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Received: 31 December 2020    Accepted: 27 April 2021

DOI: 10.1111/bjet.13118

ORIGINAL MANUSCRIPT

Effects of virtual reality application on skill

learning for optical-­fibre fusion splicing

Yu-­Shan  Chang

Department of Technology Application and

Human Resource Development, National
Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan
Correspondence
Yu-­Shan Chang, Department of Industrial
Technology Education, National Taiwan
Normal University, 162, He-­ping East Road,
Section 1, Taipei 106, Taiwan.
Email: sam168@ntnu.edu.tw
Funding information
Ministry of Science and Technology,
Taiwan, Grant/Award Number: 109-­2511-­
H-­0 03 -­039 -­
Abstract
This study explored the effects of virtual reality (VR)
application on the process and outcome of skill learn-
ing. The participants consisted of 60 new employees
in the customer network cable service division of a
telecommunications company, and the study focused
on the learning of optical-­fibre fusion splicing skills.
The skill-­learning test results revealed the following:
(a) the skill-­learning effect associated with VR appli-
cation was greater than that of conventional lecturing
and demonstration approaches; (b) VR application
had a considerable negative effect on the percep-
tion level of skill learning but a moderately positive
effect on adaptation and origination levels; and (c) in
the VR operation stage of learning, the behavioural
transition from the cognitive phase to the associative
phase was the most prominent.

KEYWORDS
optical-­f ibre fusion splicing, skill learning, virtual reality

RESEARCH BACKGROUND AND MOTIVES

Virtual reality (VR) is a way of digitally simulating or replicating an environment (Meyer

et al., 2019). The four fundamental elements of VR are three-­dimensional multimedia, im-
mersion, sense of presence and interactions between the virtual and real environments
(Makransky et al., 2019; Radianti et al., 2020). From its application in entertainment in
the 1960s to flight training purposes in the 1980s (Makransky et al., 2019; van Ginkela
et al., 2019), VR has demonstrated favourable teaching effects and widespread applications

© 2021 British Educational Research Association

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Practitioner notes
What is already known about this topic
• Virtual reality (VR) can transmit complex knowledge
• Virtual reality (VR) can facilitate the skill learning
What this paper adds
• How to apply VR to skill learning
• Effects of VR teaching on steps of skill learning process and learning levels
• Effects of VR teaching on stages of skill learning
Implications for practice and/or policy
• Using VR teaching to improve skill learning effects
• Using VR teaching to improve skill learning stages and levels.

in fields including engineering, medical care, nursing, catering management, tourism and
education (di Lanzo et al., 2020; Frederiksen et al., 2020; Halabi, 2020). With advancements
in 5G and novel technologies as well as developments in storage, fog and edge computing,
computer vision, artificial intelligence (AI) and wireless communication technologies, VR is
anticipated to witness exponential growth and offer even more teaching application potential
(Bastug et al., 2017; Guo et al., 2020; Loureiro et al., 2020).
In a globalized, informatised and knowledge-­intensive creative economy era, innova-
tion capacity is at the heart of competitiveness (European Commission, 2019; The White
House, 2019), and all innovations are built on one's professional skills. The White House
has stated that the professional skills of United States citizens should be strengthened
to align with the demands of AI industries and lifestyles (Office of Science & Technology
Policy, 2020). According to an investigation by the Organisation for Economic Co-­operation
and Development (OECD, 2020), 64% of employers observed a gap between employee
skill sets and job demands, up from 52% reported in the previous year. Employers have
also stressed the importance of hands-­on skills (Abraham & Connor, 2020). Therefore, VR
application in skill learning is expected to yield promising results.
Relevant studies have suggested that the training effects of VR application in surgery,
engineering, medicine, nursing, life-­saving, scientific experimentation, business and tour-­
guiding skills surpass those of conventional training methods (Abraham & Connor, 2020;
Caccianiga et al., 2020; di Lanzo et al., 2020; Pedram et al., 2020; Rourke, 2020; Singh
et al., 2020). Other studies have uncovered VR's positive effects on skill-­learning-­related
factors, such as learning motivation, self-­efficacy, concept learning, anxiety alleviation and
concentration (Cheng & Tsai, 2019; Halabi, 2020; Huang et al., 2020; Makransky et al., 2019;
van Ginkela et al., 2019). Further investigation of the skill-­learning process can contribute
profoundly to the theoretical consolidation and practical application of VR in the context of
skill learning. Therefore, this study explored the effects of VR application on skill-­learning
processes and outcomes.

LITERATURE REVIEW

VR application in teaching

In the field of education, VR is commonly used in teaching activities that involve high
costs, high risks, difficult-­to-­reach learning environments, difficulties in simulating realistic
VR ON SKILL LEARNING |
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scenarios and high uncertainty (Cheng & Tsai, 2019). Improvements in internet broadband,
data transfer speed, computer display technology and computation speed have broadened
the range of VR application in teaching. As a result, students require only a mobile phone
with a learning software application installed and a virtual headset to experience VR learn-
ing (van Ginkela et al., 2019).
Studies have indicated that VR application can have significant effects on behaviour and
sensory, affective and intellectual experiences (Bogicevic et al., 2019). One study stated that
VR enhances users' cognition, memory and attention (Dehn et al., 2018). An empirical brain
science study determined that VR induces neuroplastic changes in the brain and reconfig-
uration of brain networks, thus facilitating learning (Dehn et al., 2018). In addition to these
cognitive-­learning benefits, other brain science studies have confirmed the substantive ef-
fect of VR on hands-­on learning (Lamba et al., 2018; Makransky et al., 2019). Moreover, the
spatial presence and experienced realism of VR increases learning motivation (Cheng &
Tsai, 2019; Meyer et al., 2019) and encourages learning behaviours (Cheng & Tsai, 2019;
Makransky et al., 2019). VR also has a proven positive effect on learning outcomes related
to cognition, skills and attitudes (di Lanzo et al., 2020; Huang et al., 2020; van Ginkela
et al., 2019). In particular, approximately 34% of studies on VR teaching applications dis-
cussed VR in relation to procedural and practical knowledge (Radianti et al., 2020).
With regard to the content of school subjects, VR has a proven significant effect on the
learning of mathematics and science (Cheng & Tsai, 2019; Huang et al., 2020; van Ginkela
et al., 2019). Radianti et al., (2020) and Halabi (2020) have identified at least 18 disciplines
in which VR applications have been employed, with engineering, computer science and
brain science being the most popular application domains. Studies on learning-­related vari-
ables have described the positive effects of VR on learning motivation, self-­efficacy, con-
cept learning, learning retention and learning reflection. VR use can also lower test anxiety
(Cheng & Tsai, 2019; Halabi, 2020; Huang et al., 2020; Makransky et al., 2019; van Ginkela
et al., 2019).
In summary, the experience and sense of presence provided by VR enhances learn-
ers' mental representation capacity; this result is consistent with the theory proposed by
Dewey (Makransky et al., 2019) and has been repeated in numerous empirical studies.
However, highly immersive VR applications may cause students to become distracted
(Makransky et al., 2019), and simulator sickness due to VR use can undermine learning
(Meyer et al., 2019), which leaves room for improvement.

Psychomotor skill learning

Again, modern employers have emphasized the importance of hands-­on skills (OECD, 2020).
Additionally, universities have connected and collaborated with industries to establish psy-
chomotor skill-­learning standards (Abraham & Connor, 2020). These standards are gen-
erally presented in the form of psychomotor skill-­learning stages or levels (Abraham &
Connor, 2020; Dave, 1970; Fitts & Posner, 1967; Harrow, 1972; Simpson, 1972). For ex-
ample, the psychomotor domain of Simpson (1972) consists of seven levels of psychomo-
tor skill learning: perception, set, guided response, mechanism, complex overt response,
adaptation and origination. The framework proposed by Dave (1970) comprises five lev-
els of learning: imitation, manipulation, precision, articulation and naturalization. Harrow's
(1972) framework features six degrees of coordination: reflex movements, basic fundamen-
tal movement, perceptual, physical activities, skilled movements and non-­discursive com-
munication. These psychomotor skill learning levels serve as references for setting teaching
goals and standards for learning evaluation (Abraham & Connor, 2020). In accordance with
Simpson's framework, universities have established psychomotor skill learning goals for
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engineering design. In addition to using evaluation criteria, universities have also employed
self-­
reporting methods to assess the psychomotor skill learning outcomes of students
(Abraham & Connor, 2020).
The purpose of evaluating psychomotor skill learning lies in the investigation of experi-
ence and skill proficiency (Khan et al., 2020). Such evaluation is typically conducted accord-
ing to task execution outcomes. Some evaluation methods focus on one's understanding
(Khan et al., 2020) and confidence (Abraham & Connor, 2020) in the process of applying
a skill. Based on the goals of interest, various assessment strategies are available for the
evaluation of psychomotor skill-­learning. For example, surgical psychomotor skills are as-
sessed according to time, hand movement, final merchandise rating, agendas and master-
class worldwide appraisals (Khan et al., 2020). The five foundations of evaluation tools are
content, feedback process, internal structure, affiliation with different factors and outcomes
(Khan et al., 2020). In addition, skill assessment methods include post-­acquisition tests,
retention tests and transfer tests (Khan et al., 2020). Based on these earlier studies, we
propose the first two hypotheses.

H1: VR has a significant effect on psychomotor skill-­learning test results.

H2: VR has a significant effect on psychomotor skill-­learning assessment.

According to relevant studies, psychomotor skill-­learning performance is closely asso-

ciated with sensory awareness, high-­order thinking, and cognitive and neuromuscular pro-
cesses. This holds particularly true in operational skills in engineering education (Abraham
& Connor, 2020). Scholars have also proposed using phases of skill development (eg, cog-
nitive, associative and autonomous) as the theoretical basis for teaching design (Blackstock
& Pritchard, 2020; Fitts & Posner, 1967; Sullivan, 2020) and as a reference for skill learning.
In the cognitive phase, the learner's working memory is used to thoroughly memorize the
operational procedures (declarative knowledge) to execute the task. Next, in the associative
phase, the association between each operational procedure increases, operational smooth-
ness improves and declarative knowledge is gradually converted into procedural knowledge.
Finally, in the autonomous phase, the learner's declarative knowledge is completely con-
verted into procedural knowledge; thus, the learner performs the skill naturally without having
to think much about it (Blackstock & Pritchard, 2020; Fitts & Posner, 1967; Sullivan, 2020).
This leads us to our third hypothesis.

H3: VR has different influences on the psychomotor skill-­learning process.

In general, engineering skills that are difficult to learn in conventional contexts can be learned
through VR (di Lanzo et al., 2020), which enhances learning motivation and confidence in stu-
dents (Abraham & Connor, 2020; di Lanzo et al., 2020). During the training of engineering,
medical, nursing and life-­saving skills, VR applications can outperform conventional training
methods (Caccianiga et al., 2020; di Lanzo et al., 2020; Pedram et al., 2020; Rourke, 2020;
Singh et al., 2020). In addition, one study concluded that, in the context of device operation skill
learning in electronic engineering laboratories, VR has a positive effect on learner understand-
ing, learning motivation and confidence in the operation skills (Singh et al., 2020).
In a study that used VR to teach surgical skills, the operation efficiency of the group
who received VR teaching did not improve, but instead worsened. This is likely due to the
high level of concentration required for surgery in which immersive VR may overburden
the learner's cognitive load (Frederiksen et al., 2020). The results of another study showed
that VR application is conducive to life-­saving skill training in the aspects of techniques
and learning attitude. Nonetheless, the study emphasized VR as a supplementary means
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for supporting skill teaching, such that it cannot replace the role of the coach (Pedram
et al., 2020). VR application has been proven effective in the acquisition and application of
nursing skills and knowledge but not in the learning of motor skills (Rourke, 2020). In addi-
tion to the potential problems of VR in test scenarios and as a teaching tool (Rourke, 2020),
doubts exist for VR application in the skill training of robot-­assisted minimally invasive sur-
gery. For example, the assessment of operation training for the da Vinci Surgical System
have been reported to be overly subjective; thus, whether the skills acquired through such
training can be applied to the real-­world clinical setting remains questionable (Caccianiga
et al., 2020). Therefore, problems regarding the design and objectives of assessment in-
struments should not be overlooked in the application of VR in skill learning. VR head-­
mounted displays (HMDs) are commonly used in engineering education fields. Despite its
highly immersive VR experience boasting the fastest and most direct interactions (di Lanzo
et al., 2020), a HMD can negatively affect the user, by potentially inducing cyber-­sickness,
in the forms of motion sickness, disorientation, nausea, sweating and headaches(di Lanzo
et al., 2020).

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

Research participants

The research participants were 60 new employees in the customer network cable service
division of a telecommunications company. These participants were recruited into the com-
pany after passing a written test and had no operation experience in optical-­fibre fusion
splicing. Participants were divided randomly into experimental and control groups and were
taught through different teaching methods. The experimental group, consisting of 30 partici-
pants (1 woman and 29 men), was taught using methods that included VR application, and
the control group comprised 30 participants (all men), who were taught using conventional
teaching methods.

Independent variable

The teaching method was set as the independent variable in this study. Both the experimen-
tal and the control group were taught through lecturing and demonstration (coupled with
multimedia applications); however, the experimental group received additional teaching with
VR application. The experimental group used the HTC Vive Pro VR system, which enabled
interaction with virtual objects through the Vive Controller. A Lighthouse system was used to
track room-­scale movements (Figure 1). This system allows users to use a play area of up to
5 metres diagonally across as a stage to walk inside the virtual environment (Gepp, 2017).
With the base stations placed at opposite corners of the play area, these lasers alternate
sweeping the room horizontally and vertically to track the position and orientation of user's
headset and controllers. Embedded on the surface of HMD and wireless controllers are
infrared sensors that can detect the infrared wavelengths emitted by base stations. This
system provides a full immersive virtual world for learning.
The teaching experiment focused on the teaching of fusion splicing skills for optical fibres.
Therefore, the teaching method primarily comprised lecturing, demonstration and practice
(Figure 2). The teaching processes for the experimental and control groups were mostly
the same, with the experimental group receiving additional teaching that incorporated VR
(Figure 3). Table 1 presents the teaching processes for the two groups.
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F I G U R E 1   Virtual reality (VR) course experience and HTC Vive Pro VR facilities

F I G U R E 2   Optical-­f ibre fusion splicing skill learning

F I G U R E 3   Optical-­f ibre fusion splicing skill learning with VR

T A B L E 1   Teaching process
Week Stage
1 Introduction to tools and
equipment and explanation
of the mechanism of optical
fibres
2 Skill explanation and
assessment standards
3 Skill explanation and practice
4 Explanation and practicing of
various skills
5 Testing of optical-­f ibre fusion
splicing skill
Experimental group
1. Introduction to optical fibre structure
2. Explanation of the light-­guiding mechanism of optical
fibres
1. Fusion splicing time
2. Fusion splicing steps
3. Determination of fusion splicing quality and measurement
of splice loss
4. Factors influencing splice loss
1. Lectures and demonstrations of fusion splicing operations
2. VR training of fusion splicing operations
3. (Behaviour sequence analysis on VR operations)
4. Trainees practicing operation skills
1. VR training of fusion splicing operations
2. Demonstration of fusion splicing operations
3. Hands-­on practice of fusion splicing
4. (Behaviour sequence analysis on tool operations)
Including pre-­fusion-­splicing preparations, optical time
domain reflectometer (OTDR) testing, fusion splicing and
operation of fusion splicers and OTDRs
1. Skill-­learning assessment using Simpson's psychomotor
domain
2. Testing of hands-­on skills
VR ON SKILL LEARNING
Control group
1. Introduction to optical fibre structure
2. Explanation of the light-­guiding mechanism of
optical fibres
1. Fusion splicing time
2. Fusion splicing steps
3. Determination of fusion splicing quality and
measurement of splice loss
4. Factors influencing splice loss
1. Lectures and demonstrations of fusion splicing
operations
2. Trainees practicing operation skills
1. Demonstration of fusion splicing operations
2. Hands-­on practice of fusion splicing operations
3. (Behaviour sequence analysis on tool operations)
Including pre-­fusion-­splicing preparations, OTDR
testing, fusion splicing and operation of fusion
splicers and OTDRs
1. Skill-­learning assessment using Simpson's
psychomotor domain
2. Testing of hands-­on skills
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Dependent variables

The dependent variables of this study were the outcomes of learning fusion splicing skills
for optical fibres (based on a written technical examination and skill assessment for fu-
sion splicing) and the skill-­learning process. The technical examination comprised items
on optical-­fibre fusion splicing (40%), optical time domain reflectometer (OTDR) testing
(30%), preparations for fusion splicing (15%) and the operation of fusion splicers and the
OTDR (15%). Consensual assessment was made by two instructors with expertise in this
field to evaluate trainee performance using standardized rubrics. In accordance with the
skill-­learning levels of Simpson (1972) (ie, perception, set, guided response, mechanism,
complex overt response, adaptation and origination), this study developed a learning as-
sessment sheet for fusion splicing skills. A pilot test administered to 105 trainees indicated
the internal consistency of each skill-­learning level to be between 0.83 and 0.92 (Cronbach's
alpha [α]) and the overall internal consistency to be 0.95 (Cronbach's α), implying satisfac-
tory reliability (Bryman & Cramer, 1997).
In accordance with the phases of skill development (Blackstock & Pritchard, 2020; Fitts
& Posner, 1967; Sullivan, 2020), namely the cognitive, associative and autonomous phases,
we established skill-­learning observation indicators. An expert meeting was convened to
review and revise the coded items, operation behaviour and time measuring method, as well
as to establish content and expert validity (Table 2). Subsequently, 30 video recordings were
extracted and coded by the researchers and an experienced instructor. The consistency
coefficient was revealed to be 0.83, signifying that the instructors reached a high degree of
consensus regarding their evaluation of trainee performance (Mugenda & Mugenda, 2003).
For data collection, 10 trainees from each group were randomly selected, and their learning
behaviour during the skill-­learning process was recorded. The researchers coded the re-
cordings and performed a behaviour sequence analysis to obtain an in-­depth understanding
of the trainees' learning (Hou et al., 2010).

Data analysis

Because the participants were only required to pass a written test for employment, they did
not have experience in optical-­fibre fusion splicing operations. Their admission and training
followed the company's training schedule; thus, a pre-­test was not conducted. As such, a
t-­test was performed to analyse the effect of VR application on skill-­learning outcomes.
Trainee skill-­learning behaviour was recorded, and coding analysis was performed in ac-
cordance with the observation indicators for the learning behaviour. Subsequently, Multiple
Episode Protocol Analysis (MEPA) (Janssen et al., 2007; Sun et al., 2018) software was
used to analyse the frequency of and transitions in trainee learning behaviours to reveal
significant coding sequences, understand the skill-­learning process and determine whether
the trainees engaged in meaningful learning behaviour. The behaviour sequence analysis
comprised four steps: observing and recording, coding, analysing sequence data and draw-
ing the behavioural transition diagram (Sun et al., 2018).

RESULTS

Effect of VR on skill-­learning test results

H1: VR has a significant effect on psychomotor skill-­learning test results.

T A B L E 2   Observation indicators for the skill-­learning process
Coding
Cognitive phase (C)
Associative phase (F)
Autonomous phase (A)
Others R
Learning content
Observe the instructor's lectures and
demonstration of operations; actively
learn about how each device is used;
respond to the instructor or clarify
doubts with other trainees
Hone skills by practicing and paying
attention to the body's feedback,
which facilitates identification of the
optimal direction, position, strength,
displacement and sequence of
movements
Perform each step correctly, skillfully
and effectively in a continuous
manner
Demonstrate behaviour not related to
the activity
Operation behaviour
• Sensory engagement (watching the
instructor's demonstration of operations)
• Physical operation (hands-­on operation)
(operating the controller with their hands.)
• Response to the instructor's explanation and
guidance (Responding actively and quickly.)
• Mutual guidance between trainees
• Finding the optimal movements for each task
by practising and according to the body's
feedback (when experiencing operation
difficulties, adjust the body position to find
the optimal direction, position, strength,
displacement and sequence of movements)
• Attempting different positions until the
correct response is achieved (attempting
to change behaviour until the behaviour is
correct.)
• When stimulated, the trainee immediately
responds without hesitation (responding
immediately to a message appearing on the
screen)
• Smooth movements and seamless
transitions between movements (smooth and
correct movements)
• Adjusting VR equipment
• Changing tools
• Chatting (sharing professional experience)
Scoring method
Record once for any of the operation
VR ON SKILL LEARNING
behaviours continuously performed for
3 min
Record once for any meaningful behaviour
demonstrated
Record once for any of the operation
behaviours performed continuously for
1 min
Record once for any meaningful behaviour
demonstrated
Record once for any operation behaviour
performed continuously for 1 min
Record once for any meaningful behaviour
demonstrated
Record once for any operation behaviour
demonstrated
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The independent sample t-­test of the skill-­learning test results of the two groups indicated
that the learning effect in the experimental group (mean [M] = 92.77, standard deviation [SD] =
2.11) was greater than that in the control group (M = 86.4, SD = 1.25) and the effect size was
large (t = 14.123, p = 0.00, d = 3.67) (Cohen, 1977) (Table 3).

Effect of VR on skill-­learning assessment results

H2: VR has a significant effect on psychomotor skill-­learning assessment.

Using an independent sample t-­test, an analysis of the skill-­learning assessment results of

the two groups indicated that at the perception level, the learning effect in the experimental
group was lower than that in the control group (t = −3.148, p = 0.00, d = 0.81) and the effect
size was large. Additionally, the learning effect in the experimental group was greater than that
in the control group at the adaptation (t = 2.398, p = 0.02, d = 0.61) and origination (t = 2.485,
p = 0.00, d = 0.74) levels, with moderate effect sizes (Cohen, 1977) (Table 4).

Effect of VR on the skill-­learning process

H3: VR has different effects on the psychomotor skill-­learning process.

This study analysed VR application in skill learning and the two-­stage learning process
consisting of instructor demonstration followed by skill learning. The analysis results are

T A B L E 3   Comparison of skill-­learning test results using the independent sample t-­test

Mean (SD)

Experimental group Control group

(n = 30) (n = 30) df t-­value p Effect size (d)
**
492.77 (2.11) 86.4 (1.25) 58 14.12 0.00 3.67
Abbreviations: SD: standard deviation.
**p < 0.01

T A B L E 4   Skill-­learning assessment t-­test results

Mean (SD)

Experimental Control group Effect

Level group (n = 30) (n = 30) df t-­value p size (d)
Perception 4.17 (0.49) 4.55 (0.44) 58 −3.148** 0.00 0.81
Set 4.46 (0.48) 4.32 (0.49) 58 1.121 0.27 0.29
Guided 4.55 (0.50) 4.58 (0.47) 58 −0.267 0.79 0.07
response
Mechanism 4.37 (0.49) 4.33 (0.52) 58 0.255 0.8 0.07
Complex overt 4.22 (0.46) 4.06 (0.54) 58 1.239 0.22 0.32
response
Adaptation 3.85 (0.48) 3.52 (0.59) 58 2.398* 0.02 0.61
Origination 3.75 (0.57) 3.3 (0.65) 58 2.485** 0.00 0.74
*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01.
VR ON SKILL LEARNING      11 |

presented using a frequency transfer table, an adjusted residuals table and a behavioural
transition diagram (Hou et al., 2010). In the frequency transfer table, each column rep-
resents a starting behaviour, and each row represents the behaviour immediately follow-
ing that indicated in a given column. The numbers represent the total number of times a
particular behaviour (row) followed the starting behaviour (column). The frequency transfer
table and the adjusted residuals table are shown in Tables 5 and 6, respectively, and the
behavioural transition diagram of VR learning is displayed in Figure 4. Z scores are useful

T A B L E 5   Frequency transfer table of VR hands-­on behaviour

C (Cognitive F (Associative A (Autonomous R

phase) phase) phase) (Others) Total
C (Cognitive phase) 11 39 5 0 55
F (Associative phase) 18 14 32 4 68
A (Autonomous phase) 12 14 7 0 33
R (Others) 1 2 1 0 4
Total 42 69 45 4 160

T A B L E 6   Adjusted residuals table of VR hands-­on behaviour

C (Cognitive F (Associative A (Autonomous R

phase) phase) phase) (Others)
C (Cognitive phase) 0.000 5.136* 0.000 0.000
F (Associative phase) 0.055 0.000 4.58* 2.356*
A (Autonomous phase) 1.482 0.000 0.000 0.000
R (Others) 0.000 0.281 0.000 0.000
Bold indicates statistical significant value (p < 0.05).
*z > 1.96.

F I G U R E 4   Behaviour transition diagram of VR learning behaviour. A, autonomous phase; C, cognitive

phase; F, associative phase; R, others
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for identifying whether a particular transitional probability deviates significantly from its
expected value (Bakeman & Gottman, 1997). (See Bakeman & Gottman, 1997, for explana-
tion of z scores in sequential analysis procedures.)
The results revealed that in VR skill learning, the most prominent behavioural transition
was from the cognitive phase to the associative phase (z = 5.136), followed by that from the
associative phase to the autonomous phase (z = 4.58). However, a certain number of other
behaviours (z = 2.356) were also observed, such as disruptions in behavioural transition,
due to unfamiliarity with VR operations.
Behaviour sequence analysis was performed on data pertaining to the skill-­learning pro-
cesses in both groups using actual fusion splicing tools after group members had received
demonstration teaching. The frequency transfer table indicating the experimental group's
skill-­learning process is shown in Table 7, the frequency transfer table indicating the control
group's skill-­learning process is shown in Table 8, and the behavioural transition diagram of
the experimental and control groups are presented in Figures 5 and 6, respectively. During
the skill-­learning process of the experimental group, the most prominent behavioural tran-
sition was from the associative phase to the autonomous phase (z = 4.308), followed by
that from the cognitive phase to the associative phase (z = 3.404). Similarly, for the control
group, the behavioural transition from the associative phase to the autonomous phase was
the most prominent (z = 3.294), followed by that from the cognitive phase to the associative
phase (z = 2.237).
The aforementioned tables indicate that relative to the control group, the experimental
group demonstrated a higher number of autonomous-­phase behaviours (88 > 36). Behaviour
sequence analysis results were obtained to compile adjusted residuals tables. If the z-­value
was >1.96, the sequence transition was significant (Tables 9 and 10). Subsequently, be-
havioural transition diagrams were deduced, as shown in Figures 5 and 6, in which the arrow
direction and thickness represent the sequence and significance level, respectively. The
number next to each arrow represents the z-­value.

T A B L E 7   Frequency transfer table of the experimental group's skill-­learning process

C (Cognitive F (Associative A (Autonomous

phase) phase) phase) R (Others) Total
C (Cognitive phase) 18 39 4 1 62
F (Associative phase) 26 29 53 2 110
A (Autonomous 9 39 29 2 79
phase)
R (Other)s 0 3 2 0 5
Total 53 110 88 5 256

T A B L E 8   Frequency transfer table of the control group's skill-­learning process

C (Cognitive F (Associative A (Autonomous

phase) phase) phase) R (Others) Total
C (Cognitive phase) 31 52 1 0 84
F (Associative phase) 35 60 28 1 124
A (Autonomous phase) 8 9 7 1 25
R (Others) 0 2 0 0 2
Total 74 123 36 2 235
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     13

F I G U R E 5   Behaviour transition diagram of the experimental group. A, autonomous phase; C, cognitive

phase; F, associative phase; R, others

F I G U R E 6   Behaviour transition diagram of the control group. A, autonomous phase; C, cognitive phase; F,
associative phase; R, others

The figures imply that in both groups, the skill-­learning behaviour transitioned from the
cognitive phase to the associative phase, and then from the associative phase to the auton-
omous phase. All transitions in the experimental group were more significant than those in
the control group (3.404 > 2.237; 4.308 > 3.294). In other words, behavioural transitions oc-
curred more frequently in the experimental group than in the control group. Additionally, the
behavioural transition frequency from the associative phase to the autonomous phase was
higher in the experimental group than in the control group, signifying that the experimental
group demonstrated more frequent high-­level skill-­learning behaviour.
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14       CHANG

T A B L E 9   Adjusted residuals table of the experimental group's skill-­learning behaviour

C (Cognitive F (Associative A (Autonomous

phase) phase) phase) R (Others)
C (Cognitive phase) 1.716 3.404* 0.000 0.789
*
F (Associative phase) 0.921 0.000 4.308 0.000
A (Autonomous phase) 0.000 1.775 0.234 0.000
R (Others) 0.000 0.753 0.306 0.000
Bold indicates statistical significant value (p < 0.05).
* z > 1.96.

T A B L E 1 0   Adjusted residuals table of the control group's skill-­learning behaviour

C (Cognitive F (Associative A (Autonomous

phase) phase) phase) R (Others)
C (Cognitive phase) 1.257 2.237* 0.000 0.000
*
F (Associative phase) 0.000 0.000 3.294 0.000
A (Autonomous phase) 0.329 0.000 1.754 1.768
R (Others) 0.000 1.361 0.000 0.000
Bold indicates statistical significant value (p < 0.05).
* z > 1.96.

COMPREHENSIVE DISCUSSION

The effect of VR application on skill-­learning test results

According to the skill-­learning test results, the effect of VR application on skill learning was
significantly greater than that of conventional lecturing and demonstration teaching, and
the effect size was large. This result is consistent with those of other studies (di Lanzo
et al., 2020; Halabi, 2020; Huang et al., 2020; van Ginkela et al., 2019).
Skill learning requires completing the three main stages of explanation, operation and re-
view, which are then followed by testing. Therefore, VR application must effectively enhance
skill learning related to comprehension (di Lanzo et al., 2020; Huang et al., 2020; van Ginkela
et al., 2019), operation movements and operation coordination (Radianti et al., 2020) for the
learner to achieve significant skill-­learning results (Lamba et al., 2018; Makransky et al., 2019).
VR learning has been proven to provide a variety of learning effects in addition to enhanc-
ing learning motivation and self-­efficiency (Makransky et al., 2019). The assessment of the
present study, which was conducted after the learning process was completed, indicated the
presence of retention learning. In this case, a deeper understanding had developed during
the learning process such that the trainees demonstrated significant learning outcomes
(Halabi, 2020; Huang et al., 2020). Thus, VR has a positive effect on the sensory (Bogicevic
et al., 2019), cognitive and attention (Dehn et al., 2018), and hands-­on (Lamba et al., 2018;
Makransky et al., 2019) aspects of skill learning.

Effect of VR on skill-­learning assessment results

This study uncovered the considerable negative effect that VR has on the perception level
of skill learning, with a large effect size. However, the learning effect in the experimental
group was higher than that in the control group at the adaptation and origination levels, with
moderate effect sizes. Regarding the negative effect of VR on perception level, studies have
VR ON SKILL LEARNING |
     15

indicated that VR, despite providing a favourable sense of presence, requires learners to
use more working memory and hence, places a greater cognitive load on learners when
learning declarative knowledge. Thus, the use of VR in the learning of declarative knowl-
edge results in less favourable learning outcomes (Frederiksen et al., 2020; Makransky
et al., 2019; Meyer et al., 2019). To resolve this issue, some have suggested that learners
should undergo pre-­training or spend additional time learning how to use VR applications
(Meyer et al., 2019; Singh et al., 2020). Empirical studies have also demonstrated that the
high immersion of VR may distract learners (Makransky et al., 2019), and simulator sickness
caused by VR use would likely undermine learning outcomes(di Lanzo et al., 2020; Meyer
et al., 2019); both are possible explanations for the results of this study.
According to the results, VR's correlations with the guided response, mechanism and
physical movement aspects of skill learning, despite being at high levels, were not signifi-
cant. This result is consistent with that of Rourke (2020). At the adaptation and origination
levels, the learning effect in the experimental group was greater than that in the control
group, with moderate effect sizes. This result is also supported by theories and other re-
search findings related to skill learning, which indicate that after declarative knowledge is
converted to procedural knowledge, the learner will be able to perform the skill smoothly
(Blackstock & Pritchard, 2020; Fitts & Posner, 1967; Sullivan, 2020).

VR and the learning process of creative experiences

Our findings suggest that in VR skill learning, the behavioural transition from the cognitive
phase to the associative phase is the most prominent, followed by that from the associative
phase to the autonomous phase. Possible reasons for this could be that VR benefits the un-
derstanding of skill operations and that learners require smoother physical movements when
transitioning from the associative phase to the autonomous phase (Frederiksen et al., 2020).
Additionally, we discovered that the trainees demonstrated other disruptive behaviours
during VR learning. Possible reasons may be that VR is inconvenient or difficult to use,
which results in excessive cognitive load on the user. This result is consistent with those of
other studies (Frederiksen et al., 2020; Singh et al., 2020). Therefore, improvements to VR
design to reduce the cognitive load in learners are imperative.
During the learning stage of actual tool operation, the skill-­learning behaviour in both
groups transitioned first from the cognitive phase to the associative phase, and then from
the associative phase to the autonomous phase. The behavioural transition frequency in the
experimental group was much higher than that in the control group; in particular, high-­level
learning behavioural transition from the associative phase to the autonomous phase was
more frequent in the experimental group. This may be because the use of VR enhances the
trainees' memory of the skills and helps them conduct learning reflection, thereby facilitating
longer-­term learning retention (Makransky et al., 2019). Additionally, this may be attributable
to confidence enhanced by VR learning (Abraham & Connor, 2020; di Lanzo et al., 2020),
which contributes to a smoother transition from the associative phase to the autonomous
phase when the learners later engage in tool operation learning.

CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

Research conclusions and suggestions for practical application

We discussed the effects of VR on skill learning for optical-­fibre fusion splicing. The conclu-
sions are as follows:
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16       CHANG

1. According to the skill-­ learning test results, the skill-­learning effect is higher when
VR learning is employed, compared to conventional lecturing and demonstration.
With respect to the explanation, operation and review stages of learning and the
test stage, as well as to different learning contexts and tools, VR application was
effective in the comprehension, hands-­on performance and learning-­retention aspects
of skill learning.
2. The skill-­learning assessment results revealed that VR application had a considerable
negative effect at the perception level of skill learning but moderate positive effects at the
adaptation and origination levels. To enhance the effect of VR application at the perception
level, improvements to VR design should be made to reduce the learner's cognitive load.
Additional time can be provided for learners to familiarize themselves with VR applications
(ie, pre-­teaching/introduction for the learners).

We suggest making improvements to VR design to reduce VR-­use discomfort and develop-

ing auxiliary tools for specific skill-­training purposes to aid learners in improving the smooth-
ness of their physical movements and transitioning to the autonomous phase. During the
actual tool operation stage of learning, the behavioural transitions in the experimental group
were much more favourable than those in the control group, particularly in the transition from
the associative phase to the autonomous phase, which represents high-­level skill learning.

Research limitations and future research suggestions

The tools and contexts used in VR application for skill learning may differ greatly from those
used in skill testing and practical applications, and the effects of such tools and contexts may
also differ (Caccianiga et al., 2020; Rourke, 2020). Therefore, the development of mecha-
nisms that allow for skill transitions and assessment merits additional investigation. This
study adopted three phases of skill learning, namely, the cognitive, associative and autono-
mous phases, as the research basis (Blackstock & Pritchard, 2020; Fitts & Posner, 1967;
Sullivan, 2020). These three phases represent a broad division of skill-­learning phases.
Future studies are advised to employ the seven levels of skill learning (ie, perception, set,
guided response, mechanism, complex overt response, adaptation and origination) proposed
by Simpson (1972), to further divide the skill-­learning phases for more in-­depth research.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to thank Li-­Ling Hwang for helping in teaching experiment.

E T H I C S S TAT E M E N T
All participants were anonymously identified by codes so that their personal identities were
not disclosed. For each participant, we obtained an informed consent. The collected data
would not pertain to an investigation on the individual characteristics of each participant
student. The data would be collected and processed anonymously and exclusively at group
level, and they would be subject to scientific communication (oral and written). A scientific
report would be provided at the end of the study to share the results.

CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
There is no conflict of interest.

D ATA AVA I L A B I L I T Y S TAT E M E N T

The data will be available by individual application directly to the author. In the near future,
they can be available through an institutional repository.
VR ON SKILL LEARNING |
     17

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How to cite this article: Chang, Y.-­S. (2021). Effects of virtual reality application on
skill learning for optical-­fibre fusion splicing. British Journal of Educational
Technology, 00, 1–­18. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13118