COMPUTER ORGANIZATION AND ARCHITECTURE

INDIVIDUAL ASSIGNMENT

NAME ID

MOHAMMED TUAHIR 2050/13

SUBMITTED TO:-MR. ASEDO S.

SUBMITTED DATE:-21/07/2022
Table of Contents
1.RAID TECHNOLOGY..................................................................................................................................ii

1.1 LEVEL OF RAID...................................................................................................................................2

1.2 TYPE OF RAID....................................................................................................................................4

2.MULTIPROCESSOR...................................................................................................................................6

3. INTERCONNECTION STRUCTION OF MULTIPROCESSORS.......................................................................7

3.1 TIME SHARED COMMON BUS...........................................................................................................8

3.2MULTIPLE PORT MEMORY.................................................................................................................9

3.3 CROSSBAR SWITCH.........................................................................................................................10

3.4 HYPERCUBE INTERCONNECTION....................................................................................................10

4.LEAST RECENTLY USED(LRU)..................................................................................................................11

4.1 Characteristics of LRU.....................................................................................................................11

[i]
Figure 1 TIME SHARED COMMON BUS........................................................................................................9
Figure 2 MULTIPLE PORT MEMORY.............................................................................................................9
Figure 3 CROSSBAR SWITCH......................................................................................................................10
Figure 4 HYPERCUBE INTERCONNECTION.................................................................................................11

[ii]
1.RAID TECHNOLOGY
• RAID stands for Redundant Array of Inexpensive (or sometimes
"Independent") Disks.

• RAID is a method of combining several hard disk drives into one

logical unit (two or more disks grouped together to appear as a
single device to the host system).

• RAID technology was developed to address the fault-tolerance and

performance limitations of conventional disk storage.

• It can offer fault tolerance and higher throughput levels than a

single hard drive or group of independent hard drives. While arrays
were once considered complex and relatively specialized storage
solutions,

• today they are easy to use and essential for a broad spectrum of
client/server applications.

• There are several different RAID "levels" or redundancy schemes,

each with inherent cost, performance, and availability (fault-
tolerance) characteristics designed to meet different storage needs.

• No individual RAID level is inherently superior to any other. Each

of the five array architectures is well-suited for certain types of
applications and computing environments.

1
 • For client/server applications, storage systems based on RAID
levels 1, 0/1, and 5 have been the most widely used.

• RAID devices use different versions, called levels. The original

paper that coined the term and developed the RAID setup concept
defined six levels of RAID -- 0 through 5.

• This numbered system enabled those in IT to differentiate RAID

versions.

• The number of levels has since expanded and has been broken into
three categories: standard, nested and nonstandard RAID levels.

1.1 LEVEL OF RAID

RAID 0
• Data striping without redundancy (no protection).
• Minimum number of drives: 2
• Strengths: Highest performance.
• Weaknesses: No data protection; One drive fails, all data is lost.
RAID 1
• Disk mirroring.
 Minimum number of drives: 2
 Strengths: Very high performance; Very high data protection;
Very minimal penalty on write performance.

2
• Weaknesses: High redundancy cost overhead; Because all data is
duplicated, twice the storage capacity is required.
RAID 2
• No practical use.
 Minimum number of drives: Not used in LAN
 Strengths: Previously used for RAM error environments
correction (known as Hamming Code ) and in disk drives before he
use of embedded error correction.
 Weaknesses: No practical use; Same performance can be achieved
by RAID 3 at lower cost.
RAID 3
• Byte-level data striping with dedicated parity drive.
 Minimum number of drives: 3
 Strengths: Excellent performance for large, sequential data
requests.
 Weaknesses: Not well-suited for transaction-oriented network
applications; Single parity drive does not support multiple,
simultaneous read and write requests.
RAID 4
• Block-level data striping with dedicated parity drive.
 Minimum number of drives: 3 (Not widely used)
 Strengths: Data striping supports multiple simultaneous read
requests.

3
  Weaknesses: Write requests suffer from same single parity-drive
bottleneck as RAID 3; RAID 5 offers equal data protection and
better performance at same cost.

RAID 5
• Block-level data striping with distributed parity.
 Minimum number of drives: 3
 Strengths: Best cost/performance for transaction-oriented
networks; Very high performance, very high data protection;
Supports multiple simultaneous reads and writes; Can also be
optimized for large, sequential requests.
 Weakness: Write performance is slower than RAID 0 or RAID 1.

1.2 TYPE OF RAID

Software RAID
• Software RAID is an included option in all of Steadfast’s
dedicated servers. This means there is NO cost for software
RAID 1, and is highly recommended if you’re using local
storage on a system. It is highly recommended that drives in a
RAID array be of the same type and size.

4
 • Software-based RAID will leverage some of the system’s
computing power to manage the RAID configuration. If you’re
looking to maximize performance of a system, such with a
RAID 5 or 6 configuration, it’s best to use a hardware-based
RAID card when you’re using standard HDDs.

 Hardware RAID
• Hardware-based RAID requires a dedicated controller installed in
the server. Steadfast engineers will be happy to provide you with
recommendations regarding which hardware RAID care is best for
you that is based on what RAID configuration you want to have. A
hardware based RAID card does all the management of the RAID
array(s), providing logical disks to the system with no overheard
on the part of the system itself. Additionally, hardware RAID can
provide many different types of RAID configurations
simultaneously to the system. This includes providing a RAID 1
array for the boot and application drive and a RAID-5 array for the
large storage array.

5
2.MULTIPROCESSOR
• A multiprocessor is a computer system with two or more central
processing units (CPUs), with each one sharing the common main
memory as well as the peripherals. This helps in simultaneous
processing of programs.
• The key objective of using a multiprocessor is to boost the
system’s execution speed, with other objectives being fault
tolerance and application matching.
• A good illustration of a multiprocessor is a single central tower
attached to two computer systems. A multiprocessor is regarded as
a means to improve computing speeds, performance and cost-
effectiveness, as well as to provide enhanced availability and
reliability.
• In multiprocessing, all CPUs may have equal functions or some
may be reserved for specific functions.
• Different ways of using a multiprocessor include:
 As a uniprocessor, such as single instruction, single data (SISD)
 Inside a single system for executing multiple, individual series of
instructions in multiple perspectives, such as multiple instruction,
multiple data (MIMD).
 A single series of instructions in various perspectives, such as
single instruction, multiple data (SIMD), which is usually used for
vector processing.

6
  Multiple series of instructions in a single perspective, such as
multiple instruction, single data (MISD), which is used for
redundancy in failsafe systems and, occasionally, for describing
hyper-threading or pipelined processors.

• Benefits of using a multiprocessor include:

1.Enhanced performance

2.Multiple applications

3,Multiple users
4.Multi-tasking inside an application
5.High throughput and/or responsiveness
6.Hardware sharing among CPUs

3. INTERCONNECTION STRUCTION OF MULTIPROCESSORS

• The important characteristics of processor used in multiprocessor

system is its ability to share a set of main memory module and
possibly input output device

7
 • the component can have different physical configuration
depending on the number of transfer paths that are available The
component that form multiprocessor system are cpu, iop connected
to unput output devices and memory unit that may be patronized
into a number of separate module
• The interconnection between the processer and memory in a shared
memory system or among processing elements in a loosely
coupled system

• There a several physical forms available for establishing an

interconnection network Some of these are:-
1.time shared common bus
2.multiple port memory
3.crossbar switch
4.hypercube interconnection

3.1 TIME SHARED COMMON BUS

• In a multiprocessor system, the time shared bus interconnection
provides a common communication path connecting all the
functional units like processor, I/O processor, memory unit etc.
The figure below shows the multiple processors with common
communication path (single bus).

8
 Figure 1 TIME SHARED COMMON BUS

3.2MULTIPLE PORT MEMORY

• In Multiport Memory system, the control, switching &
priority arbitration logic are distributed throughout the crossbar
switch matrix which is distributed at the interfaces to the memory
modules.

Figure 2 MULTIPLE PORT MEMORY

9
3.3 CROSSBAR SWITCH
• A point is reached at which there is a separate path available
for each memory module, if the number of buses in common bus
system is increased. Crossbar Switch (for multiprocessors)
provides separate path from each module.

Figure 3 CROSSBAR SWITCH

3.4 HYPERCUBE INTERCONNECTION

• This is a binary n-cube architecture. Here we can connect 2n
processors and each of the processor here forms a node of the
cube.  A node can be memory module, I/O interface also, not
necessarily processor. The processor at a node has communication
path that is direct goes to n other nodes (total 2n nodes).

10
 • There are total 2n distinct n-bit binary addresses.

Figure 4 HYPERCUBE INTERCONNECTION

4.LEAST RECENTLY USED(LRU)

• (operating systems) (LRU) A rule used in a paging system
which selects a page to be paged out if it has been used
(read or written) less recently than any other page. The same
rule may also be used in a cache to select which cache entry
to flush.

This rule is based on temporal locality - the observation
that, in general, the page (or cache entry) which has not been
accessed for longest is least likely to be accessed in the near future.

4.1 Characteristics of LRU

 It has been observed that pages that have been recently heavily
used will probably also be heavily used in the upcoming
instructions and this forms the basis for LRU.

11
 When the page requested by the program is not present in the
RAM, page fault occurs and then if the page frame is full then we
have to remove the page that has not been in use for the longest
period of time.

• Can be implemented easily in a 2-way set associative mapping in

which each line includes a USE bit. The USE bit of the referenced
line is set to 1 and that of the other line is set to 0. When the set is
full, we consider that block for replacement whose USE bit is zero.

Advantages of LRU

 Unlike FIFO, LRU does not suffer from Belady’s Anomaly.

 It gives less number of page faults than any other algorithm other
than optimal and as optimal algorithm cannot be implemented in
real-life LRU is the most frequently used algorithm.

 LRU algorithm is very efficient.

Disadvantages of LRU

 There is more overhead as we have to keep track of which pages

were referenced.

 It is difficult to implement as hardware assistance is require

12