Mining Activities: Health Impacts

Carla Candeias, EPIUnit, Epidemiology Research Unit, Porto, Portugal; National Institute of Health, Porto, Portugal; GeoBioTec,
Geobiosciences, Geotechnologies and Geoengineering Research Unit, Aveiro, Portugal; University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
Paula Ávila, LNEG, National Laboratory of Energy and Geology, São Mamede de Infesta, Portugal
Patrícia Coelho and João P Teixeira, EPIUnit, Epidemiology Research Unit, Porto, Portugal; National Institute of Health, Porto, Portugal
© 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Introduction 5
Minerals and Mining 6
Mining Operations 6
Mine Closure 8
Abandoned Mines 8
Environmental Impacts From Abandoned Mines: Sources, Exposure Pathways and Effects 9
Environmental Problems Related to Arsenic and Cadmium 11
Environmental Problems Related to Mining for Specific Elements 11
Community Impacts 17
Occupational Impacts 17
Initiatives to Reduce Mining Impacts 18
Environmental and Community Initiatives 18
Occupational Initiatives 19
Legislation 19
Future Directions 20
Further Reading 20

Glossary
Acid mine drainage Is caused by mining for ores or coal when water flows over or through sulfur-bearing materials that
chemically react to form acidic solutions. Regularly, mine drainage is rich in metals. AMD is currently the main source of
pollution of surface waters in mining areas. It degrades rivers and streams with the loss of aquatic life, and restricts streams use
for recreation, public drinking water and industrial water supplies.
Acid rock drainage Is similar to (and often referred to as) AMD. However, it is not necessarily confined to mining activities but
can occur wherever sulfide-bearing rock is exposed to air and water. Some natural springs are acidic, usually in the vicinity of
outcrops of sulfide-bearing rock.
Adit Is a nearly horizontal passage driven from the surface for getting in the mine and dewatering.
Alluvial Material deposited by rivers. It consists of silt, sand, clay and gravel, as well as much organic matter. Alluvial deposits
are usually most extensive in the lower part of a river’s course, forming floodplains and deltas. They may also form at any point
where the river overflows its banks or where the flow of a river is inhibited. They yield very fertile soils and contain most of the
world’s supply of tin ore, as well as, in some regions, gold, platinum, and gemstones.
Asbestos Are silicate compounds that occur naturally in the environment as bundles of fibers, which can be separated into
thin, durable threads. These fibers are resistant to heat, fire, and chemicals and do not conduct electricity. For these reasons,
asbestos has been used widely in many industries. Asbestos has been classified as a known human carcinogen (a substance that
causes cancer) by the DHHS, the US EPA, and the IARC.
Asbestosis Is a chronic inflammatory condition affecting the lungs that cause shortness of breath, coughing, and permanent
lung damage. This disorder is due, exclusively, to the exposure to asbestos, to which there is no cure.
Biomarker Expresses the specific measurements of an interaction of a biological system with a toxic agent. Biomarkers can be
divided into biomarkers of exposure, effect, and susceptibility. Biomarkers of exposure may be the xenobiotic chemical itself or
its metabolites (internal dose) or the product of an interaction between the chemical and its target biomolecule (biologically
effective dose). Biomarkers of effect may be an endogenous component, a measure of the functional capacity, or some other
indicator of the organs, system, or body condition that might be affected by the exposure. Biomarkers of susceptibility indicate
that the individual is particularly sensitive to the effect of a xenobiotic or to the effects of a group of such compounds.
Boulder Is a rock fragment with size greater than 10 in (25.6 cm) in diameter. It is a block of stone, frequently carried by
natural forces to a greater or less distance from the parent rock, and generally lying on the surface of the ground, or in superficial
deposits; an erratic block. There are boulders small enough to move or roll manually and others are extremely massive, too
large for a person to move.
Carbon in leach Is an intermediate stage in the production of gold. The process involves dissolving the solid gold particles into
solution using a process known as cyanidation. The dissolved gold in solution is adsorbed onto activated carbon. When the
carbon is loaded with enough gold it is removed from the circuit and sent to elution where the adsorption process is reversed

Encyclopedia of Environmental Health, 2nd Edtion https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-409548-9.11056-5 1

2 Mining Activities: Health Impacts

and the gold is stripped off the carbon back into solution, and smelted into bars. The remaining “barren” slurry reports to the
tails thickener and is pumped to the tails dam.
Concentrate Dewatering is an important process in mineral processing. Dewatering removes water absorbed by the particles
which increases the pulp density. The water extracted from the ore by dewatering recirculates for plant operations after being
sent to a water treatment plant.
Crushing Is a dry process used for coarse size reduction.
Crud Results from impurities that foam up in the electrolytic bath used in electrowinning; these are typically vacuumed from
the cells and returned to the leach operations.
Drainage Is the process of removing ground or surface water either by artificial means or by natural gravity flow.
Dredging Is the removal of mud from the bottom of water bodies using a scooping machine. This disturbs the ecosystem and
causes silting that can kill aquatic life. Dredging of contaminated mud can expose aquatic life to heavy metals and other toxics.
Dross Is the collection of impurities, typically metal oxides, which float on the molten metal in the furnace. Often, it consists
of materials that can be recovered for their mineral value through recycling or sending it on for further processing. Both dross
and slag have historically been disposed in waste piles. Current regulation in developed countries, however, calls for prescribed
landfill disposal if not recycled.
Dump and heap leach waste Following leaching, the large piles of spent ore that remain are usually left in place. These leach
piles vary widely in size: the largest may cover hundreds of acres, may rise to several hundred feet, and may contain tens of
millions of tons of leached ore. Reusable heap leach pad operations typically have a nearby waste unit for disposal of spent ore.
Alternatively, leached ore from pads may be moved to a dedicated dump for additional and long term dump leaching.
Uncollected leachate from these piles is a potential source of contamination of ground water, surface water, and soil. In
addition, other contaminants (notably, arsenic, mercury, and selenium, but also including many other heavy metals) that are
present in the spent ore may appear in leachate over time. Acid drainage may be generated from the oxidation of sulfide ores
and require control. For both dump and heap leaching, transport by wind-blown dust and/or storm-water erosion may result
in physical contamination.
Electrometallurgical operation Uses electric and electrolytic processes to purify metals or reduce metallic compounds to
metals.
Electrowinning Is an electrochemical process employed to extract metals such as copper, zinc, nickel, manganese, and
cadmium from ores. The electrolytic cell is the basic device used in this process, consisting of an inert anode, such as lead or
titanium, and a cathode, placed in an aqueous electrolyte containing the metal solution. The cathode is either a thin plate of
pure metal or a plate made from stainless steel or aluminum. Metal ions pass from the solution and are deposited onto the
cathode.
Electrowinning slimes Result from impurities that are separated from the economically valuable metals via the
electrowinning process. The slimes that settle out typically are recovered and treated to recover precious metals, such as gold
and silver.
Emphysema Is a chronic (long-term) lung disease that can become worse over time. It is usually caused by smoking. Having
emphysema means some of the air sacs in the lungs are damaged, making it hard to breathe.
Epidemiology Is a public health discipline combining statistical and medical investigation methods to study the distribution
and the determinants of health-related states and events in populations. The ultimate purpose of epidemiology is to improve
public health by contributing to the prevention, mitigation, or treatment of health problems.
Flotation water Is produced during milling processes in which valuable mineral particles are induced to become attached to
bubbles and float as others sink.
Gaseous wastes Include particulate matter (PM) and sulfur oxides (SOx). The majority of the emissions to the atmosphere is
produced during high-temperature chemical processes, such as smelting, and varies in their composition and potential for
environmental contamination. Environmental control technologies such as gravity collectors, cyclones, and electrostatic
precipitators are capable of removing up to 99.7% of dusts and fumes, and wet scrubbers typically remove 80%–95% of sulfur
oxide emissions.
Grinding Is the wet process used to reduce particle size. Chemicals such as lime, soda, sodium cyanide, and sulfur dioxide may
be added.
Heap leaching Is an industrial mining process to extract precious metals, copper, uranium and other compounds from the ore,
via a series of chemical reactions that absorb specific minerals. In heap leach operations, the ore is placed on lined pads in
engineered lifts or piles. The pad may be constructed such that heavy machinery may be used to off load the leached ore for
disposal prior to placing new ore on the pad but more commonly the heap remains in place when leaching ends. As with dump
leaching, the leachant may be applied by spray or portable drip units; recovery is from beneath the ore on the impermeable pad
(typically designed with a slight grade and a collection system).
Highwall Is the unexcavated face of exposed overburden and coal in a surface mine or a face bank on the uphill side of a
contour mine excavation.
Hydrometallurgy Is the treatment of ores, concentrates, and their metal-bearing material by wet processes, usually involving
the solution of some component, and its subsequent recovery from the solution.
 Mining Activities: Health Impacts 3

Leaching Is the process of extracting a soluble metallic compound from an ore by selectively dissolving it in a suitable solvent,
such as water, sulfuric acid, or sodium cyanide solution. The target metal is then removed from the “pregnant” leach solution
by one of several electrochemical or chemical means.
Leucopenia Is an abnormal lowering of the white blood cell count.
Limestone Is a sedimentary rock, composed primarily of calcium carbonate [CaCO3] in the form of mineral calcite. Its most
commonly forms occur in clear, warm, shallow marine waters. It is usually an organic sedimentary rock that forms from the
accumulation of shell, coral, algal, and fecal debris. It can also be a chemical sedimentary rock formed by precipitation of
calcium carbonate from lake or ocean waters.
Lime Is the commercial name for calcium oxide [CaO]. Calcium oxide is a white crystalline solid with a melting point of
2572
C. It is manufactured by heating limestone, corals, sea shells, or chalk, which are mainly CaCO3, to drive off carbon
dioxide.
Mesothelioma Is a rare form of cancer in which malignant (cancerous) cells are found in the mesothelium, a protective sac that
covers most of the body’s internal organs.
Mill Is a plant in which ore is treated and minerals are recovered or prepared for smelting. Mill is also a revolving drum used in
the grinding of ores in preparation for treatment.
Mine closure Occurs when the ore minerals are completely exhausted or when it is no longer profitable to recover the minerals
that remain. In some cases, mines may be closed temporarily during periods of low commodity prices expecting higher prices.
Mine water Is produced in a number of ways at mine sites, and can vary in its quality and potential for environmental
contamination. Water at mine sites is frequently monitored and various water management strategies have been developed to
reduce the amount of mine water produced, and treat the water before it is discharged to the environment.
Ore Separation might occur by: (a) Physical separation processes, such as Gravity, Magnetic and Flotation Separation—exploit
differences in the physical properties or behavior of mineral particles, which is not chemically altered, although chemical
reagents may be used; or (b) Chemical separation processes, such as Leaching with Cyanide and Leaching with Sulfuric Acid—
involve the preferential leaching of one or more minerals for the recovery of metals.
Outcrop Is an exposure of rock or mineral deposit that can be seen on surface that is not covered by soil or water.
Overburden Includes the soil and rock that are removed to gain access to the ore deposits at open pit mines. It is usually piled
on the surface at mine sites where it will not obstruct further expansion of the mining operations. Overburden generally has a
low potential for environmental contamination, and is often used at mine sites for landscape contouring and revegetation
during mine closure.
Particulate matter Contains microscopic solids or liquid droplets that are so small that they can be inhaled and cause
deleterious health problems. Particles less than 10 mm (PM10) in diameter pose the greatest problems, because they can get in
to different parts of the respiratory system, and smaller ones may even get into bloodstream.
Pit Mines are used when deposits of commercially useful minerals or rocks are found near the surface; that is, where the
overburden (surface material covering the valuable deposit) is relatively thin or the material of interest is structurally
unsuitable for tunneling.
Pneumoconiosis Is an occupational lung disease and a restrictive lung disease caused by the inhalation of dust, often in mines,
such as asbestos fibers, silica dust, and coal mine dust.
Potliner Is the electrolytic processes, with conductive carbon, used to separate elemental aluminum from the alumina raw
material. The process takes place in electrolytic cells known as pots. During the operation, substances, including aluminum and
fluorides, are absorbed into the cell lining. The Spent Potliner is the waste material generated from the potliner processes and
was listed by the US EPA as a hazardous waste. The hazardous properties are due to: (a) Toxic fluoride and cyanide compounds
that are leachable in water and may contain toxic levels of As and Se, as well as detectable levels of Cd, Cr, Ba, Pb, Hg, Ag, and
sulfates; (b) is corrosive with high pH due to alkali metals and oxides; and (c) is reactive with water, producing inflammable,
toxic and explosive gases.
Pyrometallurgical A metallurgical process is referred to as a pyrometallurgical when it is used for the extraction and
purification of metals by processes involving the application of high temperatures. Pyrometallurgy alters the mineral
chemically and reduces it to the free metal. The most important pyrometallurgical operations are roasting, smelting, and
refining. Roasting, or heating in air without fusion, transforms sulfide ores into oxides and the sulfur escapes as sulfur dioxide
[SO2], a gas. Smelting is the process used in blast furnaces to reduce iron ores. Sn, Cu, and Pb ores are also smelted and the
refining removes the impurities from materials.
Quarry Is an open pit mine that produces building materials and dimension stones.
Radionuclide Is an unstable form of a chemical element that radioactively decays, resulting in the emission of nuclear
radiation. Any element with an excess of either neutrons or protons in the nucleus is unstable and tends toward radioactive
decay with the emission of energy that may be measurable with a detector in terms of “half-life.” This excess of energy can be
either emitted from the nucleus gamma radiation, or a new particle (alpha particle or beta particle) can be created and released
from the nucleus, or the excess of energy can be transferred to one of its electrons, causing that electron to be ejected as a
conversion electron. Some radionuclides occur naturally in the environment, while others are man-made, either deliberately or
as byproducts of nuclear transformations.
Refining Is the process of purification of a substance, like metals and petroleum for instance.
4 Mining Activities: Health Impacts

Roasting Involves heating an ore to produce some chemical change that will facilitate smelting. It can also include the reaction
with a gas. It is typically used to convert sulfides to oxides by reaction with air (air is commonly used as an oxidizing agent due
to costs management).
Roaster fine Is a reverberatory furnace or a muffle used in roasting ore.
Seepage Is the slow movement of water through the pore spaces of a solid material. This term is also applied to a loss of water
by infiltration through the bottom of a stream, canal, irrigation ditch, reservoir, or other body of water.
Shaft Is a primary vertical or nonvertical opening through mine strata used for ventilation or drainage and/or for hoisting of
workers or materials. It connects the surface with the underground work.
Silicosis Is a lung disease caused by inhaling silica particulate matter. Silica is a mineral that is part of sand, rock, and mineral
ores, such as quartz. It mostly affects workers exposed to silica dust in occupations such as mining, glass manufacturing, and
foundry work. Silicosis causes slowly progressive fibrosis of the lungs, impairment of lung function, and a tendency to
tuberculosis of the lungs.
Siltation Is the pollution of water by particulate terrestrial clastic material, with a particle size dominated by silt or clay. It refers
to the increased concentration of suspended sediments and to the increased accumulation of fine sediments on bottoms where
they are undesirable. Siltation is most often caused by soil erosion or sediment spill.
Sinking Injection extending excavations downward at or near the vertical plane series of wells are drilled into the ore body and
a solvent circulated through the formation by injection.
Slag Is a substance formed by chemical action and fusion at furnace operating temperatures.
Slope Is a primary inclined opening, connecting the surface with the underground workings.
Sludge Is produced at active water treatment plants, used at some mine sites, and consists of the solids that had been removed
from the water as well as any chemicals that had been added to improve the efficiency of the process. Although ways of
recycling metals contained in the sludges are being explored, the majority of sludge has little economic value and is handled as
waste. Disposal of water treatment residues in underground mine workings is the least expensive option where it is permitted
and environmentally safe. In extreme cases where the sludge is rich in cadmium or arsenic, it may be classified as hazardous
waste and require special handling and disposal.
Slurry Is a fine carbonaceous discharge from a mine washery. All washeries produce some slurry, which must be treated to
separate the solids from the water, to have a clear effluent for reuse or discharge.
Smelting Is the chemical reduction of a metal from its ore by a process, usually, involving fusion so that earthy and other
impurities separate as lighter and more fusible slags and can readily be removed from the reduced metal. An example is the
reduction of iron ore (iron oxide) by coke in a blast furnace to produce pig iron. Smelting may also involve preliminary
treatment of the ore, such as by calcination and further refining processes, before the metal is fit for a particular industrial use.
Spent Carbon Is the waste product remaining after the desired metals have been removed from activated carbon. The activated
carbon may contain other metals and chemicals that were in the ore or used in the process, including mercury or cyanide. The
spent carbon is often “reactivated” in the mining process.
Spent furnace (refractory) brick Is the material originated from the furnace or refractory liner and occurs in a relatively small
quantity. Smelters within some mineral processing sectors return this material to the blast furnace to recover any accumulated
mineral value; otherwise, this material is placed in disposal units. At some historical sites these bricks remain, creating the need
for remediation.
Spent leachate Is a waste generated from leachate processes. When the leach operation is decommissioned or the leachate
become necessary for replacement, the spent leachate becomes a waste requiring appropriate management. Leachate in the
piles may continue to be released after operations cease. For example, where gold extraction processes use cyanide to leach the
metal from the host rock, the unpurged or untreated cyanide solution may be washed by rain and snowmelt into streams or
ground water systems if recovery and recycling systems are not working properly.
Subsidence Is the sinking of the ground due to underground material movement. It is most often caused by the removal of
water, oil, natural gas, or mineral resources of the ground by pumping, fracking, or mining activities. Subsidence can also be
caused by natural events such as earthquakes, soil compaction, glacial isostatic adjustment, erosion, sinkhole formation, and
adding water to fine soils deposited by wind.
Tailings Are a thick slush of waste materials left over after an economically profitable mineral is extracted from ore. They
consist of crushed rock, small quantities of metals, naturally occurring elements that are toxic when exposed to air, such as
arsenic, mercury, sulfur and cadmium and additives used in processing, such as petroleum byproducts, sulfuric acid and
cyanide. Tailings are usually stored in facilities on the surface, in ponds or in the form of piles or dry stacks. They are sometimes
stored underground, by mixing the tailings with cement that fill “voids” in an underground operation. This mixture is known
as backfill.
Tailing impoundment Is a surface retaining structure designed to store both tailings and mine waters, with the aim of
reclaiming the water for use in the processing plant as required. Tailings water is usually pumped back to the mill to be reused
in the milling process. In this way, mine water is recycled over and over again, significantly reducing the amount of water that
must be taken from the environment.
Tailings pond Is a wet storage area for tailings that allows them to be continuously submerged.
 Mining Activities: Health Impacts 5

Void Is a general term for pore space or other openings in rock. In addition to pore space, the term includes vesicles, solution
cavities, or any primary or secondary openings.
Waste rock Is the material that contains minerals in concentrations considered too low to be profitably extracted. Waste rock is
often stored in heaps or dumps on the mine site, but may be stored underwater with tailings if it contains a lot of sulfide
minerals and has a high potential for acid rock drainage formation. Waste rock dumps are generally covered with soil and
revegetated following mine closure, although there are cases of waste rock being re-mined due to an increase in mineral market
prices or improvements in extraction technology.
Well Is a borehole or shaft sunk into the ground for the following purposes: (a) obtaining water, oil, gas, or mineral solutions
from an underground source; (b) introducing water, gas, or chemical reagent solutions under pressure into an underground
formation; or (c) removing the leachate from such an operation.

Abbreviations
AMD Acid mine drainage
ARD Acid rock drainage
ATSDR Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
CERCLA Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act
DHHS United States Department of Health and Human Services
EIS Environmental Impact Statement
EU European Union
GDP Gross domestic product
HIV/AIDS Human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
IARC International Agency for Research on Cancer
NEPA National Environmental Policy Act
NGO Nongovernmental organization
OSH Occupational Safety and Health
PM Particulate matter
PTE Potentially toxic elements
RCRA Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
US EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency
WHO World Health Organization

Introduction

Natural resources are randomly distributed on the earth, being very important for the survival and development of humankind.
Mining is one of the oldest and most important activities in the history of human civilization as it provides the raw ingredients to
most of the materials available. Mining products are vital and indispensable to our modern society and contribute significantly to
our wealth, being a major economic activity. The demand for ore comes from the beginning of the human existence and this activity
plays a key role for human survival and development. The American mining industry, which predates the Revolutionary War, has
played an essential role in the economic well-being and in the national security of the United States. Without mining, the
development of the western United States as we currently know it would not have been possible. Europe has an unquestionable
importance in the world economy and mineral extraction plays an important role in the supply and also in the consumption of all
groups of explored minerals. Rich and complex geologies, with considerable mineral potential, normally contribute significantly to
the gross domestic product (GDP) of their countries. The use of minerals by countries worldwide is extensive and includes electricity
generation, production of cement, steel, agricultural lime, commercial and residential building materials, asphalt, and medicines, as
well as countless household, electronic, and other manufactured products. Nevertheless the mining industry routinely modifies the
surrounding landscape by exposing previously undisturbed earthen materials, whether in small or large scale. Ore exploitation,
extraction and processing activities generate substantial amounts of solid and liquid wastes that can have deleterious impacts both
in the occupational and in environmental contexts. The environmental impact of past mine development was high, once the
industrial mining activities were developed without the environmental concerns that currently prevail and severe negative
environmental impacts still remain, inherited from ages and cultures with different values as many early mine operators disregarded
the damaging environmental consequences of their activities and for which remedial action is now imperative.
Mining operations are diverse and include abandoned radioactive tailings, mercury and other toxic heavy metals entering the
food chain, leakages and failures of tailings dams, invasion and depletion of aquifers, acid mine drainage affecting wide areas and
6 Mining Activities: Health Impacts

abandoned mines requiring remediation. The extent of environmental damage caused by these mining operations was only
understood after the shut down the mine, being the reason why serious environmental problems of the past are still currently
affecting the health of the populations.
In a complex framework of interventions associated with the recovery operations of the degraded mining areas environmental
rehabilitation of abandoned mines is needed. Nevertheless the effects of environmental rehabilitation of abandoned mines are felt
only in the medium and long term, thus requiring the adoption of concepts and perspectives different from those established and
regulated for the present and future activities related to mine closures.

Minerals and Mining

The definitions of a mine site are diverse. In 1982, the US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) has defined a mine as “an area
of land upon, or under, which minerals or metal ores are extracted from natural deposits in the earth by any methods, including the
total area upon which such activities occur or disturb the natural land surface.”
There are several methods used to mine a specific mineral commodity. Mineral commodities can be grouped into three broad
categories: metallic minerals, nonmetallic or industrial minerals, and fuel minerals. Examples of minerals belonging to these three
groups are shown in Table 1.
Metals and nonmetals usually occur in nature as ores. An ore is a mineral or a rock containing a sufficiently high concentration of
useful nonmetallic or metallic products, which justifies the exploitation. Treatment is necessary in order to separate them from the
rejected materials within the extracted rock. Some of the minerals produced, such as coals and salts, do not need an intense
treatment after mining. In some cases, it is necessary to wash or process these products by different methods to increase their quality;
still their properties remain almost unchanged.

Mining Operations

The life cycle of a mine involves complex mining operations. These consist essentially of: (a) prospecting or exploration; (b) mining;
(c) mineral processing; (d) metallurgic processing; and (e) closure (Fig. 1).
Exploration is an activity generally performed before mining and conducted to discover deposits with economic interest. Since
the 1980s of the last century, most mining companies developed a more consciously organized approach to exploration and
prospecting. Additionally to this geological mapping activity, new techniques, considered as cost effective, were developed in order
to the detect orebodies, like photogeological, geophysical, and geochemical techniques.
Mining involves the removal of the desired minerals to the surface. Mining techniques can be divided into: (a) surface mining,
with the excavation at the earth’s surface; and (b) underground mining. Open pit mining involves excavation of an area of
overburden and removal of the ore exposed in the resulting pit. The method selected depends on several factors, such as the
geology of the mineral deposit, physical characteristics, environmental factors, and cost-effective results.
The mineral processing and dressing refers to all the mechanical, physical, and chemical methods used to separate minerals from
the gangue and to treat them. This is generally the most polluting stage and the one that generates the highest number of risks to the
ecosystems and human health. It includes three types of operations: preparation, concentration, and conditioning. At the end of
these three stages, the ore will be more concentrated but the purity achieved is relatively low.
Main wastes produced in this stage can be grouped in overburden, waste rock, tailings, slags, mine waters, water treatment
sludge, gaseous wastes, and rejected materials. Overburden is generated at surface mines to expose the ore beneath (i.e., soils and
rock), which is stored and stockpiled for use in reclamation during closure or decommissioning of the mine. Sources of mine waters
are groundwater seepage, surface water inflow, direct precipitation, and waters from the beneficiation processes. These waters may
contain significant concentrations of heavy metals and altered pH (mainly highly acidic). Rejected materials consist of nonminer-
alized and low-grade mineralized rock removed from, around, or within the orebody during extractions activities. These materials
were submitted to beneficiation techniques to separate them from the ore. It includes granular, broken rock, and soils ranging in size
from fine sand to large boulders. Geochemistry of the rejected materials varies widely with the geological context and with the
divergent lithologic strata exposed.

Table 1 The three main groups of mineral commodities

Minerals Examples

Metallic Precious metals—native gold [Au], native silver [Ag], native platinum [Pt] Galena [PbS], hematite [Fe2O3], pyrite [FeS2], chalcopyrite [CuFeS2],
wolframite [(Mn,Fe)WO4], cassiterite [SnO2], rutile [TiO2], magnetite [Fe3O4]
Nonmetallic Asbestos [silicate minerals], gypsum [CaSO42H2O], calcite [CaCO3], quartz [SiO2], dolomite [CaMg(CO3)2], halite [NaCl], fluorite [CaF2], sands,
gravels
Fuels Coal (e.g., peat, lignite, anthracite, graphite), petroleum, natural gas, uranium
 Mining Activities: Health Impacts 7

Fig. 1 Flowchart showing the relationship between the main stages of the mine operations phases in sequential order: mining, crushing, grinding, ore separation,
and concentrate dewatering. From the mining phase two outputs: waste rock to the waste rock pile and waste water from both mining and the waste rock pile.

The coarse rejected materials are deposited in tailings, while the thinner rejected materials are deposited in open air impound-
ments (a.k.a. mud dams; Fig. 2).
Tailings may be a source of contamination, even though they have much lower concentrations of the target mineral(s) than the
mined ore. This is due to the presence of sulfides, such as pyrite, metals (the targeted and others), and reagents added during
beneficiation processes. Certain tailings may be slurred as backfill in underground mines.
The type, amount, and properties of mineral wastes produced at different mines depend on the resource being mined, process
technologies used, and the geological context. Mining companies manage their mineral wastes in order to deal with the large
volumes produced and to prevent the release of mineral contaminants (e.g., heavy metals) into the environment. Mineral waste
management plans are developed as part of the mine approval process. They consist of mineral waste storage area selection and
design, strategies to address problematic mineral waste, and long-term stabilization of mineral waste as part of mine closure.
Leaching is the process of extracting a soluble metallic compound from an ore by selectively dissolving it in a suitable solvent,
such as water, sulfuric acid, or sodium cyanide solution. The target metal is then removed from the “pregnant” leach solution by one
of several electrochemical or chemical methods. Depending on the grade of the ore and the type of leaching operation for which the
ore is intended, some preprocessing may be required. Most heap and dump leach operations use ores that are not preprocessed.
The metallic compounds in the leach solution are recovered by one or more procedures. The most prominent examples include
the following:
 Precipitation: the metals dissolved in the leachate are forced into an insoluble solid form and then filtered or settled out for
recovery;
 Electrowinning: the leachate may be placed in an electrolytic cell and an electric charge applied;
 Carbon adsorption: activated carbon may be used to adsorb the metal concentrations from the solution; the carbon is then leached
to recover the adsorbed metals;
 Cementation: in this method, the metal is “cemented” out of solution by replacement with less active metal; and
 Solvent extraction: a chemical-specific solvent that may be used to selectively extract a mineral value dissolved in the leachate. This
is often used in the case of copper ore leaching—an organic chemical dispersed in a kerosene diluent. The copper may then be
extracted from the organic base with a strong sulfuric acid which can be electrowinned.
Several types of leaching wastes and hazardous materials are formed, such as dump and heap leach waste, spent leachate and spent
carbon, electrowinning slimes, and crud. If these wastes are not correctly managed, they can also be potential sources of
contamination of groundwater, surface water, and soil, when transported by windblown dust or stormwater erosion.
The metallurgical processing refers to the melting and refining operations that are used to produce pure metals or to prepare
alloys. Part of these processes can be carried out on site, but they usually occur someplace else. This process includes several
operations, namely, pyrometallurgical operations (e.g., smelting, refining, and roasting), hydrometallurgic operations
(e.g., digestion of phosphate in producing phosphoric acid), and electrometallurgic operations (e.g., electrolytic refining).
Similar to the other processes, metallurgical handling also produces different types of mineral wastes, such as slag and dross,
spent furnace (refractory) brick, potliner, and roaster fines. A number of these wastes are recycled and sent back to the mineral
processing facilities as they contain high levels of metals but others are disposed off or dispersed at the mine site, contaminating the
environment with heavy metals, sulfates, cyanides, and many other substances. It is crucial to manage wastes produced in each
operation to reduce environmental impact of mining activities to an acceptable level.
8 Mining Activities: Health Impacts

(A) (B) (C)

Fig. 2 (A) Tailing deposit with the coarse rejected materials; (B) detail of a dumper transporting and depositing rejected material in a tailing with 7 Mm3; and
(C) mud dam, with the thinner materials rejected.

At the end of exploitation, mines are either closed or abandoned with or without a proper restoration and management. The
company that requests a mine license has also to submit a mine closure project to prevent this abandon and promote restoration.

Mine Closure

Mines have a limited lifetime which is determined by the size and quality of the mineral deposit being extracted. The operating life
of a mine lasts from few years to several decades. Mine closure is the process of shutting down the mining operations on a temporary
or permanent basis. Mines are closed when the ore minerals are completely exhausted or when it is no longer profitable to recover
the minerals that remain. In some cases, mines may be closed temporarily and put into a status called care and maintenance, also
known as temporary suspension. This is frequently done during periods of low commodity prices in the expectation that higher
prices in the future will make further commercial operations financially viable.
Mine closure plans are required worldwide before a mining permit is granted. The mining companies must demonstrate that the
site will not pose a threat to the environment or to the health of the society. Mine closure activities typically consist of: (a) Shut-
down, once production stops, and the number of workers is reduced to a minimum; (b) Decommissioning during which the
mining processing facilities and equipment are taken apart. Pipelines are drained, equipment and parts are cleaned and sold,
buildings are repurposed or demolished, warehouse materials are recovered, and waste is disposed off; (c) Remediation or the
cleanup of the contaminated area to safe levels by removing or isolating contaminants. At mining sites, remediation often consists
of isolating contaminated material in pre-existing tailings storage facilities, capping tailings and waste rock piles with clean topsoil,
and collecting and treating any contaminated mine water if necessary; (d) Reclamation, which involves activities such as removing
hazardous materials, the physical stabilization of the terrain (e.g., dams, waste rock piles), landscaping, restoring topsoil, and the
return of the land to a useful purpose; (e) Restoration, which is the process of rebuilding the ecosystem that existed at the mine site
before it was disturbed using native plants; (f ) Rehabilitation, that is, the establishment of a stable and self-sustaining ecosystem,
not necessarily the one that had existed before mining began. In many cases, complete restoration is impossible, but successful
remediation, reclamation, and rehabilitation can result in the timely establishment of a functional ecosystem; and (g) Postclosure,
that is, assessing through a monitoring program, the effectiveness of the reclamation measures and identifying any corrective action
that may be needed. Mining operations often begin closure and remediation during active operations.
Large areas of land may be disturbed through ore extraction and other mining activities. When the waste rock and tailings
contain significant amounts of sulfide minerals and are exposed to air and water, acid rock drainage (ARD) can occur. Disturbed
areas that are not stabilized can be susceptible to erosion caused by both wind and water. Erosion can lead to problems with dust as
well as water quality problems related to sedimentation. As a result, every mine requires its own waste characterization, prediction,
monitoring, control, and treatment.
Following mine closure, mine sites usually return to their premine uses, which is wildlife habitat or forestry. However some
creative and successful reuses of decommissioned mines, taking advantage of the existing infrastructures, have been used as:
museums or education centers, visitor attractions, scientific centers, recreational areas, and gardens or parks.

Abandoned Mines

Abandoned mines, sites where mining activities occurred but where acceptable mine closure and reclamation did not take place, are
one of the most significant pollution threats and a main issue in many countries. Our legacy of mining for coal, metal ores and other
minerals dates back to the Bronze Age.
The environmental effect of mineral wastes depends on its type and composition, which vary considerably with the commodity
being mined, type of ore, and technologies used to process the ore. The environmental considerations common to all types of metal
 Mining Activities: Health Impacts 9

mined are: hazardous materials, hazardous and unsafe facilities, contaminated sites, acid drainages, radioactive materials (radio-
active wastes at uranium mines), fibrous (including asbestiform) materials, nontarget metals and target metal residues in mine
wastes, management of mine pit lakes, adverse impacts on surface and groundwater quality, dispersive and sodic materials, erosive
materials, design and maintenance of surface water management structures, dust emissions, flora and fauna diversity and threatened
species, challenges associated with rehabilitation and revegetation, visual amenity, heritage issues, alteration of the direction of
groundwater flow, alteration of the depth to water table of the local superficial aquifer and alteration of the hydrology and flow of
surface waters.

Environmental Impacts From Abandoned Mines: Sources, Exposure Pathways and Effects
Mineral resources have been exploited worldwide for many centuries with little environmental control. This is largely because
environmental impacts were not understood or recognized as they are nowadays. In addition, the available technology was not
always able to prevent or control environmental damage.
Our lives and livelihoods depend on a clean, healthy water environment. Water is a human basic need, for example, to drink, to
agriculture, and also to support diverse habitats. Activities related to mining cause contamination of aquatic ecosystems and soils,
modify the landscape, lead to subsidence and changes in vegetation. These lead to consequences such as loss or degradation of
groundwater, pollution of surface waters, loss of productive land, and air pollution from dust and/or toxic gases and associated
health implications. Studies report several adverse effects caused by mining wastes at all levels of organization from cellular to
ecosystem level. Scientists were able to establish a causal connection between mining activities and the accumulation of trace
elements at concentrations that are potentially harmful to all organisms’ health.
Potential environmental issues associated with mining activities may include management of the following items: tailings; waste
materials; ARD/AMD, impact on waters quality and aquatic systems; soils (also including land use and biodiversity); stream
sediments; particulate matter; gaseous emissions, and landscape disturbance. These items are discussed one after the other in the
following.
Tailings: Waste dumps and tailing ponds associated with the residues of mining operations consist of deposits of materials from
the rocks encasing the ore, of minerals with valuable content below the cut-off grade, or of materials rejected in the concentration
processes. The many thousands of mines, around the world, that have been abandoned, have left behind tailings and tailing ponds.
These have enhanced the water runoff from the mine that contains heavy metals and other pollutants, running into the watercourses
(Fig. 3). Other more recently closed mines are filled up with groundwater and will start discharging in the future.
Physical and chemical nature of the tailings: The physical and chemical nature of the tailings varies depending on the ore being
milled and the milling processes applied. Thus, the extent and degree of heavy metal contamination around the mines varies
depending upon milling practices, geochemical characteristics, and mineralization of tailings.
Waste material: The production of large amounts of waste materials (often very acidic) has led to major environmental and
health concerns. The major environmental impacts from waste disposal at mine sites can be divided into two categories: the loss of
productive land following its conversion to a waste storage area, and the introduction of sediment, acidity, and other contaminants
into surrounding surface and groundwater from water running over exposed problematic or chemically reactive mineral wastes. The
extraction of metals from sulfide minerals usually results in large amounts of waste materials, tailings, and acid mine drainages,
which often contain high concentrations of potentially toxic elements (PTE). These materials containing significant proportions of
metals and metalloids are susceptible of physical or/and chemical reactions when in contact with the atmosphere. Metals and

Fig. 3 Sources and pathways associated with mining pollution. Adapted from Younger, P. L. (2002). Iron. In: D’Arcy, B. J., Ellis, J. B., Ferrier, R. C., Jenkins, A., and
Dils, R. (eds.) Diffuse pollution impacts: The environmental and economic impacts of diffuse pollution in the UK. Suffolk: Chartered Institution of Water and
Environmental Management.
10 Mining Activities: Health Impacts

metalloids can be dispersed due to the weathering and erosion process of the tailings either by the influence of the wind or by
percolation downstream of pluvial waters due to the sulfides leaching, carrying acidity and other contaminants to the surrounding
environment. High concentrations of heavy metals can be found in and around abandoned and active mines due to the discharge
and dispersion of these waste materials into nearby water bodies’ soils, food crops and stream sediments leading to a loss of
biodiversity, amenity, and economic well-being as well as pose a potential health risk to residents in the vicinity of the mining area.
ARD/AMD: One of the most important environmental impacts originates from acid drainages (ARD or acid mine drainage—
AMD). Exposure of sulfide minerals to air and humidity causes oxidation, leading to sulfuric acid formation, which can persist for
several years. Highly acidic water solubilizes heavy metals (aluminum, arsenic, cadmium, copper, lead, nickel, and zinc) transport-
ing them into streams and rivers. This will cause a problem either by the consumption of fish where these heavy metals have been
bioaccumulated or by the consumption of plants irrigated with these waters and/or because the water is not purified prior to
drinking.
Impact on waters and aquatic systems: Mining operations can affect groundwater quality in diverse ways. Dissolved pollutants at a
mine site are primarily metals but may include sulfates, nitrates, and radionuclides. They might migrate from mining operations to
local ground and surface water. Dissolved metals include heavy metals, which are of great concern for public health as they can cause
several adverse health problems, including cancer. Worldwide there are rivers at risk of failing to meet international guideline targets
of good chemical and ecological status because of abandoned mines. These rivers transport large discharges of metals, such as
cadmium, iron, copper, and zinc. In some areas, important drinking water supply aquifers are polluted or threatened by plumes of
sulfate and chloride. The impacts on aquatic communities can have serious environmental consequences including reduced
numbers and diversity of invertebrates, increase of fish mortalities, loss of fish reproduction and a reduction in numbers and
biodiversity in the river. The ochre deposited by iron-rich mine waters can decimate freshwater species by smothering the river bed
with iron hydroxides. Fish populations are particularly susceptible to such pollution as they need open, well-aerated gravels to lay
their eggs in. Low-pH waters can be directly toxic, causing damage to the biodiversity. Acidic conditions might also increase the
solubility and toxicity of metals such as aluminum, copper, lead, zinc, and cadmium.
Soils: Soils are very prone to contamination via hydrological and atmospheric pathways. Metal mining and smelting generate
tailing drainage, soils being one of the receptors. This mineral waste disposal causes a significant impact, posing serious environ-
mental concerns. The smelter emissions as well as wind-blown dust from mine tailings and smelter slag dumps are generally the
main point sources of metal/metalloid (e.g., As, Cd, Cr, . . .) soil pollution. Environmental concerns arise when soils are the
receptors of tailings drainage (from metal mining and smelting), creating impacts. As a direct outcome of mining activities, soils are
commonly affected over a significant area, the extent being dependent by several factors, for example, the slopes, wind direction and
intensity, and watercourses system. The soil fine fraction is usually enriched in metals, because the fine particles have relative large
surface areas which enable the adsorption and metal binding to iron and manganese oxides, to clays and to the soil organic matter.
These polluted soils pose a risk to soil microbes. These organisms are extremely important for the nutrient cycling; they are the
primary decomposers of soil organic matter, making nutrients available to higher trophic levels. Humans might be affected by the
potentially toxic elements by different exposure pathways, for example, direct ingestion of soils and dust blown by the wind,
ingestion of vegetables that are grown on contaminated soils, drinking polluted waters, dusts adhering to plants and skin, dusts
inhalation.
Stream sediments: Mining processes can also affect the contamination of stream sediments when dissolved pollutants or
pollutants attached to or contained in suspended particulates are discharged into the surface waters. Sediments, resulting from
increased soil erosion, cause siltation or the smothering of streams. This siltation affects fisheries, swimming, domestic water,
irrigation, and other uses of stream waters. Some potentially toxic elements associated with discharges from mining operations
(e.g., lead and arsenic) may be found at high concentrations in the sediments. Contamination of stream sediments can affect human
health through the consumption of fish or other biota that bioaccumulate toxic substances. Sediment contamination provides a
long-term source of pollutants through potential redissolution in the water column. This may lead to chronic contamination of
water and aquatic organisms.
Particulate matter (PM): PM is released by surface mining when overburden is stripped from the site and stored or returned to the
pit. When the overburden soil is removed, vegetation is also removed, exposing the geogenic soil to the weather, causing particulates
to become airborne through wind erosion and road traffic. PM can contain potentially toxic elements, such as arsenic, cadmium,
and lead. In general, particulates affect human health adversely by contributing to illness relating to the respiratory tract, such as
emphysema, but they can also be ingested or be absorbed by the skin.
Gaseous emissions: The gaseous emissions are also a relevant factor to be considered since some gaseous emissions like sulfur
oxide affect the downwind environments through acid precipitation or dry deposition. Some elements like arsenic, zinc, mercury,
and cadmium vaporize when heated in pyrometallurgical processes. If they are not captured and condensed during these processes,
they will escape to the surrounding environment.
Landscape disturbance: Finally, mining can cause physical disturbances to the landscape, such as waste rock piles and open pits.
These disturbances may contribute to the decline of wildlife and plant species in the area. It is possible that many of premining
surface features cannot be restored after mining closure. The instability of mining structures is a very important issue. For instance,
mining subsidence (e.g., ground movements due to the collapse of overlying strata into voids by ground mining) can cause damage
to buildings, pipelines, and roads.
 Mining Activities: Health Impacts 11

Environmental Problems Related to Arsenic and Cadmium

Two of the most toxic elements that can be found in contaminated waters from mining activities are arsenic and cadmium (Table 2).
Arsenic: Arsenic is a carcinogenic metalloid that bioaccumulates in algae, crustacean, and fish. It has been ranked highest in
priority on a list of top 10 hazardous substances by the World Health Organization (WHO). Since 1987, it is recognized as a human
carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Arsenic is possibly the only human carcinogen for which
there is sufficient evidence of a carcinogenic risk both by inhalation and ingestion. The inorganic forms of arsenic, arsenite (As3þ)
and arsenate (As5þ), are highly toxic and mobile in the environment, being As3þ 10 times more toxic than As5þ. Arsenic exposure in
mining areas mainly occurs through consumption of contaminated waters and food and by breathing polluted air. Many cases of
acute and chronic arsenic poisoning have been reported worldwide. Symptoms of acute poisoning usually occur within 30 min of
ingestion and may result in gastrointestinal discomfort, vomiting, coma, and sometimes even death. Chronic poisoning may result
in anemia, leucopenia, skin cancer, and other internal cancers, leading in severe cases to death.
Cadmium: Cadmium is a heavy metal with highly toxic effects, which bioaccumulates in human kidney and liver. In 1993, the
IARC has determined that cadmium is carcinogenic to humans. Cadmium is number 7 in the priority list of hazardous substances
by the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). Cadmium poisoning has been reported from many parts of the
world. It is one of the global health problems that affect many organs and in can lead to death. Long-term exposure to cadmium
through air, water, soil, and food leads to cancer and organ system toxicity such as skeletal, urinary, reproductive, cardiovascular,
central, and peripheral nervous, and respiratory systems. Acute inhalation exposure to high levels of cadmium may result in adverse
effects on lungs, such as bronchial, and pulmonary irritation. Chronic inhalation or oral exposure to cadmium results in severe
effects on the kidney, liver, lung, bone, immune system, blood, and nervous system.

Environmental Problems Related to Mining for Specific Elements

Uranium mining: Uranium mining and processing are associated with a wide range of potential adverse human health risks. These
health risks are typically most relevant to individuals occupationally exposed in this industry but certain exposures and their
associated risks can extend via environmental pathways to the general population. After the removal of high-grade uranium, a gross
volume of hazardous wastes is originated and left behind. Tailings containing most of the radionuclides species are disposed in
open air piles. Radionuclides and toxic chemicals then become readily available for dispersal through the hydrologic and
atmospheric processes. Additionally, tailings release radioactive radon gas into the environment. The decay products of uranium
(e.g., 230Th, 226Ra) provide a constant source of radiation in uranium tailings for thousands of years. Radiation typically found in
uranium mining or processing facilities includes alpha (a), beta (b), and gamma (g) radiation. All three are types of ionizing
radiation—energy in the form of particles or waves that has sufficient strength to remove electrons from atoms. When radionuclides
that decay by a emission (e.g., polonium-218, polonium-214) are inhaled, they have the potential to impart a significant dose to the
pulmonary epithelium. The dose of a energy delivered by an a particle to the DNA in a cell in the respiratory epithelium is fixed and
not dependent on concentration or duration of the exposure. Although a particles can travel only a short distance, they impart a
much greater effective dose than b particles or g rays (NRC, 1988, 1999). The high effective doses from a particles, when compared
with b particles or g rays, result from their relatively high energy combined with their very short ranges in tissue. Alpha particles are
notable among environmental carcinogens because of their potent ability to produce a high proportion of double-strand DNA
breaks per particle. Double-strand DNA breaks are more difficult for the body to repair.
The Committee on Uranium Mining in Virginia, the Committee on Earth Resources, and the National Research Council, in 2012,
published the “Uranium Mining in Virginia: Scientific, Technical, Environmental, Human Health and Safety, and Regulatory
Aspects of Uranium Mining and Processing in Virginia.” This document clarifies that the exposure to radon decay products generally
represents the greatest radiation-related health risk from uranium-related mining and processing operations. Radon’s alpha-
emitting radioactive decay products are strongly and causally linked to lung cancer in humans. Indeed, the populations in which
this has been most clearly established are uranium miners that were occupationally exposed to radon. Radiation exposures to the
general population resulting from off-site releases of radionuclides (e.g., airborne radon decay products, airborne thorium-230
(230Th) or radium-226 (226Ra) particles, 226Ra in water supplies) present some risk. The potential for adverse health effects increases
if there are uncontrolled releases as a result of extreme events (e.g., floods, fires, earthquakes) or human error, and is linked to
releases of radionuclides directly related to the population density near the mine or processing facility. Internal exposure to
radioactive materials during uranium mining and processing can take place through inhalation, ingestion, or through a cut in the
skin. External radiation exposure (e.g., exposure to beta, gamma, and to a lesser extent, alpha radiation) can also present a
health risk.
Gold mining: Cyanides are released by mining activities such as gold extraction. They include several types of inorganic and
organic compounds that contain the CN radical. Cyanide toxicity is related to the form in which it occurs. Free cyanide is the most
toxic of all the forms. Hydrocyanic acid is the most toxic of the simple compounds, and penetrates quickly in the organism and acts
by attaching itself to ferric iron [Fe3þ]. As this ion plays an active role in various enzyme systems, deactivation by cyanide of some of
those systems causes important adverse effects in the organism. Ingestion or inhalation of cyanide causes headache, chest pain, and
vomiting. Ingestion of a fatal dose is followed by respiratory difficulty, arrhythmia, and coma.
12 Mining Activities: Health Impacts
Table 2 Main potentially toxic elements found in mining environments, main sources, and effects
Metal Sources
Arsenic Arsenic can be found naturally on
the earth.
Is present in the air, water, and
land through windblown dust,
water runoff and leaching.
Large amounts of arsenic end up
in the environment and in living
organisms due to volcanoes,
microorganisms, and human
activities such as mining and
agriculture.
Cadmium Cadmium is a heavy metal that
can mainly be found in the
earth’s crust, associated with
zinc, lead, and copper ores.
Large amounts of cadmium are
naturally released in the
environment, namely, in rivers
through weathering of rocks,
into air through forest fires and
volcanoes.
Human activities such as mining
also release significant amounts
of cadmium in the environment.
Soils are the main final destination
of the industrial cadmium
wastes. Other important source
of cadmium in soils is the
appliance of artificial phosphate
fertilizers in farmlands.
Waste combustion and burning of
fossil fuels are a main source of
cadmium in the air.
Only small amounts of cadmium
are released in water through
disposal of wastewater from
households and industries.
Environmental effects
It cannot be destroyed in the
environment, but can change its
form.
Large amounts added can spread
and cause adverse health
effects to humans and animals.
The inorganic forms of arsenic,
arsenite (As3þ) and arsenate
(As5þ), are highly toxic and
mobile in the environment,
being As3þ 10 times more toxic
than As5þ.
High concentrations of arsenic
may be found in different parts
of the plants as they absorb
arsenic easily.
Plant eating freshwater organisms
accumulate arsenic in their
bodies and may affect the
animals higher up in the food
chain. Is a metalloid that
bioaccumulates in algae,
crustacean, and fish.
Acidified soils enhance cadmium
uptake by plants and this
causes a potential danger to the
animals, which feed on them,
and to the rest of the food chain.
Earthworms and other essential
soil organisms are extremely
susceptible to cadmium
poisoning. High concentrations
of cadmium in soils can
threaten the whole soil
ecosystem.
Cadmium may bioaccumulate in
several aquatic organisms
(mussels, oysters, shrimps,
lobsters, fish, etc.).
Saltwater organisms are known to
be the most resistant.
Animals exposed to cadmium
sometimes get high blood
pressures, liver disease, and
nerve or brain damage.
Human exposure
Humans can be exposed through
the consumption of
contaminated waters and food,
polluted air inhalation and by
smoking tobacco. Children, with
typical hand-to-mouth habits,
also can be exposed by eating
soil.
It may also occur through dermal
contact by air, soil and/or water.
Exposure may be higher for
people who work with arsenic
compounds, drink significant
amounts of wine, smoke, and
live in houses containing
conserved wood of any kind.
Also for those living on
farmlands where arsenic
containing pesticides have been
applied in the past.
Human uptake of cadmium occurs
through water and food
ingestion (liver, mushrooms,
shellfish, mussels, cocoa
powder, and dried seaweed)
and air inhalation.
Exposure to high concentrations of
cadmium takes place through
tobacco smoke. Cadmium is
transported into lungs and then
distributed through the whole
body.
Other high exposures occur with
people who live near hazardous
waste sites or factories that
release cadmium into the air
and people who work in refinery
industry.
Human health effects
Arsenic is one of the most toxic
elements. Arsenic and inorganic
arsenic compounds are
classified as carcinogenic to
humans (Group 1) by the
International Agency for
Research on Cancer (IARC),
since 1987. Is one of the
10 chemicals of major public
health concern for the World
Health Organization (WHO).
Many cases of acute and chronic
arsenic poisoning have been
reported worldwide.
Symptoms of acute poisoning
usually occur within 30 min and
can cause several health
effects, namely, irritation of the
stomach, lungs and intestines,
vomiting, decreased production
of red and white cells, skin
changes, coma and sometimes
death.
Chronic uptake of inorganic
arsenic may result in anemia,
leucopenia, development of
cancer, especially skin, lung,
liver and lymphatic cancers.
Can also cause infertility and
miscarriages in women, skin
disturbances, declined
resistance to infections, heart
disruptions, and DNA damage.
High exposure to organic arsenic
can cause nerve injury and
stomachaches.
Cadmium poisoning has been
reported in many parts of the
world. It is one of the global
health problems that affect
many organs and in can lead to
death.
Cadmium and cadmium
compounds are classified as
human carcinogenic (Group 1)
by IARC and is number 7 in the
priority list of hazardous
substances by the Agency for
Toxic Substances and Disease
Registry (ATSDR).
Breathing in cadmium can
severely damage the lungs and,
in last instance, can cause
death.
Cadmium is transported to the
liver and there it is bound to
proteins to form complexes that
are transported to the kidneys.
There, it bioaccumulates and
damages filtering operations
causing the excretion of
essential proteins and sugars
from the body.

Table 2 (Continued)
Metal Sources
Cyanides Cyanide is a general term for a
group of chemicals containing
carbon (C) and nitrogen (N).
Cyanide compounds include both
naturally occurring and human-
made chemicals. Naturally,
cyanide can be produced by
certain bacteria, fungi, algae,
and it is found in a number of
foods and plants. Cyanide is
used in the manufacture of
metal parts and numerous
common organic products,
electroplating, metallurgy, and
in the production of a wide
range of chemicals, such as
plastics, fire retardant,
cosmetics, dyes, nylon, paints,
pharmaceuticals.
Cyanide is one of only a few
chemical reagents that
dissolves gold in water and is
released in the environment by
gold mining activities. Cyanide
is used in a similar manner to
extract silver from ores. In the
extraction of on precious
metals, such as copper, nickel,
cobalt, and molybdenum,
cyanide could be used in the
milling and concentration
processes to separate the
desirable metals from the
wastes. Consequently, cyanide
and related compounds often
are contained in mine tailings.
Copper Copper is a very common
substance that occurs naturally
in the environment.
Copper is widely used and it is
applied mainly in agriculture
and mining industry.
The production of copper has
increased in past decades and
consequently large amounts of
copper ends up in the
environment.
Environmental effects
Cyanides are not persistent in
water or soil. Cyanides may
accumulate in bottom
sediments, but residues are
generally as low as <1 mg/kg
even near polluting sources.
Majority of an accidental release
of cyanide is volatilized to the
atmosphere where it is quickly
diluted and degraded by ultra
violet. Other factors, such as
biological oxidation,
precipitation and the effects of
sunlight also contribute to
cyanide degradation. There is
no evidence that cyanide is
teratogenic, mutagenic,
carcinogenic, or
bioaccumulative in humans,
animals, or aquatic life.
The majority of the absorbed
cyanide reacts with thiosulphate
in the presence of enzymes to
produce thiocyanate, which is
excreted in the urine over
several days. Owing to this rapid
detoxification, animals can
ingest high sub lethal doses of
cyanide over extended periods
without harm.
Cooper, for all living organisms, is
an essential element when in
low doses.
Copper can accumulate in plants
and animals, as it does not
break down in soils.
Soils with high amounts of cooper,
for example, near copper-
disposing factories, do not
present much vegetable
diversity.
Mining Activities: Health Impacts
Human exposure
People may be exposed to low
levels of cyanides in their daily
lives from foods, smoking and
other sources. Inhalation of
cyanide gas, especially within
an enclosed space, poses a
significant health risk. Ingestion
of food and beverages
containing cyanide can also
cause health effects. The limited
information available on dermal
exposure to cyanides suggests
that large enough doses cause
health effects similar to
inhalation and ingestion.
Copper can be found in food,
drinking water, and air. The
absorption of this element is
essential since it is a trace
element that is crucial for
human health.
Human can handle large
concentrations of copper but
high doses can cause problems.
Exposure to copper through
breathing is negligible as it
13
Human health effects
Excretion of bioaccumulated
cadmium from the kidney can
take a long time.
It may cause damages in liver,
diarrhea, stomach pains, and
severe vomiting, bone fracture,
reproductive failure, and
possibly infertility, damage to
the central nervous and immune
system, psychological disorders
and it may also cause DNA
damage leading to cancer
development.
Cyanide is acute toxic and is lethal
if ingested or inhaled.
Free cyanide is the most toxic of
all the forms. Hydrocyanic acid
is the most toxic of the simple
compounds, and penetrates
quickly in the organism and acts
by attaching itself to ferric iron
[Fe3þ]. As this ion plays an
active role in various enzyme
systems, deactivation by
cyanide of some of those
systems causes important
adverse effects in the organism.
The health effects from high levels
of cyanide exposure can begin
in seconds to minutes. Some
signs and symptoms of cyanide
poisoning are: weakness and
confusion; headache; nausea;
metabolic acidosis; gasping for
air in a manner similar to
asphyxiation, but with a more
abrupt onset; difficulty
breathing, respiratory arrest;
loss of consciousness; seizures
prior to death; cardiac arrest.
The central nervous system and
the myocardium are especially
sensitive to cyanide exposure
due to their high demand for
oxygen. The severity of health
effects experienced depend
upon the route and duration of
exposure, the dose, and the
form of cyanide.
Some of the long-term effects are
irritation of the nose, mouth,
and eyes and it causes
headaches, stomachaches,
dizziness, vomiting, and
diarrhea.
High uptakes of this substance
can cause liver and kidney
damage and even death.
Exposure to copper fumes, dust,
or mists may result in metal
(Continued )
14 Mining Activities: Health Impacts
Table 2 (Continued)
Metal Sources
Natural sources of copper are, for
instance, windblown dust,
decaying vegetation, forest
fires, and sea spray.
Copper compounds mostly settle
and bind to sediment or soil
particles.
Most water-soluble copper
compounds occur in the
environment after application in
agriculture.
It can travel long distances in
surface water, either suspended
on sludge particle or as free
ions.
Lead Lead occurs naturally in the
environment but most of what is
found results from human
activities such as mining and
agriculture. Lead is a main
constituent of several materials
like ancient water pipes,
lead–acid batteries, and
television screens.
Leaded gasoline is a major source
originating lead salts.
Other sources are solid waste
combustion and industrial
processes.
The larger particles fall into the
ground polluting soils or surface
waters.
The smaller ones travel long
distances and remain in the
atmosphere until it rains.
Lead can end up in water and
soils through corrosion of
leaded pipelines and leaded
paints.
It cannot be broken down only
converted in other forms.
Mercury Mercury can be found naturally in
the environment but rarely
occurs free.
It can be found in metal form,
such as salts or organic
compounds.
It enters the environment from
normal breakdown of minerals
in rocks and soils through
exposure to wind and water.
Human activities highly increase
mercury levels in the
environment, namely, in air
through fossil fuel, mining, and
smelting. Mercury has an ability
to bind to precious metals, and
for millennia, people have used
it to mine gold and silver. Small-
scale or artisanal gold mining,
which uses mercury, has
Environmental effects
Effects on plants can cause
serious problems to farmlands,
which still apply copper-
containing manures. If farmland
soils become polluted with
copper, animals like sheep may
be at risk and may cause
repercussions in all food chain.
Copper negatively influences
the activity of microorganisms
and earthworms.
This may severely slow down the
decomposition of organic
matter.
Lead accumulates in the body of
water and soil organisms, which
suffer severe health effects from
poisoning.
Shellfish experience health effects
at very small concentrations.
Phytoplankton is an essential
source of oxygen production
and many larger sea animals
feed on it. If their body functions
are disturbed, global balances
are negatively affected.
Soil organisms and consequently
soil functions are also affected
by lead poisoning, especially
those near highways and
farmlands.
Lead is a truly dangerous threat as
it accumulates not only in
individual organisms but also in
entire food chains.
Microorganisms can convert
mercury present in surface
waters and soils into methyl
mercury, which may be quickly
absorbed by many organisms.
Fishes absorb and accumulate
great amounts of this
compound, which may result in
the accumulation in food chains.
Some of the effects on animals
are kidney and intestines
damage, stomach disruption,
reproductive failure, and DNA
alteration.
Human exposure
occurs in low concentrations but
for people who live near
smelters that process copper
ore into metal may experience
this kind of exposure.
People living in houses with
copper plumbing are exposed to
higher levels of copper through
the release of this substance in
drinking water by pipe
corrosion. Soluble copper
compounds are major threat to
human health.
Lead can enter human body
through various routes, such as
uptake of contaminated food,
water, and air.
Fruits, vegetables, meats,
seafood, soft drinks, and wine
may contain large amounts of it.
Drinking water can become
contaminated through corrosion
of pipes especially and if is
slightly acidic. Public water
treatment systems are now
required to perform pH
adjustments in drinking water.
Cigarette smoke also contains
lead but in small amounts.
Mercury poisoning is the result of
exposure to mercury or mercury
compounds resulting in various
toxic effects depending on its
chemical form and route of
exposure. The major route of
human exposure to
methylmercury (MeHg) is largely
through eating contaminated
fish, seafood, and wildlife which
have been exposed to mercury
through ingestion of
contaminated lower organisms.
Mercury can also enter the human
body through the consumption
of plants to which mercury-
containing sprays had been
applied.
It is used in several household
products such as barometers,
Human health effects
fume fever with atrophic
changes in nasal mucous
membranes.
Chronic poisoning results in
Wilson’s disease, which is
characterized by hepatic
cirrhosis, brain damage,
demyelination, renal disease,
and copper deposition in the
cornea.
Copper is not classifiable as to its
carcinogenicity to humans
(Group 3) by IARC.
Some of the most relevant health
effects in humans are the
disruption of the biosynthesis of
hemoglobin leading to anemia,
high blood pressure, kidney and
brain damage, miscarriages and
subtle abortions, sperm
damage, which will cause
declining fertility in men,
disruption of nervous system,
reduced learning capacities and
behavior disturbance in
children.
Fetuses can be severely affected
by lead once it passes through
the placenta causing serious
damages to their nervous
system and brain.
According to IARC Lead is possibly
carcinogenic to humans (Group
2B), while lead inorganic
compounds are classified as
probably carcinogenic to
humans (Group 2A).
Mercury is ranked third, by the
ATSDR, of the most toxic
elements or substances that
continues to be dumped into
waterways and soil, spilled into
the atmosphere, and consumed
in the food and water. According
to an IARC report from 1993,
methyl mercury is possibly
carcinogenic to humans.
Mercury is not classifiable as to
its carcinogenicity to humans
(Group 3).
High exposure to mercury has
profound cellular,
cardiovascular, hematological,
pulmonary, renal,
immunological, neurological,
endocrine, reproductive, and
embryonic toxicological effects.

Table 2 (Continued)
Metal Sources
recently become the leading
source of mercury pollution.
Mining releases mercury into
the air when it is burned off to
isolate gold from a piece of rock
or slurry; it also seeps into the
soil and rivers from water used
in the process and runoff from
rainwater, contaminated by
materials left behind from
mining operations.
As a volatile element, mercury can
evaporate at relatively low
temperatures, and be deposited
out of the atmosphere by
chemical reactions back to the
soil or water bodies. Most of the
mercury that reaches the
oceans, after deposition or
washed by rivers is the mercury
that was already present in the
environment, much of it
spreading from chimneys or
gold mines, hundreds of years
ago.
The application of agricultural
fertilizers and the disposal of
industrial wastewater release
mercury into soils and water.
It is extremely used in
thermometers and barometers,
recovery of gold from ores and
more.
Acid surface waters contain much
higher mercury concentrations
as it is mobilized from the
ground.
Nickel Nickel occurs in the environment
at very low concentrations.
It usually occurs in ores, which are
mined in various countries
worldwide.
It is applied as a component of
steel and other products,
including jewelry.
Nickel is released into the air by
power plants and trash
incinerators.
It settles to the ground or falls
down with rain.
Nickel can also end up in surface
waters when present in
wastewater streams.
Most nickel released in the
environment becomes immobile
as it is adsorbed by sediment or
soil particles.
In acid soils, it becomes more
mobile and often runs off to
groundwater.
Environmental effects
High concentrations of nickel on
sandy soils can severely
damage plants and on surface
waters it can reduce the growth
rates of algae.
Microorganisms are also affected,
but they generally become
quickly resistant to nickel.
Nickel is an essential element for
animals at low concentrations.
It is extremely harmful when the
maximum tolerable amount is
exceeded as it can cause
different kinds of cancer,
especially in those organisms
living near refineries.
Mining Activities: Health Impacts
Human exposure
thermometers, and fluorescent
light bulbs. If some of those
broke, high exposure can
happen through breathing while
it vaporizes.
Humans can be exposed to nickel
by breathing contaminated air,
drinking contaminated water,
eating contaminated food, or
smoking cigarettes.
Dermal exposure can also occur
with contaminated soils and
waters.
Foodstuffs usually have small
amounts of nickel.
Chocolate and fats are an
exception as they contain higher
quantities. Smokers have high
uptake of nickel through
cigarette smoke.
15
Human health effects
MeHg toxicity is associated with
nervous system damage in
adults and impaired
neurological development in
infants and children. Ingested
mercury may undergo
bioaccumulation leading to
progressive increases in body
burdens.
Other effects of mercury exposure
are disruption of nervous
system, DNA and chromosomal
damage, negative reproductive
effects like sperm damage, birth
defects, and miscarriages.
Nickel is an essential element in
small amounts but when the
uptake is too high it can cause
severe damages to human
health.
Nickel compounds are classified
as human carcinogenic (Group
1) by IARC. While Nickel,
metallic and alloys are classified
as possibly carcinogenic to
humans (Group 2B).
Some of the most important
effects are increased chances of
developing lung, nose, larynx,
and prostate cancer, lung
embolism, respiratory failure,
birth defects, asthma and
chronic bronchitis, and heart
disorders.
Nickel exposure through breathing
can cause pneumonitis as
nickel fumes are respiratory
irritants.
Sensitive individuals may develop
dermatitis known as ‘nickel itch’
after exposure to nickel and its
compounds.
(Continued )
Table 2 (Continued)
Metal Sources
Uranium Uranium can be found naturally in
very small amounts in rocks,
soils, air, and water.
It is a radioactive element that is
very reactive so it cannot be
found in the environment in its
elemental form.
Human activities increase
uranium amount through mining
and milling processes. After the
removal of high-grade uranium,
a gross volume of hazardous
wastes is originated and left
behind. Tailings containing most
of the radionuclides species are
disposed in open air piles.
Radionuclides and toxic
chemicals then become readily
available for dispersal through
the hydrologic and atmospheric
processes. Additionally, tailings
release radioactive radon gas
into the environment. The decay
products of uranium (e.g.,
230
Th, 226Ra) provide a constant
source of radiation in uranium
tailings for thousands of years.
Radiation typically found in
uranium mining or processing
facilities includes alpha (a), beta
(b), and gamma (g) radiation. All
three are types of ionizing
radiation—energy in the form of
particles or waves that has
sufficient strength to remove
electrons from atoms.
Uranium in air exists as dust that
falls into surface water, plants,
or soils through settling or
rainfall.
Uranium compounds in soil
combine with other compounds
and they can persist there for
many years.
It has several applications,
namely, in nuclear energy,
radiometric dating, and
fertilizers.
Uranium itself is not particularly
dangerous, but some of the
decay products like radon pose
a real threat to all living
organisms.
Environmental effects
Water containing small amounts
of uranium is generally safe to
drink.
It does not accumulate in fish or
vegetables and it is quickly
eliminated from the organism
through urine and feces.
Plants absorb uranium through
their roots and keep it there.
Therefore, root vegetables may
present higher amounts of this
element but when they are
washed uranium is removed.
Human exposure
Humans may experience exposure
to uranium through food, air,
soil, and water, as it is naturally
present in all of them. This kind
of exposure is extremely low
causing no harm to human life.
The health risks are typically more
relevant in individuals
occupationally exposed from the
mining industry, phosphate
industry, eating crops that grow
in contaminated soils, and
people who drink water from a
uranium waste disposal point,
but certain exposures and their
associated risks can extend via
environmental pathways to the
general population.
Internal exposure during uranium
mining and processing can take
place through inhalation,
ingestion, or through a cut in the
skin. External radiation
exposure (e.g. exposure to beta,
gamma, and to a lesser extent,
alpha radiation) can also
present a health risk.
Artists that are still using uranium
glazes also experience higher
exposure.
Human health effects
Uranium is a radioactive
substance and therefore much
research has been made to
identify its major health effects.
Exposure to natural levels of this
element causes no harm for
human life. Exposure to higher
levels can cause severe health
effects such as kidney disease.
When radionuclides that decay by
a emission (e.g. polonium-218,
polonium-214) are inhaled, they
have the potential to impart a
significant dose to the
pulmonary epithelium. The dose
of a energy delivered by an a
particle to the DNA in a cell in
the respiratory epithelium is
fixed and not dependent on
concentration or duration of the
exposure. Although a particles
can travel only a short distance,
they impart a much greater
effective dose than b particles
or g rays. The high effective
doses from a particles, when
compared with b particles or g
rays, result from their relatively
high energy combined with their
very short ranges in tissue.
Alpha particles are notable
among environmental
carcinogens because of their
potent ability to produce a high
proportion of double-strand DNA
breaks per particle. Double-
strand DNA breaks are more
difficult for the body to repair.
The Committee on Uranium
Mining in Virginia, the
Committee on Earth Resources,
and the National Research
Council, in 2012, published the
“Uranium mining in Virginia:
Scientific, technical,
environmental, human health
and safety, and regulatory
aspects of uranium mining and
processing in Virginia.” This
document clarifies that the
exposure to radon decay
products generally represents
the greatest radiation-related
health risk from uranium-
related mining and processing
operations. Radon’s alpha-
emitting radioactive decay
products are strongly and
causally linked to lung cancer in
humans. Radiation exposures to
the general population resulting
from off-site releases of
radionuclides (e.g. airborne
radon decay products, airborne
thorium-230 (230Th) or radium-
226 (226Ra) particles, 226Ra in
water supplies) present
some risk.
 Mining Activities: Health Impacts 17

Gold and silver mining: Mercury has an ability to bind to precious metals, and for millennia, people have used it to mine gold and
silver. Small-scale or artisanal gold mining, which makes use of mercury, has recently become the leading source of mercury
pollution. Mining releases mercury into the air when it is burned off to isolate gold from a piece of rock or slurry; it also seeps into
the soil and rivers from water used in the process and runoff from rainwater, contaminated by materials left behind from mining
operations. As a volatile element, mercury can evaporate at relatively low temperatures, and be deposited out of the atmosphere by
chemical reactions back to the soil or water bodies. In fact, most of the mercury that reaches the oceans, after deposition or washed
by rivers, is the mercury that was already present in the environment, much of it spreading from chimneys or gold mines, hundreds
of years ago. Mercury poisoning is the result of exposure to mercury or mercury compounds resulting in various toxic effects
depending on its chemical form and route of exposure. The major route of human exposure to methylmercury (MeHg) is largely
through eating contaminated fish, seafood, and wildlife which have been exposed to mercury through ingestion of contaminated
lower organisms. MeHg toxicity is associated with nervous system damage in adults and impaired neurological development in
infants and children. Ingested mercury may undergo bioaccumulation leading to progressive increases in body burdens. Mercury is
ranked third, by the ATSDR, of the most toxic elements or substances that continues to be dumped into waterways and soil, spilled
into the atmosphere, and consumed in the food and water. Mercury has profound cellular, cardiovascular, hematological,
pulmonary, renal, immunological, neurological, endocrine, reproductive, and embryonic toxicological effects.
Some of the PTEs found in the environment near mining sites, their sources, and effects are presented in Table 2.

Community Impacts

In 1967, the World Health Organization (WHO) defined health as “a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and
not the absence of disease or infirmity.” Later in 1984, the WHO redefined the concept to “the extent to which an individual or a
group is able, on the one hand, to realize aspirations and to satisfy needs, and on the other, to change or cope with the
environment.”
Human health depends in an essential way on the environment as both a source of resources and a deposit for wastes.
Environmental impact assessment is a crucial tool for maintaining and improving environmental quality while carrying out
economic development. To prevent irreversible damages, environmental impact assessment determines the expected changes or
impacts that a project or an action will have on the surroundings (positive or negative effects) before it is carried out.
The impact of mining activities on the community health occurs at various levels, namely, adverse health effects that result from
environmental exposure to contaminated air, waters, soils, plants, dusts and noise pollution; and nonenvironmental effects such as
mining accidents and pit closure, which can affect the community directly and indirectly.
Mining has social and emotional impact, with positive and negative effects on the quality of life and lifestyle. Negative impacts
can be manifested through physical and emotional sickness and several changes in the behavior of the community members.
Mining comes along with the promise of wealth and jobs, but it can also bring negative social effects such as appropriation of lands
from the local communities, alteration of social relationships, and destruction of community subsistence and life styles.
Migration is another important issue. The majority of the local communities around a mining area do not have enough members
to fulfill the necessary work needs. People from other localities and, in some cases, from other countries, migrate to the mining area.
In case of a disaster or mine closure, the community affected can reach international scale.
Not many research studies have been conducted on the exposure and relative risk for residents living in the area of a mine when
compared to the number of studies on occupational exposure. Existing studies point to several adverse effects on communities’
health such as mesothelioma and respiratory illness, but most of the results are conflicting. It is worth noting that many adverse
effects are only noticed in risk groups such as children and elder people, since their health is more likely to be affected, and some
effects are only noticed many years later.
Even after their closure, some mines keep their pumps running to prevent flooding. This is fundamental in order to avoid mining
subsidence damage once the depressions created by mining would slowly run full of water. Contact with groundwater used for
drinking water production would also be fatal due to contamination. Community could be impacted by these pumping activities
with indirect implications on the environment and human health, depending on how electricity for the pumps is produced. If it is
produced from fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, and oil) the emissions that result from combustion of these fuels include carbon
dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), particulate matter (PM), and heavy metals
such as mercury. Nearly all combustion byproducts have negative effects on the environment and human health and in this
perspective, mining activities can also lead to human health impacts from consequences via electricity supply due to pumping needs
that occur long time after mine closure.

Occupational Impacts

Mining remains one of the most hazardous occupations in the world, both in terms of short-term injuries and fatalities, but also due
to long-term impacts. Noise, vibration, dust, heat, and humidity are some of the factors that affect the ability to work efficiently.
Health effects are related to different scales of mining operations (small and large), different types of mine, and minerals
(e.g., tungsten, coal, gold, and uranium).
18 Mining Activities: Health Impacts

Workers of deep mines are more exposed to hazardous situations than those working in open cast mines, due to the risk of
collapse, poor air quality, and underground explosions. There are several possible mining accidents such as electrical, entrapment,
explosives and breaking agents, falling, rolling, or sliding rock or material of any kind, inundation, among others.
Small-scale mines are more hazardous than large-scale mines in what concerns to fatalities and injuries. This might be explained
by the fact that small surface mines mainly employ younger and inexperienced individuals.
Major impacts on workers’ health are cancer and respiratory diseases such as asbestosis, silicosis, and pneumoconiosis. Cancer is
an important occupational and long-term health impact. Among others accidents are injuries, noise, vibrations, chemical agents and
also ergonomic issues, once miners can develop health problems many years after they finish working. Long-term effects are
particularly prominent in miners who have worked in asbestos, coal, and uranium mines, or in miners who have been exposed to a
dust mixture with different components (e.g., silica, arsenic, copper, gold, and zinc).
Injuries have declined in importance since safety in mines has improved with time but continue to be an important issue. On
total, the number of fatalities in metal and nonmetal (including coal) mines in the United States has dropped from 3539 in 1911 to
29 in 2015 (Fig. 4). Also the number of injuries shows a significant decline over time. Even with the considerable reduction in
mining injuries and fatalities, in developed countries, both the number and severity of mining accidents occurring are still very high.
The data from coal mines reveal 346,446 injuries from 1978 through 2006 (11,946 per year), and 331,947 injuries in the metal and
nonmetal sector (11,446 per year). The total number of fatalities for the same period was 1882 in coal mining (65 per year) and
1650 for metal and nonmetal mining (57 per year).
Mental health is another long-term effect particularly noticeable in isolating mining communities and after mine closure.
Unemployed miners show higher rates of psychological distress and morbidity compared to working miners and workers in other
professions.
It is important to further improve miners’ safety and health by using the most effective approaches possible. As stated before, the
traditional picture of the working conditions in mining is that the work is physically demanding and dangerous due to heavy loads,
unstable underground structures, heavy tools and equipment, accident risks, exposure to toxic dusts and chemicals, heat and cold.
The mining work often takes place underground with bad lightening, high up in the mountains or in remote areas. Artisanal and
small-scale mining in China, India, Indonesia, Brazil, Ecuador, and Congo for example, have locations with scarse or nonexistent
human basic needs (e.g., schools, health care services). Generally, the national legislations include special acts, codes or ordinances
related to safety and health in mining. Governments and authorities play a crucial role in stimulating the mining enterprises to
provide safe and healthy working conditions through new approaches to improve the effectiveness of mineworker training, given
the increasing complexity and inherent hazards of mining.

Initiatives to Reduce Mining Impacts

During recent decades, public concern about the protection, preservation, and restoration of the environment and human health
has increased. Toward this direction, legislative action on environmental issues that affect the mining industry has been taken
worldwide.

Environmental and Community Initiatives

Worldwide, countries are concerned with mining communities’ health and safety. The International Labor Organization adopted
the Safety and Health in Mines Convention (C176—Safety and Health in Mines, adopted by the International Labor Organization

Fig. 4 Graphic representation of the number of fatalities in coal and metal and monmetal mines, between 1911 and 2015, in the United States. Metal and
monmetal mines include mills, sand and gravel, surface, and underground mines.
 Mining Activities: Health Impacts 19

in 1995). This document presents guidelines for employers to “eliminate or minimize the risks to safety and health in mines",
including proper ventilation, regular inspection of mines and equipment and multiple exits from the mine, as well as employees
rights to report hazards and access training programs. Only 31 countries have ratified the agreement. Iran is not among them, nor is
Chile.
The new mining sector, nowadays, is a sector that, by attracting responsible private investment, creates a foundation for
economic and social well-being. Aware of that, the International Council on Mining and Metals published recently the manual
“Good practice guidance on occupational health risk assessment.” Potential negative health impacts resulting from environmental
issues, such as flow contamination, or the presence of pollution stocks, accumulated in years of operation or through environmental
accidents, were object of numerous scientific publications being a priority issue both for governments and the scientific community.
Investment in improving the health of communities impacted by mining activities serves to decrease the current exposure and risk.
Health impacts related to mining activities remain long after mine closure. Evidence exists that the majority of the mining
companies are willing to address these long-term responsibilities. The responsibility of health impacts related to mining and
smelting should be ascribed to the industry and not transferred to any other health program.
Worldwide, the definition of new policies to reform modern mining and adequate cleanup programs for abandoned mining
sites will offer a time opportunity to protect people’s health and the entire food chain. This protection should benefit not only those
who live closest to mines but everyone who is affected.
Mining companies have started to put health programs into place around mines. Some experienced mining engineers are
working with environmental and community organizations to identify best possible reclamation options.
Appropriate environmental laws with adequate monitoring enforcement have been adopted in developed countries to prevent
most of the damage caused in mine communities.
A process of population study known as molecular epidemiology has been developed to integrate laboratory measurements of
internal dose, biologically effective dose, biologic effect, and susceptibility with epidemiological methodologies, thus linking
individual exposure with an important biological event. The biological component is evaluated with biological markers, also called
biomarkers, which are observable endpoints that indicate events in the process leading to a disease. To be a complete risk
assessment analysis, the measurement of actual impacts on biological endpoints from trace element contamination in soils, surface
waters, groundwaters, air, and stream sediments at various levels of biological organization, must be taken in consideration. By
providing risk assessment data, these studies will have impact on regulatory policies and on establishing disease prevention
strategies.

Occupational Initiatives

After a long period of contradiction and struggle between mine operators and authorities in developed countries, health and safety
improvements in mines have been developed. Many initiatives have been taken in the past decades to improve occupational health
and safety. These are led by workers, unions, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), governments, and the industry itself.
Past improvements in working conditions were made by mining companies that were involved in programs of worker’s health
and safety. Such improvements included safety measures to reduce injuries or air conditioning thus reducing heat stress. Nowadays,
they also include programs to assist miners in their living and social conditions. Mines are often located in isolated areas and
faraway from miners homes. To ensure the working force, mining companies, such as other industries, give homes and social
support to the workers. Unions have had an essential role in the development of safer conditions in mines, and in the development
of health information and other sponsored services. The effective use of the law to protect workers is of crucial importance to
improve mining conditions.
A much more scientific consciousness has developed in the past decades. All involved in mining activities now understand the
long-term impacts. Workers have been able to use scientific evidence for reducing hazard exposure and for changing health and
safety legislation.

Legislation

In the United States, there are some major laws and regulations involving the mining industry. One of the most important is the
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA), generally known as Superfund, enacted in
1980. This law obliges companies to report releases of hazardous substances to the environment and requires cleanup of hazardous
sites. This program was established to place, investigate, and clean up the worst abandoned hazardous waste sites nationwide and is
currently being used by the U.S. EPA to clean up mineral contamination at numerous locations.
Further essential regulations at US level are the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (commonly known as the Clean Water Act),
the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), and the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA). The Clean Water Act
came into effect in 1977 and requires mining operations to meet standards for surface water quality and for controlling discharges to
surface waters. The RCRA was enacted in 1976 and regulates the generation, storage, and disposal of solid waste and hazardous
waste. These wastes are managed from the point of generation to disposal. Finally, NEPA was enacted in 1970 and requires federal
agencies to prepare Environmental Impact Statements (EIS) for major federal actions that may significantly affect the environment.
20 Mining Activities: Health Impacts

The European Union (EU) has developed some environmental directives that have had a significant effect on the mining
industries of member nations. Each country’s environmental laws derive from these directives. Some of the most environmentally
relevant are the Environmental Impact Assessment Directive (similar to the EIS), the Water Framework Directive (similar to the
Clean Water Act), and the Waste Framework, Hazardous Waste, and Landfill Directives (similar to the RCRA).
According to a report from an European Development Mining Enterprise (EDM) issued in 2011, the recent policy developments
in the EU are focused on prevention of major accidents in the existing mines and avoid their abandonment at the end of their useful
life, rather than on the issue of rehabilitation of abandoned mines, a matter which is only approached independently in Directive
2006/21/EC, albeit generically. The guidelines adopted by EU are limited to three reference documents: (a) Communication from
the European Commission COM (2000) 664 on the “Safe Operation of Mining Activities” as a follow up of two accidents (the
cyanide spill into the river Tisza from the dam burst at the Baia Mare gold mine in Romania and the Aznalcollar accident in Spain).
This document proposes the adoption of an action plan setting out, as priorities, an initiative to regulate the construction of facilities
and the management of waste from the extractive industries. The latter included the preparation of a Reference Document on Best
Available Techniques for Management of Tailings and Waste-Rock in Mining Activities based on an exchange of information
between the European Union Member States and the mining industry; (b) an amendment of the Seveso II Directive (Directive
2003/105/EC), to include in its scope mineral processing of ores and, in particular, tailings ponds or dams used in connection with
such mineral processing; and (c) the Directive 2006/21/EC in accordance with the 2006/21/EC Directive, that lays down minimum
requirements in order to prevent or reduce as far as possible any adverse effects on the environment or on human health which are
brought about as a result of the management of waste from the extractive industries, such as tailings, waste rock, and overburden.
This Directive covers the management of waste from land-based extractive industries, that is to say, the waste arising from the
prospecting, extraction (including the preproduction development stage), treatment and storage of mineral resources and from the
working of quarries. In line with this Directive, it is necessary to indicate clearly the requirements with which waste facilities
servicing the extractive industries should comply as regards location, management, control, closure and preventive and protective
measures to be taken against any threat to the environment in the short and long-term perspectives, and specifically against the
pollution of groundwater by leachate infiltration into the soil. In order to minimize the risk of accidents and to guarantee a high
level of protection for the environment and human health, Member States should ensure that each operator of the waste facility
adopts and applies accident prevention policy for waste. In terms of preventive measures, the Directive requires that operators
should provide a safety management system and emergency plans to be used in the event of accidents as well as the dissemination of
safety information to persons likely to be affected by a major accident. In the event of an accident, operators should be required to
provide the competent authorities with all the relevant information necessary to mitigate actual or potential environmental damage.
All these programs are trying to solve the problems associated with mining, and they have similarity to other programs
worldwide.
Legislation should provide an efficient definition of standards. Regulatory authorities responsible for administering legislation
need to do so in a constructive, and consistent way.

Future Directions

The need to address public health and ecological threats posed by mining and smelting ought to be given more regard. Globally
harmonized initiatives should be developed to significantly reduce the amount of hazardous material released into the environ-
ment and to apply efficient measures to assure there will be no health impacts resulting from mining activities, especially from
proposed new mines.
Cleanup and remediation measures are crucial since abandoned mines will continue to have an impact on both health and
environment unless responsible mine closure practices are strictly adopted. To this end, technical expertise in terms of the response
actions, remediation and cleanup alternatives is needed as well as appropriate funding. It is vital to conduct regular monitoring and
surveillance activities of the surrounding environment and community’s health. Information from this monitoring should be
provided in an accessible and comprehensive form to the decision makers and to the general public.
It is important to have more openness and transparency within the mining sector particularly in developing countries. There is a
further need for a deeper and long-term evaluation of the mining impacts on workers and communities’ health.
It is also important to develop new interventions and control strategies for the risks associated with mining equipment, to train
miners, and to identify and implement interventions that address the remaining sources of risk.
All these measures will help to better protect the health and safety of people working in, living near, and those otherwise
impacted by historic, current, and proposed mines.

Further Reading
Ávila PF, Ferreira da Silva E, and Candeias C (2016) Health risk assessment through consumption of vegetables rich in heavy metals: The case study of the surrounding villages from
Panasqueira mine, Central Portugal. Environmental Geochemistry and Health 39: 565–589. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-016-9834-0.
Boulanger A and Gorman A (2004) Hardrock mining: Risks to community health. Bozeman, MT: Women’s Voices for the Earth. Available online at www.earthworksaction.org.
Bridge G (2004) Contested terrain: Mining and the environment. Annual Review of Environment and Resources 29: 205–259.
 Mining Activities: Health Impacts 21

Candeias C, Ávila PF, Ferreira da Silva E, Ferreira A, Durães N, and Teixeira JP (2015) Water–rock interaction and geochemical processes in surface waters influenced by tailings
impoundments: Impact and threats to the ecosystems and human health in rural communities (Panasqueira Mine, Central Portugal). Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 226: 23. https://
doi.org/10.1007/s11270-014-2255-8.
Coelho P, Silva S, Roma-Torres J, Costa C, Henriques A, Teixeira JP, Gomes M, and Mayana O (2007) Health impact of living near an abandoned mine-Case study: Jales mines.
International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health 210: 399–402.
Committee on Uranium Mining in Virginia (2012) Uranium mining in Virginia: Scientific, technical, environmental, human health and safety, and regulatory aspects of uranium mining
and processing in Virginia. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press p. 360, ISBN: 978-0-309-22087-3.
Donoghue AM (2004) Occupational health hazards in mining: An overview. Occupational Medicine 54: 283–289.
Eisler R (2004) Mercury hazards from gold mining to humans, plants, and animals. Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 181: 139–198.
EPA (2000) Abandoned Mine Site Characterization and Cleanup Handbook. Seattle: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Health Canada (2004) Canadian Handbook on Health Impact Assessment. A Report of the Federal/Provincial/Territorial Committee on Environmental and Occupational Health, 4 vols.
Ottawa: Health Canada.
Hermanus MA (2007) Occupational health and safety in mining status, new developments, and concerns. The Journal of the Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy
107: 531–538.
Jennings NS (2001) In: Improving safety and health in mines: A long and winding road?, Paper prepared for MMSD. London, IIED and WBCSD.
Jones FT (2007) A broad view of arsenic. Poultry Science 86: 2–14.
Landis WG and Ming-Ho Y (2003) Introduction to environmental toxicology: Impacts of chemicals upon ecological systems. Boca Raton: CRC Press/Lewis Publishers.
Maramba NP, Reyes JP, Francisco-Rivera AT, Panganiban LC, Dioquino C, Dando N, Timbang R, Akagi H, Castillo MT, Quitoriano C, Afuang M, Matsuyama A, Eguchi T, and
Fuchigami Y (2006) Environmental and human exposure assessment monitoring of communities near an abandoned mercury mine in the Philippines: A toxic legacy. Journal of
Environmental Management 81(2): 135–145.
NIOSH (2007) Mining safety and health research at NIOSH: Reviews of Research Programs of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Washington, DC: The National
Academies Press.
NRC—US Nuclear Regulatory Commission (1988) Health Risks of Radon and Other Internally Deposited Alpha-Emitters: BEIR IV. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
NRC—US Nuclear Regulatory Commission (1999) Health Effects of Exposure to Radon: BEIR VI. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Peplow D and Edmonds R (2005) The effects of mine waste contamination at multiple levels of biological organization. Ecological Engineering 24: 101–119.
Peplow D and Edmonds R (2005) The effects of mine waste contamination at multiple levels of biological organization. Ecological Engineering 24: 101–119.
Reichl C, Schatz M, and Zsak G (2017) In: World mining data. Minerals production, Vol. 32, International Organizing Committee for the World Mining Congresses, Federal Ministry of
Science, Research and Economy, Vienna.
Rice KM, Walker EM, Wu M, Gillette C, and Blough ER (2014) Environmental mercury and its toxic effects. Journal of Preventive Medicine and Public Health 47(2): 74–83.
Steckling N, Bose-O’Reilly S, Pinheiro P, Plass D, Shoko D, Drasch G, Bernaudat L, Siebert U, and Hornberg C (2014) The burden of chronic mercury intoxication in artisanal small-
scale gold mining in Zimbabwe: data availability and preliminary estimates. Environmental Health 13: 111.
Steckling, N., Devleesschauwer, B., Winkelnkemper, J., Fischer, F., Ericson, B., Krämer, A., Hornberg, C., Fuller, R., Plass, D., Bose-O’Reilly, S. (2017). Disability weights for chronic
mercury intoxication resulting from gold mining activities: Results from an online pairwise comparisons survey. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
14(1) 57.
Stephens C and Ahern M (2002) Worker and community health impacts related to mining operations internationally, A Rapid Review of the Literature. Paper prepared for MMSD.
London, IIED and WBCSD.
Zobrist J and Giger W (2013) Mining and the environment. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 20: 7487–7489. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-013-1990-5.

Relevant Websites
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/—Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control & Prevention, The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.
https://www.iarc.fr/—International Agency for Research on Cancer.
http://www.ilo.org/global/lang-en/index.htm—International Labor Organization.
http://www.msha.gov—United States of America Department of Mine Safety and Health Administration.
http://www.epa.gov—United States of America Environmental Protection Agency.
http://www.who.int/en/—World Health Organization.