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Coral reef gastropods - a sustainable resource?

ANN L. POULSEW

Large, colourful coral reef gastropods including the Giant Triton Charonia tritonis, helmet shells (Cassidae), cowries (Cypraeidae)
and volutes (Volutidae) are exploited in an unregulated and unsustainable way throughout much of the Indo-Pacific region. The
consequences for their populations, for the populations of their prey or for the ecology of their habitats are rarely considered. Serious
decline in stocks of edible coral reef molluscs through unregulated harvesting demonstrates the need for controls on the collection and
trade of commercially important species. Continued, unrestricted collecting will eventually lead to the local extinction of vulnerable
species on substantial numbers of reefs. Research on the biology and ecology of ornamental species is urgently needed to facilitate
the implementation of appropriate management strategies for long-term utilization. A co-operative effort to monitor and regulate trade
will also contribute toward the maintenance of sustainable gastropod populations on coral reefs.
Key words: Coral Reefs, Gastropods, Exploitation, Resource Management, CITES.

lDepartment of Zoology, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia 4072.

INTRODUCTION resources and regulated harvesting of management of wild stocks of bivalves

EDIBLE molluscs are a major source
of protein particularly for people in the
developing countries of the Indo-Pacific
region. However, over-collection has
reduced some species, including the
Trochus Shell Trochus niloticus, Giant
Clams Tridacna spp., Abalone Haliotis
spp. and the Pearl Oyster Pinctada
margaritijera, to the point where
harvesting is no longer viable on a
commercial scale (Wells et al. 1983;
Heslinga et al. 1984). Unregulated trade
and lack of planning for long-term
utilization are common factors in the
collapse of these potentially sustainable
wild populations is now essential if
sustainable utilization is desired
(Honma 1988; Berg and Olsen 1989).
In attempts to protect stocks, mollusc
fisheries are regulated in some countries
by a variety of centrally imposed
restrictions including the issuing of a
limited number of licences and permits,
closed seasons, quotas, and minimum
size limits. However, in many cases, a
lack of biological data including reliable
catch statistics is a major obstacle to
their effective implementation (Wells
and Alcala 1987). In his review of
recent developments in research and
and gastropods, Caddy (1989), discusses
the need for a conservative approach to
mollusc fisheries management and the
need for a great deal more study of the
population dynamics of commercially
important species.
This essay concerns the impacts of
unregulated collecting of popular
ornamental gastropods, particularly the
large predatory species including giant
tritons (Ranellidae), giant helmets
(Cassidae) and volutes (Volutidae).
Research and management, trade
regulations, mariculture and education
are also discussed.

Pacific Conservation Biology Vol. 2: 142-45. Surrey Beatty & Sons. Sydney, 1995.

THE SHELL TRADE
It is estimated that some 5 000 mollusc
species are involved in the ornamental
shell trade , the most popular being the
large and colourful gastropods from the
Caribbean , Indian Ocean and South-
east Asia (Abbott 1980). The most
heavily traded Indo-Pacific species are
inhabitants of coral reefs , valued for
their decorative shells by tourists , and
actively sought by professional fisher-
men and local collectors. Some species
are also sought for food, utensils, and
musical instruments .
A resurgence of the shell trade in the
1970s and the widespread availability of
SCUBA, outboard motors, cheap fuel
and cheap underwater torches are
major factors in the serious decline of
ornamental gastropods observed in
recent years. Species such as the Giant
Triton Charonia triton is , Helmet Shells
Cassis comuta and Cypraecassis rufa,
Cowries (e.g. , Cypraea aurantium and
C. tigris), Volutes (e.g., Melo spp.) and
Cone Shells (Conidae) are now extremely
uncommon in many areas , including the
Philippines, Indonesia , New Caledonia,
East Africa, Seychelles , Guam and
Thailand (Owens 1971 ; Evans et al.
1977; Hedlund 1977; Salm 1978; Wells
1989) . Endean (1982a) describes the
noticeable decline of large ornamental
gastropods, particularly helmets , balers
(Melo spp.) and Giant Tritons from
Great Barrier Reef (GBR) waters since
the 1950s. Giant Tritons and Giant
Helmet Shells are now protected on the
GBR. Unfortunately, measures to
protect vulnerable species often are not
taken after their numbers are seriously
depleted.
A case study: the Giant Triton
Giant Tritons are well-known gastro-
pods of circum-tropical distribution
(Emerson 1991) characterized by a
large body whorl and elongate spire
intricately marked with crescentric
patches of brown and cream. The shell
may grow to 450 mm long making them
one of the largest gastropods in the
ocean. Tritons were commonly used as
horns throughout the Mediterranean
many centuries B.C. (Saul 1974) and
are still widely used as trumpets and
horns throughout the Indo-Pacific,
particularly in association with religious
ceremonies and celebrations (Kira
1962). They are widely regarded as the
most beautiful among large shells and
Fig. 1. Giant Triton hunting Crown-of-Thorns Starfish .
bring high prices on the souvenir
market (Abbott 1973) . Prior to the 20th
century, it is unlikely that triton popula-
tions decreased significantly despite
being widely used. However , with the
advent of large scale commercial
fisheries such as bech-de-mer, trochus
and pearl oyster, ornamental gastro-
pods were exposed to increased
numbers of collectors and more
sophisticated fishing techniques. From
1947 to 1960, it is estimated 10 000 Giant
Tritons per year were collected from the
GBR by the crew of trochus boats alone
(Endean 1969) . The impact of collect-
ing on the GBR is unknown due to the
lack of data on triton populations
before and after this period .
In Australia , Giant Tritons are
recognized as predators of the Crown-
of-Thorns Starfish Acanthaster planci
(Fig. 1) and subject to export control
under the Wildlife Protection (Regula-
tion of Exports and Imports) Act 1982 .
In the state of Queensland they are
listed as a "protected species" under the
second schedule of the Fisheries Act
1976-84. A recent survey of reefs of the
central GBR indicate that , despite its
protected status, C. tritonis is still rare.
Four Giant Tritons were located by
trained observers after 430 hours spent
searching on 12 reefs between Port
Douglas (16°S) and Airlie Beach (21 OS).
In total, an area of approximately
130 km 2 was searched over a 12 month
period between July 1993 and August
1994, giving a population density of
<1 per km 2 • In 1990, a survey for tritons
143
on the GBR commissioned by the
Great Barrier Reef Marine Park
Authority failed to locate any specimens
(Paterson 1990).
Giant Tritons are also rare on reefs
around Tonga (Chesher 1990). In the
1960s local fishermen in the Island
group of Vava'u , reported finding five
to seven Giant Tritons in a day . In 1993,
fishermen were offered US$70 for each
live triton collected over a two month
period . None were found (Chesher,
pers. comm.). In Thailand C. triton is is
popular as food and is widely sought by
collectors. The Thai Department of
Fisheries report that "many populations
occurring in accessible reefs have been
extirpated through over-collecting" (in
Iitt. , 10 March 1994) . Similarly , in
Israel , C. tritonis has been subject to
"heavy damage by collectors and they
are rare today in both seas" (R. Ortal ,
Nature Reserves Authority, Israel , in
Iitt. , 13 March 1994). The Papua New
Guinea Department of Environment
and Conservation note that "c. tritonis
is very widely used by the local
maritime populations and recently its
scarcity has been noticed" (in litt .,
6 May 1993). Tritons are also uncommon
throughout the Atlantic and Caribbean
(Marler and Marler 1982) where they
were regularly observed in the 1950s
(Percharde 1972).
As biological research and catch
statistics for ornamental species are
scarce , market value and availability of
specimens are often the only indicators
 144
of the status of wild populations.
Observations in Australia show that the
price of C. triton is is high relative to
other species and has risen steeply in
the past six years. In North Queens-
land, the price of large (>400 mm long)
Triton shells in good condition rose from
$AUD200 in June 1993 to $AUD300 in
June 1994. The retail value of similar
shells in 1988 was $AUDlOO. While
giant tritons are available as souvenirs
in Australia it is likely poaching will
occur in Australian waters. Tritons
taken illegally from the GBR are
known to have appeared for sale in
Queensland (Dave Savage, QNPWS,
pers. comm.).
ECOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Typically, coral reef-associated
gastropod fauna exhibit low population
densities, high variability, and a range
of life histories (Kohn and Nybakken
1975; Endean and Cameron 1990).
Most are active at night and cryptic by
day, factors which may have contributed
to the general lack of biological and
ecological data. Egg masses may be
"brooded" and larvae long lived and
wide ranging, e.g., C. triton is (Beu
1970), or development may be direct as
for the volutes. Despite the relatively
low densities of most ornamental
species there is a limit below which
successful reproduction will not occur
and uncontrolled collecting may result
in depletion of stocks and widespread
local extinctions.
Many of the large coral reef species
commonly collected are predators, and
the impacts of their collection on the
population dynamics of their prey are
unknown. The helmet shells prey
almost exclusively on sea-urchins
(Hughes and Hughes 1981) and the
Giant Triton is a confirmed predator of
the Crown-of-Thorns Starfish (Endean
1969). In the recent past, population
explosions of the Crown-of-Thorns and
sea-urchin species (e.g. Echinometra
mathaei) in the tropical Indo-Pacific
region have generated considerable
interest and concern (Chesher 1969;
Endean 1982b; McClanahan and Muthiga
1988) but the cause(s) remain unknown
(Birkland and Lucas 1990). The impacts
of over-collecting predators of these
species are yet to be fully investigated.
Research in this area is obviously
lacking, particularly as modelling
studies (Antonelli and Kazarinoff 1984;
Bradbury et al. 1985; McCallum 1987;
J. Paterson, pers. comm.) suggest
predatory species, including C. tritonis,
have the potential to limit population
outbreaks of A. planci.
SOLUTIONS
Effective management depends on
our correct understanding of the biology
and ecology of economically valuable
species. Basic biological reproductive
data gathered from well designed field
and aquarium studies is urgently
needed. Adults and juveniles tagged
and monitored in their natural habitat
may be tracked, and feeding habits
including prey preferences and feeding
rates, recorded. Electronic tagging may
overcome some of the difficulties
associated with relocating animals in
the field. Populations monitored over
time will provide important ecological
data, including the habitat and prey
requirements of adults and juveniles
and the factors influencing settlement
and growth. This information then
provides a basis for the design of
appropriate management strategies.
Marine parks now facilitate the
protection of a number of over-collected
species in some countries but effective
enforcement of fisheries regulations is
often difficult and costly and to a large
extent dependent on the degree of co-
operation of the local fishing population.
An informed and educated population,
sympathetic to the goals of long-term
resource management may be extremely
effective in developing sustainable
industry. Therefore, conservation and
management education playa vital role
in the effectiveness of local manage-
ment strategies.
To assess thoroughly the effects of
exploitation, comparisons of fished with
unfished gastropod populations are
necessary. Unfortunately, the scarcity
of unfished populations presents a
major problem. Immediate assessment
of stocks in remote areas may give some
indication of natural population densities.
Although systematic survey techniques
may be time consuming and costly, they
are essential for a basic understanding
of population ecology. Where avail-
able, a more economical, though less
reliable method of determining popula-
tion structure may be obtained through
catch statistics and interviews with
harvesters and it is essential these data
are kept and made available for
research and management.
The rapid deterioration of coral reef
habitats from a number of factors,
including inappropriate harvesting
techniques, may be as great a threat to
gastropod populations as overcollecting
(Wells 1981). Enforcement of ecologically
sound collecting techniques, rotational
harvesting and a system of well patrolled
marine parks are important and necessary
for effective long-term management.
Coral reefs, by nature, are not separate
entities belonging to one country or
another. A co-operative, multinational
effort to work together and plan ahead
for sustainable industry is urgently
needed.
The need to consider alternative
sources of employment for fishermen
whose income is partly or solely
dependent on the shell trade is great.
Artificial cultivation (aquaculture) is
now essential for the maintenance of
sustainable harvesting of some mollusc
species e.g. ,the pearl oyster (Coeroli et
al. 1984). The development of aqua-
culture facilities including techniques
for reseeding coral reefs is a necessary
and important step in the development
of a viable shell industry.
Since many islanders collect large
predatory gastropods specifically for
international trade, some species,
e.g., Charonia tritonis and Cassis
cornuta would benefit from trade
regulations such as those covered by the
Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species (CITES) (Wells
and Barzdo 1991). Listing vulnerable
species on CITES will not prevent local
fishermen from collecting for food or
local sale but CITES listing would serve
several important needs: providing data
on numbers of shells moving between
nations, discouraging tourists and shell
collectors from buying or taking
vulnerable species overseas, and
preventing large scale commercial ship-
ments of threatened species between
signatory countries. To this purpose the
Australian Government is proposing
the inclusion of C. triton is on CITES,
Appendix 2.
CONCLUDING COMMENTS
Hundreds of Tritons are imported
annually into Australia for sale in popular
tourists centres such as Cairns and the
Gold Coast, yet their status under the
Wildlife Protection Act prohibits their
removal from the country. Similarly,
CITES listed species such as Giant

Clams (Tridacnidae) and reef corals
(Scleractinia) are imported into Aust-
ralia presumably to be sold primarily to
overseas tourists. While major consumers
including the United States, Japan,
Europe and Australia import ornamental
gastropods and other coral reef species
as souvenirs and ornaments without
regard for diminishing stocks or habitat
destruction, local fisherman will continue
to remove every specimen they find.
Australia may do well to prohibit the
import and sale of protected and CITES
listed species.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am grateful to R. Chesher, M. Thome
and N. Gribble for support and encourage-
ment, L. Squires and Sons, M. Lark, D.
Holland, the management and crew of
Prodive Whitsunday, Ocean Spirit
Cruises and Pure Pleasure Cruises for
help in the field, and to L. Devantier
for reading and commenting on the
manuscript.
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