1

Universities and Colleges

Going to University in Britain
After school many British students go to university. They apply to several
universities through UCAS (Universities and Colleges Admission Service)
and receive offers of a place on condition that they achieve certain grades in
their A levels.
Most universities receive some money from the state. The oldest and most
famous are ‘Oxford and ‘Cambridge. Other much respected universities
include London, Durham and St Andrew’s. Some universities such as
Birmingham and Manchester are called redbrick universities because they
were built in the 19th century with brick rather than stone. The newer
universities have their buildings grouped together on a campus.
A first degree, which is usually an honours degree, generally takes three
years. Most courses end with exams called finals. Results are given as classes
(= grades): a first is the highest class, seconds are often split between upper
second and lower second, and below that is a third. Graduates may add the
letters BA (Bachelor of Arts) or BSc (Bachelor of Science) after their name.
Some graduates go on to study for a further degree, often a master’s degree
or a doctorate.
Students in Britain formerly had their tuition fees paid by the state and
received a government grant to help pay their living expenses. Now, they
receive only a loan towards their expenses, and most have to pay L1 000 a
year towards tuition fees. The new arrangements have caused a great deal
of concern both among students and among members of the public who
believes that education should be free.
Oxford Guide to British and American Culture, p. 557
Ask questions to get the answers underlined in the text above.
1. ?
2. ?
3. ?
4. ?
5. ?
6. ?
7. ?
8. ?
9. ?
10. ?
Going to college in the US
Americans talk about ‘going to college’ even if the institution they attend is a
university. To Americans the phrase ‘going to university’ sounds pretentious.
Most colleges offer classes only for undergraduate students studying for a
bachelor’s degree. ‘Community colleges offer two-year courses leading to an
associate’s degree, and afterwards students transfer to a different college or
university to continue their studies
American high school students who want to study at a college or university
have to take a standardized test, e.g. the ‘SAT (Scholastic Aptitude Test) or the
‘ACT (American College Test). Students from countries outside the US who
are not native speakers of English must also take the ‘TOEFL (Test of English
as a Foreign Language). Each college has its own application form and most
include a question for which the student must write an essay. The student also
 2

has to send a transcript (= an official list of all the subjects studied and the
grades received) and letters of reference.
There are many private colleges and universities but most students choose a
public institution because the costs are lower. All universities charge tuition,
and students pay extra for room and board. Prices range from a few hundred
dollars a year to well over $25 000 at some private colleges. Students whose
families cannot afford to pay the full amount apply for financial aid. Many
students receive a financial aid package which may be a combination of grants
Education | 67
from the government, a scholarship, a student loan and work-study (= a parttime
job at the college).
The most famous universities are those in the ‘Ivy League, including ‘Harvard
and ‘Yale, but many others have good reputation.
Oxford Guide to British and American Culture, p. 557
Academic focus
Compare and contrast higher education in your country, the USA and
Britain in terms of the following:
Duration of studies
Degrees obtained
Tuition fees
Financial aid
Tests to be taken
Use the following:
• adjectives (e.g. higher than, the highest, more/less expensive,
as.. .as, similar to, different from, the same)
• verbs (differ from, vary)
• nouns (difference/similarity between)
• prepositions (like, unlike)
• phrases (similarly, in contrast to/with, contrary to, on the one/
other hand, the same as, both ... and. )
• adverbs (similarly, likewise)
• subordinators (whereas, while, even though, although, whilst)

Grammar in context
Relative clauses/pronouns
Study the following relative clauses and decide whether commas can be
used before the relative pronouns. If they can, how would that affect the
meaning? Can that be used instead of who or which?
1. American high school students who want to study at a college
or university have to take a standardized test, e.g. the SAT.
2. Students from countries outside the US who are not native
speakers of English must also take the TOEFL.
3. Each college has its own application form and most include a question
for which the student must write an essay.
4. Students whose families cannot afford to pay the full amount
apply for financial aid.
5. Many students receive a financial aid package which may be
a combination of grants from the government.
 3

Teaching and learning

Supply the missing relative pronoun – who or which.
The US academic year may be divided into two semesters of about 15 weeks or three
quarters of about 10 weeks each. Students take courses in a variety of subjects, regardless
of their main subject, because the aim of the liberal arts curriculum is to produce well-
rounded people with good critical skills. At
the end of their sophomore (= second) year students choose a major (= main
subject) and sometimes a minor (= additional subject).................they study
for the next two years. Students take four or five courses each semester from
the course catalog. Courses may consist mainly of lectures or may include
discussion sections or lab sessions.
Students are given grades at the end of each course. The highest grade is A;
the lowest is F,................means that the student has failed the course and will
not get credit for taking it. To check a student’s overall progress, the university
calculates a ‘grade point average (GPA). Students.................finish their degree
with a high GPA may be awarded Latin honours, of...................the highest is
*summa cum laude.
At most British universities the academic year is divided into three terms.
Students study a main subject throughout their degree course,...................is
usually a mix of compulsory courses and electives. Teaching methods vary
between universities. Most students have lectures and seminars (= discussion
groups) and there are practicals for those doing a science subject. At some
universities students have individual tutorials or supervisions.
In Britain a professor is the person in charge of a department or a senior
member of staff. Other teaching and research staff are called lecturers. Junior
academic staff may be called research associates. In the US most people
.................. teach at colleges or universities and have a doctorate are addressed
as professor. Full professors are senior to associate professors, assistant
professors and instructors.
Oxford Guide to British and American Culture, p. 557

Vocabulary and language in use

I In the texts above find words related to the following categories:
Academic institutions –
Degrees/grades/levels of study –
Academic year –
Courses/subjects –
Payment –
Teaching methods –
Teaching staff –
 4

II Think of one word that collocates with all words from a given group.
• full-time part-time; first-year; second-year; graduate; undergraduate;
postgraduate; doctoral; MA
+
• to read at; to attend, to go to; to study at/ apply for/to enroll at; to enter;
to finish; to graduate from; to leave
+
•
+ lecturer; professor; staff; teacher
• to undertake; to pursue; to continue; to finish; to major in a particular
+
• compulsory; core; main; additional; optional; subsidiary; specialist
+
• to attend; to go to; to take; to conduct; to teach; to give; to dismiss; to
skip (inf.)
+
• entrance; matriculation; placement; end of term(year); final; mock; oral;
written; practical; viva voce
prepare for; revise for; study for; to study hard=to cram for to swot for (inf.); to
do; to sit; to take; to resit; to retake; to do well in; to pass (with flying colours);
to scrape through; to do badly (in); to fail; to flunk (inf.); to mark; to invigilate
+
•
+ practice; preparation; revision; paper; question; marks; results; to suffer
from ... nerves

Academic focus
Compare and contrast
Compare teaching and learning at US and British universities using the
prompts below:
ACADEMIC YEAR – US
• 2 SEMESTERS (15 weeks) / three quarters (10 weeks)
• 5 COURSES EACH SEMESTER (major/minor)
• (lectures, discussion sections, lab sessions)
• GRADES A-F (GPA)
=====================================================
ACADEMIC YEAR – BRITAIN
• 3 TERMS
• DEGREE COURSE (main subject – compulsory and elective
courses)
• (lectures and seminars, practicals, individual tutorials, supervisions)
 5

Grammar in context
Relative pronouns/clauses
Study the use of which in the following sentences. Why is a comma used in
sentences 2, 3 and 4?
1. At the end of their sophomore year students choose a major and
sometimes a minor which they study for the next two years.
Education | 71
2. The highest grade is A; the lowest is F, which means that the student
has failed the course.
3. Students study a main subject throughout their degree course, which
is usually a mix of compulsory courses and electives.
4. Students may be awarded Latin honours, of which the highest is
*summa cum laude.

Academic focus
E-mail/letter writing: formal inquiry/request
Write a short letter to a university asking them to give you information
about your eligibility for the studies in question, entry requirements (e.g.
exam), tuition fees and your chances to get a loan or scholarship. Use the
following pattern:
OPENING
Dear Sir/Sirs/Madam/Ms B./Mr S./To Whom it May Concern
THE REASON YOUR ARE WRITING/ THE PURPOSE OF YOUR LETTER
(to ask, to enquire, to request)
I am interested in/ I am writing to...; I would appreciate if
you could send me more information on (1,2,3) ...
FINAL PARAGRAPH/CONCLUDING
I can be contacted at...; /Please, do not hesitate to contact
me, if...; / I hope to hear from you soon; /Thanking you in
advance ...
CLOSING
Sincerely yours/Best regards

Whorf ’s Hypothesis and the Problem of Translation

Gapped text. Supply the missing prepositions.
1 (...)Whorf developed an hypothesis on the relationship..........language
and the non-linguistic world which has enjoyed great influence in
 6

anthropology. Whorf ’s teacher in linguistic anthropology, Edward Sapir,

played a part.......the development of the idea, and the hypothesis is
5 sometimes named the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis (. ). It postulates that there
is an intimate connection.......the categories and structure of a language
and the ways.......which humans are able to experience the world. Whorf
paid special attention........the language of the Hopis, which was almost
without nouns as we know them and which also lacked the standard verb
10 conjugations common.......Indo-European languages. Since the language
of the Hopis had these peculiar characteristics, Whorf argued, they
would experience the world ...... a fundamentally different way........the
descendants of European settlers in North America, who had brought
their languages and grammars........the continent. The language of the
15 Hopis was process-oriented and focused........movement, whereas English
and other European languages were oriented ....... things and nouns .......
general.
Whorf argued that there was an intrinsic connection........the lifeworld of a
people and its language; that every people will develop the linguistic tools
20 it needs to solve tasks perceived as necessary, and that the language of
a people will therefore be a significant source of knowledge about their
mode of thought, their cosmology and their everyday life.
An immediate implication........Whorf ’s hypothesis is the problem of
crosscultural translation, one........the perennial problems of anthropology.
25 Is it necessarily possible to translate, say, the life-world and culture of the
Azande........English? Or could it rather be that their form of life is so
closely connected........the Zande language that such a project is doomed
to fail – because we will always be forced to interpret them........our own
terms, and not ....... theirs, when we try to describe them........a language
30 other than their own? Whorf himself did not hesitate to describe the
differences ....... the Hopi language and English........comparative, or ‘etic’,
terms, and.......practice he thus carried out cultural translation. Such
translations are necessary........anthropology to be possible, but they are
not unproblematic.
Eriksen, T. H., Small Places, Large Issues, pp. 239–240
https://urbablife.files.wordpress.com/2017/05/thomas_hylland_eriksen_small
_ places_large_issuebookfi-org.pdf
Reading comprehension
1. Why is the hypothesis on the relationship between language and the
non-linguistic world sometimes called the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis?
2. Which sentence best summarizes the main point in the first
paragraph?
3. In what way did the language of the Hopis differ from the language of
the descendants of European settlers in North America?
4. Which sentence best summarizes the main point in the second
paragraph?
5. Why is the problem of crosscultural translation one of the perennial
problems in anthropology?
Vocabulary and language in use
I Supply the missing noun, verb and adjective forms (if they exist) and use
the appropriate form in the sentences below.
NOUN VERB ADJECTIVE
category
 7

structure
experience
conjugation
influence
standard
argue
descendant
perceive
implication
necessary
1. Languages are usually............................................according to ancestry.
2. He subtly............................................that race was an issue in the case.
3. New achievement tests............................................a curriculum change.
4. The book explores the changing...........................................s about
gender.
5. You essay needs ........................................... .
6. He possesses the kind of............................................knowledge that is
gained only from a long and eventful life.
7. How is this verb...........................................?
8. That is an............................................point of view.
9. He claims to be............................................from a Spanish prince.
10. Language............................................is the process by which
conventional forms of a language are established and maintained.
11. It is considered to be one of the most.........................................books of
the era.
II Use the following words with the words below to form collocations:
intrinsic/intimate, solve, source of, mode of, develop, perennial, immediate,
doomed, closely, pay, peculiar, play, fundamentally.
Language and Identities | 87
1. connection
2. tools
3. tasks
4. different
5. thought
6. knowledge
7. to fail
8. connected
9. implication
10. problems
11. attention
12. a part
13. characteristics
III Use the following verbs with the objects below: interpret, enjoy, lack,
perceive, carry out.
1. difference/world/reality/need/danger
2. data/dream/role/result/text/meaning/
symbol
3. action/analysis/assessment/plan/
project task/wish/murder
4. freedom/experience/life/popularity
autonomy/reputation/time
5. ambition/authority/competence/depth
 8

education/experience/inspiration
maturity self-confidence/motivation
IV Use the following verbs in the sentences below: hesitate, postulate, be
named, argue, be perceived.
1. She.................................for a moment, before saying ‘yes’.
2. The General’s words......................................as a threat to countries in
the region.
3. The hospital.......................................in honour of its principle
benefactor.
4. In her paper she goes on.................................that scientists do not yet
know enough about the nature of the disease.
5. Ptolemy..................................that the Earth was at the centre of the
Universe.
Academic focus
Cohesion: Links.
a) Below find synonymous words/phrases for the following linking
words and decide whether they have been used for exemplifying,
reformulating/clarifying or expressing addition, contrast, result: also
(9), whereas (15), therefore (21), say (25), rather (26)
• In addition –
• While –
• Thus –
• In other words –
• For example –
b) In each of the following sentences, identify a link that cannot be used
in the given context, and then think of a sentence where it could be
used correctly.
1.
While/whereas/on the other hand English has just five vowel sounds,
some languages have 30 or more.
2.
a. I think, therefore/thus I am.
b. I am cold so/thus I‘ll put my coat on.
c. Sales shrank and the competition was increasing. Therefore/
consequently/thus/so, the company decided to leave the market.
3.
a. He has another appointment on Thursday. In other words/rather, I
don’t think he’ll be attending your gathering.
b. We studied the cat family, rather/namely, lions, tigers, and related
animals.
c. It was my father whose firm I have taken over, or rather/in other
words my stepfather.
4.
a. There is a similar word in many languages, for example/say in French
and Italian.
b. Children should eat less junk food. For example/such as, they should
avoid eating burgers and chips.
c. Children should avoid eating junk food such as/for example burgers
and chips.
5.
In addition/also/as well, more than one billion of the world’s seven billion
 9

people visited a country other than their own in 2011.

Grammar in context
Reported speech. What did Whorf argue/claim?

English language is changing faster than ever, research reveals

01 May 2015
The English language is evolving faster than ever – leaving older
Brits literally lost for words, research has revealed.
A detailed study has identified the social media language and mobile
messaging terms that perplex millions of parents and which point to a future
where emoticons may replace the written word.
The results of the study point to a seismic generational gap in how we use
and understand modern informal text speak while also suggesting older style
abbreviations and acronyms such as TXT are now so old they are considered
antiquated by the younger generation.
The poll found that 86 per cent of all British parents think teenagers speak an
entirely different language on social media and mobile messaging.
The study also reveals the top ten now outdated text, social media and instant
messaging which the under 16 generation would now consider outdated
(e.g. TXT-Text, GR8-great, BRB-be right back, ROFL-rolling on the floor
laughing, GTG-got to go, M8-mate).
The poll found that 80 per cent of British parents believe that text speak
has changed over time with a few terms such as LOL and OMG crossing
generations to stand the test of time.
John Sutherland, Lord Northcliffe Professor Emeritus of Modern English
Literature at University College London, said: “The Samsung Galaxy S6
Evolution of Text study provides us with a fascinating overview of how our
informal language has evolved over the last 25 years and points to a future
where we will see pictorial messaging in the ascendant.”
The top ten new forms of social media and instant messaging terms which
parents do not understand:
90 | ENGLISH A PATHWAY TO ANTHROPOLOGY AND HISTORY STUDIES
TEXT SPEAK MEANING
Fleek (43%) Looking good
FOMO (40%) Fear of missing out
Bae (40%) A term of affection
ICYMI (37%) In case you missed it
Deadout (36%) Rubbish or tired
TBT (36%) Throwback Thursday
LMK (36%) Let me know
RN (35%) Right now
Thirsty (35%) Looking for attention
NSFW (34%) Not safe for work
The limitation of characters on old handsets were a key factor in the rise of
acronyms in text messaging such as TXT, GR8 and M8.
However, technological evolution has meant that these words are now effectively
extinct from the text speak language and are seen as ‘antique text speak’.[...]
“In fact we are moving to a more pictographic form of communication with
 10

the increasing popularity of emoticons. This harks back to a caveman-form

of communication where a single picture can convey a full range of messages
and emotions.”
The study supports this theory revealing that four in 10 parents are already
using emoticons to communicate in social media and mobile messaging.
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/howaboutthat/11574196/newforms
- of-social-media-terms-which-parents-do-not-understand.html
Reading comprehension.
1. How do older Brits feel about the speed of the development of the
English language?
2. Is the generational gap in using and understanding modern informal
text speak getting wider or smaller?
3. What is considered to be ‘antique text speech’?
4. Which ‘older’ text abbreviations are still in use?
5. What do the following numbers, which were mentioned in the text,
refer to: 80, 16, 25, 36, 10?
Vocabulary and language in use
I Supply the missing noun, verb and adjective forms (if they exist) and use
the appropriate form in the sentences below.
NOUN VERB ADJECTIVE
to evolve
to identify
antique
social
to consider
to believe
fascinating
popularity
to reveal
II Explain the meaning of the following phrases and use them in the
sentences below (one in each pair of sentences): to be lost for words, to
stand the test of time, to be in the ascendant.
1.
a. With e-commerce.................................., nearly everyone else in retail
has been struggling to survive.
b. Opposition parties, meantime, see their popularity as being ................
.................. .
2.
a. She was..................................when she was awarded the prize.
b. He was gaping at it, .................................. .
3.
a. Great art can .................................. .
b. Friendships that..................................are so valuable.
III Use the following words with the words below to form collocations:
outdated, soaring/increasing, key, instant, full, to convey.
1. equipment/idea/system/term
2. advantage/point/word/ role/step/witness/
factor
3. popularity/price/profit/productivity/demand
4. access/coffee/dislike/message/solution/
success/wealth
 11

5. idea/feeling/condolences/message/meaning/
information
6. answer/awareness/fee/freedom/support/
season/range
IV Decide whether the following abbreviations are acronyms or initials:
BBC, AIDS, FBI, OPEC, HTML, WASP, DVD, Radar, BTW, Scuba.
Acronyms Initials
e.g. NATO e.g. USA
Academic focus
Reporting results. Study the underlined parts of the sentences in the above
article and use some of the collocations below to rephrase them.
modifier/adjective poll/study/
research
verb object
latest
recent
poll confirm, say, indicate,
reveal, show, suggest
something
that...
careful, detailed,
in-depth, meticulous
thorough, considerable,
extensive
latest, new, recent,
current, present
existing, further, ongoing
research
(in/into/on)
something
demonstrate, identify,
indicate, reveal
support, show, suggest
examine, explore, focus
on, involve
reveal, show, suggest
something
that...
current, new, present,
earlier, original, previous
careful, close, detailed,
in-depth, comprehensive
study
(into/on
something)
covers, deal with,
examine, explore, focus
on, look at
conclude, confirm
demonstrate, document,
find, indicate, prove, say,
report, reveal, show,
suggest
something
or
 12

somebody carry out/conduct poll/study/research

Grammar in context
Quantifiers
Use few, a few, little or a little in the following sentences:
1. Jane said nothing, but she drank some tea and ate................bread.
2. We stayed................days in Paris and Florence and managed to visit
four museums.
3. We aren’t very happy about it but I suppose we have................choice.
4.cities anywhere in Europe can match the cultural richness of
Rome.
5. At that time..............people travelled.
6. After that, she began to tell them................about her life in Poland.
7. Don’t take all the cherries. Just have ................ .
8. Let’s go to the theatre. I have................money.
9. I’m sorry, I can’t pay for your lunch. I have.................money.
10. He is always angry. That’s why he has................friends.
11. Please, don’t drink all the wine. There’s................left.
12. Your house is almost empty! You have...............furniture.

Sadness, anger and fear: how Nice is responding

to the burkini ban
The beach has become an ideological battleground amid
simmering tensions following the Bastille Day terrorist attack
Gapped text. Supply the right forms of the verbs in brackets.
Just after 8am, the sun ............... already......................(to beat) down on Nice’s
Carras beach and Dalila, a French pensioner,.................................(to tread)
water in the sea in her pink and purple floral burkini. “I............................(to
spend) a long time in the water every morning, to ease the pain from the
arthritis in my hands and feet,” she said. “A dip in the sea ..........................
(to soothe) the aches and...........................(to make) all the difference to my
health.”
But since last week, Dalila...............................................(to try) to arrive
at the beach much earlier – 6am, if she can – before the municipal
police..........................(to begin) their patrols.
Nice, on the French Riviera, last week...........................(to become) the latest
of around 30 coastal areas in France to ban the burkini, a full-body swimsuit,
94 | ENGLISH A PATHWAY TO ANTHROPOLOGY AND HISTORY STUDIES
citing a risk to public order. The city ....... still...........................(to reel) from a
terrorist attack in July, in which 86 people...................................(to kill) when
a truck .......................... (to plough) into crowds...........................(to watch)
fireworks on Bastille Day.
Controversy over the anti-burkini decrees....................................(to intensify)
this week after a woman in a headscarf on a Nice beach...................................(to
photograph) .......................... (to remove) her long-sleeved top ........................
(to surround) by armed police. A woman in Cannes...........................(to
complain) she was stopped by police for simply wearing a headscarf and
loose, long clothing while........................(to stand) on a beach.
On Friday afternoon, France’s highest administrative court...........................(to
 13

suspend) a burkini ban in the Côte d’Azur town of Villeneuve-Loubet. This

will set a precedent for the other beach-spots, mostly on the Côte d’Azur,
where local mayors ....... controversially........................(to issue) decrees
against full-body swimsuits. Those mayors ...... now.......................(to have/ to
decide) whether to withdraw the decrees, or keep their bans in place and face
further legal action from human rights groups.
The row....................................(to cause) political divisions in France, with the
Socialist prime minister, Manuel Valls,...........................(to support) the bans
and his education minister, NajatVallaud-Belkacem,...........................(to say)
they were “letting loose” racist rhetoric.
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/aug/26/nice-france-burkini-
banresponse- after-bastille-day-truck-attack (shortened)
Vocabulary and language in use
I Supply the missing form of the words in the table (if the form exists).
NOUN VERB ADJECTIVE
suspend
precedent
administrative
coastal
municipal
simple
sadness
anger
fear
II Find synonyms for the following words: to simmer, to ban, to tread, to
plough (into), to reel.
• Prohibit/prevent/forbid –
• Step/walk/march –
• Stew/fume/rage –
• Roll/spin –
• Dig/cultivate/smash into, crash into –
III Use the words above (to simmer, to ban, to tread, to plough, to reel)
with appropriate subjects or objects to form collocations.
subject verb object
Soup/discontent /
Brain/mind /
Law/treaty/bill/
institution
book/abortion/slavery/
smoking/sportsman
Somebody snow/field
Somebody path/ground
IV Match words from columns A and B to form collocations.
AB
soothe/ease loose
make a precedent
withdraw/issue pain
intensify a difference
public a decree
set battleground
ideological rhetoric
racist controversy
let order
 14

V Use the above collocations in the sentences below.

1. This act provides powers necessary for preserving .........................
......................... and the safety of individuals.
2. We must find a way to stop the violence that has been .........................
......................... on the city.
3. I am afraid this decision may be a..........................for our future
practice.
4. No pain killer can ......................... the ......................... .
5. Trump’s....................................................has been sharply criticized by
the Mexican government.
6. The ........................ over media freedom in Egypt..........................this
month.
7. By painting the Internet as an “..................................................,” China
claims the right of retaliating against not just cyberattacks, but the
posting of information.
8. I’ll do what you ask this time, but it doesn’t..........................a
......................... .
9. Only the Prime Minister can ........................./.........................regulatory
......................... .
VI Use each word in the pairs of easily confusable words in a sentence to
illustrate the difference.
to beat/to bite
1.
2.
to thread/to tread
1.
2.
to cite/site (n)
1.
2.
row /rau/ / row /roʊ/ (nouns)
1.
2.
Language and Identities | 97
racist/racial
1.
2.
Grammar in context
Tenses.
Find examples of the following uses of tenses in the text above.
1. Two parallel actions happening in the past

2. Habitual actions in the present

3. Present Simple in a temporal clause

4. Present Simple for facts or generalizations

 15

5. An action still going on

6. An action going on since a particular moment in the past

7. Actions the results of which are still felt

8. An action that had produced results relevant for a past moment

9. Past actions

Academic focus
Key points
Identify key points in the text (Sadness, anger and fear...)
The Problem of Ethnocentrism
1 [...] This term (from Greek ‘ethnos’, meaning ‘a people’) means evaluating
other people from one’s own vantage-point and describing them in one’s
own terms. One’s own ‘ethnos’, including one’s cultural values, is literally
placed at the centre.
5 [...] Cultural relativism is sometimes posited as the opposite of
ethnocentrism. This is the doctrine that societies or cultures are
qualitatively different and have their own unique inner logic, and that it is
therefore scientifically absurd to rank them on a scale. If one places a San
group, say, at the bottom of a ladder where the variables are, say, literacy
10 and annual income, this ladder is irrelevant to them if it turns out that the
San do not place a high priority on money and books. It should also be
evident that one cannot, within a cultural relativist framework, argue that
a society with many cars is ‘better’ than one with fewer, or that the ratio of
cinemas to population is a useful indicator of the quality of life.
15 Cultural relativism is an indispensable and unquestionable theoretical
premiss and methodological rule-of-thumb in our attempts to understand
alien societies in as unprejudiced a way as possible. As an ethical principle,
however, it is probably impossible in practice, since it seems to indicate
that everything is as good as everything else, provided it makes sense in a
20 particular society. It may ultimately lead to nihilism. [...]
[...] Cultural relativism cannot, when all is said and done, be posited simply
as the opposite of ethnocentrism, the simple reason being that it does not
in itself contain a moral principle. The principle of cultural relativism in
anthropology is a methodological one – it helps us investigate and compare
Language and Identities | 99
25 societies without relating them to an intellectually irrelevant moral scale;
but this does not logically imply that there is no difference between right
and wrong.
Eriksen, T, H. Small Places, Large Issues, pp. 6–8
 16

Vocabulary and language in use

I Supply the missing forms of the words in the table and use the appropriate
form in the sentences below.
NOUN VERB ADJECTIVE
evaluate
include
opposite
variable
literacy
quality
nihilism
alien
1. The castle is open daily from May to October ........................... .
2. The naval force was...........................during the attack.
3. There is no excuse for people leaving school .......................... .
4. This diploma...........................you to teach in public schools.
5. An urban environment can...........................its inhabitants.
6. The temperature...........................throughout the day.
7. The...........................of each method will be required.
II Use the following words in the sentences below: nation, nationality,
nationalism, nationalist, nationalistic, nationhood, ethnically, ethnic,
ethnicity, migrant, migration, migrate, emigration, immigration, emigrate,
immigrate.
1. There were strong....................................elements in his programme.
2. It was a vain attempt to arouse....................................passions against
foreigners.
3. They have a strong sense of ................................... .
4. The decline of....................................is a force for peace.
100 | ENGLISH A PATHWAY TO ANTHROPOLOGY AND HISTORY STUDIES
5. The fight against terrorism seemed to unite the .................................... .
6. The pupils are of mixed ................................... .
7. This was an.....................................homogenous community.
8. There is a large community of....................................Hungarians living
in north Serbia.
9. According to the latest data, marriages between spouses of different
races and....................................are more common than ever before .
10. They entered the country as....................................workers.
11. These are birds that....................................south in the winter.
12. The decline of rural economy has caused urban ....................................
13. The new laws restricting....................................into the USA have just
been passed.
14. They called for a halt of a recent wave of....................................from
Asia to America.
15. My great-grandparents ................................... from Russia. They ...........
........................ to the United States
III Use the following words in the sentences below: theory, method, premiss,
rule-of-thumb, vantage-point, principle, idea, hypothesis, concept, technique,
approach, perspective, methodology.
1. Darwin’s..........................of evolution was very important to the
development of modern thought.
2. The..........................that all people are created equal is not a new one.
 17

3. She thinks that marriage is an old-fashioned ......................... .

4. A case study could be said to be a method, for which one might
have to use different..........................such as interview, observation,
questionnaire.
5. A..........................is a way of conducting and implementing research,
while..........................is the science and philosophy behind all
research.
6.is a general principle or rule based on experience or
practice, as opposed to a scientific calculation.
7. The term..........................implies the line of thinking one adopts.
8. The term..........................implies how something is viewed or
perceived.
9. Anthropology seeks to uncover..........................of behavior that apply
to all human communities.
Language and Identities | 101
10. The conclusion is seen as following from the major..........................by
means of the minor ......................... .
11. From our....................................................in the 21st century, it is
difficult to imagine life without computers.
IV Find synonyms for the following words from the text above and use them
in the sentences below: posit (5), unique (7), irrelevant (10), indispensable
(15), unquestionable (15), unprejudiced (17), provided (19), ultimately (20).
a) Undeniable/undisputable/certain –
b) Impartial/neutral/unbiased/objective –
c) Crucial/essential/vital –
d) If/on condition/in case –
e) One/only/incomparable –
f) Finally/eventually/after all –
g) Insignificant/beside the point –
h) Put forward, advance, submit, state –
1. His influence on modern art is ...................................... .
2. This argument is entirely......................................to the question of who
is right.
3. Although such case is rare, it is by no means ..................................... .
4. He is their father and he is......................................responsible.
5.he poses no danger to us, he can join us.
6. The judge gave an......................................opinion.
7. It was wrong giving him the sense that he was ..................................... .
8. Darwin......................................the notion of survival of the fittest as a
principle in evolution.
V Use the following words in the sentences below: inner (7), rank (8), turn
out (10), ratio (13), contain (23).
1. The book......................................three different sections.
2. The......................................room was half in shadow, the only light a
shaded lamp on the desk.
3. Students who......................................in the top third of their class have
a better chance of being accepted to the college of their choice.
4. Her work.....................................to be badly done.
5. The......................................of students to teachers in the school is nine
to one.
Academic focus
 18

Linking devices
Study the use of the following linking devices used (and underlined) in
the text above and use them in the sentences below (one in each group of
sentences): therefore, say, however, since, provided.
1.
a. He passed the test......................................, he didn’t get the scholarship.
b.hard she tried, she couldn’t make it.
c. Finish your homework......................................long it takes.
d.you want to do it will be fine.
e. The car is old. It did,....................................., get us home.
2.
a. She is in hospital and......................................will be absent.
b. The cell phone is thin and light and......................................very
convenient to carry around.
c. Payment was received three weeks after it was due; ...............................
......, you will be charged a late fee.
3.
a. There were.....................................200 people present.
b. Pick any instrument,......................................a flute.
4.
a. you have not turned up on time, you must
register again.
b. These gadgets are very expensive,......................................they’re quite
hard to find.
c. everything can be done from home with
computers and telephones, there’s no need to dress up for work
anymore.
5.
a. Schoolchildren are allowed to work during their holidays and free
time..........................that strict safety measures are taken.
b. We will start now......................................you agree.
c.you are fit, I see no reason why you shouldn’t go
mountain climbing.

Ancient Civilizations
King Tut’s Leftover Bandages Yield New Clues –
Discovery News
By RossellaLorenzi | Wed May 19, 2010
1 King Tutankhamun’s mummy was wrapped in custom-made bandages
similar to modern first aid gauzes, an exhibit at New York’s Metropolitan
Museum of Art reveals.
Running in length from 4.70 meters to 39 cm (15.4 feet to 15.3 inches), the
5 narrow bandages consist of 50 linen pieces especially woven for the boy
king.
For a century, the narrow linen bandages were contained in a rather
overlooked cache of large ceramic jars at the museum’s Department of
Egyptian Art. The collection was recovered from the Valley of the Kings
10 between 1907–08, more than a decade before Howard Carter discovered
 19

King Tut’s treasure-packed tomb.

“The linens on the actual mummy were so much decayed by excessive use
of resins that the bandages on display at the museum are actually the bestpreserved
lot of Tutankhamun wrappings,” Dorothea Arnold, curator of
15 Egyptian art at the Metropolitan museum, told Discovery News.
“When the floor was swept after wrapping the body of a king, naturally,
there were quantities of pieces of linen, some of them bandages and some
wider bits, gathered up,” wrote Herbert E. Winlock (1884–1950), the
Metropolitan’s curator, in a 1941 account of the embalming material.
104 | ENGLISH A PATHWAY TO ANTHROPOLOGY AND HISTORY STUDIES
20 Bearing inscriptions with dates, the sheets provided Winlock with precise
evidence for dating the cache’s material.
One linen featured an inscription with “Year 8 of the Lord of Two Lands,
Nebkheperure [Tutankhamun’s throne name.]” Indeed, “Year 8” was the
final year of Tutankhamun’s life (1341 B.C. – 1323 B.C.).
25 “Usually bandages to be wound on a body were rolled up to make the
wrapping easier,” Winlock said. He identified the ends of some six
bandages, still tightly rolled.
But the most “curious things among the bandages” were 50 pieces of
modern-looking gauze – narrow linen tape with finished edges on each side.
30 “I do not recall ever having seen any ready-made, 18th-Dynasty bandages
like them before,” Winlock said. “According to known later custom, they
were used to fix the larger sheets around the body,” Arnold said.
Especially woven for King Tut, some of these expensive linens still evoke
the presence of the embalmers, as they show fingerprints indicating that
35 someone had wiped his hands on them.
The large jars containing the linens were first discovered buried in a pit
(subsequently called KV 54) just 110 meters (360.8 feet) away from the
tomb of King Tut, which had yet to be discovered.
The jars also held what appeared to be an unexciting array of broken
40 pieces of pottery, animal remains, collars of dried flowers, kerchiefs and
embalming material.
Rather disappointed, its discoverer, the New York lawyer Theodore M.
Davis, donated the materials to the Metropolitan museum.
“Mr. Davis seems to have felt that he had discovered a poor man’s tomb,”
45 wrote Herbert E. Winlock (1884–1950), the Metropolitan’s curator.
“It was a perfectly undisturbed cache which Mr. Davis found ... a cache
of materials which, according to Egyptian beliefs, were too impure to be
buried in the tomb with the dead man, but which had to be safely put not
far away from his body,” Winlock wrote in a 1941 detailed account of the
50 material found in the pit.
https://www.seeker.com/king-tuts-leftover-bandages-yield-
newclues- 1765058976.html
Ancient Civilizations | 105
Reading comprehension. Decide whether the following statements
are true or false and justify your answers.
TRUE FALSE
1. The jars in which the linens were kept were given special
attention from the moment they were discovered.
2. Tut’ s body was actually wrapped in some of these
bandages.
 20

3. The bandages were specially made for Tut’s body.

4. The inscriptions on bandages helped in dating the cache.
5. Narrow linen tape was always used for fixing larger
sheets around the body.
6. There were some unfolded bandages in the jars.
7. The discoverer of the jars was disappointed because the
contents of the jars were unexciting.
8. The materials were believed to be safe if kept far away
from the tomb.
Vocabulary and language in use
I Supply the missing noun, verb and adjective forms (if they exist) and use
the appropriate form in the sentences below.
NOUN VERB ADJECTIVE
remains
to feature
impure
date
unexciting
curator
to bear
curious
1. War has made life ..................................... for the civilians .......................
............... in the capital.
106 | ENGLISH A PATHWAY TO ANTHROPOLOGY AND HISTORY STUDIES
2. She asked the question out of ............................. .
3. The...........................of starting a new job is always mingled with a
certain apprehension.
4. He spoke of the atrocities carried out in the name of ethnic/racial
........................... .
5. Brown’s...........................lecture will take place on 22 January.
6. She...............................a recent exhibition of Indian artwork.
7. Archaeologists have been unable to...........................these fossils.
8. This week’s broadcast............................a report on victims of domestic
violence.
II Pronunciation.Silent letters. How do you pronounce the following words?
e.g. tomb /tu:m/; embalm /imba:m/;
• climb, comb, crumb, debt, doubt, numb, plumb, subtle
• handkerchief, Wednesday
• ghost, heir, hour
• knife, knight, knock, knot, know
• calm, chalk, folk, half, salmon, talk, yolk
• coup, pneumonia, pseudo, psychology, receipt
• castle, listen
• answer, sword, two, whole, wrist, write
III Study the underlined mummy related words and classify them according
to the following categories:
Places/containers –
Materials/substances –
Techniques used/state –
IV Use the following verbs in the sentences below:
1. To consist (of) (5), to contain (7)
a. Their conversation..........................almost entirely of gossip.
 21

b. The boat.................four people.

2. To reveal (3), to recover (9)
a. Large quantities of stone artefacts were..................from the site.
b. She wasn’t going..................her secret unless she had to.
3. To recall (30), to evoke (33)
a. The sight..........................pleasant memories of his childhood.
b. I........................reading and interview with him.
Ancient Civilizations | 107
4. To indicate (34), to feature (22)
a. These figures...........................to me that the company is in serious
trouble.
b. His movies typically.....................great romances.
5. To sweep (16), to wipe (35)
a. He.......................his face with a handkerchief.
b. She.......................the tea leaves into a dustpan.
6. To wind (25), to weave (5)
a. He......................the bandage tight round his ankle.
b. The threads are......................together.
V Easily confusable words. Write sentences to illustrate the difference in
meaning between the following pair of words.
excess/access (n,v.)
1.
2.
VI Make sentences by using some of the following collocations with the
word TRADITION:
• a long/a time-honoured/long-standing/strong/old/ancient / family /
cultural/religious /American/British/ Western etc.(+ tradition).
• follow a tradition (=do what has been done before)
• maintain/carry on/continue/uphold a tradition (=make a tradition
continue in the same way or at the same standard as before)
• break with tradition (=not follow a tradition)
• be steeped in tradition (=have many traditions)
Open:
https://www.ldoceonline.com/dictionary/tradition or use
the QR code:
VII Fill in the blanks with the following nouns:
tradition, custom, institution.
a. In the Jewish................................of ‘bar mitzvah’, teenage boys are
officially accepted into the synagogue.
b. The................................here is not to shake the hand of a woman.
c. Most church-goers still believe in the................................of marriage.
tradition, folklore, heritage
a. In some societies................................dictates that parents will choose
their daughters husband.
b. Russian................................is extremely rich in dance, song and
literature.
c. Jewish parents perpetuate their faith by transmitting to their children
the cultural................................of Judaism.
ceremony, ritual, rite
a. The professors were wearing full academic dress for the .......................
.........
b. All cultures have their................................for the burying of their dead.
 22

c. Prayers and chants are an integral part of the religious ...............................

of most societies.
VIII Use the correct preposition.
• To consist......something
• (100m.)......length
• To be ..... display......the museum
• According......something/someone
Grammar in context
Participles
I Replace the participles from the text above (written in italics) with the
appropriate finite forms and make necessary changes.
e.g. The narrow linen bandages were contained in a rather overlooked cache
of large ceramic jars.
The narrow linen bandages were contained in a cache of large ceramic
jars which was rather overlooked.
Ancient Civilizations | 109
II What is the function of the underlined participles (present and past)?
Find examples for each function.
Present/past participle in place of a relative clause

Present/past participle in place of a clause of reason

Present/past participle used as an adjective

Past participle instead of the passive

Present participle in place of a co-ordinate clause

III Use the correct participle, present or past.

1. He was excited/exciting at the prospect of a new job.
2. It was disappointed/disappointing to hear that the lecture was
cancelled.
3. Is anyone interesting/interested in robotics?
4. It is very depressing/depressed to watch the news these days.
5. That was one of the most boring/bored lectures I have ever attended.
We were bored/boring stiff.
6. It was shocked/shocking to hear that they had lost because they had
allegedly been exhausted/exhausting.
7. The instructions we were given were extremely confusing/confused.
Academic focus
Underline the main points/information in the text above and write a
shorter version of the news (focus on answering the who, what, when,
where, how questions).