to these
perspectives and approaches?
 Theoretical and conceptual framework of a study
Theoretical Framework
• It provides a rationale for predictions about the
relationships among variables of a research study
• It provides a context for examining a problem i.e.
theoretical rationale for:
• Developing hypotheses
• A frame of reference/base for
• Observations ,Definitions of concepts
• Research designs , Interpretations
• Generalizations
• Serves as a guide to systematically identify logical,
precisely defined relationships among variables
conceptual framework Bahar A (PhD) HU CEBS EdPM CEP Harar
2021/22
4. Research Design and Methodology: clearly explain the research
design; method, source of data (primary & secondary); population,
sample and sampling techniques; data collection instruments; and
methods of data analysis.
Subjects of the Study: details the population from which the
researcher plans to select the sample.
Procedures for Collecting Data: describes in detail what will be
done, how it will be done, what data will be needed and what
data gathering devices will be used.
Procedures for Treating Data: describe how to organize analyses
& interpret data. Describe the details of the qualitative &
quantitative techniques & the rational for using such techniques.
Conducting a Pilot Study: indicate the details of the pilot study.
The purpose of a pilot study is to develop and try out data
collection methods and other procedures & test the content
validity and the reliability of the tools.
Population and Sampling
Population is any group of individuals that have one or more characteristics in
common that are of interest to the researcher.
• population may be all the individuals of a particular type, or more restricted
part of the group.
• Sample is a small proportion of a population selected for observation and
analysis.
• By observing the characteristics of the sample, one can make certain
inferences about the characteristics of the population.
• A measured value based upon sample data is statistics.
• A population value inferred from statistics is parameters.
• Sampling is a process of selecting representative members (samples) from a
population.
• makes it possible to draw valid inferences or generalizations based on careful
observation of variables within a relatively small proportion of the population
(sample).
• The need for sampling depends on the following points:
 usually a complete enumeration of a population is hardly possible.
 demands less time & labor.
 is relatively economical since it contains few people and less printed material,
fewer costs, etc.
 provides more detail information because it deals with small number of units.
• Samples are not selected haphazardly, they are chosen in a systematic
random way so that chance or the operation of probability can be
utilized.
• Sampling frame is the actual list of sampling units from which the
sample selected. The target population from which information
collected should be well defined.
Criteria for a Good Sampling Design
1. Goal orientation: The sampling design based on the study's goals
and objectives.
2. Measurability: The sampling design provides the data necessary for
analysis (enables valid inferences to make about the population from
the sample).
3. Practicality: The actual activities of sampling identified are feasible
in the actual situation.
4. Economy: Research objectives meet with available resources (time,
money, etc.)
Sample Size
• Consider the desirability of a large sample and the
feasibility of a small one. The ideal sample is:
 large enough to serve us an adequate representation of the
population about which the researcher wishes to generalize &
 small enough to be selected economically-in terms of subject
availability, expense in both time & money & complexity of
data analysis.
• Sample size of a research project is influenced by the:
 type of population,
 methods used,
 available time and resources,
 purpose of the research,
 instruments used, and capacity of the research team.
 Sample Size (cont’d)
consider the following in determining the size of a sample:
• If the population is homogenous with respect to the study, a
small sample may be adequate. If it is found to be
heterogeneous, a large sample may be required.
• If a high degree of accuracy is required, a large sample
drawn.
• If the nature of the study is qualitative, small sample is
sufficient.
• If the study is quantitative, a large number of samples
demanded.
what sample size is appropriate?
Types of Sampling: there are two types of sampling.
1.Probability sampling:
every unit of the population has equal, calculable chance to
be sample member.
allows for a high degree of representation of the target
population of the study.
It is highly reliable.
Its degree of representation is high.
Its findings are highly generalizable.
 Simple Random Sampling
 Stratified Random Sampling:
 Systematic Random Sampling:
 Cluster (Area) Random Sampling:
 Multi-stage Sampling:
2. Non-probability Sampling: not depend upon the rationale
of probability theory; i.e., we cannot be sure that samples
are representative of the population.
a. Accidental Sampling (haphazard/ conventional sampling)
b. Purposive Sampling
Modal instance sampling: In statistics, the mode is the most
frequently occurring value in a distribution.
Expert sampling:
iii. Quota sampling:
Proportional quota sampling:
Non-proportional quota sampling:
iv. Heterogeneity sampling:
v. Snowball Sampling:
c. Available sampling:
 Census sampling
5. Variables
• Variable: any concept that serves a particular purpose
which can be expressed in quantitative or qualitative value.
• The variables may be continuous (e.g., chronological age,
socio economic status…) or non- continuous (e.g., gender).
• A variable that can theoretically assume any value b/n two
given values is called a continuous variable otherwise it is
called a discrete (non - continuous) variable.
• If a variable can assume only one value, it is called a
constant.
 • Independent Variable : is presumed to cause changes to occur in
another variable; a causal variable.
• Dependent Variable: changes because of another variable, the effect
or outcome variable. E.g. Amount of studying affects test grades.
Dependent variables are influenced by one or more independent
variables.
• Categorical variable: made up of different types or categories of a
phenomenon. E.g. the variable gender is made up of the categories of
male and female.
• Quantitative variable: varies in degree or amount of a phenomenon.
E.g. the variable annual income varies from zero income to a very
high income level.
• Intervening variables (mediator or mediating variables): occur
between two other variables. E.g. tissue damage is an intervening
variable in the smoking and lung cancer relationship.
• Extraneous variable: may compete with the independent variable in
explaining the outcome. If you are interested in identifying cause &
effect relationships, you must determine whether there are any
Types of Data Sources
• Data sources are either primary or secondary.
Primary Data Source: Primary data are collected through
laboratory measurement, field observation, questionnaire,
interview etc.
• Some primary source of data for a historical kind of research can
be skeleton, fossils, weapons, tools, manuscripts, charts, diaries,
pictures, archives, paintings, letters, etc.

Secondary Data Sources: Secondary data are collected from

sources, which were already created for the purpose of first time
use and future use.
• It can be collected from technical publications such as manuals,
handbook, data sheets and standards, books and journals, official
publications of the central government, state governments, local
bodies, private data services, & computer databases.
Methods of Data Collection
• In conducting research, researchers can use a variety of
tools to gather primary information. Among these are:
 questionnaire,
 interview,
 observation,
 tests,
 focus group discussion,
 recordings,
 field notes are the common and widely used.
• Note that in designing the data collection tools, the
researcher should check the fulfillment of the following:
Ensure that the supplied data meet the requirement of
validity; the data should measure, what they claimed to
measure.
Measurement and Scales
•Measurement is the process of assigning numbers to
objects or observations; i.e., some form of
quantification expressed in numbers
•Measuring abstract concepts like ‘happiness’ is
much more difficult than measuring physical
objects; i.e., abstract concepts & non-standardized
measurement tools lead to less confidence about
accuracy of measurement.
Measurement Scales
Nominal data
Ordinal (Rank or order)
Interval scale (Score/ Mark)
Ratio scale
Tests of Sound Measurement: Validity & Reliability
• Whenever a test or other measuring device is used as part of
the data collection process, the validity & reliability of that
test is important.
Validity
• It refers to the degree to which a study accurately reflects or
assesses the specific concept that the researcher is
attempting to measure.
Reliability
• Reliability is the consistency of your measurement, or the
degree to which an instrument measures the same way each
time used under the same condition with the same subjects.
• It is the repeatability of your measurement (instrument
should provide consistent results)
 Sources of Errors (cont’d)

3. Measurer: Rewording or reordering questions by

interviewer; his behavior, style & looks; careless
mechanical processing; incorrect coding; faulty tabulation
& statistical calculations.
4. Instrument: Defective measuring instrument; complex
words; ambiguous meanings; poor printing; inadequate
space for replies; response choice omissions; poor
sampling; etc.

Development of Measurement Tools

1. Concept development
 Understanding of the major studies
 More apparent in theoretical studies
Qualities of good measurement
1. Precise
2. Unambiguous
3. Free from errors
4. Valid
5. Reliable
6. Practical

Sources of Errors
1. Respondent: Reluctance, modesty, having little
knowledge, may not admit ignorance, guessing, fatigue,
boredom, anxiety, etc.
2. Situation: Condition that places a strain on interview; lack
of rapport; lack of assurance on anonymity.
 Development of Measurement Tools (cont’d)

2. Specification of concept dimension

 By deduction (more or less intuitive)
 By empirical correlation of individual dimensions with the total concept
and/or other concepts
3. Selection & development of indicators for measuring
each concept element (e.g., questions, scales, etc. to
measure respondent’s knowledge, opinion, expectations, etc.)
Note: As perfect measure is difficult, consider several
alternatives, and use more than one indicator.
4. Formation of index
 Combining various indicators into an index (e.g., provide scale values to responses
and sum up scores)
 Index provides a better measurement than a single indicator
 Methods of Data Collection (cont’d)

Special attention should be given to measurement errors

such as error due to malfunctioning of measuring
equipment, error or bias, intentional lie, distortion of facts,
and random error.
Ensure that the designed data collection tools are suitable to
sample drawn out of the population so that proper
generalization could be made.
The tools are checked finally whether it measures what it is
supposed to measure and its trustworthiness.
8.1 Questionnaire
• Document consists of a written list of questions provided to
individuals in the samples as to elicit information.
• Respondents record written or typed response to each
questionnaire item.
• Respondents can fill out the questionnaire at their convenience,
answer the item in any order, take more than one setting to
complete it, make marginal comments or skip questions.
 Questionnaire (cont’d)

• Questionnaires are quick and simple way of obtaining rich

information from pupils. They ask specific questions about
aspects of the classroom curriculum or teaching method.
Steps in constructing & administering a research questionnaire
1. Defining research objectives
2. Selecting a sample
3. Designing the questionnaire
Summaries of guidelines for designing questionnaire.
• Each question should be relevant to the research topic.
• Keep the questionnaires as short as possible.
• Do not use, complex or technical terms that respondent may
not understand.
• Organize the items so that they are easy to read & complete.
• Number the pages and items of the questionnaire.
 Questionnaire (cont’d)

• Include brief and clear instruction printed in bold face in

upper or lower case.
• Organize the questionnaire in logical sequence.
• Begin with a few interesting and non-threatening items.
• Do not put important items at the end of long questionnaire.
• Avoid negatively stated items.
• Avoid biased or leading questions.
4. Pilot-testing the questionnaire:
• Before distributing the questionnaire to the actual sample, it
should be tested by giving it to a sample of individuals
drawn from the population whom you plan to select your
respondents.
• Provide space for respondents to get criticism and
recommendation for improving the questionnaire.
• Ask respondents to state in their own words what they think
each question means.
 Questionnaire (cont’d)

• Revise & retest the questions until all or most members of

the pilot-test sample accurately understand them.
5. Pre-contacting the sample
• It involves the researchers identifying themselves, discuss
the purpose of the study and requesting cooperation.
• It can take the form of letter, postcard, and telephone call.
• It alerts the respondent and used to reduce the chance of
being thrown out by the respondents.
6. The cover letter accompanying the questionnaire strongly
influences the return rate, which is the main objective of
doing a questionnaire survey.
• The letter should be designed carefully, brief, but it must
convey certain information and impression.
• Explain the purpose of the study to persuade the
respondents that the study is significant and that their
answers are important.
 Questionnaire (cont’d)

• Assure confidentiality for the respondents.

• Associate your study with a professional organization with
which prospective respondents might identify.
7. Follow-up with respondents
• A few days after the time limit specified in the cover letter,
contact non-respondents by sending a follow-up letter along
with other copy of the questionnaire and another self-
addressed envelope.
The format of a questionnaire may be open- or close- ended
In an open-ended questionnaire, the respondent attempts to
give the full account of the response.
In the close-ended format, the respondent will select
responses, which he/she feels as appropriate answer from
the given set of alternatives.
 Questionnaire (cont’d)
Advantages of Questionnaire
• helps to obtain mass of information from respondents widely
distributed in different settings.
• it is free from the bias of investigator.
• enables to collect information from respondents through mail
without going personally.
• helps the respondents to have adequate time to give well thought
answer.
• enables to reach inaccessible respondents.
• it is dependable b/s large amount of information is collected
Disadvantages
• has low rate of return of appropriately filled questionnaire b/s
the investigator doesn’t have control over the respondent
• used only when educated respondents are found.
• has less control over the questionnaire once out of hand.
• builds inflexibility regarding to item correction.
• Note: Despite all these problems, questionnaire is the most
important and widely used method of data collection.
8.2 Interview
• A popular method in educational research & social science.
• Interview consists of oral questions asked by the interviewers
& oral responses given by the research participants.
• Interview typically involves individual responses but there
is an interest in conducting group interview.
• Respondents speak in their own words & the interviewers
on either audiotape or videotape record their responses.
Types of Interview
a. Structured interview: involves a series of close-ended
questions that either have yes-no answer or answered by
selecting from among a set of short answer choices.
 Interview (cont’d)

• The respondents’ answers are not followed up to obtain greater

depth & these take the form of closed-ended questionnaire.
• The advantage of an interview over questionnaire is that the
response rate increased. Moreover, the interviewer can
interact with individuals to reduce the number of unusable
or “do not know” responses.
b.Unstructured interview: does not involve a detailed
interview guide instead the interviewer asks questions that
gradually lead the respondents to provide the desired
information.
• Usually the type of information sought is difficult for the
respondent to express or is psychologically sensitive.
• The interviewer must adapt continually to the respondents
state of mind.
• The information sought is highly subjective and time
consuming.
 Interview (cont’d)

c. Semi-structured interview: involves a general interview

guide & some close-ended questions.
• Widely used in the social sciences.
Interviewer’s Role: Interviewer behavior affects the quality
of data yielded by the interview method.
• Assure respondents of absolute confidentiality before starting
the interview.
• Build rapport by engaging a small talk before starting the
interview.
• Save complex or controversial question at the end of the
session.
• Explain the potential benefit of the study.
• Talk less than the interviewee does.
• Ask question that contains only a single idea.
• Use language that is clear & understandable to the respondent.
• Avoid leading questions.
 Interview (cont’d)
Advantages of Interview
• Adequate information with great depth obtained.
• There is a possibility of greater flexibility in restructuring the
questions especially in case of semi-structured & unstructured type of
interview; there is a room to change structure of the questions.
• Used as complement.
• Used to get personal information.
• Samples controlled more effectively and we can identify the
willingness and refusal of respondents.
• Used to adapt the language of interview to the level of respondents.
Disadvantages
• It is very expensive in terms of time and other resources.
• It has the possibility of bias by the investigator.
• It has a defect that certain types of respondents are inaccessible for
interview b/s of their policy or business.
• It demands good skills of interviewing.
• It doesn’t help to get thoughts & feelings of young children.
8.3 Focus Group Discussion (FGD)
• A FGD is a structured group process used to obtain detailed
information about a particular topic.
• It is useful for exploring attitudes & feelings & to draw out
precise issues that may be unknown to the researcher.
• A focus group is composed of six to nine participants who
are brought together to discuss a clearly defined topic.
• Focus groups are composed of homogeneous people, all
representing a particular segment of the population.
• A focus group session should last about 1-2 hours with two
hours being the absolute maximum time.
 FGD (cont’d)
•A group facilitator keeps the discussion on track by asking a
series of open-ended questions meant to stimulate discussion.
Advantages
• relatively easy to undertake.
• Its result obtained in a short period.
• Social interaction in the group produces freer and more complex
responses.
• The researcher can probe for clarification and solicit detail.
• Responses have high face validity due to the clarity of the
context and detail of the discussion.
Disadvantages
• It requires highly skilled moderator.
• Groups are often difficult to assemble.
• Individual responses are dependent of one another.
• Because the group is hand-selected, the results may not be
representative of the general population.
 Observation
8.4 Observation
• An alternative to self-report is to observe the behavior of
the individuals studied in their natural setting.
• It avoids the inaccuracy and bias of some self-report data.
• It employs sense of vision as its main source.
Participant observation: the researcher becomes a member
of the groups, which he/she studies.
• The researcher fully engages in and observes the situation
from inside.
• E.g., to get information from patients in the hospital, sleep
as a patient and observe all the activity.
Non-participant observation: The researcher observes the
event from outside.
• He /she does not involve in the life of the individuals that
are in the studies.
 Observation (cont’d)

Advantages of Observation
• provides information when other methods fail.
• It is better for less complicated problems.
• offers first hand information without depending on reports
of other.
• It considers reality in its natural setting.
• It allows the collection of wide information.
Disadvantages
• Not used when the sample studied is large in number.
• It provides no information about past or future.
• It cannot study individual’s attitude directly.
• It is exposed to observers’ bias.
 Documents

8.5 Document Exploration

• Documents, which deal with curriculum or other educational
concern, can present background information plainly and are
important sources of data.
• Public documents: Year books, archives, census statistics,
mass-media, novels and poetry.
• Archival records: Service records of hospitals, clinics,
doctors, social workers, school documents, and records of an
organization.
• Personal documents: Life histories, diaries, memoranda,
autobiographies and letters.
• Formal study report: search reports of different kinds.
Advantages of Documents
• provides a context for understanding a particular curriculum
in educational research.
• enables teacher researchers or supervisors to study past events
or issues.
 Observation (cont’d)

• It gives opportunity to find others perceptions easily.

• It is economical compared to others.
Disadvantages
• Some documents may not be complete and up to date.
• The reliability of some documents is doubtful due to
writer’s personal bias.
8.6 Field Notes
•Written record of what the researcher hears, sees, experiences
& thinks in the course of collecting data in a qualitative study.
• Field notes consist of two types of materials.
1. The descriptive part: the longest part where the researcher
objectively records the details of what occurred in the field.
• It involves the following points:
i. Portraits of the subjects includes their physical appearance,
dress, mannerism and styles of talking and acting.
 Field Notes (cont’d)

ii. Reconstruction of dialogue between subjects recorded.

iii. Description of physical setting like verbal sketches of things
such as the blackboard, contents of bulletin boards, the
furniture & their arrangements etc.
iv. A particular event, which includes a list of individuals,
involved in the event, the manner, and the nature of the action
and detail description of behavior.
2. The reflective part of field notes: contain sentences and
paragraphs that reflect the researchers more personal accounts
of the course of the study.
• Four important roles of field notes in educational research.
They can focus on a particular issue of teaching behavior
over a period.
reflect general impressions of the classroom & its climate.
They can provide an ongoing description of an individual
child that could be used in a case study.
They can help us to record our development as teachers.
8.7 Tests
• In educational research, tests are useful & usually applied
instrument.
• They measure aspects of human behavior or inner personal
qualities.
• Psychological tests can be of different types (i.e.
achievement tests, intelligence tests, aptitude tests and
personality inventories).

• Note In order to enhance the validity and reliability of our

research data, combining and using different data gathering
tools, say observation and interview, to the same issue or
point, is called triangulation.
• Procedures of a study ?

Bahar A (PhD) HU CEBS EdPM CEP Harar

2021/22
 9. Data Processing and Analysis
In every subtopic/category/theme/question you raised:
1. Present your quantitative data
2. Interpret your quantitative data
3. Present the qualitative data (write sample quotes of
interviews, etc)
4. Analyze the data in terms of the data obtained from
different data collection instruments and with respect to
the different groups of participants.
5. Discuss the findings with respect to the literature
review.
10. Data Analysis
Quantitative Data Analysis:
• The quantitative data analysis method includes the
descriptive statistics & inferential statistics.
• Descriptive statistics can be studied in the form of
measures of central tendency, variability, relative
position, measure of relationships, etc.
• The inferential statistics gives emphasis to the form of
significance difference between means, Pearson’s rank
order correlation coefficient methods, etc.
• Different tools of classification & presentation of
research data are frequency distribution, cumulative
frequency distribution, relative frequency distribution &
charts.
Qualitative Analysis and Interpretation of Research Data
• The data gathered through open ended questionnaires,
interviews, observations, documents, etc. are mostly
analyzed qualitatively.
• The first step in analyzing qualitative research records
involves organizing the data.
• The method of organizing these data will differ depending
on the research method and data collection techniques used.
 Qualitative Analysis and Interpretation of Research Data (cont’d)

• It usually starts in coding the qualitative data.

• Then, the researcher describes the various pertinent aspects
of the study including the:
 setting, both temporally and physically,
 individuals being studied,
 purposes of any activity examined,
 view points of participants, and
 effect of any activity on the participants.
• The organized data must be interpreted.
• Interpretation involves explaining the findings, answering”
why” questions, attaching significance to particular results,
and putting patterns into an analytic framework.
 Qualitative Analysis and Interpretation of Research Data (cont’d)

• Some researchers rush into the creative work of interpreting

the data before doing the detailed hand work of putting
coherent answer to major descriptive questions.
• Nevertheless description comes first. The discipline and
rigor of qualitative analysis depend on presenting solid
descriptive data.
• The interpretation of qualitative research data is more
dependent on the researchers background, skills, biases, and
knowledge.
• The researcher should keep in mind the issues of internal
validity and external validity of qualitative research.
• Internal validity is concerned with the accuracy of the
information and how it matches with reality.
 Qualitative Analysis and Interpretation of Research Data (cont’d)

• External validity is concerned with the need to discuss the

limited generalize-ability of the findings and the need to
replicate the study and its finding.

Types of Qualitative Data Analysis

• Deductive analysis
• Discourse analysis
• Documentary analysis
• Inductive analysis
• Narrative analysis
• Thematic analysis
• Etc.
 • Interpretation?
• Ethics
• Discussion?
• Limitation of a study?

Bahar A (PhD) HU CEBS EdPM CEP Harar

2021/22
Research Proposal
• Each researcher has to write a research proposal
synopsis or plan before she/he undertakes any research
work.
• The main purpose of preparing research proposal is to
describe the problem you wish to study and how to plan
to study it.
• This process compels you to think through and record
on paper your research design and procedures that you
will use to select a sample, collect data and analysis the
data.
• Research Report
Title of the research proposal:
• should be worded in that it suggests the theme of
the study.
• Good title should clearly identify the research
proposal and must clearly state about the
following:
• The variables are included
• The relationship between the variables;
• The population to which the results to be
generalized
• It should be specific to the area of study
• The title should not be too lengthy.
• Background of a study ?

Bahar A (PhD) HU CEBS EdPM CEP Harar

2021/22
 General structure of research proposal
Cover page
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background of the Study
1.2. Statement of the Problem
1.3. Research Questions
1.4. Objectives of the Study
1.4.1. General objective
1.4.2. Specific objectives
1.5. Significance of the Study
 General structure of research proposal (Continued)
1.6. Delimitation of the Study
1.7. Operational Definition of Key Terms
2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1.
2.2.
2.2.1.
2.2.2.
3. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
3.1. Description of the Research Site
3.2. Research Design
3.3. Sources of Data
3.3.1. Primary source of data
3.3.2. Secondary sources of data
 General structure of research proposal (Continued)
3.4. Population, Sample Size and Sampling Techniques
3.5. Data Collection Instruments
3.5.1. Questionnaire
3.5.2. Interview guide
3.5.3. Focus group discussion
3.5.4. Document analysis
3.5.5. Observation
3.6. Procedures of Data Collection
3.7. Methods of Data Analysis
3.8 Ethical Consideration
4. WORK PLAN
5. LOGISTICS
6. REFERENCES
Appendix (if needed), and Approval sheet
• Work Plan (Time Schedule): Preparing time schedule in any
academic research proposal is a must, because, it shows the time
interval to complete the research study.
It helps the researcher to divide a study into phases & to use
his time systematically for the completion of each phase.
It is used to manage the time properly.
• Logistics (Budget Breakdown/Schedule): write the budget
proposal estimation which includes the funds required for travel
expenses, per diems (personnel expenses), typing, printing &
binding, purchase of stationery materials & equipment, tools &
other relevant materials.
• References: write lists of books, journals and other documents
that you used in the research proposal writing. Use recommended
formats for writing reference list.
Reporting
Format of the research report
Preliminary sections
 Cover page
 Title page
 Preface (Acknowledgements)
Acronyms and abbreviations
Table of contents
Lists of tables
List of figures
Abstract
Body of the Report or Text
a) Introduction
 Background
 Statement of the problem
Analysis of previous research
Statement of hypotheses & assumptions underlying it
Objectives of the study
Significance of the problem
Delimitation of the study
Limitations of the study
Operational definition of terms
b) Literature review
c) Research Design and Methodology
 Research Design
 Sources of Data (Primary & Secondary)
 Population, Sample Size and Sampling Techniques
 Data Collection Instruments
 Procedures of Data Collection
 Methods of Data Analysis
Ethics

d) Analysis and Interpretation of the Data

• Text
• Table (if any, are usually included in to the text)
• Figures (if any, are usually included into the text)
e) Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations
• Summary
Brief restatement of problem and procedures
Principal findings
• Conclusions
• Answering precisely the research questions
• Practical implications of the findings
• Recommendations(including suggestion for further research)
• References
• Appendices
• Style of Writing, Quotations, Footnotes and Reference
Citation (consult the university guiding manual)