CBSE XII – 2022-23

VOLUME 1
FORMULAE AND CONCEPTS
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RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

SOME BASICS OF RELATIONS

1. Relation in Mathematics means the connection between the elements of one set to the
elements of another set.

2. The relation is defined from one set which is Domain to another set which is Range.

3. To define any relation, we need three things: Domain set, Range set and the rule of the
Relation.

4. Examples of few Relations are : Greater than, Equal to, Parallel to, square of.
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5. If a Relation is expressed as an ordered pair, the set of all first elements are called
Domain and the set of all second elements are called Range.

Example : Let R be { ( 2, 4 ), ( 2, 6 ), ( 2, 8 ), ( 3, 6 )}
Domain is { 2, 3 } Range is { 4, 6, 8 }
The Relation is ‘factor of’

6. A Relation is represented by ‘R’ and R-1 is called Inverse Relation.

If (a, b) ∈ R then (b, a) ∈ R−1 .

7. Types of Relations :

a. Reflexive Relation :

If every element of set A is related to itself, it is Reflexive Relation.

If 𝑎 𝑅 𝑎 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑅 𝑖𝑠 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑣𝑒.
Ex : A = { a, b, c, d } . If R = { (a, a), (b, b), (c, c), (d, d), (b, c) } , then R is Reflexive.
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The four elements of set A are related to themselves.

There can be extra pair of elements.

b. Identity Relation :

If every element of set A is related to itself only, it is Identity Relation.

Consider the same example given in Reflexive Relation, to understand the difference
between Reflexive Relation and Identity Relation clearly.
EX : A = { a, b, c, d } . If R = { (a, a), (b, b), (c, c), (d, d) }, then R is an Identity Relation.
Except these four identity pairs, there can’t be any extra pair of element.

[ Note : All Identity Relations are Reflexive Relations but all Reflexive Relations need
not be Identity Relations.]

c. Symmetric Relation :
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If an element ‘a’ related to another element ‘b’ ⇒ ‘b’ is related to ‘a’ then R is
symmetric. 𝐼𝑓 𝑎 𝑅 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑏 𝑅 𝑎 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑅 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐.
Ex : If a line AB is perpendicular to line CD, then line CD will be perpendicular to line AB.
Hence the Relation ‘perpendicular to ‘ is symmetric in a set of lines in a plane.

d. Transitive Relation :
If in a Relation, a R b and b R c ⇒ a R c , then R is Transitive.
Ex : Consider the Relation “ greater than “ . 8 > 5 and 5 > 3 ⇒ 8 > 3 . R is Transitive.
[ NOTE on TRANSITIVITY of a Relation :
A Relation is not transitive only if (𝒂, 𝒃) ∈ 𝑹 𝒂𝒏𝒅 (𝒃, 𝒄) ∈ 𝑹 , 𝒃𝒖𝒕 (𝒂, 𝒄) ∉ 𝑹. If in a
Relation (𝒂, 𝒃 ) ∈ 𝑹 𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒊𝒔 𝒏𝒐 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 (𝒃, 𝒄 )𝒊𝒏 𝑹 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒂𝒍𝒔𝒐 𝑹 is transitive. ]

e. Void Relation or Empty Relation :

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If no element of set A is related to any element of A it is void Relation.

Ex : A = { 1, 2, 3, -------- 10 } Relation R is defined by 𝑅 = { (𝑎, 𝑏): 𝑎 − 𝑏 = 11 } .
It is not possible to get 𝑎 − 𝑏 = 11, from any two elements a, b from set A.
So this is a void relation.

f. Universal Relation :

If each element of set A is related to every other element of A it is Universal Relation.

Ex : A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 } Relation R is defined by
𝑅 = {(𝑎, 𝑏): 𝑎 + 𝑏 > 1 } Any two elements from set A when added will be > 1.
So it is a universal Relation.

[Note : Void Relation and Universal Relations are sometimes called as trivial Relations ]

If a Relation is Reflexive, Symmetric and Transitive it is called Equivalence Relation.

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How to form equivalence relations from a given set ?

1. Equivalence relation of any set A to A with minimum possible elements will be the set
containing only reflexive pairs of elements.
2. Equivalence relation of any set A to A with maximum possible elements will be the set
containing all elements of A X A.
3. Other possible equivalence relations of any set A to A will be the set containing
reflexive pairs of elements and one symmetric pair.

Example sum : A = { a, b, c } . Write all possible equivalence Relations.

𝑹𝟏 = { (𝒂, 𝒂), (𝒃, 𝒃), (𝒄, 𝒄)} 𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡.
For (𝑎, 𝑎) 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 (𝑎, 𝑎 )𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑠.
For (𝑎, 𝑎), 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟 (𝑎, 𝑏)𝑜𝑟 (𝑎, 𝑐 )𝑡𝑜 𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑘 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦.
So the relation 𝑹𝟏 = { (𝒂, 𝒂), (𝒃, 𝒃), (𝒄, 𝒄)} 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
𝑹𝟐 = { (𝒂, 𝒂), (𝒃, 𝒃), (𝒄, 𝒄), (𝒂, 𝒃), (𝒃, 𝒂)}
𝑹𝟑 = { (𝒂, 𝒂), (𝒃, 𝒃), (𝒄, 𝒄), (𝒂, 𝒄), (𝒄, 𝒂)}
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𝑹𝟒 = { (𝒂, 𝒂), (𝒃, 𝒃), (𝒄, 𝒄), (𝒃, 𝒄), (𝒄, 𝒃)}
𝑹𝟓 = { (𝒂, 𝒂), (𝒃, 𝒃), (𝒄, 𝒄), (𝒂, 𝒃), (𝒃, 𝒂), (𝒃, 𝒄), (𝒄, 𝒃), (𝒂, 𝒄), (𝒄, 𝒂)}
There are 5 possible equivalence relations.

SOME FACTS ABOUT EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS :

1. The intersection of two equivalence relations on a set is an equivalence relation on the
set. If 𝑅1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅2 are two equivalence relations on set A, then 𝑅1 ∩ 𝑅2 is also an
equivalence relation on set A.
2. The union of two equivalence relations on a set need not be an equivalence relation on
the set. It may be or may not be.
3. If 𝑅 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝐴, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑅−1 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜
𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝐴 .

Point to be remembered :
1. Total number of relations possible from a set of ‘m’ elements to a set of ‘n’ elements is
𝟐𝒎𝒏 .
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If a set A consists of ‘m ‘ elements and set B consists of ‘n’ elements and the relation R is
from A to B, then the total number of relations possible from A to B is 2𝑚𝑛 .
2
2. Number of Relations from A to A if A has ‘n’ elements -- 2𝑛
𝟐 −𝒏
3. Number of Reflexive Relations possible in a set A which has ‘n’ elements -- 𝟐𝒏
𝟐 +𝒏)/𝟐
4. Number if symmetric Relations possible in a set A which has ‘n’ elements – 𝟐(𝒏

WHAT IS AN EQUIVALENCE CLASS ?

Let R be an Equivalence Relation on set A. If 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 then the set of all elements 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴
such that 𝑥 𝑅 𝑎 is called the Equivalence class of 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 [𝑎].
Equivalence class will exist only in Equivalence Relation. Equivalence class will be a
subset of the Equivalence Relation R.

[ Note : 1. Equivalence classes are either equal or disjoint.

2. Union of equivalence classes will be A.]
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FUNCTIONS

1. A function is a special type of Relation.

2. Every input has a unique output. The first element of a function will not be repeated.
3. Every Function is a relation. But Every Relation is not a Function.

A is the owner of two cars. Each country has a unique capital.

This Relation is not a Function. This Relation is a Function.
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Consider the following ordered pairs: Notice the 𝑥- coordinates (First element alone)
1. {(1, 5), (3, 6), ( -4, 7)} – No first Element is repeated. So, this Relation is a Function.
2. {(2, 5), (3, 7), (6, 7)}—No First Element is repeated. So, this Relation is a Function. The
repetition of the second element will not affect whether a relation is a function or not.
3. {(2, 0), (5, 4), (2, 5)} The first element ‘2’ is repeated in two ordered pairs. So, this
Relation is not a function.

You can find whether a given graph is a function or not, using vertical line test easily.
If you draw vertical lines parallel to Y-axis, corresponding to each X, and if each X has
only one y value the graph is a function. Otherwise it is not a function.
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This line graph is a function. Why ?

This parabola graph is not a function. Why ?

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This parabola graph is a Function. Why ?

Do you understand the vertical line test to find whether a given graph is a function or not?

Domain, Codomain and Range :

Let 𝑓 be a function from 𝑋 𝑡𝑜 𝑌, then the set 𝑋 is called the Domain of the function 𝑓 and
the set 𝑌 is called the Codomain.
The set consisting of all the outputs (images) of the elements of 𝑋 under the function 𝑓 is
called the Range of 𝑓 and denoted by 𝑓 (𝑋).
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The Range of 𝑓 is a subset of 𝑌, (Codomain) and it may or may not be equal to 𝑌.

Let me explain domain, codomain, range, image and pre-image by an example.

See the figure below:

DOMAIN : If the function is from 𝑋 𝑡𝑜 𝑌, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛

Elements of set 𝑋 → {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 } 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑡.
C0DOMAIN : Elements of set 𝑌 → { 1, 2, 3, 4 }𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑑𝑜𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑡.
RANGE: Range is the set of output elements. Range is {2, 4}
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IMAGE : Image is the output of each element in the domain.

Image of the element 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 2. Image of the element 𝑏 𝑖𝑠 4.
Image of the element 𝑐 𝑖𝑠 2.
PRE – IMAGE : Pre-image of 2 is 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐. Pre-image of 4 is 𝑏
Note : One element should have only one image in a function.
But one element in the codomain can have more than one pre – image.

MAIN FEATURES OF A FUNCTION :

Let 𝑓 be a function from 𝑋 𝑡𝑜 𝑌, then
1. For every 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋, there exists a unique element 𝑦 ∈ 𝑌 such that 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ).
2. No element of 𝑋 can have more than one image in 𝑌.
3. There may be elements in 𝑋 which are not associated with any element of 𝑌.
4. Distinct elements of 𝑋 may have the same image in 𝑌.
5. Function 𝑓 is determined when 𝑓(𝑥) is known for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋
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TYPES OF FUNCTIONS :

1. ONE – ONE FUNCTION ( INJECTION ) : A function f : A → B is said to be a one- one

function if different elements of set A have different images in set B.

f : A → B is said to be a one- one function

If a ≠ b ⇒ f ( a ) ≠ f ( b ) for all a, b ∈ A
If f ( a ) = f (b ) ⇒ a = b for all a, b ∈ A

Each flower associated with its name is a one-one function.

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2. MANY – ONE FUNCTION : A function f : A → B is said to be a many- one function if two

or more elements of set A have the same image in set B.

f : A → B is said to be a many - one function

If a ≠ b ⇒ f ( a ) = f ( b ) for all a, b ∈ A

Two babies associated to one toy (ball) is a many-one function.

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3. ONTO FUNCTION ( SURJECTION ) : A function f : A → B is said to be an onto function if

every element of set B has a pre-image in set A. The range of ‘ f ’ = the co-domain of ‘ f ’

There is no element in the Codomain , [image set / second set ] for which there is no
pre-image. Codomain and range are the same.

4. INTO FUNCTION : A function f : A → B is said to be an into function if there exists an

element in set B which has no pre-image in set A.
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The range of ‘ f ’ ≠ the co-domain of ‘ f ’. [At least one extra element in the co-domain
which doesn’t have pre – image. Co-domain will be > Range.]

(One-one into) ( Many one into )

The element 9 in B has no pre-image in A. The elements 1 and 3 have
no pre-images.

5. BIJECTION : A function f : A → B is said to be a Bijection

if it is one-one and onto.
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HOW TO FIND OUT WHETHER A GIVEN FUNCTION IS ONE-ONE OR NOT ?

Consider two arbitrary elements 𝑥, 𝑦 in the domain of ‘ 𝑓 ‘.

Put𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑦).
Solve and if it gives a unique solution 𝑥 = 𝑦, then ‘ f ‘ is a one-one function.
Otherwise it is not one-one.

HOW TO FIND OUT WHETHER A FUNCTION IS ONTO OR NOT?

Let f : A → B be the given function.

f ( 𝑥 ) = 𝑦 . Obtain 𝑥 in terms of y . Let x = g ( 𝑦 )
If for all values of 𝑦 𝜖 B , the values of x obtained from 𝑥 = g ( 𝑦 ) , are in set A then ‘ f ‘ is
onto.
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GENERAL IMPORTANT NOTE :

When you want to prove some result, generalize. When you want to disprove something
give an example. That is enough to disprove.

SOME IMPORTANT FORMULAE IN FUNCTIONS

Let f : 𝑨 → 𝑩 ; Number of elements in the domain set A = m and the number of elements in
the co-domain set B = n.

CASES TOTAL NUMBER OF NUMBER OF NUMBER OF ONTO FUNCTIONS NUMBER

FUNCTIONS ONE-ONE OF
FUNCTIONS BIJECTIONS

1. m > n 𝒏𝒎 0 𝒏𝒎 − {𝒏 𝒄𝟏 (𝒏 − 𝟏)𝒎 − 𝒏𝒄𝟐 (𝒏 − 𝟐)𝒎 0

+ − − − −}
2. m < n 𝒏𝒎 𝒎! 𝒏 𝒄𝒎 0 0

3. m = n 𝒏𝒏 (𝒐𝒓) 𝒎𝒎 𝒎! (𝒐𝒓) 𝒏! 𝒎! (𝒐𝒓) 𝒏! 𝒎! (𝒐𝒓) 𝒏!

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INVERSE TRIGINOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Every mathematical function, from the simplest to the most complex, has an inverse. In
mathematics, inverse usually means opposite.
For addition, the inverse is subtraction. For multiplication, it is division. And for
trigonometric functions, it is the inverse trigonometric functions.
Trigonometric functions are the functions of an angle.
The inverse trigonometric functions are used to determine the angle measure.
𝜋 1 1 𝜋
Example : sin 6 = sin−1 2 =
2 6

The value of an inverse trigonometric functions which lies in its principal value branch is
called the principal value of the inverse trigonometric functions.
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QUADRANTS AND SIGNS OF

TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS

Range
Function Domain ( Principal value
branches)

sin−1 x [−1,1] [−π/2, π/2]

cos −1 x [−1,1] [0,π]
tan−1 x R (−π/2,π/2)
cot −1 x R (0,π)
sec −1 x R─ (─ 1, 1) [0, π] ─{ π/2}

cosec −1 x R─ (─ 1, 1) [−π/2, π/2]─ {0}

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Properties of Inverse Trigonometric Functions:

𝜋 𝜋
sin(sin−1 𝑥 ) = 𝑥 , 𝑥 ∈ [ −1, 1] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 sin−1 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 ) = 𝑥 , 𝑥 ∈ [− , ]
2 2
Similar results will hold good for other inverse trigonometric functions.
𝟏
1. 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 𝐱 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐞𝐜 −𝟏 𝐱 , 𝐱 ≥ 𝟏 𝐨𝐫 𝐱 ≤ −𝟏
𝟏
2. 𝐜𝐨𝐬 −𝟏 𝐱 = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 −𝟏 𝐱 , 𝐱 ≥ 𝟏 𝐨𝐫 𝐱 ≤ −𝟏
𝟏
3. 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝐱 = 𝐜𝐨𝐭 −𝟏 𝐱 , 𝐱 > 𝟎

4. 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 ( −𝐱 ) = − 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 𝐱 , 𝐱 ∈ [ −𝟏, 𝟏]

5. 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ( −𝐱 ) = − 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝐱 , 𝐱 ∈ 𝐑
6. 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐞𝐜 −𝟏 ( −𝐱 ) = − 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐞𝐜 −𝟏 𝐱 , |𝐱| ≥ 𝟏

7. 𝐜𝐨𝐬 −𝟏 ( −𝐱 ) = 𝛑 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 −𝟏 𝐱 , 𝐱 ∈ [ −𝟏, 𝟏]

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8. 𝐬𝐞𝐜 −𝟏 ( −𝐱 ) = 𝛑 − 𝐬𝐞𝐜 −𝟏 𝐱 , |𝐱| ≥ 𝟏

9. 𝐜𝐨𝐭 −𝟏 ( −𝐱 ) = 𝛑 − 𝐜𝐨𝐭 −𝟏 𝐱 , 𝐱 ∈ 𝐑

𝛑
10. 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 𝐱 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 −𝟏 𝐱 = , 𝐱 ∈ [ −𝟏, 𝟏]
𝟐
𝛑
11. 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝐱 + 𝐜𝐨𝐭 −𝟏 𝐱 = , 𝐱 ∈𝐑
𝟐
𝛑
12. 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐞𝐜 −𝟏 𝐱 + 𝐬𝐞𝐜 −𝟏 𝐱 = , | 𝐱| ≥ 𝟏
𝟐

𝐱+𝐲
13. 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝐱 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝐲 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝟏−𝐱 𝐲 , 𝐱 𝐲 < 𝟏
𝐱−𝐲
14. 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝐱 − 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝐲 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝟏 + 𝐱 𝐲 , 𝐱 𝐲 > 𝟏

𝟐𝐱
15. 2 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝐱 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 𝟏+ 𝐱𝟐 , |𝐱| ≤ 𝟏
𝟐
−𝟏 −𝟏 𝟏−𝐱
16. 2 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝐱 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 , x≥0
𝟏+ 𝐱 𝟐
𝟐𝐱
17. 2 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝐱 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝟏− 𝐱𝟐 , − 1 < x<1
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HOW TO EXPRESS ONE INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTION IN TERMS OF ANOTHER INVERSE

TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTION :

𝐬𝐢 𝐧 𝜽 = 𝒙 𝜽 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 𝒙 ------------------ ①
𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 = √𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 𝜽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 √𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 ----------②
𝒙 𝒙
𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽 = 𝜽 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 -----------③
√𝟏−𝒙𝟐 √𝟏−𝒙𝟐

From ① , ② and ③ we can say,

𝒙
𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 𝒙 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 √𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏
√𝟏−𝒙𝟐

Similarly you can express in terms of other inverse trigonometric ratios also.
 - 27 -

MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

MATRICES
Some Basics of Matrices :
• Matrix is a rectangular arrangement of numbers or functions into rows and columns.
• Horizontal lines of elements are called rows and vertical elements are called columns.
• A matrix is denoted by a capital letter and each entry is called an element. An element is
denoted by a small letter like 𝑎11 , [ element of first row, first column]
𝑎32 [ element of third row, second column].
• 𝑎𝑖𝑗 represents an element belonging to the ith row , jth column of a matrix.
• A matrix having ‘m’ rows and ‘n’ columns is said to be of the order 𝑚 × 𝑛 and read as m
by n.
• The number of elements in the matrix of order 𝑚 × 𝑛 will be ′𝑚𝑛′ .
 - 28 -

• Two matrices are equal only when they are of the same order and their corresponding
elements are equal.
• Matrix addition and subtraction is possible only when the matrices are of the same
order.
• To multiply a matrix by a scalar, multiply each element of the matrix by that scalar.
• Matrix multiplication is defined when the number of columns of the first matrix =
number of rows of the second matrix.
• Matrix multiplication is not commutative but is associative. [ 𝐴 𝐵 ≠ 𝐵𝐴 .
𝐴(𝐵𝐶 ) = (𝐴𝐵)𝐶 .
• Identity matrix is a square matrix in which the main diagonal elements are ‘1’ and all
other elements are ‘0’.
1 0
• Identity matrix of order 2 is [ ] and is referred as 𝐼2 .
0 1
 - 29 -

1 0 0
• Identity matrix of order 3 is [0 1 0] and is referred as 𝐼3 .
0 0 1
• Identity matrix is called as the multiplicative identity of matrix, since 𝐴𝐼 = 𝐼𝐴 = 𝐴.

• If the rows and columns of a matrix A are interchanged then the resulting matrix is the
Transpose Matrix of A and is represented as 𝑨𝑻 𝒐𝒓 𝑨′ .
• (𝑨𝑻 )𝑻 = 𝑨
• (𝑨 ± 𝑩 )𝑻 = (𝑨𝑻 ± 𝑩𝑻 )
• (𝑨𝑩)𝑻 = 𝑩𝑻 𝑨𝑻 Reversal Law
• (𝑨𝑩𝑪)𝑻 = 𝑪𝑻 𝑩𝑻 𝑨𝑻 Reversal Law
• (𝑲𝑨)𝑻 = 𝑲 (𝑨)𝑻 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝑲 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒂𝒓.

• A square Matrix ‘A’ is symmetric if 𝑨𝑻 = 𝑨

 - 30 -

• A square Matrix ‘A’ is skew-symmetric if 𝑨𝑻 = −𝑨

• The elements of the main diagonal of a skew-symmetric matrix are all zero.
• If A is a square matrix, 𝑨𝑨𝑻 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑨𝑻 𝑨 are symmetric matrices.
• If A is a square matrix, 𝑨 + 𝑨𝑻 is a symmetric matrix.
• If A is a square matrix, 𝑨 − 𝑨𝑻 is a skew- symmetric matrix.
• Any matrix A can be represented as the sum of a symmetric and a skew-symmetric
matrix.
𝟏 𝟏
𝑨 = 𝑷 + 𝑸 = 𝟐 [𝑨 + 𝑨𝑻 ] + 𝟐 [ 𝑨 − 𝑨𝑻 ]
𝟏 𝟏
where P= 𝟐 [𝑨 + 𝑨𝑻 ] is symmetric and Q = 𝟐 [𝑨 − 𝑨𝑻 ] is skew-symmetric.

• If A is a symmetric matrix, all positive integral powers of a symmetric matrix are

symmetric.
(𝑨𝒏 )𝑻 = (𝑨𝑻 )𝒏 = 𝑨𝒏 [ 𝑨 𝒊𝒔 𝒔𝒚𝒎𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄. ∴ 𝑨𝑻 = 𝑨]
 - 31 -

• If A is a skew-symmetric matrix, then

𝒏 )𝑻 𝑨𝒏 𝒊𝒇 𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒍

(𝑨 = { 𝒏
−𝑨 𝒊𝒇 𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒐𝒅𝒅 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒍
• A matrix which is both symmetric and skew-symmetric is null matrix.

• 𝑨𝑨−𝟏 = 𝑨−𝟏 𝑨 = 𝑰
• If 𝑨 𝑩 = 𝑰 then A is invertible and B is the inverse of A and A will be the inverse of B.
• A rectangular matrix does not possess an inverse Matrix.
• (𝑨𝑩)−𝟏 = 𝑩−𝟏 𝑨−𝟏

DETERMINANTS

• Every square matrix A can be associated with a number which is called determinant of the
square matrix A.
 - 32 -

• The determinant is denoted by det A or |A|. [ It is not modulus A ]

• Only square matrices have determinants.
• If A is matrix of order 1, then the determinant of A is defined to be equal to the single
element of the matrix. [ Ex : If 𝐴 = [3] 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 |𝐴| = 3. ]
• Minor of an element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑀𝑖𝑗 .
• Co-factor of an element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝐴𝑖𝑗 .
• Minor and Co-factor : Let A = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] 𝑏𝑒 𝑎 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑛 .
𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝑴𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 𝑴𝒊𝒋 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒂𝒊𝒋 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒙 𝑨 of order ‘n’ is the value of the
determinant of the square sub - matrix of order (n – 1) obtained after omitting the
𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒓𝒐𝒘 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒋𝒕𝒉 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝑨.
𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝑪𝒐−factor 𝑨𝒊𝒋 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒂𝒊𝒋 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒙 𝑨 = (−𝟏)𝒊+𝒋 𝑴𝒊𝒋
 - 33 -

𝑴𝒊𝒋 𝒊𝒇 𝒊 + 𝒋 𝒊𝒔 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏
• 𝑨𝒊𝒋 = {
−𝑴𝒊𝒋 𝒊𝒇 𝒊 + 𝒋 𝒊𝒔 𝒐𝒅𝒅
• If the elements of a row or column are multiplied with the co-factors of any other row
or column, then their sum is ‘0’.
𝑬𝒙 ∶ 𝒂𝟏𝟏 𝑨𝟐𝟏 + 𝒂𝟏𝟐 𝑨𝟐𝟐 + 𝒂𝟏𝟑 𝑨𝟐𝟑 = 𝟎 ; [ 𝒂𝟏𝟏 , 𝒂𝟏𝟐 , 𝒂𝟏𝟑 are first row elements. They
are multiplied with the co-factors of second row elements. Hence their sum is zero.
Similar results will hold good for elements of other rows and columns.]
• If the elements of a row or column are multiplied with the co-factors of its own
elements, then their sum is equal to the determinant value.
𝑬𝒙 ∶ 𝒂𝟏𝟏 𝑨𝟏𝟏 + 𝒂𝟏𝟐 𝑨𝟏𝟐 + 𝒂𝟏𝟑 𝑨𝟏𝟑 = ∆ ( 𝒅𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆) [ You can write similar
results for other 2 rows and the 3 columns ]
 - 34 -

𝟏
• Inverse of a matrix A is A-1 = |𝑨| Adj A ; ( Adj A = ( Ai j ) T Transpose of the Co-factor

Matrix.)
• A square matrix is singular if the determinant value = 0 .
• If |𝐴| = 0, ( singular matrix ) then A-1 does not exist.
A-1 will exist only if the matrix is non-singular.

• Area of a triangle with vertices (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ), (𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟐 ) 𝒂𝒏𝒅 (𝒙𝟑 , 𝒚𝟑 ) using determinants is
𝒙𝟏 𝒚𝟏 𝟏
𝟏
𝑨 = 𝟐 |𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐 𝟏|.
𝒙𝟑 𝒚𝟑 𝟏
• The condition that three points (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ), (𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟐 ) 𝒂𝒏𝒅 (𝒙𝟑 , 𝒚𝟑 ) are collinear is the area
𝒙𝟏 𝒚𝟏 𝟏
of the triangle formed by the three points = 0 ⇒ |𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐 𝟏| = 𝟎
𝒙𝟑 𝒚𝟑 𝟏
• |𝒌 𝑨| = 𝑲𝒏 | 𝑨| where ‘n’ is the order of the matrix A.
 - 35 -

• A A-1 = A-1 A = 𝑰
• 𝑰A==AI=A
𝑻
• (𝑨−𝟏 ) = (𝑨𝑻 )−𝟏
• (𝑨 𝑩)−𝟏 = 𝑩−𝟏 𝑨−𝟏
𝟏 𝟏
• |𝑨−𝟏 | = |𝑨|
[ A 𝑨−𝟏 = 𝑰 ⇒ |𝑨| |𝑨−𝟏 | = |𝑰| = 𝟏 ∴ |𝑨−𝟏 | = |𝑨|
]

• |𝑨 𝑩| = |𝑨| |𝑩|
• 𝒂𝒅𝒋 (𝑨𝑩) = (𝒂𝒅𝒋 𝑩) (𝒂𝒅𝒋 𝑨)
• A ( Adj A) = ( Adj A ) A = |𝑨| 𝑰
• Adj ( ( 𝑨𝑻 ) = ( Adj A )T
• |𝑨𝒅𝒋 (𝑨)| = |𝑨|𝒏−𝟏
• 𝒂𝒅𝒋 (𝒂𝒅𝒋 𝑨) = |𝑨|𝒏−𝟐 𝑨
𝟐
• |𝒂𝒅𝒋 (𝒂𝒅𝒋 𝑨)| = |𝑨|(𝒏−𝟏)
 - 36 -

• (𝑨−𝟏 ) ─ 1 = A

• 𝑰𝒇 𝑨 = [𝒂𝒊𝒋 ] 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒈𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒙 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒏, 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 |𝑨| = 𝒂𝟏𝟏 . 𝒂𝟐𝟐 . 𝒂𝟑𝟑 − −𝒂𝒏𝒏
• 𝑰𝒇 𝑨 = [𝒂𝒊𝒋 ] 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒙 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒏, 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 |𝑨| = 𝒂𝟏𝟏 . 𝒂𝟐𝟐 . 𝒂𝟑𝟑 − −𝒂𝒏𝒏
• 𝑰𝒇 𝑨 𝒊𝒔 𝒔𝒌𝒆𝒘 − 𝒔𝒚𝒎𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒙 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒅𝒅 𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒓, 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 |𝑨| = 𝟎
• 𝑰𝒇 𝑨 𝒊𝒔 𝒔𝒌𝒆𝒘 − 𝒔𝒚𝒎𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒙 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒓, 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 the determinant value is a
perfect square.
 - 37 -

DIFFERENTIATION
𝒅𝒚
Sl. No Y 𝒅𝒙

1. 𝒙𝒏 𝒏 𝒙𝒏−𝟏
2. 𝒆𝒙 𝒆𝒙
3. log 𝒙 𝟏/𝒙
4. ‘c’ – constant 0
5. Sin𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙
6. 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙
7. 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒙 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝒙
8. 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒙 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒕 𝒙
 - 38 -

9. 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒙 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒙 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒙

10. 𝒄𝒐𝒕 𝒙 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝒙
11. 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 𝒙 𝟏⁄√𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐
12. 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 𝒙 −𝟏⁄√𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐
13. 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝒙 𝟏⁄𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐
14. 𝒄𝒐𝒕−𝟏 𝒙 −𝟏⁄𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐
15. 𝒔𝒆𝒄−𝟏 𝒙 𝟏⁄𝒙 √𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏
16. 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄−𝟏 𝒙 −𝟏⁄𝒙 √𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏
17. 𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒙 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂
18. UV ( Product Rule ) U V’ + V U’
19. UVW ( Product Rule ) U’ V W + U V’ W + U V W’
𝐯𝐮′ − 𝐮𝐯′
20. U/V ( Quotient Rule )
𝐯𝟐
 - 39 -

21. Function of a function (or) Chain Rule dy/dx = (dy/du ) (du/dv) (dv/dx)

Parametric dy/dx = (dy/dt ) / ( dx/dt)

22.
X = f(t) ; y= g(t)
𝒅𝒚
𝒅( ) 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒙
d2y/dx2 = (𝒅𝒙)
Second order Parametric 𝒅𝒕
23.
Differentiation [ dt/dx = 1/ (dx/dt) ]

Differentiate one function w.r.t another

function.
24. dy/dz= (dy/dx) / (dz/dx)
Y = f(x) ; z = g (x )
 - 40 -

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES

INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTIONS :

( a ) If f ′(𝑥) > 0 for each 𝑥 ∈ (a, b) then f is strictly increasing in the interval (a, b).

( b ) If f ′(𝑥) < 0 for each 𝑥 ∈ (a, b) then f is strictly decreasing in the interval (a, b).

( c ) If 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) ≥ 0 for each 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) then f is increasing in the interval (a, b).

( d ) If 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) ≤ 0 for each 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) then f is decreasing in the interval (a, b).

 - 41 -

TANGENTS AND NORMALS :

• Slope of the tangent to the curve y = f (x) at (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ) is m

𝐝𝐲
at (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ) = m
𝐝𝐱

• Slope of the normal to the curve y = f (x) at (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ) is -1/m

−𝟏
𝐝𝐲⁄ at (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ) =
𝐝𝐱
-1/m

• Equation of the tangent to the curve y = f (x) at (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ) is

y – 𝒚𝟏 = m ( x - 𝒙𝟏 )

• Equation of the normal to the curve y = f (x) at (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ) is

y – 𝒚𝟏 = ─ 1 /m ( x - 𝒙𝟏 )
 - 42 -

𝐝𝐲
• If the tangent is parallel to x axis, =0
𝐝𝐱
𝐝𝐲 𝐝𝐱
• If the tangent is parallel to y axis, 𝐝𝐱 = ∝ or 𝐝𝐲 = 0
• If two lines are parallel then their slopes are equal. m1 = m2

• If two lines are perpendicular then, m1 m2 = -1

• Angle between two curves is equal to the angle between the two tangents at the point
of intersection.
𝐦𝟏 − 𝐦𝟐
tan 𝜽 = | |
𝟏+ 𝐦𝟏 𝐦𝟐

• If the angle between two curves ( angle between the two tangents at the point of
intersection) is 900 , then they are said to cut orthogonally.

• If the Tangent or normal to the curve at ( x1, y1 ) makes equal intercepts with the
coordinate axes , then slope of the tangent or normal = ± 1

• If the tangents are equally inclined with the axes, then slope of the tangents m = ± 1 .
 - 43 -

MENSURATION FORMULAE
 - 44 -

IMPORTANT CONCEPTS AND FORMULAE IN MENSURATION TO BE USED IN

MAXIMA AND MINIMA SUMS :
1. Cuboid with a Square Base :

Volume = 𝒂𝟐 𝒉 cu. units [ a – side of the square Base ; h – height ]

T.S.A = 𝟐 𝒂𝟐 + 𝟒 𝒂 𝒉 sq. units
C.S.A = 𝟒 𝒂 𝒉 sq.units.

2. Cuboid with a Square Base open at the top :

Volume = 𝒂𝟐 𝒉 cu. units [ a – side of the square Base ; h – height ]

T.S.A = 𝒂𝟐 + 𝟒 𝒂 𝒉 sq. units
C.S.A = 𝟒 𝒂 𝒉 sq.units.
 - 45 -

3. Cone inscribed in a Sphere :

Radius of the sphere = R
Radius of the base of the cone = BC = r
Height of the cone = h
Let OC = 𝒙
𝒉 = 𝑹 + 𝒙 (from figure)
In rt. Triangle OBC, 𝑹𝟐 = 𝒓𝟐 + 𝒙𝟐

4. Cylinder inscribed in a Sphere :

OA = OB = 𝒉/𝟐
𝟐 𝟐 𝒉 𝟐
In Rt Triangle OBC , 𝑹 = 𝒓 + (𝟐)
 - 46 -

5. Cylinder inscribed in a Cone :

Cone : radius of the base = OA = r
Vertical height = OB = h
Cylinder : radius = CD = R
Height = OC = H
BC = OB – OC = h – H
Triangles BCD and BOA are similar ,
BC / BO = CD / OA
(h–H)/h = R/r

6. A wire of length 28 m is to be cut into two pieces. One of the piece is to be made into a
square and the other into a circle.
Let the lengths of the two pieces be 𝒙 𝒎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟐𝟖 − 𝒙 𝒎.
Let 𝒙 𝒎 be made into a circle and 𝟐𝟖 − 𝒙 𝒎 be made into a square.
𝒙 𝒎 = 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟐𝟖 − 𝒙 𝒎 = 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒍𝒆.
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7. A window is in form of a rectangle surmounted by a semicircular opening. The total

perimeter of the window is 10 m.

Length of the rectangle = 2 r

Breadth of the rectangle = 𝒍
Radius of semi-circle = r

Perimeter of the window = 2 r + 2 𝒍 + 𝝅 𝒓 = 10

MAXIMA AND MINIMA

A maximum or minimum is said to be local if it is the largest or smallest value of the

function, respectively, within a given range. You can have a number of local maxima and
minima.
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However, a maximum or minimum is said to be global or Absolute Extrema if it is the

largest or smallest value of the function, respectively, on the entire domain of a function.
There can only be a single absolute maximum or absolute minimum value, but they can
occur at more than one place in the domain.

TO FIND MAXIMA AND MINIMA WITHOUT USING DERIVATIVE :

If 𝑓(𝑥 ) ≤ 𝑓(𝑎), 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑓(𝑎).
If 𝑓(𝑥 ) ≥ 𝑓(𝑎), 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑓(𝑎).
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