Journal of Environmental Management 297 (2021) 113301

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Journal of Environmental Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jenvman

Treatment of real industrial-grade dye solutions and printing ink

wastewater using a novel pilot-scale hydrodynamic cavitation reactor
Charikleia Zampeta a, Kleio Bertaki a, Irene-Eva Triantaphyllidou a, Zacharias Frontistis b,
Dimitris V. Vayenas a, c, *
a
Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Patras, Rio, GR-26504, Patras, Greece
b
Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Western Macedonia, GR-50100, Kozani, Greece
c
Institute of Chemical Engineering and High Temperature Chemical Processes (FORTH/ ICE-HT), Stadiou Str., Platani, GR-26504, Patras, Greece

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: A novel pilot-scale hydrodynamic cavitation (HC) reactor was used to decolorize industrial-grade dye solutions
Hydrodynamic cavitation and printing ink wastewater (PIW). The effect of the orifice plate geometry (1 hole plate of 1 mm and 2 mm in
Pilot-scale reactor diameter, 31 holes of 1 mm and 2 mm in diameter, 62 holes of 1 mm and 2 mm in diameter), inlet pressure (4, 5
Venturi tube and orifice plate
bar), initial dye concentration (0.3 and 0.6 OD), and the synergistic effect of HC and hydrogen peroxide con­
Color removal
centration (0.0, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0 g/L) were investigated. The results showed that the highest color removal was
COD removal
Wastewater treatment obtained using 31 holes orifice plate of 2 mm holes’ diameter, at 4 bar inlet pressure. Furthermore, although HC
could not degrade completely all the industrial-grade dyes, efficiency was enhanced in the presence of H2O2. The
optimum concentration of hydrogen peroxide was 1.0 g/L regardless of the initial concentration of the dyes
studied. Under optimum operating conditions, color removal reached up to 68% for black, 39% for red, 43% for
yellow, 55% for green, and 51% for cyan dye, while color removal in the PIW reached only 15%. The black dye
solution presented almost 100% COD removal, while 38%, 25%, 67%, and 78% COD removal values were ob­
tained for the red, yellow, cyan and green dyes, respectively. 55% COD removal was recorded from the PIW.
Concerning cavitation yields, black, red, yellow, green, cyan dye yields reached 2.5E(-7), 1.1E(-7), 1.5E(-7), 2.0E
(-7), 1.7E(-7) OD⋅L/J, respectively, while PIW yield was 6.3E(-8) OD⋅L/J. The present study demonstrates that
HC combined with green oxidants such as hydrogen peroxide could be an alternative treatment approach for real
industrial wastewater streams. However, a combination with a post-treatment method should be applied to
maximize both color and COD removal.

dyes are currently commercially available and about 7000 tons of

colored effluents are produced annually worldwide (Benkhaya et al.,
1. Introduction
2017; Song et al., 2009). The effective treatment of these effluents is,
therefore, of great importance (Collivignarelli et al., 2019; Patil et al.,
The production of large volumes of colored industrial effluents
2021).
originating from various industries (e.g., textile, plastics, tanning and
Application of Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs) has been pro­
paper) has become a cause of serious environmental concern in the last
posed as they can degrade complex and non-biodegradable organic
decade (Galve et al., 2021; Agarkoti et al., 2021). These effluents are
substances (Gore et al., 2014; Lucas and Peres, 2006; Sivakumar and
intensely colored and potentially highly toxic due to the aromatic hy­
Pandit, 2002). Among the different AOPs technologies available, hy­
drocarbons, chlorinated organics, and heavy metals they contain (Gujar
drodynamic cavitation (HC) has shown promising results on pollutant
and Gogate, 2021). Even very low concentration of dyes in the effluent
degradation (Gągol et al., 2018; Korpe and Rao, 2021). In HC, when the
(e.g., less than 1 mg/L for some dyes) induce color in the water, which is
liquid enters into the low-pressure region, vapor cavities (bubbles) are
highly observable and undesirable. Besides, it adversely affects the
formed, and subsequently these cavities attain a maximum size under
water bodies such as rivers and lakes by blocking the sunlight or causing
isothermal expansion (Tao et al., 2016; Rajoriya et al., 2016). According
eutrophication (Farré et al., 2008; Wijetunga et al., 2010), as well as it
to the hot spot theory, an immediate adiabatic collapse occurs, in the
affects human health (Das et al., 2021). Over 100,000 industrial-grade

* Corresponding author. Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Patras, Rio, GR-26504 Patras, Greece.
E-mail address: dvagenas@upatras.gr (D.V. Vayenas).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.113301
Received 31 May 2021; Received in revised form 12 July 2021; Accepted 13 July 2021
Available online 16 July 2021
0301-4797/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
C. Zampeta et al.
Nomenclature
•OH Hydroxyl radicals
H2O2 Hydrogen peroxide
HC + H2O2 Hydrodynamic cavitation coupled with H2O2
P1, P2 Device’s inlet and downstream pressure respectively
(See:Schematic representation of HC pilot-scale reactor)
V1–V4 Flow control valves (See:Schematic representation of
HC pilot-scale reactor)
OD Optical density
V Volume
H Pump head
g Gravitational acceleration
Q Inflow
p Density
P Pressure
t Time
T Temperature
BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand
COD Chemical oxygen demand
CODo Chemical oxygen demand at t = 0s
N Number of holes in orifice plate
dh diameter of hole in orifice plate
successive compression cycle, resulting in the formation of supercritical
state of high local pressure and temperature, known as hot spot (Fedorov
et al., 2021). The physicochemical transformations required for the
process occur because of these intense pressure and temperature con­
ditions that are generated in the hot spots (Saharan et al., 2013; Bagal
and Gogate, 2014; Gogate and Patil, 2015). Two main mechanisms are
involved in the degradation of organic pollutants (pyrolysis and the
reaction between •OH radicals and pollutants), which take place in three
regions of the HC reactor: inside the cavity, at the cavity interface, and
within the bulk liquid medium (Jawale and Gogate, 2019; Joshi and
Gogate, 2012; Patil and Gogate, 2012).
Several studies have tested laboratory-scale HC reactors to treat
probe dye compounds with known chemical compositions (Saharan
et al., 2011; Thanekar and Gogate, 2019; Boczkaj et al., 2018). Other
studies have focused on wastewater treatment using more complex
systems, like liquid whistle reactor (LWR) (Chakinala et al., 2008),
stator-rotor assembly as a HC reactor (Badve et al., 2013) or a
multiple-hole orifice plate and a catalyst chamber (Torabi Angaji and
Ghiaee, 2015). Only one work has studied the combination of Venturi
and orifice plate (Badmus et al., 2020) using an aqueous solution of
Orange II sodium salt and very low pH.
The aim of this work was to develop a novel and simple HC reactor
and to study its applicability on real industrial dyes and real wastewa­
ters. To this end, a pilot-scale HC reactor was designed and constructed.
Five real industrial dyes (black, red, yellow, green and cyan) of a
cardboard packaging industry and real industrial printing ink waste­
water (PIW) were used to study the efficiency of the reactor. The reactor
combines a Venturi tube with an orifice plate positioned in the vena-
contracta of the Venturi. After optimizing orifice plate geometry
further experiments were conducted to study the effect of other oper­
ating parameters (i.e., inlet pressure, feed concentration and H2O2
addition) (Fig. 1) on color and COD removal, as well as on cavitation
yield, and investigates the applicability of the proposed method on real
industrial dyes and ink wastewaters.
2
Journal of Environmental Management 297 (2021) 113301
Fig. 1. Flowchart that shows the research methodology.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Characterization of materials
Five industrial-grade dyes (in liquid form) produced by the Flint
Group, United Kingdom, were used in the study: black (WZPN-91XN-
01NF), red (WZPN-31XN-01NF), yellow (WZPN-15XN-01NF), green
(WZPN-62XN-01NF) and cyan (WZPN-55XN-01NF). Material Safety
Data Sheet (MSDS) mentions that every dye contains 1,2-benzisothiazol-
3(2H)-one (BIT) and 3(2h)-isothiazolone, 2-methyl- (MIT). Their
chemical structures are presented in Fig. 2. These dyes are used by a
packaging company located in the Peloponnese, Greece. The company
prints cardboard packaging using environmentally-friendly water-based
inks and processes an estimated 20 m3/day wastewater. The PIW
effluent used in all experiments was obtained from the company’s
receiving tank and its main characteristics are presented in Table 1.
2.2. Pilot-scale hydrodynamic cavitation reactor setup
The schematic representation of the experimental setup comprised a
closed-loop HC reactor as shown in Fig. 3. A Venturi construction with a
changeable orifice plate positioned inside the Venturi throat was used as
the cavitation device. The characteristics of the Venturi are given in
Table 2. Six different geometries of orifice plates were used in the pre­
sent work. The properties and the geometry of orifice plates are shown in
Table 3 and Fig. 4, accordingly. The ratio of the throat perimeter to its
cross-sectional area (α) and the ratio of throat area to pipe cross-
sectional area (β) were calculated, following Tao et al. (2016). Each
dimension used in the present work is the same as in other studies, for
both orifice plate (Patil and Gogate, 2012; Torabi Angaji and R. Ghiaee,
2015) and Venturi (Saharan et al., 2013; Bagal and Gogate, 2014;
Pradhan and Gogate, 2010). More details about the HC setup is included
as supplementary material (Fig. S1; HC reactor setup).
2.3. Experimental methodology
In each experimental run the holding tank was filled with 16 L of the
solution containing the desired concentration of pollutant and H2O2 if
necessary. The pump was operated to recirculate the solution through
the bypass line for 3 min to ensure complete mixing. The inlet pressure
at the cavitation device was controlled by the downstream valve (V4)
whereas downstream pressure was uncontrolled. The treatment time
was 180 min and samples were collected from the tank at regular time
intervals. All industrial-grade dyes and PIW were diluted with tap water
to obtain a solution with the desired optical density (OD) value of 0.3 or
C. Zampeta et al. Journal of Environmental Management 297 (2021) 113301

Fig. 2. Chemical structures that are contained in the dyes, according to the Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS).

0.6. Initial concentration for the black, red, yellow, cyan, green dye and
Table 1
PIW was 434 g/L, 362 g/L, 582 g/L, 580 g/L, 656 g/L and 12 g/L,
Physicochemical characterization of the printing ink wastewater used in the
respectively. The dilution ratio for the dyes at 0.3 OD was 1/100000 and
experiments. Data are presented as mean ± SD values from three separate
for the PIW was 1/80. Hence, the initial concentration in the reactor was
measurements.
4.3 mg/L and 3.6 mg/L, for the black and red dye, respectively, 5.8 mg/L
Physicochemical characteristics Value
for yellow and cyan dye, 6.6 mg/L for the green dye and 144 mg/L for
Color Black (565 nm) PIW. The dilution ratio for the dyes at 0.6 OD was 1/50000 and the
pH 7.59 ± 0.5 initial concentration in the reactor was 8.7 mg/L for the black dye, 7.2
Conductivity 17.00 ± 0.5 μS/cm
COD 21000 ± 1000 mg/L
mg/L for the red dye, 11.6 mg/L for the yellow and the cyan dye and
13.1 mg/L for the green dye. Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2 30% w/w,
Honeywell) of various concentrations (0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 g/L) was used to
determine the effect of an oxidizing agent on HC treatment. Each
experimental set was performed in duplicate. The temperature was kept
constant at 35 ±3 ◦ C by circulating water through the tank’s cooling
jacket. Total COD (Chemical oxygen demand) loads of each dye solution
were 66, 123, 85, 64, 78 mg/L for the black, red, yellow, cyan and green
dye, respectively, and the pH was 7.5 ± 0.5. The total COD of PIW was
120 mg/L and the pH 7.5 ± 0.5. The pH was not controlled in the ex­
periments. Blank tests (H2O2 only, in the absence of HC) were performed
in a smaller scale (in a beaker under stirring) with 0.3 or 0.6 OD of each
dye, with constant temperature and uncontrolled pH. Different H2O2
dosages were added in the solution to investigate the ability of H2O2 to
decolorate. Furthermore, blank tests (HC in the absence of H2O2) were
performed to investigate the color removal without H2O2 in the specific
Fig. 3. Schematic representation of novel hydrodynamic cavitation pilot-scale HC reactor at the desired dye concentration at 4 bar inlet pressure with
reactor with a changeable orifice plate inside. uncontrolled pH and constant temperature.

2.4. Analytical methods

Table 2
Dimensions ofVenturi. Absorption of the collected samples was measured at 565 nm for the
Characteristic Value black and red dye solutions and also for the PIW. Absorption was at 443
Throat Diameter 25.0 mm
nm for the yellow dye solution, 647 nm for the green dye solution, and
Throat length 5.0 mm 635 nm for the cyan dye solution. A HACH DR 5000 UV–Vis A spec­
Venturi diameter 58.2 mm trophotometer was used for all absorption measurements. The pH values
Venturi length 127.3 mm were determined using an OEM portable pH-meter. The COD was
Length of convergent section 21.0 mm
determined using the closed reflux dichromate procedure as described in
Length of divergent section 103.3 mm
Half angle of convergent section 20◦ Standard Methods (APHA et al., 2017) using a Wastewater Treatment
Half angle of divergent section 6◦ Photometer (HANNA HI 83,214).

3. Results and discussion

Table 3
Properties of the orifice plates. 3.1. Effect of various operating parameters on color removal from
2 − 1 industrial-grade dye solutions
Orifice plates dh (cm) N Flow area (cm ) А (m ) β (dimensionless)
3
A 0.2 1 0.031 2⋅10− 0.0064 3.1.1. Effect of orifice geometry
3
B 0.1 1 0.007 1⋅10− 0.0016
C 0.2 31 0.974 2⋅10− 3
0.1984
It is well known that both the intensity of the phenomenon and the
D 0.1 31 0.243 1⋅10− 3
0.0496 efficiency of the hydrodynamic cavitation depends on the geometry of
E 0.2 62 1.947 2⋅10− 3
0.3968 the HC device. Therefore, in the first set of preliminary experiments, the
3
F 0.1 62 0.479 1⋅10− 0.0992 effect of the orifice plate’s geometry on dyes removal was investigated.
More specific, six different orifice plates were constructed (single hole
orifice plate of 1 mm and 2 mm hole diameter, 31 holes plates of 1 mm

3
C. Zampeta et al.
Fig. 4. Schematic representation of orifice plate geometry.
and 2 mm diameter, and 62 holes plates of 1 mm and 2 mm diameter)
and tested for their effect on the removal of the industrial-grade black
dye.
Fig. 5 shows the effect of orifice plate geometry at 4 bar inlet pressure
on the color removal of black dye (0.3 OD, 1 g/L H2O2). Plate C (31
holes, 2 mm diameter) reached higher decolorization, about 70%, while
plates A and B with one single hole (and diameter of the holes 2 mm and
1 mm) reached lower degradation 61% and 59%, respectively. Plates E
and D had almost the exact extent of decolorization 30%. Finally, the use
of plate F showed 43% color removal. Comparing firstly, the plates with
the same diameter of the holes (i.e. 2 mm) or same α parameter, plate C
with 31 holes had greater degradation than plates A (with one single
hole) or E (with 62 holes), while comparing the plates with 1 mm
diameter, plate D with 31 holes had lower degradation than plate B
(with one single hole) or F (with 62 holes). Comparing the plates with
the same number of holes, hole diameter makes no difference for one-
hole orifice plates, as both plates (A and B) reached almost 60% color
removal. For plates with 31 holes, efficiency was increased with
increasing holes’ diameter, while for plates with 62 holes, the degra­
dation was reduced with increasing diameter. Finally, plate C (31 holes,
2 mm diameter) was considered the optimum, and all the experiments
from there on were conducted using the specific plate geometry. For
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Journal of Environmental Management 297 (2021) 113301
plates with 31 holes, the extent of decolorization was greater for the
plate having higher diameter of holes. Sivakumar and Pandit (2002)
observed similar results for rhodamine B degradation since the decol­
orization rate was enhanced by an increase in the value of α up to 2.
More information about the effect of value β of the orifice plates on color
removal and a schematic representation of plates are included as sup­
plementary material (Figs. S2 and S3). These results agree with the study
of Malade and Deshannavar (2018), who examined the decolorization of
Reactive Red 120 using hydrodynamic cavitation. Different plate ge­
ometries were tested, and the researchers observed that the process
performance was optimized to a specific β value. The authors justified
the existence of an optimum since an increase of flow rate, increased the
extent of cavitation and higher decolorization was achieved, while at the
same time, with higher throat area, the velocity decreased thus resulting
in lower performance.
3.1.2. Inlet pressure
Inlet pressure is the most important parameter determining the ef­
ficiency of pollutant degradation in an aqueous medium by hydrody­
namic cavitation (Lu et al., 2019). The pressure at which a medium
enters the HC reactor determines the intensity of the generation of
cavities and, in turn, the extent of degradation of the wastewater’s
C. Zampeta et al.
Fig. 5. Color removal of black industrial-grade dye in various time intervals for
six different orifice plate geometries. Initial OD: 0.3, inlet pressure of HC de­
vice: 4 bar, 1 g/L H2O2, temperature: 35 ±3 ◦ C, pH: 7.5 ± 0.5. Data are pre­
sented as mean ± SD values from three separate measurements.
pollutants.
To investigate the effect of inlet pressure on the degradation of
industrial-grade dye solutions, the initial experiments focused on the
black dye solution using plate C. The concentration of the black dye
solution was kept constant at 0.3 OD. The impact of two inlet pressures
(4 and 5 bar) on the HC reactor, in conjunction with 1.0 g/L H2O2 was
investigated and the results are shown in Fig. 6. Color degradation
reached a maximum of 68% or 39% when 4 bar inlet pressure was
Fig. 6. Color removal of black industrial-grade dye in various time intervals for
two inlet pressures, 4 and 5 bar in the presence of 1.0 g/L H2O2. Initial OD was
set at 0.3 and plate C was used (Temperature: 35 ±3 ◦ C, pH: 7.5 ± 0.5). Data
are presented as mean ± SD values from three separate measurements.
5
Journal of Environmental Management 297 (2021) 113301
applied in the presence or in the absence of 1.0 g/L H2O2 respectively,
while significantly lower color degradation, just 12% or 5% was
observed when the inlet pressure applied was 5 bar (with or without
H2O2 respectively). Furthermore, without cavitation (i.e., using only 1.0
g/L H2O2) the decolorization was only 4%. The reduced efficiency
observed with the higher inlet pressure may be attributed to enhanced
cavitational activity. The generation of a very large number of cavities
changes the pressure field distribution inside the reactor. The bubbles’
interaction tends to dampen the collapse energy released by the neigh­
boring cavities and lowers the degradation efficiency. This phenomenon
is known as super-cavitation (Gągol et al., 2018). Thus, industrial-grade
dye solution and PIW experiments were carried out applying an inlet
pressure of 4 bar which was considered optimum for this reactor.
Some of the studies found in the literature, also reported similar
results concerning a decrease in the level of degradation with increased
pressure and many of the studies describe 4 bar inlet pressure as the
optimum. Bagal and Gogate (2013) found that at the optimum inlet
pressure of 4 bar, the maximum degradation was limited to 12.4%, for 2,
4-dinitro phenol using an orifice plate (plate thickness 1 mm, plate
diameter 25 mm with a 2 mm hole at the center). The initial concen­
tration of 2,4-dinitro phenol was 20 mg/L, the pH was 4, and the tem­
perature 35 ◦ C. Concerning the dye pollutants, similar results have been
reported. Ye et al. (2021) showed that the optimal conditions for the HC
(using a Venturi tube for the cavitation device) for the treatment of 10
mg/L rhodamine B were: 4 bar inlet pressure (among 1–6 bar), 30 ◦ C
temperature and 3 pH value, reaching 38.7% degradation rate. Gogate
and Bhosale (2013) decomposed orange acid dye using a single-hole
orifice plate and found that the optimum inlet pressure was 5 bar
(over the range 3–7 bar) and the maximum decolorization reached
almost 34%. Finally, Badmus et al. (2020) studied the effect of inlet
pressure on the decolorization of Orange II sodium salt (OR2) in the jet
loop hydrodynamic cavitation system (which combines firstly an orifice
plate and then a Venturi). Four different inlet pressures were investi­
gated (2–5 bar). It was observed that the extent of decolorization of the
OR2 solution increased as the initial inlet pressure was increased from 2
bar and an optimum inlet pressure was observed at 4 bar reaching 69%
decolorization within 1 h (10 mg/L OR2, pH: 2, 4 mm orifice hole size).
Any differences in onset pressures observed in the bibliography, may be
because the inlet pressure is strongly dependent on the HC reactor
design. Efficient reactor design allows the generation of enough free
radicals to initiate the cavitation phenomenon even at lower operating
pressures.
3.1.3. H2O2 addition
Combining HC with other AOPs technologies or adding oxidants to
the HC reaction leads to higher pollutant degradation efficiency because
the increased generation of reactive oxygen species leads to increased
pollutant removal. When HC is combined with H2O2 due to the gener­
ation of extreme conditions of pressure, temperature, and increased
energy dissipation, under the HC effect, the rate of generation of •OH
radicals is enhanced. Besides, due to cavitation, the •OH radicals can get
dispersed in the liquid (bulk solution) and further increase the overall
oxidation rate, while the chance of hydroxyl radicals recombination to
form hydrogen peroxide is reduced (Rajoriya et al., 2016). During
cavitation, the H2O2 dissociates into •OH radicals through the following
reactions (Rajoriya et al., 2016).
))) •
H2 O2 + →2 O H (1)
)))
H2 O + →H • + • O H (2)
•
O H + • O H→H2 O2 (3)
•
O H + H2 O2 →HO•2 + H2 O (4)
•
O H + HO•2 →H2 O + O2 (5)
C. Zampeta et al. Journal of Environmental Management 297 (2021) 113301

HO•2 + H2 O2 →• O H + H2 O + O2 (6)

Therefore, hydrogen peroxide acts as an additional source of hy­

droxyl radicals that increases the rate of pollutant degradation.
Three concentrations of hydrogen peroxide were investigated in this
work: 0.5 g/L, 1.0 g/L and 2.0 g/L. Firstly, experiments were performed
to determine the optimum H2O2 addition at the HC reactor. Further­
more, blank tests (i.e., HC only, H2O2 only) were conducted to assert our
findings. All the results from these experiments are presented in Table 4.
Initially, the optimum H2O2 quantity added to the HC reactor was
determined. The results for different H2O2 quantities (0.5 g/L, 1.0 g/L
and 2.0 g/L) on the 0.3 OD black dye solution at 4 bar inlet pressure at
the HC reactor are presented in Table 4. The optimum oxidant concen­
tration was found to be 1.0 g/L leading to a 68% decolorization of the
black industrial-grade dye solution. Concentration of 2.0 g/L and 0.5 g/L
H2O2 showed 59% and 52% color removal respectively for black dye.
Subsequently, all the dye solutions were studied at three H2O2 concen­
trations (0.5 g/L, 1.0 g/L and 2.0 g/L) at 4 bar inlet pressure in the HC
reactor. Color removal from the dye solutions reached 39% for red, 43%
for yellow, 55% for green, and 51% for the cyan dye solutions (for 1.0 g/
L H2O2; Table 4), while higher or lower H2O2 concentration at HC
showed lower decolorization of dyes. When in excess, hydrogen
peroxide can also bind hydroxyl radicals and other reactive oxygen
species according to reactions 4 and 6 above. Therefore, the use of high
concentration of oxidants (i.e., 2.0 g/L H2O2), is undesirable both due to
Fig. 7. Color removal in various time intervals for five industrial-grade dyes
the increase in treatment cost and an observed decrease in treatment
after application of hydrodynamic cavitation in the presence of 1.0 g/L H2O2.
efficiency. The results showed that, 1.0 g/L H2O2 in the HC reactor was For all experiments, the initial OD was set at 0.3, pressure at 4 bar and plate C
the most suitable concentration and thus was selected as the optimum was used (Temperature: 35 ±3 ◦ C, pH: 7.5 ± 0.5). Data are presented as mean
concentration for conducting the rest of the experiments. ± SD values from three separate measurements. (For interpretation of the ref­
Finally, although the application of HC in the presence of 1.0 g/L erences to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version
H2O2 was considered the optimum treatment combination for the of this article.)
decolorization of the dye solutions tested, blank tests were performed
where the dye solutions were treated by adding 1.0 g/L H2O2 in the peroxide increases the concentration of hydroxyl radicals. These have
absence of HC (i.e., H2O2 only), and by HC in the absence of H2O2 at 4 very high redox potential and are non-selective, thus, the mechanism
bar (i.e., HC only). Blank tests (1.0 g/L H2O2 in the absence of HC) were through radicals is favored. Therefore, the HC+1.0 g/L H2O2 system can
performed at the desired inlet concentration of each dye (0.3 OD) to remove pollutants even when HC treatment alone cannot.
examine the effectiveness of only H2O2 in the color removal. Also, blank Blank tests were also conducted by treating the dye solutions with
tests were performed (HC in the absence of H2O2) to investigate the HC 0.5 g/L and 2.0 g/L H2O2 in the absence of HC to assert the previous
efficiency on decolorization without the use of the oxidant (at 4 bar inlet findings. As shown in Table 4 degradation was below 20% for both 2 g/L
pressure, plate C, 0.3 OD). Results of the blank tests conducted, using 1 and 0.5 g/L. It was observed that H2O2 treatment alone (without HC)
g/L H2O2 only (even though it is a mild oxidant) showed decolorization could not efficiently decolorize the dye solutions.
values of less than 15% for all the treated dyes (Table 4). When the dye Consequently, the HC + H2O2 treatment combination at all three
solutions were treated using HC only, higher color removal was H2O2 concentrations tested (0.5, 1.0, 2.0 g/L) enhanced dye degradation
observed only for the yellow (46% removal) and cyan (51% removal) rates and 1.0 g/L appeared to be the optimum oxidant concentration.
solutions. These results suggest that HC alone (without hydrogen Color removal for five industrial-grade dyes using HC in the presence of
peroxide addition) exhibits some form of selectivity that is influenced by 1.0 g/L H2O2 are presented in Fig. 7 (initial OD: 0.3 and pressure: 4 bar)
the pollutant’s type and its physicochemical characteristics. In conclu­ while the optical observation of the decolorization that was achieved in
sion, the data in Table 4 shows that HC with hydrogen peroxide addition 180 min, could be observed from Fig. S4 of the supplementary material.
has more potential to degrade pollutants and shows better treatment These results are consistent with those of many published works. For
efficiency than the individual processes. The addition of hydrogen example, Saharan et al. (2011) observed that the degradation rate of

Table 4
Color removal values for five industrial grade dyes after application of hydrodynamic cavitation (HC), hydrodynamic cavitation in the presence of various concen­
trations of H2O2 (HC þ H2O2 g/L) as well as the blank testing for each application. For all experiments, the initial OD was set at 0.3, pressure at 4 bar and plate C was
used (Temperature: 35 ±3 ◦ C, pH: 7.5 ± 0.5). Data are presented as mean ± SD values from three separate measurements.
Industrial grade dye Color removal (%)

HC + H2O2 g/L Blank

0.5 1.0 2.0 HC only 0.5 g/L H2O2 only 1.0 g/L H2O2 only 2.0 g/L H2O2 only

Black 52.9 ± 0.0 68.3 ± 4.9 59.9 ± 0.0 39.9 ± 0.8 8.0 ± 0.0 4.1 ± 2.7 14.4 ± 0.2
Red 22.7 ± 0.5 39.1 ± 7.8 22.7 ± 4.3 26.4 ± 2.0 0.0 ± 0.0 11.0 ± 2.0 0.0 ± 0.0
Yellow 40.5 ± 0.4 43.7 ± 5.2 31.1 ± 1.0 46.7 ± 0.7 5.0 ± 1.9 9.3 ± 2.1 0.0 ± 0.4
Green 47.7 ± 0.0 55.3 ± 7.3 47.0 ± 0.6 31.0 ± 4.9 13.0 ± 0.0 15.1 ± 0.9 5.0 ± 0.8
Cyan 47.6 ± 0.0 51.6 ± 4.8 43.5 ± 1.0 51.7 ± 1.1 19.0 ± 0.0 6.0 ± 0.0 2.0 ± 0.1

6
C. Zampeta et al.
reactive red 120 dye (RR120) increases with an increase in the con­
centration of H2O2, reaching almost 100% decolorization at 1:60
(RR120: H2O2) ratio compared to only 60% reduction in color in the
absence of H2O2 (HC only). Additionally, no improvement in the rate of
dye degradation was observed after an optimum concentration of H2O2.
Gore et al. (2014) recorded almost 100% decolorization of reactive or­
ange 4 dye at an optimum 1:30 M ratio of orange-G to H2O2, and no
further increment in the degradation rate was observed at a higher ratio.
The present study concluded that the combined treatment method (HC
+ H2O2) was 2.5 times more efficient than the HC process alone (Gore
et al., 2014). Generally, it can be deduced that the H2O2 concentration
should be optimized based on the pollutant’s molecule nature and
organic loading. An excessive H2O2 amount could not only reduce the
degradation efficiency but also negatively affect the economic feasibility
of the treatment process. Table S1 in the supplementary material shows
the performance of the process compared to similar hydrodynamic
cavitation systems for dye removal and cost estimation. However, it
should be noted that comparison of different processes or experimental
conditions for the treatment of different industrial wastewater is purely
indicative and can give misleading results.
3.1.4. Initial concentration of contaminants
Another crucial parameter that determines the efficiency of the
degradation process is the initial concentration of contaminants present
in the aqueous solution.
Additional experiments were performed on dye solutions at 0.6 OD
and applying an inlet pressure of 4 bar. Experiments were performed to
determine any correlation between increasing H2O2 concentration and
color removal efficiency from 0.6 OD black dye solution. As shown in
Fig. 8, HC coupled with 1.0 g/L H2O2 achieved 45.7% color removal
while HC coupled with 2.0 g/L H2O2 achieved almost 20% decoloriza­
tion, for the black dye. Thus, even increase of the initial concentration
(from 0.3 OD to 0.6 OD), HC combined with 1.0 g/L H2O2 proved to be
Fig. 8. Color removal in various time intervals for black industrial-grade dye
after application of hydrodynamic cavitation (HC), hydrodynamic cavitation in
the presence of various concentrations of H2O2 (HCþ1.0 or 2.0 g/L of H2O2)
and only addition of 1.0 or 2.0 g/L of H2O2. For all experiments, the initial OD
was set at 0.6, pressure at 4 bar and plate C was used (Temperature: 35 ±3 ◦ C,
pH: 7.5 ± 0.5). Data are presented as mean ± SD values from three separate
measurements.
7
Journal of Environmental Management 297 (2021) 113301
Table 5
Color removal values for five industrial grade dyes after application of hydro­
dynamic cavitation in the presence of 1 g/L H2O2 (HC+1 g/L H2O2) as well as
the blank testing for each application. For all experiments, the initial OD was set
at 0.6, pressure at 4 bar and plate C was used (Temperature: 35 ±3 ◦ C, pH: 7.5 ±
0.5). Data are presented as mean ± SD values from three separate
measurements.
Industrial grade dye Color removal (%)
Treatment Blank
HC+1.0 g/L H2O2 HC only 1.0 g/L H2O2 only
Black 45.7 ± 4.7 23.3 ± 0.2 0.0 ± 0.0
Red 9.7 ± 4.0 11.0 ± 0.1 2.9 ± 0.0
Yellow 50.9 ± 4.1 8.7 ± 0.1 16.6 ± 0.2
Green 29.7 ± 1.1 18.0 ± 0.4 7.7 ± 0.0
Cyan 23.2 ± 1.4 23.2 ± 0.2 7.0 ± 2.2
more efficient. Afterwards, all industrial-grade dye solutions were
studied at higher initial concentration (i.e., 0.6 OD) in combination with
1.0 g/L H2O2 dosage, and the results are presented in Table 5. The data
in Table 4 (for 0.3 OD) and 5 (for 0.6 OD) show that degradation effi­
ciency decreased due to higher dye initial concentration for HC+1.0 g/L
H2O2. The yellow dye was the only exception, and for 0.6 OD showed
almost the same color removal (50.9%) as the 0.3 OD dye (43.7%). The
results show that, color removal reached 45% for black, 9% for red, 50%
for yellow, 29% for green, and 23% for cyan for 0.6 OD initial concen­
tration (Table 5). Thus, higher initial concentration (0.6 OD) shows a
decrease of 33% for black, 75% for red, 46% for green and 55% for cyan
dye, compared to 0.3 OD, for the decolorization. This behavior (higher
dye initial concentration demonstrates lower degradation efficiency)
has been observed in other technologies such as Fenton reaction, wet
oxidation, and persulfate oxidation. In most cases, the radicals/pollutant
ratio is small; therefore, for a higher organic load, the in situ generated
reactive oxygen species are the limiting factor of the process. In hy­
drodynamic cavitation, an additional factor that reduces the efficiency is
the mass transfer of the pollutant inside the cavity or the cavity/bulk
solution interface.
Blank tests were also done for all dyes by treating the 0.6 OD solu­
tions with 1.0 g/L H2O2 in the absence of the HC reactor and performing
HC at 4 bar in the absence of H2O2 (Table 5). H2O2 treatment alone
produced degradation rates of under 16% (specifically, 0% for black
dye, 2% for red dye, 16% for yellow dye, and around 7% for the cyan and
green dyes). Similarly, it was observed that HC only caused 23%
decolorization of the black and cyan dye solutions, and 11%, 8% and
18% of the red, yellow and green dye solutions, respectively (Table 5).
Therefore, combined HC+1.0 g/L H2O2 treatment proved more efficient
at decolorizing these dye solutions than each individual treatment
method alone.
Many researchers have studied the effect of initial pollutant con­
centrations on HC efficiency (Gogate and Patil, 2015; Joshi and Gogate,
2012). Pradhan and Gogate (2010) found that p-nitrophenol removal
decreased with an increase in its initial concentration from 53.4% at 5.0
g/L to 44.8% at 10.0 g/L at 2.9 bar initial pressure when using hydro­
dynamic cavitation alone. Wang et al. (2020) showed that the removal
rate of methyl orange dye, decreased with the initial concentration (5
mg/L, 10 mg/L, 15 mg/L, 20 mg/L) but increased with treatment time
(using single HC).
3.2. Total COD removal
The decolorization is not always accompanied by the corresponding
reduction of the organic load due to intermediates’ formation.
Thus, in the present study, the total COD removal was examined at
optimized conditions (i.e., HC+1.0 g/L H2O2, 0.3 OD, inlet pressure: 4
bar, plate C). As shown in Fig. 9, COD removal percentages reached
100% for the black dye solution and 38%, 25%, 67% and 78% for the
C. Zampeta et al. Journal of Environmental Management 297 (2021) 113301

Fig. 9. COD removal for five industrial-grade dyes and printing ink wastewater
(PIW) after application of hydrodynamic cavitation in the presence of 1.0 g/L
H2O2 (Temperature: 35 ±3 ◦ C, pH: 7.5 ± 0.5). For all experiments, the initial
OD was set at 0.3 and pressure at 4 bar and plate C was used.
red, yellow, cyan and green dye solutions, respectively. For PIW, COD
removal reached 55%. The COD of the effluent was 54 mg/L for PIW and
0 mg/L, 76 mg/L, 63 mg/L, 21 mg/L, 17 mg/L, 54 mg/L for black, red,
yellow, cyan, green dye, respectively.
Many of the published studies have studied COD removal but they
have not achieved extremely high COD reduction. Rajoriya et al. (2018)
studied the efficiency of a slit Venturi HC reactor for the removal of COD
from a textile dyeing industry effluent (TDI). COD reduction was
recorded as 12% using HC alone, and 38% when HC was combined with
Fenton, at optimum conditions (solution volume: 6 L, pH: 6.8, pressure:
5 bar, treatment time: 120 min). Li et al. (2009) reported a maximum of
85.4% COD removal at optimum conditions when treating real (non-­
synthetic) industrial triazophos wastewater (pH: 4, stirring time: 90 min,
and a dose of 5.0 g/L of FeSO4⋅7H2O and 75 mL/L of 30% H2O2 solu­
tion). Also, real wastewater from bitumen production was treated by
Boczkaj et al. (2018) using a Venturi tube (P: 7.9 atm, Q: 520 L/h, T:
40 ◦ C, pH: 10.5, t: 360 min HC). It was found that HC+72 ml/L H2O2 and
HC alone achieved 20% and 13% COD reduction, respectively.
3.3. Treatment of real printing ink wastewater
Fig. 10. Color removal in various time intervals for printing ink wastewater
(PIW) after application of hydrodynamic cavitation (HC), hydrodynamic cavi­
tation in the presence of H2O2 1.0 g/L and only addition of H2O2 1.0 g/L. For all
experiments, the initial OD was set at 0.3 and pressure at 4 bar and plate C was
used (Temperature: 35 ±3 ◦ C, pH: 7.5 ± 0.5). Data are presented as mean ± SD
values from three separate measurements.
real industrial effluent when HC was applied (slit Venturi as a cavitating
device, H2O2: 5 g/L, inlet pressure: 4 bar, pH: 4) while color removal was
not recorded. In another study, Rajoriya et al. (2016) studied COD
reduction from an aqueous effluent by applying HC after upflow
anaerobic sludge blanket anaerobic treatment. Slit Venturi with a 3 bar
inlet pressure generated about 48% COD removal. Finally, Bis et al.
(2015) tried 3 different geometries of orifice plates and reported that
COD removal was around 6% for landfill leachate treatment in any case.
3.4. Yield of cavitation technology
Cavitation yield (7) was calculated using the experimental data and
parameters obtained from the experiments described above.
( )
L amount degraded (OD initial − OD final)
Cavitation yield OD ⋅ = PE⋅ (7)
J t
V

All relevant data and parameters are presented in the supplementary

The present work also investigated the effectiveness of the specific
pilot scale HC reactor at treating real printing ink wastewater (PIW) for
Table 6
the first time. Both color and COD removal were determined. As stated Cavitation degradation yields and color removal for five industrial grade dyes
in a recent review (Wang et al., 2021) on wastewater treatment by HC, and printing ink wastewater achieved by the application of hydrodynamic
there are many works about model wastewater treatment but only a few cavitation (HC) in the absence and in the presence of 1.0 g/L H2O2. For all ex­
concerning real wastewater treatment. periments, the initial OD was set at 0.3, pressure at 4 bar and plate C was used
According to the results obtained from the degradation of the (Temperature: 35 ±3 ◦ C, pH: 7.5 ± 0.5). Data for color removal are presented as
industrial-grade dyes, experiments of PIW were performed at the opti­ mean ± SD values from three separate measurements.
mum conditions (plate C, inlet pressure: 4 bar, H2O2: 1.0 g/L) at 0.3 OD. HC+1.0 g/L H2O2 HC only
As shown in Fig. 10, HC’s application coupled with 1.0 g/L H2O2 for the Sample
Cavitation yield Color Cavitation yield Color
treatment of PIW is considered the optimum combination again (OD⋅L/J) removal (%) (OD⋅L/J) removal (%)
compared to blank experiments. HC with 1.0 g/L H2O2 achieved 15%
Black 2.5E(-7) 68.3 ± 4.9 1.9E(-7) 39.9 ± 0.8
color removal after 30 min treatment time (Fig. 8) and the total COD Red 1.1E(-7) 39.1 ± 7.8 8.5E(-8) 26.4 ± 2.0
removal was 55% (Fig. 7). At the same time, it was observed that the Yellow 1.5E(-7) 43.7 ± 5.2 1.6E(-7) 46.7 ± 0.7
color removal reaches a maximum, possibly due to the formation of Green 2.0E(-7) 55.3 ± 7.3 9.4E(-8) 31.0 ± 4.9
intermediate products that are resistant to further oxidation. Cyan 1.7E(-7) 51.6 ± 4.8 1.7E(-7) 51.7 ± 1.1
PIW 6.3E(-8) 15.0 ± 0.0 4.0E(-8) 10.0 ± 0.1
Thanekar and Gogate (2019) reported only 40% COD removal from

8
C. Zampeta et al.
material and the results are presented in Table 6. The maximum cavi­
tation yield was estimated using the combination of hydrodynamic
cavitation and 1.0 g/L hydrogen peroxide (plate C, pressure: 4 bar, OD:
0.3) for all treated liquids. Cavitation yields of the combined method
(HC+1.0 g/L H2O2) were higher than the blank tests (HC only) recorded
for PIW and most dye solutions. Among all the treated liquids in the
combined method, highest yield of cavitation was estimated for black
dye reaching 2.5E(-7) OD⋅L/J, while for PIW this value was one order of
magnitude lower achieving 6.3E(-8) OD⋅L/J. Red, yellow, green and
cyan dye yields reached 1.1E(-7), 1.5E(-7), 2.0E(-7) and 1.7E(-7) OD⋅L/
J, respectively. It is worth noting that when the industrial-grade dye
solutions were treated with HC without the addition of hydrogen
peroxide, cavitation yields were higher for yellow and cyan, reaching
1.6E(-7) and 1.7E(-7) OD⋅L/J, respectively. As shown in equation (7),
cavitation yield is proportional to color removal. Cavitation yield de­
pends only on the amount of dye degraded because the fraction’s de­
nominator is always stable in all experiments. Thus, greater
decolorization leads to a higher cavitation yield, as shown in Table 6 for
all the dyes and PIW tested. Hence, in general, HC alone, showed lower
cavitation yield in comparison with HC+1.0 g/L H2O2.
The conclusions of the present study are in agreement with Innocenzi
et al. (2019) who demonstrated that HC (at 4 bar) combined with
0.005%v/v hydrogen peroxide showed significantly higher cavitation
yield than HC alone (pressure: 4 bar, pH: 2, initial methyl orange con­
centration: 5 mg/L). Innocenzi et al. (2019) concluded that HC should be
combined with other AOPs or additives to improve efficiency. Also,
similar results were reported by Tao et al. (2016). It was concluded that
HC coupled with an additive (i.e., CCL4 to promote the generation of
reactive species), demonstrates higher cavitation yield than HC use
alone. The cavitation yields were obtained, using various hybrid ap­
proaches for rhodamine B degradation.
4. Conclusions
A pilot-scale novel hydrodynamic cavitation (HC) reactor was
designed and constructed. The novelty of the HC reactor is based on the
combination of a Venturi tube containing an orifice plate. The reactor
was tested for the treatment of industrial-grade dyes from a cardboard
packaging industry and for real ink wastewater produced during the
printing process. The effect of orifice plate geometry was tested and the
main operating parameters of inlet pressure, H2O2 dosage and solution
concentration were examined to optimize color removal.
Experimental results showed that 31 holes orifice plate of 2 mm in
diameter (plate C) was the optimum among other geometries (with
different holes’ diameter and/or different number of holes) and that 4
bar inlet pressure was the most efficient concerning dyes degradation.
However, HC alone achieved rather low degradation rates. The addition
of hydrogen peroxide enhanced reactor efficiency indicating that HC in
combination with another AOP could be an efficient alternative treat­
ment approach for tough wastewaters. HC+1.0 g/L H2O2 showed higher
treatment efficiency even with higher initial pollutant concentration (i.
e., 0.6 OD).
Particularly, color removal at optimal operational conditions (at
HC+1.0 g/L H2O2, P: 4 bar, 0.3 OD, plate C) reached 68% for black, 39%
for red, 43% for yellow, 55% for green and 51% for cyan dye, while color
removal from the PIW reached 15%. Under the same conditions
(HC+1.0 g/L H2O2, P: 4 bar, 0.3 OD, plate C), both total COD removal
and cavitation yields were examined during the HC process for both real
grade dyes and PIW. COD removal reached almost 100% for black dye,
and 38%, 25%, 67% and 78% for the red, yellow, cyan and green dyes,
respectively, whereas 55% COD removal was observed in the PIW. For
black, red, yellow, green, cyan dye cavitation yields reached 2.5E(-7),
1.1E(-7), 1.5E(-7), 2.0E(-7),1.7E(-7) OD⋅L/J, respectively, while PIW
yield was 6.3E(-8) OD⋅L/J.
HC seems to have a great potential for real applications since it is
easily scaled up and, in combination with hydrogen peroxide, has a high
9
Journal of Environmental Management 297 (2021) 113301
removal efficiency in many cases. However, optimization of the process
is necessary, in order to increase the efficiency of the process and to
drastically decrease the treatment time, thus reducing energy require­
ment and operating costs. Optimization of pH operating range for
wastewater is necessary, as well as of the design of the orifice plate. HC
could also be combined with a post-treatment method. Simple and low-
cost chemical or physical processes such electrolytes addition and
sedimentation could be used for complete decolorization of colorful
wastewaters.
Credit author statement
Charikleia Zampeta: Methodology, Validation, Investigation,
Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Visualization. Kleio
Bertaki: Investigation. Irene-Eva Triantaphyllidou: Methodology, Vali­
dation, Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Visualiza­
tion. Zacharias Frontistis: Conceptualization, Validation, Writing –
original draft, Writing – review & editing, Visualization. Dimitris V.
Vayenas: Conceptualization, Validation, Writing – original draft,
Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Visualization.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding
agencies in the public, commercial, or not–for–profit sectors.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.113301.
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