Aquaculture 220 (2003) 549 – 567

www.elsevier.com/locate/aqua-online

Shrimp and fish pond soils: processes

and management
Yoram Avnimelech *, Gad Ritvo
Department of Agricultural Engineering, Technion, Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel

Received 20 January 2002; received in revised form 13 September 2002; accepted 18 November 2002

Abstract

The pond bottom soil and the accumulated sediments are integral parts of ponds. Concentrations
of nutrients, organic matter and microorganism density in the pond bottom are several orders of
magnitude greater than in the water. The accumulation of organic sediments may limit pond
intensification. The intensive organic matter degradation at the pond bottom and high sediment
oxygen demand exceeds the oxygen renewal rate. This leads to the development of anoxic conditions
in the sediments and at the sediment – water interface. A series of anaerobic processes, affected by the
redox potential of the system, are taking place. A large number of potentially toxic materials are
generated. Among those are organic acids, reduced organic sulfur compounds, reduced manganese
and sulfides.
Shrimp, as animals that normally live on or near the bottom, are exposed to conditions on the
pond bottom. Exposure to toxic materials endanger the well being of the cultured shrimp. Reduced
feeding, slower growth, mortality and possibly higher sensitivity to disease are reported.
The rational use of aerators to minimize the area of sludge accumulation, construction of ponds
to trap sludge, stirring sediments, chemical poising of the redox system and environmentally
accepted treatment and reuse of drained sediments are means to control the conditions at the pond
bottom.
D 2003 Published by Elsevier Science B.V.

Keywords: Sediment; Soil; Sludge; Redox; Shrimp; Fish

1. Introduction

Properties of the pond bottom soil (sediments) and processes occurring at the bottom
soil and in the soil –water interface are very important regarding the well being and growth

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +972-4-8292620; fax: +972-4-8221529.

E-mail address: agyoram@tx.technion.ac.il (Y. Avnimelech).

0044-8486/03/$ - see front matter D 2003 Published by Elsevier Science B.V.

doi:10.1016/S0044-8486(02)00641-5
550 Y. Avnimelech, G. Ritvo / Aquaculture 220 (2003) 549–567

of fish or shrimp in ponds. Nutrients and organic residues tend to accumulate at the bottom
and are, thus, to some extent, removed from the water phase. However, an excessive
accumulation beyond what could be defined as the carrying capacity of the sediments may
result in the deterioration of the pond system, as specified later. Such development seems
to be of special importance for shrimp culture, since shrimps live in the soil – water
transition zone. Reactions and fluxes within and across the water –soil interface are very
significant in natural aquatic systems and even more in intensive aquaculture systems.
Organic matter settles and accumulates on the pond bottom in extensive, semi-intensive
and intensive ponds. Anaerobic conditions develop in the sediments of intensively stocked
and fed shrimp ponds, the process being more pronounced with the increase in pond
intensification. The development of anaerobic conditions constrains production and is a
barrier to further intensification.
Three terms describing pond bottom soils are used here and in the technical literature.
The term ‘‘sediments’’ is used in the limnological and oceanographic literature pertaining
to the fact that bottom of lakes and oceans are made mostly of materials sedimenting from
the water during long periods of time. Ponds are constructed in native soils, having bottom
soils. Later, both the sedimentation of plankton and feed residues as well as the scouring of
loosely consolidated soil and deposition of fine particles on the bottom, leads to a change
in the properties of the bottom soil. Often, one finds in the stagnant or deeper parts of the
pond an accumulation of very soft loose material, relatively rich in organic matter that is
often called sludge. Sediments accumulating in lined ponds, having high organic matter
concentrations would also be defined as sludge. There is a continuum from bottom soil,
through sediment to sludge. In this work, the terms bottom soil and sediment will describe
the bottom of the pond, while the term sludge will be used specifically to the soft,
fluidized, organic-rich residue.
This manuscript is a literature review of the physical, biological and chemical processes
occurring at the pond bottom that influence aquaculture production, giving special
attention to shrimp culture including supporting data obtained in fish ponds. In addition,
potential technologies to mitigate problems occurring at the soil –water interface in ponds
are discussed.

2. Accumulation of nutrients and organic matter in pond soils

Cultured aquatic animals accumulate between 5% and 40% of nutrients in the feed
(carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus). A summary of nutrient accumulation by fish and shrimp is
given in Table 1.
The average nutrient retention by fish and shrimp, calculated from published data listed,
is 13% for carbon, 29% for nitrogen and 16% for phosphorus (Table 1). The low carbon
recovery is probably due to the fact that a large fraction of carbon in the feed is lost by
respiration.
Accumulations of carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus, as a fraction of the nutrient budget
in fish pond soils, have been reported by several researchers (Eren et al., 1977;
Avnimelech and Lacher, 1979). Most of the nitrogen (75%) and phosphorus (80%) not
recovered in harvested fish was found in the pond bottom (Avnimelech and Lacher, 1979).
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Table 1
Estimated carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus recovery in fish or shrimp expressed as a percentage of total pond
budget (nutrients added as feed and fertilizers)a
Organism Carbon Nitrogen Phosphorous Refs.
Shrimp 30 10.5 Muthuwani and Kwei Lin, 1995
Shrimpb 11.5 45.3 21.3 Boyd and Teichert-Conddington, 1995
Shrimp 12 – 14 11 – 14 Ritvo et al., 1998
Shrimp 17 – 21 Lemonnier and Brizard, 1998
Shrimp 25 9 Lin and Nash, 1996
Shrimp 6 – 11 18 – 27 10 – 15 Funge-Smith and Briggs, 1998
Shrimp 35.5 6.1 Paez-Osuna et al., 1997
Shrimp 22.7 10.6 Paez-Osuna, 1999
Shrimp 17 – 34.6c Martin et al., 1998
Carp 16 26.7 31.8 Avnimelech and Lacher, 1979
Catfish 9.1 24.8 29.7 Boyd, 1985
Average 13 29 16
S.D. 8 8 9
a
Organic carbon input via primary production was not considered in most surveys.
b
Calculation based upon the determination of harvested yield C, N and P and assumed FCR = 2.
c
17% in low-density ponds (1 PL m
2) and 34.6% for high-density ponds (30 PL m
2).

Organic carbon (OC), to a large extent, was consumed for respiration and released as CO2.
Organic carbon accumulation in the sediments was about 25% of the organic carbon added
with the feed. Similar studies were conducted in shrimp ponds. Lin and Nash (1996)
estimated that 26% of the nitrogen and 24% of the phosphorus applied as feed
accumulated in the sediments of intensive shrimp ponds. Funge-Smith and Briggs
(1998) found that the sediments accumulated 24% of the feed nitrogen and 84% of the
phosphorus. Paez-Osuna et al. (1997) reported that in a semi-intensive shrimp operation
the sediments accumulated 63.5% of the added phosphorus. Paez-Osuna et al. (1999)
estimated that 47.2% of the phosphorus input was adsorbed by the sediments in shrimp
ponds, while Martin et al. (1998) found that up to 38% of the total nitrogen input
accumulated in the sediments.
Munsiri et al. (1996) reported a higher concentration of nutrients in bottom soils of
older compared to newer ponds. Ritvo et al. (1998) found that concentrations of several
elements in the soil increased during one shrimp growing cycle. Ritvo et al. (1997a) found
that the concentration of C, N, Mg, K, Na and B increased rapidly in new ponds reaching
maximal levels following five production cycles. Concentrations of S, P and Zn in the
sediments continued to increase. Soil pH decreased markedly after one growing cycle, but
then stabilized.
The accumulation of sediments in shrimp ponds has been studied by several
researchers (Table 2). Lemonnier and Brizard (2001a) reported a correlation between
sediment accumulation rate and final shrimp density in 13 earthen shrimp ponds in New
Caledonia.
The average seasonal deposition rate (Table 2) is about 200 ton
1 ha
1. The density of
the topmost layer in ponds is about 0.25 –0.3 g ml
1. Thus, this deposition amounts to an
added volume of 740 –1000 m3 ha
1, an equivalent 7.5 –10 cm layer of wet newly
552 Y. Avnimelech, G. Ritvo / Aquaculture 220 (2003) 549–567

Table 2
Accumulation of sedimented material on shrimp ponds bottom soils (ton ha
1 per growing season)
Measured sedimentation (tons ha
1) Location Refs.
157 – 290 Thailand Boyd, 1992
144 – 461 Thailand Satapornvanit, 1993
100 Australia Smith, 1993
20 – 165 Australia Smith, 1996
185 – 199 Thailand Funge-Smith and Briggs, 1994
148 (1.61 ton ha
1 of organic carbon) South Carolina, USA Delgado et al., in press
291 New Caledonia Martin et al., 1998

deposited material. The deposition, however, is not uniform across the pond. The fraction
of the pond covered by the newly deposited sediments was found to be from 5% to 36% of
the pond area (Smith, 1996). Avnimelech and Ritvo (2001) described coverage of 40% of
the pond area in 1.2-ha shrimp ponds in Thailand and about 30% in 0.2-ha ponds in South
Carolina.
Boyd et al. (1994) found that the accumulated sediments in shrimp ponds in Thailand
was largely composed of mineral soil eroded from the pond banks. Smith (1996) found
that 70– 80% of the accumulated sediments in prawn ponds was a mixture of quartz,
kaolinite and mica-illite mineral, 5 –10% amorphous iron and aluminum and silicon oxides
minerals, 5 – 10% organic matter and volatile compounds, and elevated levels of trace
elements. Smith (1996) did not find a relationship between sediment accumulation and
factors such as organic input, pond management or productivity.
Hopkins et al. (1994), working in plastic lined ponds, suggested that sources of the
accumulated sediments in a pond are uneaten food, feces, decaying plankton, airborne
debris, eroded soil and microorganisms. Information on the relative proportions of those
sources is limited. Smith (1993) found that the accumulated sediments in prawn ponds
contained large amounts of silica and that diatoms were a significant part of the sediments.
Accumulated sediments in shrimp ponds are highly reduced (Guo, 1986), enriched in
organic matter (Maguire and Allen, 1986; Boyd, 1992; Boyd et al., 1994; Smith, 1996;
Martin et al., 1998; Delgado et al., in press) and enriched in nitrogen and phosphorus
(Chien and Tay, 1991; Smith, 1993, 1996; Boyd et al., 1994; Hopkins et al., 1994; Martin
et al., 1998; Ritvo et al., 2000b).

3. Microbial activity in pond bottom soils

Sediments are enriched with nutrients and organic matter by sedimentation of organic
materials to the pond bottom. The concentrations of nutrients (including organic carbon
compounds) in the pond bottom soil are typically several orders of magnitude higher
than those found in the water (Table 3). The amounts of nutrients in a 1-cm layer of the
pond bottom are normally about 10 or more times higher than the equivalent amounts in
a 1-m deep water column. The bottom becomes a favorable site for microbial develop-
ment due to the availability of organic matter. Bacteria consume large amounts of
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Table 3
Approximate concentrations of chemical components in pond water and bottom soils
Component Unit Concentration range
Water Pond bottom soil
Dry matter % 10
3 – 10
1 20 – 80
Organic matter mg/kg 10 – 100 10,000 – 200,000
Total N mg/kg 1 – 10 1000 – 20,000
Total ammonium N ppm 0.1 – 10 1 – 1000
Total P ppm 0.01 – 1 1000 – 20,000
Adapted from Avnimelech (unpublished) and Boyd (1990, 1995).

oxygen and sediments become anoxic below the surface. Ram et al. (1981, 1982) found
that the density of aerobic and anaerobic bacteria in the pond bottom soil is two to four
orders of magnitude higher than the density of these groups in the water column. Allen
et al. (1995) found that bacterial count and productivity in shrimp pond sediments were
two orders of magnitude greater than in the water column. Moriarty (1986) found that
the bacterial count in the sediments of shrimp ponds fertilized with chicken manure was
4  1013 bacteria m
2, which was two to three orders of magnitude higher than in the
water column. Allen et al. (1995) determined the number of bacteria in shrimp ponds
sediments during 71 rearing days, and found that the bacterial count increased with time.
The average bacteria count was 8.39 F 0.35  108 cm
3, ranging from 4.03 to
12.36  108 cells cm
3. Burford et al. (1998) reported a bacteria count of 15.5  109
cells/g in the center of shrimp ponds where sludge accumulated and 8.1  109 cells/g at
the periphery of the pond. In this study, it was found that the bacteria count increased
with the nutrient concentrations and with smaller sediment grain size (Burford et al.,
1998).

Table 4
Sediments oxygen demand (SOD) in shrimp and fish ponds
Pond type Method of analysisa Sediments oxygen demand Source
(mg O2 m
2 h
1)
Prawn B 60 Costa-Pierce et al., 1984b
Shrimp U 10 – 180 Alongi et al., 1999
Prawn C 221 Fast et al., 1983
Prawn C 240 Madenjian et al., 1987
Shrimp B Up to 290 Ellis, 1992
Shrimp C 298 Madenjian, 1990
Shrimp B 60 – 330b Suplee and Cotner, 1996
Shrimp B 30 – 350 Burford and Longmore, 2001
Shrimp C 510 Fast et al., 1988
Prawn – fish B 246 Costa-Pierce et al., 1984a
Shrimp – fish 300 – 1000 Hassan and Fajamanickam, 1990
a
B = benthic respiration chambre; C = calculated from whole pond budget approach; U = undisturbed
sediment core.
b
The minimum value for ponds 3 weeks after stocking and the maximum value toward the end of the season.
554 Y. Avnimelech, G. Ritvo / Aquaculture 220 (2003) 549–567

4. Sediment oxygen demand in shrimp ponds

Dissolved oxygen concentration is one of the critical factors affecting processes and
conditions at the sediment – water interface. Sediment oxygen demand (SOD) is an
indicator of the intensity of the mineralization process and benthic community metabo-
lism. A compilation of SOD data for shrimp and fish ponds is given in Table 4.
SOD is commonly determined by different methods: sediment cores, in situ tubes,
benthic chamber, whole pond budget calculations and calculations based upon oxygen
profiles in the water sediment interface (Meijer and Avnimelech, 1999). The published
SOD data are quite variable (0.01 – 5.3 g O2 m
1 h
1), affected possibly by both system
characteristics and measurement technology. For example, Suplee and Cotner (1996) found
an increase in the SOD during a shrimp culture season in an inland brackish water shrimp
operation. The SOD increased from an average of 0.06 g O2 m
2 h
1 in week 3 to 0.24 g
O2 m
2 h
1 at the end-of-season with a maximum SOD of 0.33 g O2 m
2 h
1. However,
most of the published data reported here fall in the range of 0.1– 0.3 g O2 m
2 h
1, i.e.,
2.4– 4.8 gO2  m
2 day
1, an appreciable flux as compared to the oxygen storage in the
water column or to oxygen demand of shrimp. SOD consisted of more than 50% of the total
shrimp pond oxygen demand at the end of the growing season (Ellis, 1992).

Fig. 1. Oxygen concentration across the water – sediment interface of two fishponds (Meijer and Avnimelech,
1999). Positive values represent the overlying water, while negative ones represent depth into the sediment.
 Y. Avnimelech, G. Ritvo / Aquaculture 220 (2003) 549–567 555

The actual sediment oxygen consumption depends on oxygen flux from the overlying
water. Diffusion of oxygen to the pond bottom is slow and inefficient. Algae produce
oxygen during the day, but most of the primary production in ponds takes place in the top
10 –20 cm of the water column, leading to oxygen enrichment, often super-saturation, in
this layer. Some of the excess oxygen diffuses out of the water to the atmosphere. Wind
and mechanically driven water currents mix the water column and bring some oxygen to
the bottom layers, yet, in most cases in insufficient amounts to oxygenate the sediment.
The mixing of water at the soil – water interface and across the flocculent layer is very
limited.
The diffusion of oxygen from the sediment water interface to the deeper sediment layers
is even slower. As a result, anoxic conditions prevail below the upper few millimeters of the
sediment surface. Revsbech et al. (1980) used microelectrodes to study vertical oxygen
profiles in sandy marine sediments. They found that oxygen is present only in the upper few
millimeters of the sediment. Oxygen does not penetrate deeper than 1 mm in intensive and
semi-intensive fish pond sediments (Meijer and Avnimelech, 1999) (Fig. 1).

5. Redox reactions in the pond bottom soil

When oxygen is depleted, other terminal electron acceptors can be used to mediate the
decomposition of organic matter. Many anaerobic processes taking place in the pond
bottom lead to the production of reduced and potentially toxic compounds. Anaerobic
conditions may affect aquaculture production both due to the unfavorable conditions at the
pond bottom, or affect it through the diffusion of the reduced compounds from the
sediment upward to the water column.
The sequence of redox reactions as listed in Table 5 has been studied in flooded soils
and sediments (Ponnamperuma, 1972; Reddy et al., 1986). When oxygen is depleted
denitrification occurs, with nitrate as an electron acceptor. Subsequently, iron, manganese,
sulphate and CO2 serve as electron acceptors.
Sulfide oxidation appeared to represent the majority of the SOD in shrimp ponds in
Texas by the end of the growing season, where it accounted for about 84% of the total
SOD (Suplee and Cotner, 1996). Alongi et al. (1999) estimated that the contribution to
carbon oxidation was 41– 60% through O2 respiration, 7 –22% from Mn reduction, 5 –
25% from iron reduction and 13– 26% from sulfate reduction in shrimp pond sediments.

Table 5
Redox reactions in pond bottom (adapted following Reddy et al., 1986)
Electron acceptor (oxidizing system) Process Approximate redox potential (mV)
O2 ! CO2 Aerobic respiration 500 – 600
NO
3 ! N2 Denitrification 300 – 400
Organic components Fermentation < 400
Fe+ 3 ! Fe+ 2 Reduction 200
Mn+ 4 ! Mn+ 2
SO4 ! S
2 Sulfate reduction
100
CO2 ! CH4 Methanogenesis
200
556 Y. Avnimelech, G. Ritvo / Aquaculture 220 (2003) 549–567

Burford and Longmore (2001) reported that 50 – 80% of the carbon degradation in shrimp
pond soils was anaerobic, mostly coupled with sulfate reduction.
Reduced inorganic species may affect biological activity. Reduced divalent manganese
is toxic to fish. The release of hypolimnetic, anaerobic water from reservoirs to rivers led
to fish kills due to the high Mn concentrations (Nix and Ingols, 1981). The undissociated
species H2S is highly toxic to fish and shrimp. Hydrogen sulfide can inhibit aerobic
respiration by binding to the heme of cytochrome c oxidase in place of molecular oxygen
(Smith et al., 1977). Hydrogen sulfide toxicity is inversely related to dissolved oxygen
concentration. Consequently, sulfide increases the sensitivity to hypoxia (Adelman and
Smith, 1970). The 48-h LC50 for H2S in Metapenaeus monoceros zoea, mysis and juvenile
stages were 0.008, 0.012 and 0.019 mg l
1, respectively (Kang and Matsuda, 1994). The
1-h LC50 for Crangon was 0.64 mg l
1 total sulfide (pH 8). Vismann (1996) found that
when H2S in the hemolymph reached 3.2  10
3 mg l
1, shrimp started to move
excessively. With 6.4  10
3 mg l
1 H2S, they started to panic and with 0.013 mg l
1
hemolymph H2S, shrimp became paralyzed. Hydrogen sulfide toxicity to Litopenaeus
indicus and Metapenaeus dobsoni at pH between 6.3 and 8.3 was tested (Gopakumar and
Kuttyamma, 1996). The 96-h LC50 of H2S was higher at lower pH and toxic concen-
trations ranged from 0.063 to 0.342 mg l
1 for Penaeus indicus and from 0.077 to 0.378
mg l
1 for M. dobsoni. Sulfide also inhibits nitrification (Joye and Hollibaugh, 1995) and
will, thus, lead to an increase of ammonium in the pond.
A very important sequence of reactions is the fermentation of organic substrates. The
fermentation of organic substrates leads to the production of a large variety of reduced
organic materials such as organic acids, ketones, aldehydes, amines and mercaptans. A
significant fraction of those compounds are easily detected by their offensive odor and a
few of these are toxic (Solbe, 1979). Ram et al. (1981, 1982) found that the number of
acid-forming bacteria increases when a pond bottom becomes anaerobic. Some organic
acids are toxic to plants (De Vleeschauwer et al., 1981) and to many aquatic organisms.
Acetic acid at 10– 88 mg l
1 is toxic to lethal to brine shrimp, goldfish, bluegill sunfish,
etc. (Richardson and Gangolli, 1992). Butyric and lactic acids are toxic to Daphnia and
fish at 100– 200 mg l
1 (Richardson and Gangolli, 1992). Volatile organic acids, in a
concentration range of 1000 – 5000 mg kg
1, were found in reduced fish ponds sediments
(Kochba and Avnimelech, 1995). Reduced organic sulfur compounds (carbon disulfide,
CS2), carbonyl sulfide and dimethyl sulfide) are produced in reduced sediments in the
redox range of + 200 –0 mV, i.e., at a redox potential that is higher than the redox potential
at which sulfides are produced (Devai and De Laune, 1995). Carbon disulfide is toxic to
fishes and invertebrates at 100– 300 mg/l and nitrification is inhibited at 18 mg/l CS2
(Richardson and Gangolli, 1992). Methyl mercaptan is lethal to fish and Daphnia at
concentrations above 1 mg l
1 (Richardson and Gangolli, 1992).

6. Effects of accumulated sediment on shrimp production

Pond bottom conditions are more critical for shrimp than for other aquaculture species
because shrimp spend most of their time on the bottom, burrow into the soil and ingest
pond-bottom soil (Boyd, 1989; Chien, 1989). The distribution of penaeid shrimp in the
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natural environment can be influenced by sediment characteristics (Williams, 1958;

Hughes, 1968; Rulifson, 1981; Somers, 1987). Penaeid shrimp commonly burrow into
the substrate to hide from predators (Fuss and Ogren, 1966; Boddeke, 1983). Burrowing
behavior differs among species (Fuss, 1964; Moctezuma and Blake, 1981; Boddeke,
1983). Furthermore, substrate preference also differs among species (Williams, 1958;
Ruello, 1973; Moller and Jones, 1975; Aziz and Greenwood, 1982).
A typical feature of sludge accumulating in shrimp ponds is the black color and a smell
of hydrogen sulfide. Unlike fresh water systems with low sulfate concentrations, saline
water used for shrimp culture contains a high concentration of sulfate and thus a high
potential for sulfide production. Litopenaeus indicus avoid regions in the pond with
sediments containing sulfide although sulfide was undetected in the water column
(Gopakumar and Kuttyamma, 1997). In the same study, feed acceptance by shrimp was
significantly lower in pond areas with sulfide containing sediment.
Zur (1980) studied the effect of reduced sediments on the survival of Chironomidae
larvae in earthen ponds. Impoundments were made within ponds to prevent fish feeding on
Chironomidae larvae on the sediments. Chironomidae larvae are common in pond bottom
and are adapted to life under oxygen limited conditions. Nevertheless, Chironomidae
larvae disappeared completely once the pond bottom was reduced, possibly due to the
presence of toxic materials rather than due to lack of oxygen. The development of
reducing conditions in the pond bottom was found also to retard fish growth. The
development of anaerobic conditions in the pond bottom clearly coincided with the
growth retardation of carps (Avnimelech and Zohar, 1986).
The distribution of the accumulated material in the pond is not uniform and is affected
by physical and biological factors such as resuspension. Ritvo et al. (1997b) observed that
turbidity generated by shrimp reared in aquaria with sediments from shrimp ponds was
highly correlated with shrimp size. Resuspension of bottom material was observed and
evaluated in fish ponds (Blackburn et al., 1988; Avnimelech et al., 1999; Meijer and
Avnimelech, 1999). The hypothesis that resuspension might have a significant influence
on the redistribution of sediments in shrimp ponds is supported by others. Martin et al.
(1998) compared sediment accumulation in shrimp ponds with different animal densities
concluding that erosion induced by the swimming activity of the shrimp was an important
factor on sediment distribution.
Organic rich sediment particles have a density that is only slightly greater than water.
The sediment is loosely consolidated and readily relocated by water movement. Aerators
placed in ponds have a very clear effect on the location of sediment at the pond bottom
(Boyd, 1995; Delgado et al., in press; Peterson, 2000). The sediment accumulates in the
deeper portions of the pond, such as the internal drainage depressions or harvesting pits.
Most intensive and semi-intensive shrimp ponds are equipped with mechanical aerators
placed around the pond, generating a radial or elliptical water flow. Typically, this radial
flow is limited to an outer ring in the pond, while the central region is stagnant. Boyd
(1998) described the sediment accumulation in shrimp ponds equipped with paddlewheel
aerators creating a circular flow: mounds of clay 30 – 45 cm in depth accumulate and cover
30 –50% around the center of the pond. A very detailed study of sediment accumulation in
a radially aerated shrimp pond was given by Delgado et al. (in press). The radial
movement of water in the pond leads to the development of an external ring with a
558 Y. Avnimelech, G. Ritvo / Aquaculture 220 (2003) 549–567

circular water movement and an inner ring with nearly stagnant water. Water velocity was
on the average 11.7 cm/s in the outer ring of a 0.25-ha pond and 1.4 cm/s in the central
region of the pond (Delgado et al., in press). Similar findings were reported by Peterson
(2000) for flow in the outer region (11 cm/s) and center ( < 1 cm/s) of a 1-ha pond.
Sediment accumulated where water velocity was below 1 –3 cm s
1 (Avnimelech, 1995;
Peterson, 1999; Delgado et al., in press). A large fraction of shrimp ponds area is covered
by the reduced sediment. Avnimelech (1995) estimated that the area covered by sediments
in typical shrimp ponds in Thailand comprises nearly 50% of the pond bottom and
suggested that shrimp growth, activity and health may be negatively affected in this
region. Burford and Longmore (2001) found that the sludge zone represented 15– 35%
located at the center of a 10-ha shrimp. The pore water NH4 concentration in this zone was
4220– 8950 AM, as compared to 560 –1010 in peripherial zone.
Some shrimp growers do not feed in that part of the pond where the bottom is covered
by a reduced sediment. Thus, the minimal effect of the reduced sludge is the fact that
shrimp access only about 50% of the pond area. This practice was substantiated in a study
where shrimp capture rates were four to five times higher in the periphery region than in
the central sediment enriched zone, during daylight, and two to three times higher at night
(Delgado et al., in press). In traps located in the central region of the pond, dead shrimp
were occasionally collected during the night, indicating that a long exposure to the reduced
sediment was lethal.
Allen et al. (1995) found that shrimp feed preferentially from trays that are placed to
monitor feed consumption and suggested that shrimp were using the trays as a refuge from
reduced sediments. The effect of accumulated sediments on shrimp feeding was studied in
dense culture (60 postlarvae m
1) grown in concrete tanks and fed using trays. The
average (seven replicates) feed consumption for 3 days prior to sludge removal was
301 F 23 g/pond, rising to 409 F 40 g/pond during 3 days following sludge removal, i.e.,
36 F 11% rise (Avnimelech, unpublished results). Similar conclusions related to fish
culture were reported by Avnimelech et al. (1981) as related to retardation of fish growth
in intensive earthen ponds. Old sediments and fresh soil were placed in tanks and labeled
with a phosphorus radioisotope (P32). The scavenging for food by the carp in the
sediments was evaluated by determining the enrichment of their digestive tract with
P32. Carp, mechanically separated from the sediments by a net, were used as control.
Labeled P32 accumulation by carps in the fresh soil was 3.7 times higher than that in old
and reduced sediments, indicating that feed utilization by fish is lowered when the
sediments are reduced. In addition, the symptoms of low intake of sediment particles may
indicate that fish are disturbed by reduced compounds in the sediments and, thus, do not
harvest in such sediments.
Hopkins et al. (1994) reported an experiment conducted in plastic lined ponds with
no water exchange. Practically all shrimp died when the accumulated sludge was left
and not treated, while those in pond where the bottom sediment was resuspended (i.e.,
anaerobic conditions prevented) or in a pond where the sludge was continually removed
grew normally. These results were obtained in a nonreplicated experiment, yet, they
demonstrate the potential effect anoxic sludge can have on shrimp survival. Removal of
accumulated sediments increased shrimp yield from 1 to 6.2 ton/ha/year and the survival
from 10% to 60% in a semi-intensive shrimp farm in New Caledonia (Lemonnier and
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Brizard, 2001b). Some field observations relate incidents of disease outbreaks to the
excessive accumulation of reduced sediment (Avnimelech, 1995). It is possible that toxic
anaerobic products originating in the sediment may induce stress in shrimp, reducing
shrimp vitality and disease resistance.

7. Management of shrimp pond bottom soil

Theory, laboratory experiments and field data indicate that the conditions in the pond
bottom are very important to the success of aquaculture production systems. This is
especially true for semi-intensive to super intensive shrimp production systems. Control of
pond bottom reactions is possible through the use of several means.
An important principle is to Minimize coverage of the pond bottom by sludge. The
effect of reduced sediments on pond productivity is lowered if the area covered by reduced
sediments will be minimized. Concentrating the sludge in a limited, relatively small area in
the pond facilitates further mechanical treatment. Sludge can be concentrated in a small
fraction of the pond bottom through proper placement of aerators and proper design of the
pond bottom topography.
Two tools can be used simultaneously to control the distribution of sediment in the
pond: (1) aerator (paddle wheel or others)-induced currents should be directed to flush the
accumulated, low-density, organic waste toward a given zone in the pond and to keep the
rest of the pond bottom relatively clean, and (2) depressions dug in the pond can further
facilitate the trapping of the sediment in a limited area.
Radial water flow tends to concentrate the sediment in the pond center. This is a very
effective method in relatively small ponds. However, it is also being successfully used in
1.6-ha lined ponds in Belize aquaculture (McIntosh, 2000a,b). Aerators should be placed
away from the pond dikes to have a wide band of moving water. The periphery of the pond
is affected by flow due to the centrifugal outward movement of the water. The sediment
accumulating in the center can be mechanically resuspended or removed.
Aerators are placed in most shrimp ponds parallel to the sides of the ponds (Fig.
2A). This results in a radial water flow ring of limited width (e.g., Peterson, 2000;
Delgado et al., in press). The remaining surface area of the pond has relatively
stagnant water where sedimentation takes place (Fig. 2B). Turning the aerators
diagonally, toward the center of the pond (Fig. 2C), decreased the area of the stagnant
part. Other configurations of aerators placement and a combination of paddle wheel
and aspirator aerators were modeled, evaluated and recommended by Peterson et al.
(2001). The efficiency of these approaches may be raised by excavating a depression
in the pond center, so that the sludge will be trapped for the duration of the growing
period or until further treatment.
A different approach based on currents induced by wind was developed in a fish pond
where a western wind prevails during summer, leading to a surface water flow from west
to east and a resultant return current from east to west. A trench was dug (using a drag line)
along the western edge of the pond in a pond (Fig. 3). The return currents directed the
sediment westward to be intercepted by the trench (Avnimelech, 1984), leading to an
increase in the productivity of the pond.
560 Y. Avnimelech, G. Ritvo / Aquaculture 220 (2003) 549–567

Fig. 2. (A) Stagnant area (water velocity < 1 cm/s) in 1.2-ha shrimp pond equipped with long-arm paddle wheel
aerators (2 hp each). (B) Sludge coverage in a 1.2-ha plastic-lined shrimp pond (same as in (A)); black >10 cm
deep, gray 5 – 10 cm, light gray < 5 cm). (C) Stagnant area (water velocity < 1 cm/s) following redirection of
long-arm paddle wheel aerators. Paddlewheel position and direction are represented by lines.

The control of sludge distribution in ponds is possible since the organically enriched
sludge particles are relatively light, as compared with mineral soil particles and, thus,
selectively resuspended as compared with the denser mineral particles. Sludge in intensive
ponds can be resuspended by airlift pumps or propeller –aspirator aerators directed toward
the bottom. Resuspension is a possible solution in shrimp ponds (Hopkins et al., 1994) and
 Y. Avnimelech, G. Ritvo / Aquaculture 220 (2003) 549–567 561

Fig. 3. Scheme of sediment control in a fishpond (Afikim, Israel) achieved by digging a sediment trap in the
up-wind side.

it might enhance the recycling and utilization of the feed residues. Resuspension of sludge
accumulating in the central region of the pond, using aspirator type aerators is used in the
lined ponds of Belize Aquaculture (McIntosh, 2000b). However, resuspension of reduced
sediments is to be practiced with caution, since resuspension of reduced sediments into the
water consumes oxygen and could expose shrimp to a flux of reduced toxic materials.
Resuspension can be practiced only if it is done as a routine to prevent accumulation of
reduced sediment. Occasional resuspension of sediments by dragging a chain across fish
pond bottom increases pond water turbidity levels and may also release reduced compounds
into the water (Beveridge et al., 1994) and should be practiced with extreme caution.
When the sludge is concentrated in a small fraction of the pond bottom, it can be
removed periodically either by pumping or drainage. In super intensive fish ponds, sludge
is drained at least once a day. In shrimp ponds, cleaning every few days is practiced
(McIntosh, 2000a).
Several means to chemically minimize the development of low redox and to minimize
the build up of soluble sulfides are available, though they need further study in order to be
used as routine methods. Reducing conditions in the sediments can be poised using
chemical treatments, such as nitrate application. Nitrate is a mild oxidant and can change
the redox conditions even at low concentrations (ca. 5 mg N l
1). Unlike conventional
oxidants (e.g., chlorine or hydrogen peroxide), nitrate does not react with suspended
organic matter and as such is not harmful to fish or shrimps. Nitrate is reduced only in an
anoxic environment. Nitrate addition to sediment cores taken from fish pond maintained
the sediment redox potential at greater than 300 mV in the upper 15-mm layer (Meijer and
Avnimelech, 1999). Nitrate added to anoxic lake sediments inhibited the reduction of iron
(Ripl, 1976). The addition of nitrate to sewage sludge inhibited sulfide and methane
formation (Jenneman et al., 1986).
Sulfide concentrations can be effectively controlled by adding iron compounds,
inducing the formation of insoluble sulfide minerals. Connell and Patrick (1969) reduced
soil H2S by addition of finely ground reagent-grade Fe2O3. The effects of O2, KNO3,
MnO2, ferricitrophosphate and FePO42H2O were studied by Engler and Patrick (1973).
They concluded that soluble compounds were effective and acted quickly in reducing
sulfide concentrations but the effect was less persistent with less soluble minerals. Shigeno
(1978) mentioned that shrimp performance was better when iron oxides were applied at 1
kg m
2. Ritvo (1999) mixed two iron oxides types, a high specific surface area
562 Y. Avnimelech, G. Ritvo / Aquaculture 220 (2003) 549–567

ferrihydrite and a low specific surface area hematite, with flooded soil. Ferrihydrite
addition resulted in lower interstitial dissolved sulfide concentrations than hematite.
Sulfide concentrations with either iron oxide addition were significantly lower than that
of the untreated soil. Practical and environmental aspects of the proposed chemical
treatments deserve more research and concern.
A very important and common means to improve pond bottom conditions is the
treatment of the sediment in between crops. These methods have usually a low cost –
benefit ratio. Sludge was often removed with the drained water and by rinsing of the pond
bottom. These methods are presently unaccepted to minimize spread of diseases and to
confirm with environmental regulations. Drained pond bottom soils can be exposed to air
and dried for at least 2 weeks (Wurtz, 1960; Boyd, 1990; Boyd, 1992; Peterson and
Daniels, 1992; Wrobel, 1960). Diab and Shilo (1986) found that the microbial population
changes following drying. Nitrification rates which are low when the soil is flooded,
increased substantially in the drained soil. Oxidation of labile components within a few
hours following exposure can be followed in the field through the color change of the
sediments from black to brown, or demonstrated through the measurement of BOD labile
organic carbon (Avnimelech et al., in press).
The effects of drying, tilling, liming and nitrogen fertilization on respiration of pond
bottom sediments exposed to air between crops was evaluated by Boyd and Pippopinyo
(1994). They concluded that the optimum soil moisture concentration for respiration was
12– 20%, and optimal pH is 7.5 –8.0. In the same study, soil pulverization accelerated
respiration. Thus, tilling of pond bottom soils would be expected to increase respiration.
Furthermore, nitrogen fertilization enhanced organic matter degradation rate.
The disposal of sediment is a serious environmental and economic problem. A fraction
of the sediment is released to the environment with the drained water, especially with the
final 20 cm of discharge (Teichert-Coddington et al., 1999). Disposal of sediments into
estuaries, rivers or to the sea, severely pollutes and is not environmentally sustainable. In
addition to environmental damage, the discharged sludge can prevent the possible use of
the receiving water bodies as water sources for shrimp farming. In many farms in
Thailand, the sludge is stored in reservoirs. The storage capacity of such reservoirs is
limited and their construction is an added expense.
Proper means to dispose or reuse the sludge are needed. One possibility is to return the
dry and aerated sludge into ponds, where it may supply nutrients needed for the
establishment of the flora and biota needed to build the food chain for the refilled ponds.
Dry sediments can be moved to the pond embankments from where most of the
accumulated sediment originated. Other possibilities are to use the sludge as a soil
conditioner for farming following the leaching of excessive salinity or to use it for the
construction of pond embankments (possibly following the addition of flocculants or other
stabilizing materials).

8. Conclusions

The natural carrying capacity of pond bottom seems to be a limiting factor toward
further intensification of aquaculture systems. This point was clearly demonstrated in fish
 Y. Avnimelech, G. Ritvo / Aquaculture 220 (2003) 549–567 563

culture and seems to be true for shrimp pond intensification. Moreover, there is evidence
that the deterioration of the pond bottom, the increase in the amount of waste accumulation
and the development of anaerobic conditions hinder shrimp utilization of feed, retard
growth, possibly create stress and lead to the increase in the concentrations of toxic
metabolites in the pond.
The importance of this topic and our rather incomplete understanding of it justify more
research in this field.
We need to know much more on the material balances in the shrimp pond. Our
knowledge on the nutrient balances in the shrimp pond is insufficient. The cycling of
organic matter and nitrogen in shrimp ponds, emphasizing the reactions in the sediments is
important. A chemical –biochemical and physiological work on the effects of different
anaerobic metabolites on fish and shrimps is needed. An additional dimension is added
since lining of ponds is expanding. Sludge accumulation and processes in lined ponds are
different than in earthen ponds, deserving a detailed study. The behaviors of shrimp on the
bottom of the pond, their reaction to the presence of the reduced sludge and the interaction
of sludge induced stress with shrimp resistance to disease are additional important topics
where our understanding is meager, calling for additional research.
There is a need for engineering studies on methods to collect and dispose sediments.
Hydraulic modeling will assist in the planning and management of the pond. The potential
use of nitrate as an oxidant deserves more thorough research. The drainage, storage
utilization and disposal of bottom sediment is a high priority topic for research and
development, specifically due to the fact that shrimp production is often antagonized by
the environmental authorities and by the public.
In general, fish and shrimp ponds design and operation do not optimize conditions in
the pond bottom considering the natural carrying capacity limitations. A few design and
management practices are available. These include means of ensuring a minimal coverage
of the pond bottom with sludge by using radial water flow, diagonal or other placement of
aerators and the excavation of sludge collection pits in the pond. Sediment resuspension
control is an important means to control oxidation and relocation of the sediment. Sludge
can be removed from the pond either during the cropping period or in between cropping.
However, there is a need to prevent release of sediment to the environment, by safe storage
or preferably by use and recycling. A few ways to use chemicals such as nitrates or iron
compounds are available to poise the redox and control sulfide solubility, yet the overall
significance of these have to be further clarified. In between cropping treatments of pond
bottom, thorough drying, tilling, liming and fertilizing are quite common and have a low
cost – benefit ratio.

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