Mad121 Chap 8

Discrete Mathematics 2
Chapter 8: Relations
Department of Mathematics
The FPT university
TrungDT (FUHN) MAD121 Chapter 8 1/1

Course Introduction

Course Introduction
Course name: Discrete Mathematics 2 — MAD121

Course Introduction
Textbook: Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications, K. Rosen

Course Introduction
Topics covered:

Course Introduction
Topics covered:

Course Introduction
Topics covered:
Chapter 9: Graphs

Course Introduction
Topics covered:
Chapter 9: Graphs
Chapter 10: Trees

Course Introduction
Topics covered:
Chapter 9: Graphs
Chapter 10: Trees
Chapter 11: Boolean Algebra

Course Introduction
Topics covered:
Chapter 9: Graphs
Chapter 10: Trees
Chapter 11: Boolean Algebra
Chapter 12: Modeling Computation

Chapter 8: Introduction

Topics covered:

Topics covered:
8.1 Relations and Their Properties

Topics covered:

8.2 n-ary Relations and Their Applications

Topics covered:

8.3 Representing Relations

Topics covered:

8.4 Closures of Relations

Topics covered:

8.5 Equivalence Relations


A={Berlin, Seoul, Tokyo, Kyoto, New York, Hue}
B={Japan, Korea, USA, France, Vietnam, Germany}

Which cities belong to which countries?



Which cities are capitals?



Which cities are former capitals?

Which cities are former capitals?

(Hue, Vietnam), (Kyoto, Japan)
Let A and B be two sets.

Let A and B be two sets. A binary relation R from A to B is a subset
of the Cartesian product A × B

If (a, b) ∈ R we say a is related to b by R, and write a R b.
If (a, b) ∈ R we say a is related to b by R, and write a R b.
Combining Relations

Combining Relations
Let R and S be relations from A to B.

Combining Relations
R ∪ S = Union relation of R and S

Combining Relations

R ∩ S = Intersection relation of R and S

Combining Relations

R ⊕ S = Exclusive or relation of R and S

Combining Relations

R − S = Difference relation of R and S

Combining Relations

R = Complementary relation of R (in A × B)

Combining Relations

R −1 = Inverse relation of R, which consists of all pairs (b, a) where
(a, b) ∈ R

Combining Relations

(a, b) ∈ R
Composite of two relations:

Combining Relations

(a, b) ∈ R
Composite of two relations: Let R and S be relations

Combining Relations

(a, b) ∈ R
R S
A −→ B −→ C

Combining Relations

(a, b) ∈ R
R S
A −→ B −→ C
The composition S ◦ R is the set of al pairs (a, c) such that there

exists b ∈ B with (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ S.
Properties of Relations

Let A be a set. A relation from A to A is called a relation on A.

Let R be a relation on A.

R is called reflexive if R contains all pairs (a, a) where a ∈ A.

R is called reflexive if R contains all pairs (a, a) where a ∈ A. In other

words, R is reflexive on A if every element in A is related to itself by
R.


R.
R is called symmetric if whenever (a, b) ∈ R then (b, a) ∈ R.


R.
R is called antisymmetric if there do not exist a 6= b such that both
(a, b) and (b, a) are in R.


R.
R is called antisymmetric if there do not exist a 6= b such that both
(a, b) and (b, a) are in R.
R is called transitive if whenever (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R then
(a, c) ∈ R.

Example.

Example. Check if the following relations are reflexive, symmetric,
antisymmetric and transitive

(1) R = set of pairs of students in a class that have the same birthday

(2) R = set of pairs of two integers (a, b) with a divisible by b

(3) R = set of pairs of real numbers (x, y ) with x + y = 0

(4) R = set of pairs of negative numbers (a, b) with a > 2b



TrungDT (FUHN) MAD121 Chapter 8 10 / 1
Note.

Note. The relation R is transitive if and only if R 2 ⊆ R.

Note. The relation R is transitive if and only if R 2 ⊆ R. (Explain!)

Note. The relation R is transitive if and only if R 2 ⊆ R. (Explain!)



An n-ary relation on the sets A1 , A2 , . . . , An is a subset of
A1 × A2 × · · · × An

A1 × A2 × · · · × An
Exampe. Given the sets

A1 × A2 × · · · × An
A1 ={NamNT, TrungTT, HuongNTQ, ThaoNP, HienPQ},

A2 ={00198, 00011, 00345, 00786, 00321, 00546},
A3 ={MAD111, MAA101, MAS291, PFC111, DSA1}
A4 ={3.5, 4.0, 5.7, 8.0, 9.5, 6.4}

A1 × A2 × · · · × An

A2 ={00198, 00011, 00345, 00786, 00321, 00546},
A4 ={3.5, 4.0, 5.7, 8.0, 9.5, 6.4}
A relation R on these sets can be expressed as a database

A1 × A2 × · · · × An

A2 ={00198, 00011, 00345, 00786, 00321, 00546},
A4 ={3.5, 4.0, 5.7, 8.0, 9.5, 6.4}
A relation R on these sets can be expressed as a database
Name Code Subject Grade

HuongNTQ 00345 MAS291 8.0
TrungTT 00786 DSA1 3.5
HienPQ 00321 DSA1 8.0

We say R is a relation on 4 domains (Name, Code, Subject and Grade).

An element of this relation is a record consisting of 4 fields.

An element of this relation is a record consisting of 4 fields. For example
(TrungTT, 00786, DSA1, 3.5)

An element of this relation is a record consisting of 4 fields. For example
(TrungTT, 00786, DSA1, 3.5)

Primary key - Composite key

A domain of an n-ary relation is a primary key if the value from this
domain of the n-tuple determines this n-tuple.

A set of domains of an n-ary relation is a composite key if they
determines uniquely n-tuples.

Example.

Example. In the 4-ary relation,




Each domain Name or Code can be primary key.


Each domain Name or Code can be primary key.

Each domain Subject or Grade is not primary key, but together they
form a composite key.

Operations on n-ary Relations

Selection operator SC .

Selection operator SC . Given relation



If C is the condition (Subject = ”DSA1”) then the selection SC

produces a 4-ary relation with 2 records






If C is the condition (Subject = ”DSA1”) ∧ (Grade > 5.0) then the
selection SC produces a relation with how many records?

Projection operator P.

Projection operator P. Given the relation
Name Code Subject Gtade



The projection P2,3,4 produces a 3-ary relation with 3 records



Code Subject Grade
00345 MAS291 8.0
00786 DSA1 3.5
00321 DSA1 8.0



Code Subject Grade
00345 MAS291 8.0
00786 DSA1 3.5
00321 DSA1 8.0
The projection P2,4 on the above relation will produce a relation of
how many domains and how many records?

Join operator J. Given two relations

Name Code Subject

HuongNTQ 00345 MAS291
NamNT 00011 MAD121
TrungTT 00786 DSA1
HienPQ 00321 DSA1

Name Code Subject Code Subject Grade

HuongNTQ 00345 MAS291 00345 MAS291 8.0
NamNT 00011 MAD121 00786 DSA1 3.5
TrungTT 00786 DSA1 00546 MAD121 5.7
HienPQ 00321 DSA1 00321 DSA1 8.0


HuongNTQ 00345 MAS291 00345 MAS291 8.0
NamNT 00011 MAD121 00786 DSA1 3.5
TrungTT 00786 DSA1 00546 MAD121 5.7
HienPQ 00321 DSA1 00321 DSA1 8.0


HuongNTQ 00345 MAS291 00345 MAS291 8.0
NamNT 00011 MAD121 00786 DSA1 3.5
TrungTT 00786 DSA1 00546 MAD121 5.7
HienPQ 00321 DSA1 00321 DSA1 8.0
The join operator J2 used on these relations will produce the relation


HuongNTQ 00345 MAS291 00345 MAS291 8.0
NamNT 00011 MAD121 00786 DSA1 3.5
TrungTT 00786 DSA1 00546 MAD121 5.7
HienPQ 00321 DSA1 00321 DSA1 8.0



HuongNTQ 00345 MAS291 00345 MAS291 8.0
NamNT 00011 MAD121 00786 DSA1 3.5
TrungTT 00786 DSA1 00546 MAD121 5.7
HienPQ 00321 DSA1 00321 DSA1 8.0



Representing Relations Using Directed Graphs.

Let R = {(1, 3), (2, 2), (1, 4), (2, 1), (3, 1)} on A = {1, 2, 3, 4}.

Let R = {(1, 3), (2, 2), (1, 4), (2, 1), (3, 1)} on A = {1, 2, 3, 4}.
We can use digraphs to represent this relation.

Let R = {(1, 3), (2, 2), (1, 4), (2, 1), (3, 1)} on A = {1, 2, 3, 4}.

Let R = {(1, 3), (2, 2), (1, 4), (2, 1), (3, 1)} on A = {1, 2, 3, 4}.

Question. What are the properties of digraphs representing relations
which are

which are
reflexive

which are
reflexive
symmetric

which are
reflexive
symmetric
antisymmetric

which are
reflexive
symmetric
antisymmetric
transitive

Representing Relations using 0-1 Matrices.

Given a relation R on {1, 2, . . . , n}.

Given a relation R on {1, 2, . . . , n}. To represent R we use a square matrix

n × n, denoted by MR = [aij ], whose entries are defined as follows:

Given a relation R on {1, 2, . . . , n}. To represent R we use a square matrix

n × n, denoted by MR = [aij ], whose entries are defined as follows:

1 if (i, j) ∈ R,
aij =
0 if (i, j) 6∈ R

Operations on 0-1 Matrices

Let A and B be two 0-1 matrices of the same sizes.


 
a11 · · · a1n
 .. .. ..  ,
A = [aij ] =  . . . 
am1 · · · amn


   
a11 · · · a1n b11 ··· b1n
 .. .. ..  , B = [b ] =  .. .. .. 
A = [aij ] =  . . .  ij  . . . 
am1 · · · amn bm1 ··· bmn


   
a11 · · · a1n b11 ··· b1n
 .. .. ..  , B = [b ] =  .. .. .. 
A = [aij ] =  . . .  ij  . . . 
Then:


   
a11 · · · a1n b11 ··· b1n
 .. .. ..  , B = [b ] =  .. .. .. 
A = [aij ] =  . . .  ij  . . . 
Then:
A ∧ B = [aij ∧ bij ]


   
a11 · · · a1n b11 ··· b1n
 .. .. ..  , B = [b ] =  .. .. .. 
A = [aij ] =  . . .  ij  . . . 
Then:
A ∨ B = [aij ∨ bij ]


   
a11 · · · a1n b11 ··· b1n
 .. .. ..  , B = [b ] =  .. .. .. 
A = [aij ] =  . . .  ij  . . . 
Then:
A ⊕ B = [aij ⊕ bij ]


   
a11 · · · a1n b11 ··· b1n
 .. .. ..  , B = [b ] =  .. .. .. 
A = [aij ] =  . . .  ij  . . . 
Then:
A ⊕ B = [aij ⊕ bij ]
A = [aij ]

Boolean product A B.

If A is a row matrix of size 1 × m and B is a column matrix of size m × 1

then the Boolean product A B is the matrix consisting of only one entry,


this entry is 1 if A and B both have at least a 1 at the same position, and
it is 0 otherwise.


it is 0 otherwise.
Example.


it is 0 otherwise.
Example.
 
1
0 1 0 0 =
1


it is 0 otherwise.
Example.
 
1
0 1 0 0 = 0 ,
1


it is 0 otherwise.
Example.
   
1 0
0 1 0 0 = 0 , 0 1 0 1 =
1 1


it is 0 otherwise.
Example.
   
1 0
0 1 0 0 = 0 , 0 1 0 1 = 1
1 1


it is 0 otherwise.
Example.
   
1 0
0 1 0 0 = 0 , 0 1 0 1 = 1
1 1
If A is an m × n matrix, B is an n × p matrix, the Boolean product A B

is a 0-1 matrix of size m × p.


it is 0 otherwise.
Example.
   
1 0
0 1 0 0 = 0 , 0 1 0 1 = 1
1 1

is a 0-1 matrix of size m × p. To determine the (i, j)-entry of A B we
perform the Boolean product on the ith row of A and the jth column of B.


it is 0 otherwise.
Example.
   
1 0
0 1 0 0 = 0 , 0 1 0 1 = 1
1 1

Example.


it is 0 otherwise.
Example.
   
1 0
0 1 0 0 = 0 , 0 1 0 1 = 1
1 1

 
1 1
0 1 0
Example. 0 1 =
1 1 0
1 0

it is 0 otherwise.
Example.
   
1 0
0 1 0 0 = 0 , 0 1 0 1 = 1
1 1

 
1 1
0 1 0 0 1
Example. 0 1 =
1 1 0 1 1
1 0
Let R and S be relations on A with their representing matrices MR and
MS . Then:

MS . Then:
MR∪S = MR ∨ MS

MS . Then:
MR∪S = MR ∨ MS
MR∩S = MR ∧ MS

MS . Then:
MR∪S = MR ∨ MS
MR∩S = MR ∧ MS
MR⊕S = MR ⊕ MS

MS . Then:
MR∪S = MR ∨ MS
MR∩S = MR ∧ MS
MR⊕S = MR ⊕ MS
MR = MR

MS . Then:
MR∪S = MR ∨ MS
MR∩S = MR ∧ MS
MR⊕S = MR ⊕ MS
MR = MR
MR −1 = (MR )T

MS . Then:
MR∪S = MR ∨ MS
MR∩S = MR ∧ MS
MR⊕S = MR ⊕ MS
MR = MR
MR −1 = (MR )T
MS◦R = MR MS

MS . Then:
MR∪S = MR ∨ MS
MR∩S = MR ∧ MS
MR⊕S = MR ⊕ MS
MR = MR
MR −1 = (MR )T
MS◦R = MR MS
[n]
MR n = MR MR · · · MR =: MR

MS . Then:
MR∪S = MR ∨ MS
MR∩S = MR ∧ MS
MR⊕S = MR ⊕ MS
MR = MR
MR −1 = (MR )T
MS◦R = MR MS
[n]
MR n = MR MR · · · MR =: MR

Question 1. What are the properties of the representing matrix of a
relation which is:

relation which is:
reflexive

relation which is:
reflexive
symmetric

relation which is:
reflexive
symmetric
antisymmetric

relation which is:
reflexive
symmetric
antisymmetric
transitive

relation which is:
reflexive
symmetric
antisymmetric
transitive
Question 2. Which properties: reflexive, symmetric, antisymmetric, or

transitive that are possessed by the relation represented by the following
matrix:

relation which is:
reflexive
symmetric
antisymmetric
transitive

matrix:
 
1 1 0
(a) 0 0 1
0 1 0

relation which is:
reflexive
symmetric
antisymmetric
transitive

matrix:
   
1 1 0 1 0 1
(a) 0 0 1 (b) 0 1 0
0 1 0 1 0 1

relation which is:
reflexive
symmetric
antisymmetric
transitive

matrix:
   
1 1 0 1 0 1
(a) 0 0 1 (b) 0 1 0
0 1 0 1 0 1

Question 3. Let A be a set of cardinality n. How many relations on A are
there that are:

there that are:
reflexive?

there that are:
reflexive?
symmetric?

there that are:
reflexive?
symmetric?
reflexive and symmetric?



Let R be a relation on A. The relation obtained from R by adding a

minimal number of new pairs so that the new relation is reflexive
(symmetric, antisymmetric, transitive) is called the reflexive closure
(symmetric, antisymmetric, transitive closure) of R.

Let R be a relation on A. The relation obtained from R by adding a

minimal number of new pairs so that the new relation is reflexive
(symmetric, antisymmetric, transitive) is called the reflexive closure
(symmetric, antisymmetric, transitive closure) of R.

Example 1.

Example 1. Find the reflexive closure of:

R = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3)} on A = {1, 2, 3}.

R = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3)} on A = {1, 2, 3}.

R = {(a, b)| a 6= b} on the set of real numbers.

R = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3)} on A = {1, 2, 3}.

R = {(a, b)| a ≥ b} on the set of real numbers.

R = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3)} on A = {1, 2, 3}.

Example 2.

R = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3)} on A = {1, 2, 3}.

Example 2. Find the symmetric closure of:

R = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3)} on A = {1, 2, 3}.

R = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3)} on A = {1, 2, 3}.

R = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3)} on A = {1, 2, 3}.

R = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3)} on A = {1, 2, 3}.

R = {(a, b)| a > b} on the set of real numbers.

R = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3)} on A = {1, 2, 3}.

R = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3)} on A = {1, 2, 3}.


R = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3)} on A = {1, 2, 3}.

R = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3)} on A = {1, 2, 3}.

Example 3.

R = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3)} on A = {1, 2, 3}.

R = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3)} on A = {1, 2, 3}.

Example 3. Find the antisymmetric closure of

R = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 2), (2, 1)} on {1, 2, 3}.

Transitive Closure

Transitive Closure
Let
R = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 1), (3, 2)}
on the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4}.

Transitive Closure
Let
R = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 1), (3, 2)}
on the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4}.
The relation R is not transitive.

Transitive Closure
Let
R = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 1), (3, 2)}
on the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4}.
To get a transitive relation from R, we first need to add the pairs of R 2 .

Transitive Closure
Let
R = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 1), (3, 2)}
on the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4}.
These new pairs together with those of R may form new ones, meaning we
might need to add pairs of R 3 ,...

Transitive Closure
Let
R = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 1), (3, 2)}
on the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4}.
Denote R ∗ the transitive closure of R.

Transitive Closure
Let
R = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 1), (3, 2)}
on the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4}.
Denote R ∗ the transitive closure of R. Then R ∗ is the infinite union
R∗ = R ∪ R2 ∪ R3 ∪ · · ·

Transitive Closure
Let
R = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 1), (3, 2)}
on the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4}.
Denote R ∗ the transitive closure of R. Then R ∗ is the infinite union
R∗ = R ∪ R2 ∪ R3 ∪ · · ·

Connectivity Relations

Let R = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 1), (3, 2)} on A = {1, 2, 3, 4}

Let R = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 1), (3, 2)} on A = {1, 2, 3, 4}

Let R = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 1), (3, 2)} on A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
R n = set of pairs of vertices (u, v ) for which there is a path of length

n from u to v .

Let R = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 1), (3, 2)} on A = {1, 2, 3, 4}

n from u to v .
R ∪ R 2 ∪ · · · ∪ R n = set of pairs of vertices (u, v ) for which there is a
path of length at most n from u to v .

Let R = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 1), (3, 2)} on A = {1, 2, 3, 4}

n from u to v .
R ∪ R 2 ∪ · · · ∪ R n = set of pairs of vertices (u, v ) for which there is a
path of length at most n from u to v .
R ∗ = R ∪ R 2 ∪ R 3 ∪ · · · = set of pairs of vertices (u, v ) for which
there is a path from u to v .
An Algorithm for Commputing Transitive Closures

Let R be a relation on a set of n elements.

Let R be a relation on a set of n elements. It is showed that to compute

R ∗ we only need to compute a finite union of relations.


Theorem


Theorem
Let R be a relation on a set of n elements. Then
R ∗ = R ∪ R 2 ∪ R 3 ∪ · · · ∪ R n.


Theorem
R ∗ = R ∪ R 2 ∪ R 3 ∪ · · · ∪ R n.
Equivalently, the matrix of R ∗ is determined from the following equation


Theorem
R ∗ = R ∪ R 2 ∪ R 3 ∪ · · · ∪ R n.
Equivalently, the matrix of R ∗ is determined from the following equation

[2] [3] [n]
MR ∗ = MR ∨ MR ∨ MR ∨ · · · ∨ MR

Example. Find the transitive closure of R = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 1), (3, 2)}
on A = {1, 2, 3, 4}.

on A = {1, 2, 3, 4}.
 
0 0 1 1
1 0 0 0
MR = 0 1 0 0

0 0 0 0

on A = {1, 2, 3, 4}.
   
0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 [2] 0 0 1 1
MR = 0 1 0 0
 MR =  1

0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

on A = {1, 2, 3, 4}.
   
0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 [2] 0 0 1 1
MR = 0 1 0 0
 MR =  1

0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 
1 0 0 0
[3] 0 1 0 0
MR =  0 0 1 1

0 0 0 0

on A = {1, 2, 3, 4}.
   
0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 [2] 0 0 1 1
MR = 0 1 0 0
 M R = 
1 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
   
1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
[3] 0 1 0 0 [4] 1 0 0 0
MR =  0 0 1 1
 M R = 
0 1 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

on A = {1, 2, 3, 4}.
   
0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 [2] 0 0 1 1
MR = 0 1 0 0
 M R = 
1 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
   
1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
[3] 0 1 0 0 [4] 1 0 0 0
MR =  0 0 1 1
 M R = 
0 1 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
Then MR ∗ =  1 1 1 1

0 0 0 0

Warshall’s Algorithm for Computing Transitive Closures

Let R be a relation on a set of n elements. To compute the transitive

closure of R, Warshall’s algorithm constructs a sequence of matrices
M0 , M1 , . . . recursively:


M0 := MR


M0 := MR
Mk := Mk−1 ∨ (Boolean product of kth column and kth row of Mk−1 )


M0 := MR


M0 := MR
The algorithm terminates when k = n, and the matrix Mn is the matrix of

the transitive closure of R.

Example. Use Warshall’s algorithm to compute the transitive closure of
R = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 1), (3, 2)} on A = {1, 2, 3, 4}.

Exercise.

Exercise. Read and understand the proof of correctness of Warshall’s
algorithm in textbook.

8.5 Equivalence relations

Partitions.

Partitions. Let A be a set. The subsets A1 , A2 , . . . , An are called a
partition of A if:

partition of A if:
(i) A1 ∪ A2 ∪ · · · ∪ An = A

partition of A if:
(i) A1 ∪ A2 ∪ · · · ∪ An = A
(ii) Ai ∩ Aj = Ø for all i 6= j.

partition of A if:
(i) A1 ∪ A2 ∪ · · · ∪ An = A
(ii) Ai ∩ Aj = Ø for all i 6= j.

Example.

Example. Which of the following subsets form a partition of the set of all
real numbers?

real numbers?
(a) The subset of positive integers, the subset of negative integers

real numbers?

(b) The subset of non-positive integers, the subset of non-negative
integers

real numbers?

integers
(c) The subset of rational numbers, the subset of irrational numbers

real numbers?

integers
(d) The closed intervals [n, n + 1] where n is an integer

real numbers?

integers
(d) The closed intervals [n, n + 1] where n is an integer
(e) The intervals (n, n + 1] where n is an integer.

Equivalence Relations


The relation R on A is called an equivalence relation if it is reflexive,

symmetric and transitive.


Example.


Example. The following relations are equivalence relations:


(a) The congruence modular m relation on the set of integers



(b) The born-in-the-same-city relation in a class



 
1 1 0
(c) The relation whose representing matrix is MR = 1 1 0
0 0 1



 
1 1 0
0 0 1
(d) R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)} on A = {1, 2, 3, 4}



 
1 1 0
0 0 1
(d) R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)} on A = {1, 2, 3, 4}

Theorem

Theorem
Let R be an equivalence relation on A.

Theorem
Let R be an equivalence relation on A. Then
The set A is partitioned into disjoint subsets, elements in each subset
are mutually related to each other (and to themself), and any two
elements of two different subsets are not related by R.

Theorem
These subsets are called equivalence classes of R.

Theorem
Therefore, an equivalence relation on A forms a partition of A
consisting of equivalence classes of R.

Theorem
Example.

Theorem
Example. Find all equivalence classes of each equivalence relation

Theorem
(a) The congruence modular m relation of the set of integers

Theorem


Theorem

 
1 1 0
0 0 1

Theorem

 
1 1 0
0 0 1
(d) R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)} on A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
Theorem

 
1 1 0
0 0 1
(d) R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)} on A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
Let A1 , A2 , . . . , An be a partition of A.

Let A1 , A2 , . . . , An be a partition of A. There exists an equivalence relation
R on A whose equivalence classes are the subsets of this partition.

Example. Define an equivalence relation whose equivalence classes are the

subsets of the following partitions:


Partition {1, 3, 5}, {2}, {4} of {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}


Partition {1, 3, 5}, {2}, {4} of {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

Partition of the set of integers consisting of the subset of even
numbers and the subset of odd numbers


Partition {1, 3, 5}, {2}, {4} of {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}



Partition {1, 3, 5}, {2}, {4} of {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}


Question.

Question. How many equivalence relations are there on the set
{1, 2, 3, 4}?

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Discrete Mathematics 2

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Course name: Discrete Mathematics 2 — MAD121

Textbook: Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications, K. Rosen

TrungDT (FUHN) MAD121 Chapter 8 2/1

Course name: Discrete Mathematics 2 — MAD121

Textbook: Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications, K. Rosen

TrungDT (FUHN) MAD121 Chapter 8 2/1

Course name: Discrete Mathematics 2 — MAD121

Textbook: Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications, K. Rosen

TrungDT (FUHN) MAD121 Chapter 8 2/1

Course name: Discrete Mathematics 2 — MAD121

Textbook: Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications, K. Rosen

TrungDT (FUHN) MAD121 Chapter 8 2/1

Course name: Discrete Mathematics 2 — MAD121

Textbook: Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications, K. Rosen

TrungDT (FUHN) MAD121 Chapter 8 2/1

Course name: Discrete Mathematics 2 — MAD121

Textbook: Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications, K. Rosen

TrungDT (FUHN) MAD121 Chapter 8 2/1

Course name: Discrete Mathematics 2 — MAD121

Textbook: Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications, K. Rosen

TrungDT (FUHN) MAD121 Chapter 8 2/1

TrungDT (FUHN) MAD121 Chapter 8 3/1

TrungDT (FUHN) MAD121 Chapter 8 3/1

8.1 Relations and Their Properties

TrungDT (FUHN) MAD121 Chapter 8 3/1

8.1 Relations and Their Properties

TrungDT (FUHN) MAD121 Chapter 8 3/1

8.1 Relations and Their Properties

TrungDT (FUHN) MAD121 Chapter 8 3/1

8.1 Relations and Their Properties

TrungDT (FUHN) MAD121 Chapter 8 3/1

8.1 Relations and Their Properties

TrungDT (FUHN) MAD121 Chapter 8 3/1

TrungDT (FUHN) MAD121 Chapter 8 4/1

B={Japan, Korea, USA, France, Vietnam, Germany}

TrungDT (FUHN) MAD121 Chapter 8 4/1

B={Japan, Korea, USA, France, Vietnam, Germany}

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TrungDT (FUHN) MAD121 Chapter 8 4/1

B={Japan, Korea, USA, France, Vietnam, Germany}

Which cities belong to which countries?

TrungDT (FUHN) MAD121 Chapter 8 4/1

B={Japan, Korea, USA, France, Vietnam, Germany}

Which cities belong to which countries?

TrungDT (FUHN) MAD121 Chapter 8 4/1

TrungDT (FUHN) MAD121 Chapter 8 5/1

TrungDT (FUHN) MAD121 Chapter 8 5/1

TrungDT (FUHN) MAD121 Chapter 8 5/1

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Which cities are former capitals?

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TrungDT (FUHN) MAD121 Chapter 8 7/1

TrungDT (FUHN) MAD121 Chapter 8 7/1

R ∪ S = Union relation of R and S

TrungDT (FUHN) MAD121 Chapter 8 7/1

R ∪ S = Union relation of R and S

TrungDT (FUHN) MAD121 Chapter 8 7/1