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Inferring the role of integrated geomorphology and land use / land cover on
tsunami inundation through factor analysis

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 Disaster Advances
Inferring the role of integrated geomorphology and
land use / land cover on tsunami inundation
through factor analysis
Selvakumar Radhakrishnan1* and Ramasamy Somasundaram2
1. School of Civil Engineering, SASTRA University, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu 613402, INDIA
2. Alagappa University, Karaikudi- 630 003, INDIA
*selvakumar@civil.sastra.edu
Abstract
The 26th December 2004 tsunami inundation had
caused severe damages all along the east coast of
Tamil Nadu. The features like near shore topography,
geomorphology and land use dictate the extent of
inundation while the post tsunami field survey shows
that the extent of inundation and its resultant damage
is not uniform. Further, significant variations were
also noticed even within the same landform feature
having similar topographic gradient indicating that the
inundation is not solely controlled by an individual
factor. To unveil the interrelationship between the
above features and inundation, the 140-km coastal
stretch of Tamil Nadu from Porto Nova in the north to
Kodiyakkarai in the south was studied. The post
tsunami ENVISAT satellite image was used for
mapping the inundation while the controlling
parameters namely the geomorphology and the land
use / land cover were mapped using IRSP6 satellite
images and subsequently integrated using ArcGIS 9.3
software.
To precisely deduce the causative factor, a piecewise
correlation was done by laterally dividing the study
area into 14 segments of 10 km each. Consequently, by
integrating it with the above layers, the aerial extent of
inundation and the integrated geomorphology and land
use / land cover features in each segment was
calculated. Then using the terrastat statistical
software, factor varimax analysis was carried out
between them and based on the derived factor scores,
the role of the integrated features over the inundation
was deduced. Consequently, mitigation strategies were
suggested.
Keywords: Tsunami inundation, geomorphology, land use /
land cover, factor analysis.
Introduction
The seismogenic sea wave namely “tsunami” in general,
originates due to fault displacements, then propagates in the
ocean and dissipates along the coastline. Physically, the
wave is portrayed in terms of run up and inundation 3. Run-
up is the measure of the vertical elevation of water column
* Author for Correspondence
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Vol. 10 (8) August (2017)
in the near shore while inundation is the horizontal extent of
surge that invades into the land. Inundation cause severe
damages to the coastal community and their dwellings.
However, the intensity of damage depends on the extent and
flow depth of the surge29. The 26th December 2004 Indian
Ocean tsunami has also caused severe damages to many
Indian Ocean countries. Especially, the state of Tamil Nadu
was the most affected coastal region in India with a fatality
of 7995 and property loss to the tune of Rupees 2,57,081.97
crores14.
The post tsunami survey shows that the pattern of inundation
and the resultant damages are not uniform all along the coast,
remarkable variations are witnessed even within few
hundred meters distance. For instance, in
Tirumalarajanpettai area (100 51’ 30” N, 790 51’ 34” E),
inundation was up to 200 m inside the land while in
Nagapattinam town (100 45’ 55” N, 790 50’ 50” E), down
south of the above location, it was up to 1 km.
Variations are due to the factors like coastal configuration,
near shore bathymetry, onshore topography, geomorphology
and vegetal cover16. The role of coastal topography was
inferred to be the prime influencing factor13. However, the
effect of near shore geomorphology is also well documented
by many. Narayan et al18 observed a broad correlation
between the geomorphology and tsunami inundation in parts
of the Kerala coast. Likewise, Chandrasekar et al1
documented the relationship between inundation and coastal
geomorphology in Kanyakumari coast.
Ramasamy et al21 based on their spatial analysis classified
the geomorphic landforms as absorbers, accommodators and
carriers of tsunami surge. Similarly, numerical simulation
models were also developed on inundation using near-shore
bathymetry and topography datasets 2, 19, 25, 28. Subsequently,
the protective role of coastal vegetation against the surge is
also well documented 4, 8, 11, 17. But few studies including the
numerical modeling study carried out by Hiraishi and
Harada 10 in north coast of Papua New Guinea has put forth
the fact that even within the same geomorphic landform, the
inundation varies according to the changes in the vegetation
cover. Hence in the present study, it is aimed to unveil the
inter-relationship between the inundation and the integrated
geomorphology – land use / land cover parameters.
The spatial and numerical models are extensively used in
understanding the natural phenomena in general and tsunami
in particular. In the case of numerical models, high
 Disaster Advances Vol. 10 (8) August (2017)

resolution near shore topography data is essential and further truth survey was also conducted using GARMIN GPS
processing of such voluminous data set will be (Global Positioning System) to validate and update the
cumbersome26 while spatial analysis on other hand provides interpreted map. The perusal of the above map shows that
only qualitative results. But the statistical analysis, not only there is a distinct variation in the inundation pattern from few
handles the voluminous dataset effectively through data meters and to 1500 meters along the rivers and creeks
reduction process but it also enables to identify the (Table 1).
influencing parameters by quantitative means.5,19,22 Thus, in Table 1
the present study, an attempt was made to understand the Segment wise lateral extent of tsunami inundation
interface dynamics between tsunami inundation and the
integrated geomorphology - land use / land cover features Segment Inundation
Segment Name
using statistical analysis. No. (in meters)
1. Porto Nova 100
Methods 2. Chidambaram 100
For the said study, part of eastern coast of Tamil Nadu, 3. Madanam 50
extending from Porto Nova in the north to Kodiyakkarai 4. Thirumullaivasal 100
in the south was taken (Fig.1). The inundation mapping 5. Poompuhar 100
was done using ENVISAT (Environmental Satellite) 6. Tarangampadi 100
microwave satellite data and updated through field based 7. Karraikal 100
GPS (Global Positioning System) survey. Using IRS P6 8. Tirumalarajanpettai 200
satellite images, geomorphic and land use / land cover 9. Nagapattinam 1000
features were interpreted on 1: 10,000 and subsequently 10. Velangani 900
digital database were generated using ArcGIS 9.3 software. 11. Villundamavadi 500
In order to reveal their combined influence, the geomorphic 12. Vellapalam 200
and land use / land cover vector layers were spatially 13. Arkkatudurai 700
merged using the union tool in ArcGIS software. 14. Vedaranniyam 700
Geosystem: During the post tsunami field survey,
Further, to better understand the interaction phenomena, existence of relationship between the inundation pattern
the 140-km long coast was laterally divided into 14 segments and the geomorphic and land use / land cover features was
of 10 km each. By integrating it with the above layers, noticed. For instance, the topographically flat featured
numerical database on the area of inundation and land use / geomorphic landforms like mudflat, beach and coastal
land cover features in each segment was calculated. Later, plain appear to be completely flooded by the surge while
by keeping the area of inundation as dependent variable and the elevated features like beach ridges and sand dunes are
land use / land cover parameters as independent variable; free from inundation. Similarly, land use features like
factor varimax analysis was carried out using Terrastat mangrove forest and plantations seems to be least affected
software. Then based on the derived factor scores, the by the inundation while the features like wetland, crop land,
relationship between the inundation and land use / land cover and salt pans completely get destroyed by the surge.
features was deduced.
Hence, based on the response pattern to inundation, a
Database Generation knowledge based classification was done on both
Inundation: The remotely sensed images, owing to their geomorphology and land use / land cover features using
synoptic view capability, are nowadays extensively used in the IRS P6 LISS IV pre-tsunami satellite data (dated: 5th
mapping the terrain features. However, the optical satellite March and 21st May 2004). The resulted geomorphic
images are having limitations in mapping the flooded areas landforms comprise of six classes namely backwater,
particularly during the cloud covers while the RADAR mudflat, beach, beach ridge, deltaic plain and flood plain
images, owing to their all-weather penetration capability are (Fig. 2) and the land use / land cover with six classes namely
gaining significance in the recent times, especially in wetland, sandy area, mangrove, cropland, fallow land and
mapping the soil wetness. Amongst, the Advanced Synthetic plantation (Fig. 3).
Aperture Radar (ASAR) images are widely used in disaster
studies, particularly in mapping the tsunami inundations 30. Further, during the field investigation, it was noticed that
Thus, the ENVISAT ASAR (29-12-2004) images, acquired even within the topographically elevated beach ridges, the
just three days after the tsunami disaster, from ESA web portions that are without vegetal covers seem to get eroded
archives was used for mapping the inundation. by the surge. Likewise, the flat beaches having coconut and
casurina plantations cover are comparatively least affected
The data was re-projected, co-registered and the study area by the surge. Thus, from the above observations it can be
portion was subset using RSI ENVI 4.7 software. Due to soil perceived that the inundation was influenced conjunctively
moisture, the inundated zone typically exhibits a darker tone by multiple parameters. Hence, both the geomorphic and
with finer texture; accordingly, the extent of inundation was land use / land cover layers were spatially merged using
precisely interpreted (Fig. 1B). Subsequently, the ground union function in AcrGIS software and the resulted GIS
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 Disaster Advances Vol. 10 (8) August (2017)

layer has yielded 23 combined classes which will be Factor Analysis

henceforth referred as “geosystem”. Since the coast has an
overall gentle easterly gradient, and further the gradient has
been portrayed indirectly in terms of geomorphology, the
slope factor was not considered in the present study.
Segmentation: To precisely ascertain the complex
interaction phenomena between tsunami inundation and
coastal landforms, a segment wise analysis is essential 23.
Kanoglu and Emmanuel 12 carried out an analytical piece
wise correlation between inundation and 36 geomorphic
parameters in Revere Beach region and compared the
derived results with the experimental model. Similarly, to
evaluate the effect of terrain characteristics in different
tsunami penetration limits, Pignatelli et al20 analyzed the
Sant'Emiliano coastal area by dividing the coast into
several spatial buffer zones.
Accordingly, in the present study too, the 140-km long
coast stretch was laterally divided into 14 segments of 10 km
each with the shoreline as their eastern limit and the extent
of inundation into the land as their western boundary
(Fig.1B). Later, by integrating the segment layer (Fig.1B)
with the above layers, numerical database on the aerial
extent of inundation and geosystem in each segment was
calculated separately.
In disaster studies, GIS (Geographical information system)
based spatial analysis is widely used for identifying the
controlling factors. But, they provide only a qualitative result
whereas the statistical analysis will give a quantitative result.
Amongst, the factor analysis has proven as an effective
explanatory data analysis tool27.
Using factor varimax analysis, Selvakumar and Ramasamy22
unveiled the relationship between offshore parameter and
tsunami run up along the eastern coast of Tamil Nadu.
Likewise, through multiple regression analysis, Chatenoux
and Peduzzi2 correlated the coastal geomorphic features with
tsunami inundation and identified the controlling
parameters.
Thus, using TERRASTAT software, factor analysis was
carried between inundation and geosystem by keeping their
segment wise numerical data as dependent and independent
variables respectively. Initially, to avoid the redundancy and
complexity in the dataset, factoring was done using principal
component analysis method and thereby the complex
voluminous data was reduced into minimum number of
factors namely eigenvalue. Then, based on the cumulative
percentage of trace, six factors were considered for further
analysis.

Table 2
Factor loadings
S. N. Variable Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4 Factor 5
1. Inundation -.20150 .24147 -.36178 -.38536 -.30152
2. Water Bodies -.08933 -.11365 .06390 -.03290 .15487
3. Wetland in Mudflat .25266 -.13108 -.01805 -.85690 .11695
4. Wetland in Backwater .01185 -.04601 .03859 -.06751 .70179
5. Wetland in Flood Plain -.05217 .61290 .02278 -.00072 -.16640
6. Sandy Area in Beach -.34185 .38770 -.06990 .22985 -.17538
7. Sandy Area in Flood Plain .64629 .07984 .11537 .04764 -.09177
8. Sandy Area in Beach Ridge -.04084 -.05530 .04963 -.00102 .83973
9. Sandy Area in Deltaic Plain .13736 -.17266 -.90646 -.04840 -.03968
10. Mangrove in Mudflat .01153 .05593 .07920 -.08943 -.10678
11. Mangrove in Backwater .63511 -.04421 .10385 -.11129 -.04940
12. Aquaculture in Mudflat .77044 .01943 -.56856 -.03288 .03189
13. Aquaculture in Deltaic Plain .77508 -.01798 -.28807 .02492 -.01539
14. Crop Land in Mudflat -.10618 -.12893 -.02902 -.88935 -.04730
15. Crop Land in Beach -.17760 -.14100 .13709 .19268 -.31997
16. Crop Land in Flood Plain .76900 -.04931 .01838 -.08808 -.05308
17. Crop Land in Deltaic Plain .01926 .43006 .04226 -.14319 .28798
18. Fallow Land in Mudflat -.08346 .09002 -.80027 .01187 -.01578
19. Fallow Land in Deltaic Plain .30294 .71407 .03481 -.05150 -.02450
20. Plantation in Mudflat -.11811 -.22197 -.03192 -.13179 -.15219
21. Plantation in Beach -.17328 -.08162 -.09014 .19771 .44203
22. Plantation in Flood Plain .79464 .03709 .15764 .08138 -.05953
23. Plantation in Beach Ridge -.01517 .68771 -.24287 -.15528 .22144
24. Plantation in Deltaic Plain -.10265 .45464 .00358 .69760 -.00823

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 Disaster Advances
Subsequently, their variance was maximized by
orthogonally rotating them using varimax method and there
from, more interpretable results, namely the eigenvector was
derived (Table 2). The resultant matrix of Eigenvectors
comprises dependent and independent variables in the first
column and their interrelationship, namely the factors in the
successive columns.
In general, a factor with value of more than 0.7 will be
accounted for interpretation. However, since more variables are
correlated in the present analysis, even a value of more than 0.3
can be considered for explanatory purpose 9, 22. Accordingly,
amongst six resulted factors, the significantly loaded
dependent variables (Table 2, Row 1) namely the factor 3 (-
0.36178), factor 4 (-0.38536) and factor 5 (-0.30152) were
considered and correlated with the significantly loaded
independent variables in their respective columns and the
relationship between them was established based on their
signs of loading.
Results and Discussion
Factor loadings: In factor 3, both the dependent and
independent variables 9, 12 and 18 are significantly loaded
with a negative sign. Since they are with the same sign, a
direct correlation was established amongst them. Thus, the
plausible interpretation is that if the area of land use features
namely the aquaculture (geosystem 12) and fallow land (18)
decreases within the mudflat geomorphic landform, then the
extent of inundation will be reduced. Similarly, inundation
will decrease, if there is a decrease in the sandy area (9) land
use feature in deltaic plain geomorphic landform.
In factor 4, based on the sign, a positive correlation was
established with the independent variables 3 and 14. That
means the inundation will decrease provided the aerial extent
of wetland (3) and crop land (14) decreases in mudflat. On
the other hand, a negative correlation with variable 24
indicates that the inundation will decrease if there is an
increase in plantation (28) land use features in deltaic plain.
While in factor 5, excluding the variable 15, the independent
variables 4, 8 and 21 have shown a positive loading implying
that the inundation will decrease if the extent of sandy area
(8) in beach ridge, plantation (21) in beach and wet land (4)
in backwater decreases. On contrary, the inundation will
increase if there is an increase in extent of crop land (15) in
beach. From the above it is clear that the geosystem exhibited
both positive and negative relationship with inundation and thus
it can be surmised that they had either facilitated or mitigated
the surge.
Response of geosystem to inundation
Mudflat: By and large, the mudflat geomorphic feature had
shown a positive correlation indicating that an increase in their
aerial extent has facilitated the surge. The above inference
adheres to the general phenomena that owing to its flat
topography and proximity to coast, they are always prone for
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Vol. 10 (8) August (2017)
inundation 7. The land use features namely the wetland,
aquaculture, crop land and fallow land (factor 3-variable 12 and
18; factor 4-variable 3 and 14) within them have also shown a
positive correlation indicating that their presence has further
aggravated the surge (Fig. 4a).
Beach: In general, beaches reduce the ferocity of the surge and
thus are considered as an absorber of tsunami wave.21,24 But, in
the present analysis, they exhibited a varied relationship with
inundation. In factor 5, the cropland in beach (variable 15)
showed a positive correlation implying that it had facilitated the
surge. Since the crop lands are anthropogenically modified
landforms with a plain topography, they might have facilitated
the free flow of surge. On contrary, the negative correlation
showed by the plantation over beach (factor 5 – variable 12)
indicates that they have obstructed the tsunami surge6. Thus, it
is evident that even within the same geomorphic landform
namely the beach, the different land use practices above them
had shown varied relationship with inundation (Fig. 4b).
Especially wherever the beaches are modified, then the tsunami
wave seems to have imposed catastrophic affects even farther
inland 31.
Deltaic plain: In general, the deltaic plain geomorphic
landform owing to their flat topography is prone for inundation.
But as earlier, they have also shown a diverse relationship with
inundation. The sandy area in deltaic plains had shown a
positive correlation (factor 3-variable 9, Table 2) indicating that
being barren without any vegetal cover had facilitated the surge.
On contrary, the negative correlation imparted by plantation
within the same geomorphic category (factor 4-variable 24,
Table 2) suggested that their presence has significantly reduced
the inundation. Thus, the derived results adhere to the above
inferences that even within the same geomorphic landform,
different land use features are responding in a different manner
to the tsunami surge.
Beach ridge: Since the beach ridges are topographically
elevated landforms, generally they arrest the free flow of surge
into the land 15 and minimize the damages along the coast 18.
The negative correlation showed by the sandy area in beach
ridge (factor 5-variable 8, Table 2) justifies the same (Fig. 4c, d
and e).
Backwater and flood plain: In general, the backwater and
engulfing wetland accommodate the surge (factor 5-variable 4,
Table 2). But, in the above analysis, the flood plain and its
associated land use features have neither shown a positive nor
a negative correlation. Their presence far inside the shore might
be the plausible explanation. Similarly, the non-significant
relationship exhibited particularly by the mangroves might be
due to their less aerial representation in the study area.
Thus, the above statistical analysis vividly reveals that the
inundation is more on the geomorphic landforms like
beaches, mudflats, deltaic plains, creeks, backwaters and
least in beach ridges while the flood plains are totally free
from inundation.
Disaster Advances Vol. 10 (8) August (2017)

Fig. 1: The study area map with (A) post tsunami ENVISAT microwave data and (B) GIS map showing
S. Functions of decrease of
N. inundation
1. Increase of wetland (swampy
area and saltpan)
2. Decrease of crop land, fallow
land, aquaculture and wet land in
mudflat
3. Increase of fallow land and
plantation and decrease of crop
land in beaches
4. Decrease of crop land, plantation
and sandy area in deltaic plain
5 Increase of sandy area and crop
land in beach ridges
tsunami inundation.
Table 3
Tsunami mitigation strategies
Inference
The backwater with less water spread area
seems to have been acted as better
accommodators
The increase of cropping practice, fallow
land, aquaculture practice, wetland
(swampy area and saltpan) in mudflats
may increase the tsunami inundation
The occurrence of fallow land and
plantation in beaches seem to have
dissipated and decreased the tsunami
inundation. Thus the crop land practice
should be minimized in beaches
Tsunami inundation seems to less in crop
land, plantation and sandy area in deltaic
plain
The occurrence of sandy area seem to have
acted as absorbers and the crop land seem
to have dissipated the tsunami surge in
beach ridges
Remedial Measures
Saltpans can be promoted without
affecting the backwater
ecosystem
Usage of mudflat for these
practices need to be restricted
If any cropping is going on in
beaches, they must be stopped,
and rather plantations has to be
promoted
Cropping and irrigation practice
and plantation` in deltaic plain
can reduce the tsunami inundation
Intensive biomass blanketing in
beach ridges.

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Disaster Advances Vol. 10 (8) August (2017)

Fig. 2: Pre-Tsunami geomorphology map prepared using IRS P6 satellite image

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Disaster Advances Vol. 10 (8) August (2017)

Fig. 3: Pre-Tsunami land use / land use map prepared using IRS P6 satellite image

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 Disaster Advances Vol. 10 (8) August (2017)

a. Inundated cropland adjacent to the coast b. Beach with vegetation protected the surge
while the barren area get inundated

c. Barren beach ridge get eroded by the surge d. Increased destruction due to anthropogenic
activities

e. Protected coastal hamlet due to presence of coconut f. Inundated aquaculture ponds

plantation covered beach ridge

Fig. 4: Field photographs showing tsunami inundation in different

geomorphic – land use / land cover

The result adheres to the general phenomena that
proximity and topography are the prime controlling
factors of inundation. However, the integrated analysis
had provided an insight that besides topography and
geomorphology, the anthropogenic modifications in terms
of land use practices made above them have significantly
altered the tsunami inundation.
8
Due to the presence of sandy area in the beach and beach
ridges, the inundation had decreased suggesting probably
these sandy areas have acted as the absorbers of tsunami
surge. Similarly, the presence of plantation in beach and
deltaic plain can be again attributed to the dissipaters of the
tsunami surge10 whereas the decrease in inundation with
increase of wetland in backwater indicates that by and large
 Disaster Advances
the occurrence of mudflat had accommodated the surge.
While the modification of mudflat, beach and deltaic plain
into aquaculture pond and crop land have indicated that the
anthropogenic activity further aggravated the tsunami waves.
Thus, this analysis reveals that even though the tsunami
inundation is a natural phenomenon, the anthropogenic
activity had substantially modified its dynamics. By
adopting the optimal land use planning (Table 3), the
vulnerability of the coastal zone against the future tsunami
events can be significantly reduced.
Conclusion
The 26th December 2004 tsunami and its resultant
inundation had exhibited appreciable variation in their
pattern all along the eastern coast of Tamil Nadu. In
general, the variations are attributed to the topography
followed by the geomorphology prevailing in that area.
The detail analysis on the inundation pattern had shown
that even within the same geomorphic landform, different
land use features have reacted in a different way to the
tsunami surge. Thus, it is evident that despite near shore
geomorphology, presence or absence of land use
parameter had either mitigated or facilitated the tsunami
surge.
Further, the factor varimax analysis has proven as an
effective explanatory tool in unveiling the causative
factors of natural disaster in general and the interface
dynamics between tsunami inundation and geosystem in
particular. In addition, the implementation of the
suggested mitigation strategies would enable a preventive
and risk reduction measure for the countries under the
threat of tsunami hazard.
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(Received 22nd June 2017, accepted 22nd July 2017)