Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 39 (2012) 37–49

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Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering

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A preliminary microzonation study on Northern Coasts of Izmir:

Investigation of the local soil conditions
Selim Altun a,1, Alper Sezer a,n, A. Burak Göktepe b,2
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Ege University, 35100 Bornova, Izmir, Turkey
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Istanbul University, 34320 Avcılar, _Istanbul, Turkey

a r t i c l e i n f o abstract

Article history: In this paper, distribution of the dynamic soil properties in a region comprising the majority of
Received 10 February 2009 the Izmir Kars- ıyaka municipality borders is investigated. A number of geotechnical and geological
Received in revised form parameters of the region, which involve the results of formerly and recently drilled borings as well as
20 April 2011
the results of the geotechnical tests performed on undisturbed specimens are considered. Moreover,
Accepted 19 February 2012
collected data, and the variation of dynamic soil properties in the region is demonstrated utilizing
Available online 15 March 2012
a Geographical Information System (GIS) software, in which a square grid of 250 m cell size is
determined. The variation of the average shear wave velocities in the upper 30 m of the region as well
as the soil classes among NEHRP are thematically investigated to determine the variation of soil
properties in the region, which may be triggered by high water table at alluvial areas. Simulated ground
motions are created using a scenario earthquake on active _Izmir fault of 6.9 magnitude, having an
average distance of 10 km to the region under investigation. As a consequence, these motions are
utilized to map the distribution of maximum spectral amplifications, maximum surface spectral
accelerations as well as the ground shaking maps, for a better understanding of the risk in the region.
& 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction soils. Eventually, the need for microzonation against seismic

Seismic events caused excessive loss of lives in the past,
especially in developing countries. In Turkey, despite the aware-
ness of apparent hazard and past tragic experiences, local admin-
istrative staff is generally under pressure to give building permits
on geotechnically poor but valuable areas. Although advances in
construction of deep foundations as well as the used materials
decreased impossibilities in creating highly residential areas over
miscellaneous weak soil profiles, construction on these soils is far
from a bare engineering problem: it includes social and economic
aspects. From an engineering point of view, the need for detailed
planning against seismic hazard leaded to preparation of detailed
maps. Formerly, structures resistant to ground shaking were
designed by use of crude soil investigations carried out in the
field resulting a soil class and relating them with structural
properties. Yet the soil class is not determined by laboratory
investigations, unquestionably, this definition along with the
structural knowledge is never sufficient to evaluate the seismic
vulnerability of the building as well as dynamic properties of local
n
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ90 232 388 6026; fax: þ90 232 3425 629.
E-mail addresses: selim.altun@ege.edu.tr (S. Altun),
alper.sezer@ege.edu.tr (A. Sezer), bgoktepe@istanbul.edu.tr (A. Burak Göktepe).
1
Tel.: þ90 232 3886 026; fax: þ90 232 3425 629.
2
Tel.: þ90 212 473 7070; fax: þ90 212 473 7176.
vulnerability arose after this outdated and misleading approach.
Basically, the aim of employing microzonation studies in a region
is to forecast the earthquake damage in an area, which is prone
to development or recently developed; rather than analyzing the
earthquake hazard. Naturally, in addition to the source character-
istics of the ground shaking in a region, the soils existing at the path
of the seismic waves and the local soil conditions, depth of water
table, etc. are thoroughly efficient parameters for the level of ground
shaking, which the built environment at the region should with-
stand. In fact, identification of the ground shaking consequences in
a specific zone is the first part of assessment of life and property
losses; therefore, retrospective studies should be supported with
extensive and expensive structural evaluations, for the determina-
tion of both pre-earthquake cost control of measures and post-
earthquake loss estimation questioning. Microzonation studies are
fundamentally based on the identification of seismic activity sources
in a region. After determining the method of determination of
seismic hazard in a region, as widely identified in Kramer [1], field
geotechnical data comprising CPT, SPT, etc. recorded to a depth of
30 m from surface level might be evaluated for characterization of
the top most layers, which are known to be responsible for the
superstructure’s behavior and liquefaction. It should be emphasized
that, the field investigations should be supported with laboratory
tests, to better characterize the soils underlying the region under
evaluation. Applications of the dynamic analyses lead to certain

0267-7261/$ - see front matter & 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.soildyn.2012.02.006
38 S. Altun et al. / Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 39 (2012) 37–49
parameters identifying the seismic behavior of the soils. The out-
comes of the analyses can be mapped to express the seismic risk in
the region, or an additional phase concerning the evaluation of the
building stock in the region as well as establishment of the relation-
ship between dynamics of soil and structure properties can lead to a
more comprehensive study which is capable of estimating life and
property losses.
The conceptual breakthrough in microzonation studies has
begun with the improvements on digitizing technology and
powerful computers. The developments in GIS after 1980 s have
enhanced data processing. The ‘‘Manual for Zonation on Geotech-
nical Hazards’’ presented by TC4 committee and ‘‘Handbook of
Seismic Microzonation for Municipalities’’ by Turkish General
Directorate of Disaster Affairs provide a comprehensive approach
for the microzonation studies to be employed in a particular
region [2,3]. Generally, seismic microzonation studies in a parti-
cular area initially aims to characterize the variation of the
vertical and horizontal soil types in a particular region. It is noted
by a vast number of researchers that geological and geotechnical
properties of the local soil conditions have a significant role in the
intensity of the ground shaking [4–7]. As indicated above, field
and laboratory investigations should be carried out to better
characterize the seismic sources in the region, afterwards, the
properties of bedrock and overlying soils should be determined.
After employing dynamic analyses, eventually, obtained results
should be conveniently mapped. In this scope, a number of
researchers focused on making a reliable evaluation of difficulties
in identification of the earthquake source, laboratory and field
geo-data as well as its processing and mapping logic. Several
studies in the literature deals with the difficulties encountered in
the prediction of earthquake caused damage and the intensity
distribution [8–10]. It was stated that identification of the
reference ground motion type is the key for a correct evaluation
of the seismic hazard in the region. In this manner, deterministic
or probabilistic analyses are choices for the engineer. The two
methods have certain advantages and drawbacks over each other.
While deterministic method consists of identification of an earth-
quake record causing the worst scenario in the region, probabil-
istic methods utilize uncertainty analyses for the determination
of earthquake properties including magnitude, source coordi-
nates, and recurrence period [1]. Although there underlies diffi-
culties in determination of the recurrence relationships and
magnitude of earthquakes, corrections for the uncertainties
related to these factors possess additional uncertainties [11].
Nevertheless, several researchers reported the advantages and
shortcomings of the probabilistic and deterministic approaches
[1,12]. On the other hand, simulated earthquake time histories
[13], which include an embedded attenuation relationship pre-
sented by Atkinson and Boore [14] are increasingly utilized for
producing compatible earthquake time histories. It should be
emphasized that, application of TARSCHTS code [13], even applied
on regions in the vicinity of seismic resources possessing an
attitude similar to seismic sources in Eastern North America,
necessitates great care. In this manner, Ansal and Tönük [15] used
real and simulated acceleration records as site response analyses
inputs to question the reliability and observe the variations in
factors representing regional earthquake hazard. The authors
strongly underline the use of previously recorded real accelera-
tion time histories as input motion for site response analysis. The
authors indicate that, PGA scaling yielded ground motion char-
acteristics in better harmony with the site specific seismic hazard.
Microzonation studies are conducted in various cities of the
world, aiming to build detailed seismic hazard maps especially
in cities possessing weak soil conditions. Jiménez et al. [16]
employed 1D dynamic analyses of Barcelona, and plotted the
results in a GIS. As a result of the analyses, the area is mapped by
means of predominant periods and amplification factors. The
most conspicuous result of the study is that abrupt changes
observed in amplification factors as the quaternary unit thick-
nesses change. Fäh et al. [17] performed a seismic microzonation
study in Basel city, Switzerland. Before making instrumental
measurements, a 475 year return period design earthquake based
on the seismic history of the city. Regarding to the design
earthquake, the damage levels are formulated and classified.
The authors foresaw that 8–20% and 31–56% of the building stock
would be damaged at presumed intensities of VII–VIII and IX;
respectively. They implemented that the further damage is pre-
dicted at districts including historical buildings. Mohanty et al.
[18] conducted a microzonation study in the Delhi region of India
via 5 thematic layers: Peak ground acceleration, soil classes
concerning the soil profile 6 m deep from the surface, geology,
fluctuations in underground water level and bedrock depth.
Evaluating the soil response, it is concluded that the distribution
of the buildings damaged in Chamoli earthquake, and the peak
ground acceleration values are in accordance with the areas under
suspicion. Mandrescu et al. [19], in their study of microzonation
of Bucharest city, performed 1D dynamic analyses via the field
data containing geological, geophysical and geotechnical investiga-
tions. The authors concluded that underground motions of medium
to high magnitude, upper 30 m is not capable of characterizing the
soil behavior accurately, although many studies are indicating that
this upper 30 m is site-specific.
Seismic hazard assessment studies are increasingly performed
especially in metropolitan cities of the Turkey, and a number of
them are referred here. It should be noted that, majority of the
studies are zoning _Istanbul against seismic risk, which is the biggest
city of Turkey accommodating more than nine million people.
Concisely speaking, initial examples to comprehensive microzona-
tion studies in Turkey are carried out in Bağcılar [20, 21], Silivri [22],
Golden Horn [23], Balıkesir [24], Adapazarı & Gölcük [25,26]. Later,
further studies are conducted in Zeytinburnu Municipality and a
number of cities which are dominantly settled in the vicinity of
_Istanbul including Bandırma, Bakırköy, Eskis- ehir, Gemlik, Körfez and
Tekirdağ [27–31]. Additional studies are conducted in Bolu and
Bursa cities [32–34]. Generally, in these studies, after constituting a
database including geological and geotechnical investigations in the
area, a geological map of the area is created, and the results attained
from the boring logs are utilized to classify the soils. The effect
of local soil conditions on the dynamic behavior of the soils is
investigated. Consequently, the zonation, including map layers of
soil classes according to Turkish Earthquake Code and NEHRP,
spectral accelerations, and equivalent shear wave velocities, is
accomplished. More specific approaches were developed in recent
studies for evaluation of the expected calamity and resulting
- inicioğlu et al. [35] presented an earthquake
casualties in Istanbul. C
damage assessment system to be verified by geologist and geotech-
nical engineers. The authors successfully applied the methodology
for seismic zonation of two districts in _Istanbul, Turkey. Ansal et al.
[36] employed a study concerning an extensive loss estimation
scenario in _Istanbul metropolis. It was stated that thirty percent of
the buildings in the investigation area should be reconstructed or
strengthened to prevent massive loss in inhabitant lives.
Seismic microzonation of _Izmir city is increasingly attracting
attention of geoscientists since last destructive earthquake has
happened more than 230 years ago. One of the most serious
microzonation studies for determination of seismic hazard in city
of Izmir is the RADIUS project [37]. The geotechnical investigation
of the study comprises the data processing of SPT, CPT and
Vane test results, calculation of the equivalent shear waves, and
classification of the soils to four classes, namely, Z1, Z2, Z3 and Z4,
as stipulated by the 1997 Regulations for the structures to be built
in catastrophic regions. After calculating the shear wave velocities
 S. Altun et al. / Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 39 (2012) 37–49
in the upper 30 m by the evaluation of static and dynamic
penetration test results, liquefaction susceptibility analyses in
the region are carried out, eventually, the results are incorporated
into a GIS. Although this study comprises the Izmir metropolitan
city as a whole and distribution of data in hand seems to be
insufficient for particular areas, the need for detailed investiga-
tions on weak Northern shoreline of Izmir has come to light.
Gülerce [38] performed 256 microtremor measurements in Izmir
city and mapped the predominant period and amplification
values via Nakamura method. The highest predominant periods
are observed Bostanlı region, the vicinity of Gediz River (0.6–1.0 s).
The values decreased in the vicinity of the Centrum of Kars- ıyaka
municipality (0.40–0.60 s), whereas these values diminished to
0.20–0.35 s in upper centrum including Evka-2, Cumhuriyet
district and Yamanlar mountain. The highest spectral amplification
values are observed at Bostanlı district (1.75–4.80). The spectral
amplification values decrease to 2.00–3.00 and 1.15–1.75 at
Karsiyaka centrum and Yamanlar mountain, respectively. Kuruoglu
[39] performed 1D dynamic analyses on the boring data collected
from Bayraklı, Bostanlı and Manavkuyu Districts of Izmir. Analyz-
ing this data in a GIS, he has mentioned that damage in 8–10
storey buildings of 0.7–1.0 s. natural periods are related with the
0.7–0.85 s. predominant periods of the underlying soils.
In this study, the investigated area is limited to Kars- ıyaka
Municipality (Bostanlı, Mavis- ehir Districts and partially, Bayraklı
Municipality as well as Atatürk Organized Industrial Zone).
Borings in the area revealed that the soils underlying the city
down to 35 m consists of clays with high plasticity, silts and silty
layers and ‘‘mica’’ based sandy soils, which are the accumulated
alluviums of Gediz River. In particular, serious structural pro-
blems were reported from Bostanlı district, which is established
on the old delta of Gediz River. Because the bedrock depths in the
field are up to 150–300 m, and the engineering properties of
the soils overlying the bedrock are significantly insufficient, earth-
quake induced disasters, even at ground motions of low magni-
tudes are in question. In addition, observations in the region
concluded that, tilting of structures constructed on landfills is
based on differential settlements, which is a proof of the uncer-
tainty of the distribution of the soils in the region [39]. Results of
soil investigations in the region are introduced to a database to
employ 1D dynamic analysis for every data point. Thereafter, the
data belonging to a number of the properties of the soil are plotted
using a Geographical Information System (GIS), which contains a
comprehensive digitized map of the region. The soil behavior,
amplification as well as acceleration values and the variation of the
soil class are determined, plotted and evaluated on digital maps in
order to better characterize the dynamic soil behaviors under
seismic threat.
2. Microzonation methodology
The earthquake hazard is based on the dynamic properties of
the soils as well as structural properties and earthquake char-
acteristics. It is widely acknowledged that the earthquake-based
shear stresses cause deformations at various scales, thereby the
shear strength decreases and changes in stress-deformation
properties is experienced. Therefore, it can be stressed that the
responses of soils under various loading conditions vary peculiar
to their character.
The first phase of the microzonation studies in a region is the
determination of the properties of design ground motion. Ground
shaking based damage in a region is not solely dependent on the
shearing properties of tectonic or volcanic based ground motion,
it is also affected from the geotechnical, geological as well as
geophysical properties of soil layers located on the path of the
39
earthquake waves. The reasons of damage occurrence are quite
different subjects, apart from the ground motion properties and
local soil effects. The structural properties should be reasonably
assessed, and the interaction with soil properties should be
exposed from a scientific point of view. In essence, the micro-
zonation studies are multidisciplinary research studies which
incorporate the opinions of local administrators, city planners,
geologists and geophysical engineers [22].
As mentioned before, deterministic and probabilistic methods
seem to be two alternatives for the determination of ground
motion properties. While the disadvantage of probabilistic meth-
ods stems from the distribution curves, the deterministic method
includes serious uncertainties in the evaluation of ground motion
characteristics [39]. Actually, determination and evaluation of the
active faults which may be effective on the investigation area is
a very important issue. The magnitudes of the probable earth-
quakes as well as the determination and estimation of the source
characteristics of these earthquakes using various methods is one
of the objectives of the microzonation studies. In Kuruoğlu’s
study, a combination of deterministic and probabilistic methods
is employed and scaling the acceleration record of 1977 Izmir
earthquake in accordance with the scenario earthquake of 6.5
magnitude in RADIUS project [37] yielded to an average bedrock
acceleration of 0.25 g [39]. Additionally, attenuation relationships
were utilized to estimate the bedrock acceleration values. These
values were calculated as 0.13 g, 0.15 g and 0.13 g for Bostanlı,
Kars- ıyaka Centrum and Alaybey districts, respectively. It should
be noted that, the extent of this study was larger in previous version
including Atatürk Organized Industrial Zone and upper districts of
- iğli, Cumhuriyet and Örnekköy Districts),
Kars- ıyaka municipality (C
however, the need for increase in map resolution as well as lacking
data in the omitted regions made the truncation of investigation
area compulsory.
In microzonation studies, the soil strata and behavior of these
soils under cyclic loading should be correctly determined for a
better assessment of local soil conditions [40]. The dynamic
behavior of the soils can be determined by dynamic or seismic
tests which are conducted either in the laboratory or in the field.
Although field dynamic tests are extremely useful for the evalua-
tion of the soils, these expensive tests are not as extensive as the
static penetration tests, which are commonly used in the field
investigation. By use of static penetration test results, dynamic
properties of the soils can comfortably be computed via empirical
equations, which enhance calculation of dynamic strength para-
meters from static strength parameters.
The Standard Penetration Test (SPT) is probably the most
popular and widely employed test all over the world. In addition
to the large database of these tests, gained financial advantages
makes it plausible to figure out the dynamic properties of the soils
from these tests. The parameters that can empirically be derived
from SPT are enumerated as shear wave velocity, shear modulus
and soil amplification. Therefore, the soil class assessment can be
acquired by using average shear wave velocities. _Iyisan’s formula
can be used to establish relationship between SPT blow counts
and shear wave velocity [41]:
V s ¼ 51:5N 0:516 ð1Þ
where N is the uncorrected SPT blow count and Vs is the shear
wave velocity (m/s).
In order to conduct one-dimensional site response analyses,
EERA software is used [42]. It was aimed to perform site response
analyses at all points individually representing separate cells of
250 m dimension. The dynamic site response analyses led to results
including spectral amplifications, velocities and accelerations.
In order to map the geotechnical and dynamic soil properties of
the region, 1/1000 UTM Zone 35 maps are obtained in CAD format.
40 S. Altun et al. / Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 39 (2012) 37–49

These maps are unified via MapInfo software. The boring locations
are given in Fig. 1. It should be noted that, newly constructed
shorelines provide more geotechnical data. Nevertheless, soils
underlying Yeni Girne, Cumhuriyet, C - iğli and Örnekköy Districts as
well as a part of Atatürk Organized Industrial Zone were kept out of
this investigation for map visibility and interpolation requirements.
However, the data provided in these areas are used to increase the
quality of the maps under investigation. Referring to Fig. 1b, it
should be stated that database should be improved by performing
field investigations in S- emikler, Soğukkuyu Districts and west of
Bayraklı Municipality. Furthermore, Gümüs- pala District to the
northeast of the area under investigation is one of the oldest
residential areas of the city which provided almost none subsurface
geotechnical data. In grids providing no subsurface geotechnical
data, neighboring borehole information and geological knowledge
was used to create representative borehole data.
3. Geological and geotechnical aspects of the region
3.1. Local geology
Historical development of the geologic units in Western Anatolia
concluded four major paleotectonic elements including Sakarya
Continent, _Izmir Ankara Suture, Menderes Massif and Lycian Nappes
of unknown fundamental structure [43,44]. Sakarya continent is
known to have Mezosoic and Senozoic units overlying Paleozoic
units. _Izmir-Ankara suture zone exits between Sakarya continent
and Menderes Massif. The metamorphism in suture zone between
Late Crataceous and Early Miocene periods caused a structure
generally consisting of ophiolitic melange and peridotites. The Late
cretaceous formations in the vicinity of Izmir consist of sandstone,
shale and limestone blocks. Generally, these formations outcrop
at the peaks circumscribing the area. On the other hand, core of

26 27 28 29 30

Strike lines of Alpine and Cimmerid structures of Sakarya

Continent

Trends of fold axis lineations and strike lines belonging to

prominent schistosities in Menderes Massif core
39
Schist and marble envelope of Menderes Massif

Karakaya Complex
Izmir

38

37

▼ Boring locations

Bedrock depth(m)

270

135
27

Fig. 1. (a) Geology of the investigation area and neighboring areas; (b) Boring locations and variation of bedrock depth in the investigation area, the bedrock legend is
scaled (Modified from [43]).
 S. Altun et al. / Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 39 (2012) 37–49 41

Menderes Massif is composed of metamorphosed gneiss and schists
[45]. The stratigraphy studies belonging to the core of the Massif
indicate that it includes gneiss of Precambrain age, mica shists of
Paleosoic age, black colored fillit and dark colored recrystallized
limestone, from top to bottom. It should be indicated that, Menderes
Massif is a metamorphic core-complex [46–48]. Basic units belong-
ing to Western Anatolia (Aegean Region) is given in Fig. 1a.
Nevertheless, Neocene aged formations can be estimated
from the volcanic based andesitic compositions in the vicinity of
Yamanlar Mountain. These units can be enlisted as lava including
magnesium, tuff and tuff filled conglomerates [49]. Lava also
contains coarse reddish brown and gray tinged with green feldspar
crystals. Neocene sedimentary rocks consist of deep claystone,
sandstone and shallow limestone. Claystone is sometimes encoun-
tered over limestone layers. Soil strength in upper limestone layers
is higher; in contrast, limestone stratifications with thin muddy
rocks show smaller strength (Fig. 2a).
In particular, the study area covers 22.5 km2, and the litho-
stratigraphic sequence consists of mainly two units. These are
called as Yunt Mountain volcanics and Quaternary sediments

Alluvium
Neogene
Tertiary volcanic units
Mesozoic
Paleozoic-Mesozoic
Metamorphic base
(Menderes Massif)

Foca
Menemen

AEGEAN
SEA
IZMIR

Buca
Cesme Balçova
Urla

05 10 15 20 25
(km)

26°30´ 27°00´ 27°30´

N
AEGEAN
SEA

38°30´ 38°30´

Mw = 6.9
R = 10 km.

6<M<7
5<M<6
4<M<5
Active fault
City 38°00´
38°00´

26°30´ 27°00´ 27°30´

Fig. 2. (a) Simplified geological map of Izmir centrum and its vicinity (Modified from [43]). (b) Distribution of historical earthquakes greater than 5 in magnitude on the
active fault map from 1900 to present day and the (Modified from [50]).
42 S. Altun et al. / Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 39 (2012) 37–49
(Fig. 2a). Yunt Mountain volcanic rocks are widespread in and
around the northern part of the Izmir Gulf. The Upper Miocene
volcanic rocks which lie on top of the Neogene aged sedimentary
rocks were formed by several volcanic activities in this region.
The volcanic rocks are in ascending order consist of lithic tuffs,
agglomerates and andesites (Fig. 2a). The order of these volcanic
rocks may change locally and andesites may lay on top of the
Neogene terrestrial units directly [51]. On the other hand, the
Quaternary unit consists of slope wash and alluvium covering
other units unconformably. Alluvial fan system and the fluvial
system of the Gediz river form the Quarternary sediments in the
investigation area [52].
3.2. Tectonics of the region
The city of Izmir located on the western coast of Anatolia has
long been recognized as a major industrial and port center
carrying high seismic risk. The region has faced major earthquake
disasters both in the historical and modern time. Seismicity
nearby and in the city of Izmir is being governed by normal and
strike-slip active faults which are between and parallel to Büyük
Menderes and Gediz grabens. The activities in the region are
controlled by Izmir, Tuzla, Karaburun, Yenifoc- a, Manisa,
Kemalpas- a, Seferihisar, Menemen, Gülbahc- e, Dağkızılca faults
and Gediz Graben detachment fault [50]. Gediz Graben system
seems to be a critical seismic zone and the general tectonic
structure in the system is normal faults. Similarly, normal faults,
namely, _Izmir and Manisa exist to the south and east of Izmir
Gulf. Tuzla and Yenifoc- a faults are strike-slip faults, and their
direction are northeast–southwest. Of all these faults, Izmir
(35 km), Tuzla, Karaburun and Yenifoc- a systems behave domi-
nant, in comparison with the rest (Fig. 2b). Another important
earthquake source, Izmir fault was selected as the primary
seismic source, as indicated in former studies [39,50]. The Izmir
fault attracts attention of the scientists by earthquakes occurred
in 1688, 1739, 1778 and 1977. The properties of the faults are
given in Kuruoğlu’s extensive study [39]. The fault is prone to
create high seismic damage in Northern Coasts of Izmir. In the
analyses, a scenario earthquake of 6.9 moment magnitude is used
for the quantification of the seismic hazard.
3.3. Groundwater conditions
The groundwater level is determined as maximum 5 m deep at
the west side of the investigation area, the Atatürk Industrial
Organized Zone and Bostanli Districts. On the other hand, ground-
water depths vary between 20–40 m and 0–5 m at Cumhuriyet
and Yalı–Nergis–Donanmacı districts, respectively. Naturally, it
should be mentioned here that the shoreline of Kars-ıyaka Muni-
cipality is solely landfill, therefore, groundwater depths fluctuate
in the vicinity of 0.5 m. Beneath Yeni Girne, Örnekköy and Bahc-
elievler districts, groundwater levels are observed at deeper
levels. Nevertheless, the slopes in the vicinity of the shores are
very low, the poor drainage system, also the filled Bostanli stream
and Gediz river beds result floods after the spring downpours,
which increase the observed groundwater levels from 0–5 m to
0–3 m. As a consequence, as expected, observed groundwater
levels at higher regions are deeper. The groundwater problems
seem to cause loss in soil strength, since in the majority of the
area ground water level is close to the soil surface.
3.4. Landslide susceptibility
No landslides resulting in a massive life or property losses
is reported. The majority of the area has slopes in the range of
0–5%. The upper zones of higher slopes overlay andesites of high
strength. Furthermore, outcropping andesites near the shore to
the east of the investigation area indicate the ‘‘low’’ landslide
susceptibility, according to Mora and Wahrson’s tables concern-
ing lithological aspects [53]. These evidences underlie the lack of
need for zoning of landslide susceptibility.
3.5. Bedrock depth
In the investigation area, Bostanlı district and Atatürk Indus-
trial Organized Zone is under accumulation of Gediz River and
Bostanli stream. As can be seen from Fig. 1, at lower parts of
Cumhuriyet District and upper zones of the investigation area,
bedrock approaches to the surface, and in some places, even
outcropping is observed. The borings in Kars- ıyaka Centrum (Yalı
and Donanmacı Districts) bedrock is encountered at the depth of
54 m while the borings around Alaybey Dockyard indicate bed-
rock depths in the vicinity of 27 m, which is given in Fig. 1 in
detail [39,54]. Existence of the bedrock in the upper 30 m is in
minority only existing in Alaybey and Yamanlar Districts. In the
central Districts of Kars- ıyaka, Bostanlı and Mavis- ehir Districts,
and Atatürk Organized Industrial Zone, it seems impossible to
encounter bedrock in the upper 30 m level. Furthermore, field
experiences report bedrock depth up to 270 m in Mavis- ehir
District.
3.6. Geotechnical properties of the soils in the region
The dynamic properties of the soils in the area were evaluated
by use of the data obtained from four boring companies. The soil
classes in the upper 30 m are dominantly silty sand and clays of
high/low plasticity. These evaluations underline poor engineering
conditions of soils beyond Northern Coasts of _Izmir. A basic
statistical evaluation of the soil property database will be utilized
to better characterize the soils in the area. Fig. 3 demonstrates a
bar graph of the soil classes in the upper 30 m of the area. From
the figure, it can be reliably expounded that the dominant
characteristic of the soils are silty/clayey sand and clays of high/
low plasticity. The equivalent shear wave velocity variation of the
soils given in Fig. 4 enlightens the reason of the low strength of
the soils in the area, which is dominancy of these soil classes.
Focusing on Fig. 4, it can be stressed that the alluvial region near
Gediz River, soils especially under Bostanli District and Atatürk
Organized Industrial zone possess the lowest shear wave velo-
cities, ranging between 0–100 m/s. Equivalent shear wave velo-
cities (Vs  eq) of upper 30 m are between 0–100 m/s at Atatürk
Organized Industrial Zone, Mavis-ehir and Bostanlı Districts. Vs  eq
values at S- emikler District is observed between 0–100 m/s and
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
SM
CH
CL
SC
ML
OH
MH
SP-SM
SP
GM
GC
SW
SM-ML
SW-SM
GW-GM
GP-GM
CH-MH
GW
OL
SW-SC
GP
GP-GC
Fig. 3. The soil classes according to USCS obtained from boring data in the upper
30 m of the region.
 S. Altun et al. / Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 39 (2012) 37–49 43

Fig. 4. The variation of equivalent shear wave velocity in the investigation area.

SPT-N'30
0 10 20 30 B16 B107 B204 B296
0
WT WT
2 WT
SP Gs=2.60 WT SM SM
4 CH Gs=2.62
γn=1.60 t/m3 γn=1.63 t/m3
6 ωL=64 %
ωP=22 %
8
ωN=44 % Gs=2.55
10 SP-SM Gs=2.62
γn=1.77 t/m3 ωN=31 %
12
Depth (m.)

14
SM
OH Gs=2.57
16 Gs=2.72
ωN=32 % γn=1.66 t/m3
18 ωL=68 % Gs=2.74
SM ωP=31 % γn=1.66 t/m3
20
ωN=34 %
CH ωL=76 % ω =47 %
22 ωP=33 % CL ωL=21 %
P
24 ωN=58 % γn=1.85 t/m3
26 ωL=42%
SC ωP=17 %
28 SM
ωN=16 %
30
B16 B107
B204 B296

Fig. 5. Sample soil boring results in various districts of investigation area.

0–200 m/s. At the Kars- ıyaka centrum, namely, Aksoy, Donanmacı and Furthermore, outcropping bedrock in the vicinity of the road
Nergis Districts, Vs eq values are detected between 100–300 m/s, to Bayraklı Centrum (east of the map) is probably the reason of
varying from point to point. The northeastern parts of Gümüs- pala the Vs  eq values between greater than 500 m/s. Evaluating addi-
District demonstrate Vs eq values in the range of 200–300 m/s. tional outcomes, the soil classification regarding to Vs  eq values
44 S. Altun et al. / Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 39 (2012) 37–49
indicated that while a small portion of the area possess high Vs  eq
values, majority of the data points showed low Vs  eq values
ranging between 0–200 m/s.
The engineering properties of the soils in Kars- ıyaka region can
be simplified for particular zones by using idealized columnar
sections. In any case, although this approach very is not com-
pletely accurate and incongruous to homogenous-anisotropic
behavior of soils, it can be stated that this approach is plausible
for the microzonation-aimed studies. Fig. 5 shows boring samples
belonging to upper 30 m soil profile from Bostanlı, Yalı, Alaybey
and Mavis- ehir Districts, respectively. It should be noted that, high
underground water table and thick layers of fine material of high
plasticity confirms the probability of liquefaction and strength
loss under dynamic loading conditions. Approaching the central
Kars- ıyaka, increasing penetration test results cause achievement
of a diverse soil profile, especially in Alaybey District. Outcrop-
ping or surface-near andesites in Yamanlar, Cumhuriyet and
Gümüs-pala Districts boosts the upper 30 m strength of the soils.
In general sense, it can be revealed that the engineering proper-
ties of the soils in the northern zones of Anadolu Street are in
good condition by means of strength, in comparison with the
southern parts of the zone under investigation. Nevertheless,
Fig. 6 shows the variation of the SPT values in the region. Rather
low SPT values in the region show that the soils are of poor
quality in terms of strength. Better penetration test results are
obtained in tests performed at areas of shallow decomposed rock
formations.
SPT value
0 10 20 30 40
0
10
20
Depth (m)
30
40
50
60
Fig. 6. The variation of SPT values with depth in the region.
Fig. 7. Soil classification in accordance with NEHRP (2003) provisions.
The distribution of the site soil classes are determined using
the equivalent shear wave velocities (Vs  eq), average SPT-N values
of upper 30 m or undrained shear strength in accordance with
NEHRP (2003) provisions is given in Fig. 7. The average SPT-N
values ðNÞ were calculated using Eq. 2:
Pn
d
N ¼ Pn i ¼ 1 i ð2Þ
i ¼ 1 ðdi =N i Þ
where di is the thickness of layer i and Ni is the SPT-N layer belonging
to layer i. Low equivalent shear wave velocities observed also give
information about the soil classes in the investigation area. Analyzing
Fig. 7, it is clear that Mavis- ehir District and Atatürk Industrial zone
possess the lowest shear wave velocities, in comparison with the rest
of the investigation area. This is an expected outcome, since the
bedrock is in the lowest level at these districts and this district is
settled in the delta of the Gediz River. Soil investigations in this area
indicate fine and highly plastic low strength soils deeper than 50 m
Dominant class in this area is determined as E-F with respect to
NEHRP (2003) provisions. It can be seen that Mavis- ehir District soils
are E-F class, and the remaining part of the map are dominantly Class
D, excluding a closed area in shoreline to the east of the map (Class C)
and a number of individual areas in Yalı, Aksoy and Bostanlı Districts
(Class F). The upper 30 m soils to the west of the investigation area
are deemed to possess poorer geotechnical properties. Outcropping
andesites to the east result higher Vs eq values, therefore better soil
classes (C). Additionally, it can be figured out from the NEHRP
classification map that the soils along the shoreline are close to the
boundary of Class E-F.
One dimensional site response analyses utilize relationships
between G/Gmax as well as D (%) with strain as inputs for
50 identification of material properties, where G is the shear mod-
ulus and D is the damping ratio. Twelve different material
properties are used in analyses conducted via EERA software
[42]. It should be noted that, a number of models are imported
from SHAKE software [55]. The models are selected in terms of
indicative index and strength properties as well as soil classes.
These models and their definitions are given in Fig. 8.
4. The input earthquake and the site response analyses
Although the tectonic activity in the vicinity of _Izmir city is high,
recorded motions are lacking and they are far from simulating the
earthquake hazard in the region. As mentioned in previous studies,
at a high probability level, Izmir fault had caused the earthquake
 S. Altun et al. / Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 39 (2012) 37–49 45

1.2 30 Table 1
Parameters used in RVT calculations (modified from [65]).

D, Damping ratio (%)

1.0 25
Parameter Selected value
0.8 20
G/Gmax

Density (g/cm3) 2.8

0.6 15 Shear wave velocity of the crust, b (km/s) 3.6
Stress drop, Ds (bar) 100
0.4 10
Site attenuation, k0 (s) 0.04
0.2 5 Path attenuation, Q 220  f 0.52

0.0 0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1
γ, Strain (%)
0.4
G/Gmax 1 2 3 4 5 6
D(%) 7 8 9 10 11 12 0.3
0.2
Fig. 8. G/Gmax  g and D(%)  g relationships used in site response analyses.

Acceleration (g)
(1) Attenuation of rock average and damping in rock [42]. (2) G/Gmax  g and 0.1
D(%)  g relationships for gravel [56]. (3) Upper range G/Gmax  g and D(%)  g
relationships for sand [57]. (4) Average G/Gmax  g and D(%)  g relationships for 0.0
sand [57]. (5) Lower range G/Gmax  g and D(%)  g relationships for sand [57].
(6) G/Gmax  g and D(%)  g relationships for saturated sand [58]. (7) G/Gmax  g and -0.1
D(%)  g relationships for clay, Plasticity index(PI) ¼200 [59]. (8) G/Gmax  g and
D(%)  g relationships for clay, PI ¼ 100 [59]. (9) G/Gmax  g and D(%)  g relation- -0.2
ships for clay, PI ¼ 50 [59]. (10) G/Gmax  g and D(%)  g relationships for clay,
-0.3
PI ¼ 30 [59]. (11) G/Gmax  g and D(%)  g relationships for clay, PI ¼15 [59].
(12) G/Gmax  g and D(%)  g relationships for clay, PI¼ 0 [59]. -0.4
18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36
occurred at 16.12.1977 [39]. This earthquake is known to be the sole Time (s)
record reflecting the character of Izmir fault, as approved by National
Strong Motion Database of Turkey. Mounted on a shallow foundation 1.60
installed on andesite bedrock in Güzelyalı District, it can be revealed 20 SMSIM motions

that the seismogram is fairly close to Izmir fault. In order to 1.40 Median
Spectral acceleration (g)

Abrahamson & Silva (1997)

determine the acceleration time history of target earthquake of
Mw ¼ 6.9 magnitude, the first attempt for determination of the input
motion is to scale the record without modifying the frequency
content, as widely discussed in [39]. Corrected earthquake record
has a peak in the vicinity of 0.1 s, and its engineering significance as
well as its effects on highly residential Kars- ıyaka municipality is
highly questionable. Therefore, alternative approaches are sought for
determination of input acceleration–time series to be used as inputs
to one-dimensional site response analyses. Bjerrum and Atakan [60]
made a comprehensive deterministic approach to the earthquake
hazard in _Izmir city. The study included a comparison of nine
different earthquake scenarios. Comparison of these scenarios led to
the conclusion that an earthquake which is probable to occur on
_Izmir fault will generate ground motions having a magnitude of
Mw ¼ 6.9, radiating an energy level greater than those of the rest of
the scenarios. Therefore, Boore’s ground motion simulation method
based on stochastic approach is used to produce the input ground
motions [61]. The method models the ground motion as band limited
finite duration Gaussian white noise [62,63], assuming that the
radiated energy is distributed over a specific duration [64]. Typical
values for parameters characterizing the effects of the source, path,
and site for crustal events for Western Anatolia are given by Akyol
et al. [65], which were summarized in Table 1. A hundred simulated
motions were created by SMSIM, and a visual approach to these
curves lead to 20 eliminated motions. In selection of the input
motions, attention was paid to best-fit the median response of the
motions the rock acceleration response spectrum from the Abraham-
son and Silva (1997) relationship [66]. It should be mentioned that, at
every point, site response analyses are conducted using the 20
simulated ground motions as inputs, and the median of site responses
as well as the parameters identifying these behaviors are determined.
Hereafter, site response identifiers such as surface spectral accelera-
tion and maximum ground surface spectral accelerations will define
the median of these parameters, derived from 20 site response
analyses in each investigation point. A sample ground motion
1.20
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00
Period (s)
Fig. 9. (a) A sample input motion from 20 input motions. (b) Rock acceleration
response spectra for SMSIM motions created by use of M ¼6.9, R¼ 10 km.
simulation and the response spectra of 20 simulated motions
including the rock acceleration response spectrum from the
Abrahamson and Silva relationship are given in Fig. 9a and b,
respectively. Lastly, variability of SMSIM motions are somewhat
limited due to the simulations [67].
In order to obtain the site response results, analyses are
conducted by use of EERA software [42]. This software is in
spreadsheet format and has the ability to include unlimited
dynamic soil models in soil response calculations by one dimen-
sional linear equivalent method. A damped linear elastic model
and equivalent linear analyses are used to demonstrate the non-
linear behavior of the soil layers. As mentioned in preceding
paragraphs, the stress–strain properties of the soils are instructed
by use of the relationships expressing the change of shear
modulus and damping with the shear strain level. In this context,
the soil profiles were prepared from the database for the calcula-
tion of average shear wave velocities. Input time history is applied
on each of the soil profiles by the EERA software to obtain the site
responses, and the resulting database consisted of dynamic soil
46
behavior, including spectral acceleration-time variation as well as
its maximum. Four exemplary surface spectral acceleration–
period variations from different districts are given in Fig. 10.
Borings in separate grids were evaluated under the given input
time history and the maximum spectral acceleration against
period variation is determined in each boring location.
Consequently, the ground shaking intensity should be mapped
in the region for a better assessment of the local site effects.
Actually, two methods for evaluation of the local site effects are
based on equivalent shear wave velocity and site response
analyses. In mapping site response, Midorikawa’s empirical equa-
tion [68] yields more plausible amplification values by use of
Vs  eq parameter:
Ak ¼ 68V 0:6
seq
where Ak is the spectral amplification value and Vs  eq is the
equivalent shear wave velocity (m/s). As mentioned in Kılıc- et al.’s
study [27], in mapping with respect to spectral amplification, AV,
BV and CV represent the maximum spectral amplification values
belonging to the upper 33, middle 34 and lower 33 percentiles,
respectively. This map should be carefully used by taking the
boring locations into consideration.
Zonation considering the results of site response analyses is
conducted by use of the calculated maximum surface spectral
accelerations determined from 0.1 and 1.0 s period range. The
preparation of these types of maps necessitate calculation of
surface spectral acceleration percentiles, whereby, As, Bs and Cs,
indicating regions with higher 33%, medium 34% and lower 33% of
spectral accelerations, respectively.
Final mapping in terms of ground shaking should be prepared
by combining the maximum surface spectral acceleration values
obtained using site response analyses and the peak spectral
amplifications obtained from equivalent shear wave velocity
values. Entire adopted procedure is given in Table 2. In mapping
with respect to ground shaking, AGS shows the areas which prone
to high ground shaking, whereas BGS and CGS shows the areas
prone to relatively medium and low ground shaking, respectively.
2.50
Surface spectral acceleration (g)
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
0.01
0.0 0.10
0.1
Period (sec)
Fig. 10. Exemplary surface spectral acceleration–period relationships belonging to
various Districts of the investigation area.
Table 2
Definitions of zones used in zonation with respect
to ground shaking [27].
Zone Combinations
AGS ðAS \ AV Þ [ ðAS \ BV Þ [ ðBS \ AV Þ
BGS ðAS \ C V Þ [ ðC S \ AV Þ [ ðBS \ BV Þ
CGS ðBS \ C V Þ [ ðC S \ BV Þ [ ðC S \ C V Þ
S. Altun et al. / Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 39 (2012) 37–49
The data in each cell was evaluated by use of the logic in Table 2,
and final ground shaking maps are prepared.
5. Evaluation of the results
A preliminary investigation on Northern Coasts of _Izmir con-
cerning the Kars- ıyaka and partially Bayraklı municipality
employed, and the results are evaluated. The area attracts atten-
tion with the high underground water level, the alluviums
accumulated by Gediz River, high seismic risk and liquefaction
tendency, which are inferred from accomplished borings. In this
manner, the area is separated into cells of 250 m in dimension. It
was aimed to represent every cell by different soil profiles, which
ð3Þ are the outcomes of boring logs. Idealized soil profiles and
introduction of these profiles to EERA software led to acquirement
of information regarding to average shear wave velocity, soil
classes in accordance with NEHRP provisions. Dynamic site
response analyses are employed on various cells to question the
soil behavior under seismic action, which is stipulated to occur on
Izmir fault.
The variation of the peak spectral amplification values is given
in Fig. 11a. Regarding the distribution of the amplification factors
in the map, it can be stated that majority of the area comprising
the C- iğli, Mavis- ehir Districts as well as the Atatürk Industrial
Zone, namely the ‘‘AV’’ area, possess high amplification factors
belonging to soil stratifications which may cause great amount of
damage. Calculated Ak values circumscribed by majority of the
Bostanlı District and a small part of S- emikler District lie in the
middle 34 percentile of the spectral amplification range. Aksoy,
Donanmacı, Nergis, Yalı, and Bahc-elievler Districts cover both BV
and AV areas. Under Soğukkuyu and Gümüs- pala Districts, domi-
nant character of soils is (BV). It was previously mentioned that a
number of points were included outside the demonstrated inves-
tigation area for interpolation purposes. The ‘‘Cv’’ areas are
designated in the excluded northern part of the investigation
area, namely Örnekköy and Cumhuriyet Districts beyond cells
A26 and A27. On the other hand, this type of classification is not
the sole indicator of the expected earthquake induced damage in
the region; it should be combined with ground response out-
comes. In fact, neither amplification values denoted by Cv area
B16
B107 should be referred as ‘‘low’’ values, nor Cv means the area is under
the threat of low seismic hazard. Cv value is only the lower
B204
B296 percentile of Ak value, which produced Ak values ranging between
1.62 and 2.18, whereas this value increases up to 3.32 in the
upper 33 percentile. Besides, these parameters are not the sole
indicator of structural damage. The data belonging to building
stock of Izmir should be unified with the outcomes of this study.
In addition, Fig. 11b demonstrates the variation of peak spectral
acceleration values in the investigation area. Calculated surface
spectral accelerations in the area ascend to 2.93 g, and the
observed lowest value is 0.66 g. Analyzing the map, it is seen
1.00
1.0 10.00
10.0
that majority of Bostanlı and Mavis- ehir Districts are in C S
category. In G ümüs- pala and Bahc- elievler Districts, AS seems
dominant. The mapping with respect to maximum spectral
accelerations in Nergis, Yalı and Soğukkuyu Districts indicate a
dominant character of BS category. Moreover, small circumscribed
areas Beyond Soğukkuyu and S- emikler Districts are in CS category.
Final mapping in terms of ground shaking is given in Fig. 12.
Analyzing the Figure, it is understood that majority of Mavis- ehir,
Bostanlı, S- emikler, Yalı, Nergis and Bahc- elievler Districts are
under high ground shaking risk (AGS). Additionally, individual
areas in the shoreline to Aegean Sea (Izmir Gulf) are under the
threat of relatively medium to low ground shaking risk. Part of
Bostanlı and Soğukkuyu and majority of Aksoy, Donanmacı, Bahc-
elievler and Gümüs- pala Districts possess high ground shaking
 S. Altun et al. / Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 39 (2012) 37–49 47

Fig. 11. Microzonation map of Northern Shores of _Izmir with respect to (a) maximum spectral amplifications (b) maximum surface spectral accelerations.

Fig. 12. Microzonation map of Northern Shores of _Izmir with respect to ground shaking.

risk, which are shown as AGS. Small areas of relatively low ground
shaking risk (CGS) are observed in Donanmacı, Yalı and Aksoy
Districts, however, CGS areas dominantly exist in the excluded
northern parts of the map, which data indicated herein was used
for interpolation purposes.
6. Conclusions
A microzonation study was carried out to assess the earthquake
hazard incorporating the geotechnical site conditions in Kars- ıyaka
and partially Bayraklı Municipalities of Izmir, which inhabit a
population of more than 300.000 people. After investigation of the
geologic properties of the soils in the region, the earthquake source
location, the rupture properties are determined, and a scenario
earthquake code is constituted to make analyses and necessary
assessments. Evaluation of the geotechnical knowledge in the area
necessitated constitution of a grid of 250 m cell dimension, and it
was aimed to represent every cell by a representative soil profile.
Soil class with respect to NEHRP provisions and equivalent shear
wave velocities are determined and evaluated for a better assess-
ment of the geotechnical properties of the soils in region. NEHRP soil
48 S. Altun et al. / Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 39 (2012) 37–49
classes are dominantly Class D in the region, where area of E-F class
soils should not be disregarded. The one dimensional dynamic site
response analyses are conducted and microzonation maps in terms
of maximum surface ground acceleration, amplification factor as
well as the ground shaking intensity were prepared and distribution
of the seismic hazard and its aspects are discussed. Primarily
focusing on the high residential areas, it should be stressed that
Mavis- ehir, Bahc- elievler, Nergis and Aksoy and Bostanlı Districts are
under high seismic risk, stemming from the properties of the
underlying soils, bedrock level, underground water table level and
certainly, proximity to the probable seismic source. The hazard
threat seems to diminish as we proceed to north, namely Örnekköy
and Cumhuriyet districts. Besides, highly residential shorelines are
under relatively medium seismic threat. Although majority of the
investigation area is highly residential, the ground shaking map can
be taken as a supplementary guide in urban renewal planning of the
area. The results of this study should be broadened by additional soil
investigations to better visualize the seismic threat in the area.
Acknowledgements
The contributions of Ege University Research Funds, TUB€ _ITAK
and EB_ILTEM with projects 2004-MUH-028, 105-M-336 and
2007-BIL-023 are highly appreciated. The authors are also thank-
ful to Ege Temel Sondajcılık, ZETAS and ZEMSON for sharing the
field exploration results with us. Geological overview of Izmir city
is supported by contributions of Yalc- ın Koca and Cem Kıncal from
Dokuz Eylül University, which deserve authors’ gratitude. The
authors would like to thank Prof. Ellen Rathje from University
of Texas at Austin for her help in constitution of stochastically
simulated ground motions. Lastly, the authors would like to thank
chief editor Mustafa Erdik and an anonymous referee for their
valuable comments and contributions.
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