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 WAVE PROPAGATION
OVERNON-UNIFORM
ELECTRICAL
CONDUCTORS*
BY

M. I. PUPIN

Introduction
Themainobjectofthemathematical theory developedin thispaperis thean-
alysisofthepropagation ofelectrical wavesovera conductor representedin Fig.
3, ? III, below. Thisconductor consists ofa loopofwireL1 .. Lk I oflength
21in which there are,atequidistant points,theso-calledreactancepoints, a cer-
tainnumber ofequalcoilsinterposed dividingtheloopintoa number of equial
parts, calledtheinterstices of theloop. Thesecoilsmayhavecondensers in
serieswiththemor theymayhavesecondary withcondensers.
circuits The
propagation of electrical
wavesovera periodically loadedloopof thiskindis
compared withthatovera uniform loophaving thesametotalinductance, resist-
ance,andcapacity.Thisuniform loopiscalledthecorresponding uniform con-
ductor oftheperiodicallyloadedloop.
A similar problem inmechanics is thatof theforced andfreevibrations ofa
periodically loadedheavy, flexible,inextensible stringof finitelengthtaking
frictional resistancesintoaccount.To myknowledge, neither theelectrical
problem norits corresponding mechanical problem has beeninvestigated be-
fore.
It willbe observed inthecourse ofthispaperthata study ofthepropagation
of electricalwavesovera periodically loadedconductor of thiskindsuggests
forcibly an electromagnetictheory ofemission andabsorption oflightbymolecu-
larcomplexes, which onaccount of thephysical conceptionunderlying it,if for
no otherreason, possesses many attractive features.In thistheory theether
andthematerial ionsimbedded init correspond totheuniform wireandthere-
actance pointsconsideredinthispaper. Thesematters, however,areofa more
orlessspeculative characterand have,therefore, no placehere. Butit should
be notedthatthephysical problem discussed-here wasfirstsuggested byspecu-
lations of thiskind. It canbe statedas follows:Underwhatconditions will
thenon-uniform conductor represented in Fig.3 be approximately equivalent to
itscorresponding uniform conductor ? Or,tobe moreprecise^: Forwhatfre-
* Presented
to theSocietyDecember28, 1899. Receivedforpublication
January23, 1900.
(259)
Trans. Am. Math. Soc. 18
260 M. I. PUPIN: WAVE PROPAGATION [July

quelicywill an electricalwavehave approximately the same wave-lengthand the

same damping, or attenuationconstanton one conductoras on the other?
The mathematicaltheorydeveloped here gives a definiteanswerto this ques-
tion. This answer can be statedin a fewwordsand forthatpurpose it is de-
sirableto introducehere a new technicalterm,the so-calledangular distanceof
the interstices,that is, of the intervalbetween consecutivereactancepoints.
This intervalis at any given frequencya definitefractionof the wave-length cor-
respondingto thatfrequency. Let thisfractionbe 4/2ir; then0 is the alngular
distancesof the interstices. The angulardistanceof a wave-length is, of course,
27r. The general ruleexpressingthe conditions of equivalenceof a non-uniform
conductorto its corresponding uniformconductorcan now be expressedas fol-
lows: For any givenfreqtuencya non-uniform conductorof thesecond typeis
equivalenttoits corresponding uniformcondctctor as nearlyas sin0/2is to j/2.
The higherthe frequencythe less resemblancewill therebe betweena given
non-uniform conductorand its correspondinguniformconductor. Conversely,
if thisresemblanceis sufficiently close fora givenfrequencyit will be closerfor
all lowerfrequencies. When the half wave-length underconsiderationbecomes
smallerthanthe interstices, thenthe resemblance, as faras thatwave-length and
all shorterwave-lengths are concerned,ceases altogether.
A briefsummaryof this paper will now be given.
The main object of this researchis the solution of the problemof ? III.
This solutiondependson the solutionof the problemof ? II, and thisagain is
mouldedafterthe patternof the solutionof the problemof ? I.
In ? I the wave propagationover a uniformwire conductorrepresentedin
Fig. 1 is discussed. The effectof the transmitting apparatusA and of the re-
ceiving apparatus B is taken into account. Equation (5) is the mostgeneral
solutionof this case. The propagationof wavesof bothforcedand freeperiods
is easilydeducedfromit. This particularformof the general solutionis new
and it was selected because it is best suitedforcomparingthe propagationof
wavesover the non-uniform conductorsof ?? II and III withthatovertheircor-
respondinguniformconductors.
In ? II the wave propagationover a non-uiniform conductorof the firsttype
representedin Fig. 2 is discussed. This conductorconsistsof a certain num-
ber of equal coilsL1, ... , Ln whichare connectedin series. A certainnumber
of equal condensers,one at each juncturebetweentwo consecutivecoils,connect
this conductorto ground. A transmitting apparatusA and a receivingappa-
ratus B are present. The generalsolution of this problern, equation (6a), is
mouldedafterthe patternof equation(5) of ? I. Both forcedand free oscilla-
tionson a conductorof thiskind are considered,and theconditionsunderwhich
it becomnes equivalentto its corresponding uniformconductorare workedout at
considerablelength. The problemof this sectionand its solutionare bothnew.
1900] OVER NON-UNIFORM ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS 261

The problemof ? III can, froma purelymathematicalpointof view,be stated

equation:
as follows: Find the integralof the followingpartialdifferential

L d2y +Rdy 1 J2Y

and determineit in such a way as to satisfvk + 2 boundaryconditions. Deter-

mine also the conditionsunder which this integralwill be equivalentto the
integralrepresentedin equation(5), ? I.
Equation (2) represents the most general solution, and the constants
x1, X29 .*.. 9,+ 2 have to be determined fromthe k ? 2 boundaryconditions.
The principalmathematical herereducesitselfthento thepropermath-
difficulty
ematical formulationof these boundaryconditionsso as to obtain a systemof
equationswhichcan be readilysolved. Such a systemis system(3) of this sec-
tion. It is of the same formas system(6) of ? II, the solutionof whichwas ob-
tained in that section. Equations (4) and (5) are thus obtained. Equation (6)
is the most general solution,and whenthis equation becomesverynearlythe
same as equation (5) of ? I thenthe non-uniform conductorof this sectionbe-
comes equivalent to its correspondinguniformconductor. This equivalence
cannotbe decidedwithouta carefulstudyof thewave-lengths and of thedamping
constantsof waves of differentperiods. This study is recorded in the remain-
ing portionof this section. This sectionis also entirelynew.
The work given in ? I and a portionof that givenin ? II, togetherwith a
descriptionof experimentalinvestigations bearinguponthesame,werepublished
in vol. XVI of the Transactions of the American Institute of
Electrical Engineers for 1899. Additional experimentalinvestigations
bearing upon the principal problem,that is the problemof ? III, will be pub-
lishedin the near future.

? I. WAVE PROPAGATION ALONG A UNIFORM LINEAR CONDUCTOR.

of forced period.
A. WVaves
The conductoris a loop of wire AB (Fig. 1). At one pointof the loop is a
transmittingapparatusA, at the opposite point is a receiving apparatusB.
The distancebetweenA and B is I, equal to one-halfthe lengthof the whole
loop. The distanceof any elementds fromA is s .
s
30
dIa

FiG.1
262 M. I. PUPIN: WAVE PROPAGATION [July

Let L, R, and C, denotetheinductance,resistance,and capacity,respectively,

per unitlength. Let y be the currentat any points. Then

(1) ^ dt2 Rdt CdS2

is the well knownequationof propagation.
To formulatethe two boundaryconditions,one at the receiving and the
other at the transmittingapparatus,let Los RO1,CO, and L1, R1, C , re-
and of the
spectivelybe the inductance,resistance,capacity,of the transmitting
receivingapparatus. Each containsa condenserin series withits inductance
and resistance. Let the e. m. f. impressedby A be of typeEeiPt. The boun-
dary equationscan now be expressedas follows:

(2)
(2i+
j _- 2(

2 y
= (Do

==
- hoy)=o at transmitting
apparatus

at receivingapparatus,
where
Do ip CoEeiPt,

ho=CO( p20 + ipR0), C1(p2X1+ipR),

hBO=

XOO=L p2C 1 X 1L p-p2C

1

The physicalcharacterof the problemsuggeststhe followingsolution:

(3) y= K cos + K2 sin ,

where I - s, and K1 and K1 are proportional to eiPt.

Equation (I) is satisfiedforall values of K1 and K1 if

'C(- p2-L+ ipR) y2_ (a + i8)2.

From this we get
a -I pC{Vp2L2 + R2 +pL},
(4) t- _ _ __ _ _ __ _ _

,B <1pC{V/p2L2+ R2-pL}.
When pL is large in comparisonwithR,

a-p VLC, a 2 L
* Observethatin thecaseofa twinconductor wherethe mutualcapacityis largein compar-
ison withthecapacityofeachconductor to earthwe mustuse 21 and 2L in placeofR and L.
1900] OVER NON-UNIFORM ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS 263

The boundaryequationswill be satisfiedif

K 2pDo
K 1- ~D,
F v K 2 _hDhiDo
F
where
F = (hohl- 4 p2) sin ,l + 2,u(ho+ h) cos IA.
Hence (3) can now be written:

(5) y = (2/hcos IA + hiAsin DU) .

When ho= hi - 0
D
Do /At
(5a) Csi

Equation (5) is a completesolution for the propagationof waves of forced

period. It representssimpleharmonicdampedwaves. The mostessentialele-
mentswhichenterinto the descriptionof such waves are the wave-length X and
the dampingor attenuation factor. These can easily be calculated. Since
,u = a + i,B, we shall have X =27r/a; the.attenuationfactoris e- t.
It is evidentthat /8diminishesas L -increases. A high reactanceper unit
lengthmeanssmall attenuationand a slow speed of propagation.

B. Waveswitha naturalperiod.
Free oscillationsare readilycalculatedfora fewspecial cases. Equation (5)
is a general solutionforfree oscillationsalso, provided,however,that t has
such a value as to make F- O, since Do =0; thatis, we musthave

(6) (h1h1
- 4,u2) sin'pl + 2p(ho+ hj) cos l-= 0;

but, of course,in this case,

ho= kC(kxo+ Ro?), h=l k C(kX1+ R1), -/2 = kC(kL ? R).

Equation (6) is a transcendental
equationand can be readilysolved in a few
simplecases.
and receivingapparatusare inotpresent.
Case 1.-The transmitting
In thiscase ho=h- = . Equation (6) reducesto

sin /1= 0.
Therefore
A =S7r/l,

wheres can have any integralvalue from1 to co. The periodsof freeoscil-
lation are calculatedfromthe equation:
264 M. I. PUPIN: WAVE PROPAGATION [Jully

8272
=k2LC+kRC=
2- 7-e T

Therefore
-1 1 827T2 12- R
k- 2L 44LC l2 -4L2 2L s

There is, therefore,an infinitenumberof periods which are harmonically

relatedto each otherunlessthe dampingconstantR/2L is not negligiblysmall
with7r2/12L
in comparison C.
The mostgeneralsolutionof this case can be written:
1?Rt 877

(7) Y=- 2LE )Scos

t os (kit-.e)
,8=1

are 21/1,21/2,21/3,*..,
The wave-lengths 21/s,

Case 2.-The transmitting apparatusis notpresentand in placeof there-

ceivingapparatusthereis a breakin thewire.
In this case O= 0, h1= oo . Equation (6) reducesto

cos pi= 0.
Therefore
2s + 1 7r

R .!1 2s+1 \2 R2 R
k 2La =Ei I 4L2 2L + k28+l,

(8) y= e L A28+1 sin cos (k2s?+

I E928+ l).
8=0

The wave-lengths are 41/1, 41/3, 41/5,

The damping factoris in both cases the same forall frequencies; hence the
color of the complexharmonicvibrationremainsunchangedduring the whole
epoch whilethe vibrationslast.

? l. CONDUCTOROF
ELECTRICALOSCILLATIONSON A NON-UNIFORM
TH}EFIRST TYPE.
The conductorconsistsof2n equal coils,L1, L2, Ln (Fig. 2) connectbd in *.*,

series so as to form a closed loop. At one point A of this loop is an alternator,at

the opposite point is a receiving apparatus B. At equal distances 2(n - 1) equal
condensers, C1, , Cn-1, connect the conductor to ground. The whole loop
1900] OVER NON-UNIFORM ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS 265

is thusdividedinto2n - 2 component circuits,1, 2, * .., 2n - 2. It is evident

that in the limitwhenn becomesinfinitely large,this conductorbecomesan or-
dinarytelegraphor telephoneline withuniformly distributedresistance,capacity,
and inductance. The question niowarises: Under what conditionswill a con-
ductor of' this kind becomeequivalent,withsufficient approximation, to a uni
form line, even n n is notinfinitely
large? This problemdoes not seemto
have been solved before. In its main features it is similar to that which
LAGRANGE solved in his Mecanique Analytique, pt. II, sec. VI, the prob-
lem, namely,of the free vibrationsof a weightlessstring,ffixedat its two

a G G G

B
A(2 LI L2 Ln-I Ln

G G
FIG. 2

ends,and loaded at equidistantpointsby equal weights. But it is muchmore

generalbecause frictionalresistancesare taken into consideration, and also be-
cauiseforcedas well as freeoscillationsare considered.
Let L. and L1, RO and R1, COand C1 be the inductance,ohmicresistance,
capacityof A and B, respectively. Let L, R, C be thecorresponding quan-
titiesof the coils and condensersin the severalcomponentcircuits.
The real part of Eeiptis the e. m. f. impressedby alternatorA.
Let x1, * , xn be the currentsin the component
. circuits; P1, * **, Pn the
differences U2, *, UC,,1; Po and P'
of potentialin the line condensers,CU, C2
the differences of potentialin the condensersin A and B respectively;and
91
'
* * *n-l thecondenser
currents.
We shall have

(1) ~
[
|t= C dP
~~~~~ dP t2' 2= dPt
Cddt .

{1= 1-I X2 1 ~2-= X3 1*

A. Forced oscillations.
Statingthe law of equalityof actionand reactionforeach domponent
circuit,
we obtainthe followingn differentialequations:
266 M. I. PUPIN: WAVE PROPAGATION [July

dxl EePt,
(L?2L) d+(R0+2R)x1+2P1+P0=
dx
Ld-t+R2 + P2- PIO,

(2)

dx
L-dtt+ RXn_l + Pn-1 Pn-2 = ? 9

dx
(L1 +2L)-dt + (R1+2 R)xx- 2P, +J'P = O.

the steadystatehas been reached,the currentswill be, just like the

WATben
impressede. m. f., simpleharmonicsof the timet, thatis,

(3) xi=1 A1eiPt x2= A2eiPt

whereA1, A2, * are complexquantities.

each memberof (2) and substitutingfrom(3) and (1) we
Differentiatinig
obtain:
Ax, + -0 =D,
AX2 + 2 -1 -o1

(4)
)'n-1 + en- l n-2 - 0
Ax. +0 -=-A1xn,
where
h =C( p2L + ipR), A1 Q-C( p2X1+ ipR_l)
1 1
(5) D =2ip CEeiPt - C(p2Xo + ipRO) 1 Do _ hoXl
,
Xo = ?-p2CI X
\1 L1- p2Cl

Another
formis obtainedbysubstituting
for{, s,2 , * ** as follows:
(h+1)x1 +0 -x2= D = Do- ox,
(h+2)x2 -x1 -x3-= ,
(6)

(h+ 2)xn-I-x.-2 -
X.
= 0,

ft +1 Xn-X*1 0 =" -ln

1900] OVER NON-UNIFORM ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS 267

Equation(3) of ? I suggests
thefollowing
solution:
(6a) xm= K1cos2(n - m)H + K sin2(n -m)9.
If h + 2 = 2 cos29, thenall theequationsexceptthefirstand the last will
forall valuesof K1 and K>. Thesetwoequations,
be satisfied whichcorres-
pondto theboundary if we assigntoK,
equationsof ? I, willbe also satisfied
and 14 suitablevalues,as follows:

K (h 1*) + cos20OK
2 sin29
K- Do sin20
hohlsin2(n-1)9-4sin'9sin 2n9 + 2(ho+ hl) sin9 cos (2n - 1)9
We can nowwrite

(7) x. [2 sin9 cos(2n- 2m+ 1)8 + h1sin2(n- m)9]D0

()mh,h 2(n - 1)0 - 4 sin29sin 2nd+ 2(ho+ hA)sin9 cos(2n - 1)9
sin
As 9 is a complexangle,theforcedoscillations
of typeeipton a non-uniform
conductor dampedoscillations.The similarity
of thiskindare simpleharmonic
between and a uniform
thisconductor presently.
wirewillbe discussed
Whenh. = hA= 0 we obtain
Do cos(2n -2m+1)
2 sin 0 sin2nd

B. Free oscillations.
Equation(7) holdsforfree as well as for forcedoscillations. But since
Do= 0 in thecase of freeoscillations,
it followsthatthedenominator of (7)
mustvanishto preventthevanishing have
of all currents.We shalltherefore
sin(2n -2)-4
(8) hAhl sin29sin2nd+ 2(h + h,)sin
) 0. cos(2n-1)0 =.
Fromthisequation,9 and thecorrespondingperiodsand dampingconstants
can be readilyobtainedfora smallnumber
haveto be determined.A solution
of cases; thetwomostimportantwillbe considered
here.
and thereceivingapparatusare not present.
First case. The transmitting
In thiscase ho= h = 0, and

(9) xm= B cos (2n - 2m + 1)9.

It is foundfrom(8) that(9) is actuallythesolution
of thedifferential
equa-
tions(6) forh, =h= Do 0 O, provided that
268 M. I. PUPIN: WAVE PROPAGATION [July

2n-
wheres is any integerfrom1 to 2n.
Hence the mostgeneralsolutionwill be:
2n

(10) xi1= B8cos(2n -2m+1) .

But it shouldbe observednowthatxm is a periodicfunctionof the time,thatis,

x -
KePse8t.
The constantpJ,,whichmeasuresthe period and the damping constantof the
freeoscillation,is determinedfromthe relation:

A - 4 sin29.

In the case of freeoscillations,

Hence h==p2LQ+pRU, -2n'

(1I1) p2LC+p,R
LC-pRC=-4sin227r

Before solving this equation,it is desirable to make the followingsubstitu-

tions:
Let L', 0', and R' be the total inductance,capacity,and resistance,re-
spectively,of one-halfof the conductor,then

L -, C-, R_-
n n

Let I denotethe halflengthof a uniformwirehavingo-, r, and c, forinductance,

resistance,and capacityper unit length,and let it have the same total induc-
tance,resistanice,
and capacityas the non-uniform conductor. Since

1 L', Ir =R', Ic= C',

we shall have
lo- IC R Ir
-.
n, C_-=n n

This uniformwirehavingthe same total inductance,resistance,-and capacityas

the non-uniform
conductor,will be called the correspondinguniformconductor.
From (11) we obtain

(p2C + p.cr)
n -4 sin2 T,
1900] OVER NON-UNIFORM ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS 269

whence
r 1 4n2 87r r2 2

Equation (10) now becomes:

rt2n 8SW
(12) xm= e-2 EA, cos (2n-2nl + 1) n-cos (k t-e ).

It is clear thatthe oscillationson the non-uniform

conductorof the firsttype
have the same dampingconstantas theoscillationson thecorresponding uniform
conductor. It will be shown presentlythat under certainconditionstheywill
also have the longerperiods,up to a certain limit,very nearlythe same as the
correspondinguniformconductor. For these periods,then, the non-uniform
conductorwill be equivalentto its corresponding uniformconductor.
Second case. The transmitting apparatusis not present,and in place of the
receivingapparatusthereis a break in the line at B.
In thiscase ho= 0? hi = co. Equation (9) gives:

Xm= B sin (2n-mn + 2)0,

providedthat
cos (2n- 1)9 0,
or
2s + 17r

2n-1 2
We shall have,therefore,
r .114n2 2s+ 1 r r_2 r
P2e+l- -2c>itiXc 2 sin 2n 12-4X2 2 2.+1

Hence
rt2n
2s?+17r
(13) xm= e 2a 1A,s+, sin (2n - 2m+ 2) 2-.
)2i1i
2 COS
o
(k2,+t-e2s
83=0

The remarkin the precedingcase regardingthe dampingconstantand the free

periodsalso applies here.
The wave-lengths of free oscillations.-The angles sw /2 n and
(2s + 1)7r/2(2n 1) have an interestingphysical meaning which will be
-

broughtout by consideringthe wave-lengths of the oscillations. Considerone

of theconiponentharmonicsof xm.in Case I, say

J
{m 8 AJcos (2n - 2m + 1) 2 cos (k8t-E-).

componentof xm, thatis, with

Compareit withthe corresponding

{ -AA cos (2n - 2m,+ 1) 2r cos (k8t - E8) e

270 M. I. PUPIN: WAVE PRQPAGATION [July

If theyare a wave-length
apart,{ = ~ andml- m is equaltothenum-
berof coilscoveredbyonewave-length.But in thiscase,

(2n- 2n + 1)437= (2n-.m) 27r + 27r

therefore 2n
ml n=M- = Vs.

Hencev8is thenumberof coilscoveredbya wave-length whichcorresponds to

theharmonic s. It canbe shownthat,inthesecondease,2(2n- 1)/2s+ 1=v '
For s7/2nand (2s + 1)7r/2(2n - I) we can,therefore, write7rlv8= 27r/2v8.
The physicalmeaningof 27r/v can nowbe readilyfixed. A coil represents a
definite
fractionofa wave-length,
andthisfraction willhavea differentvaluefor
different
harmonaics. The higherthe harmonic the shorterwill be thewave-
lengthand therefore,the largerwill be thevalue of thisfraction.It is con-
venient,
however, to measurethisfraction in termsof an angleinsteadof in
termsof a wave-length.If,wearbitrarily assumethatan angulardistance27r
correspondsto a wave-lengththenan angulardistance2wr/n will correspond to
thenthpartof a wave-length.Withthisunderstanding,
- 1),
sr/2nand (2s + 1)7r/2(2n
thatis 27w/2v, onehalfof theangulardistancecoveredby a coil.
represents

C. A non-uniform of thefirsttypecompared
conductor
withits corresponding
qniform wire.
a. Simila7itywithrespect tofreeoscillations.-Comparing the expressions
forthefreeperiodsof oscillationwhichwereobtainedin sectionsI and II we
see thatas longas 7rw/v-
can be writtenforsin /rls,,so longwill the periodsof
freeoscillations
of thenon-uniformconductor be nearlythesameas thoseofits
corresponding uniformcouductor.We havetherefore thesimplerule: A non-
uniform conductorof thefirsttyperepresentsits correspondinguniformcon-
ductoras nearlyas onehalf of theangulardistancecoveredbyoneof its coils
representsthesineof thatdistance. The non-uniform conductoremployedby
me* in myexperiments had 400 coils. In thiscase

UJ400
= wr/16.Nowsin7r/16
For s _ 25, we havew/v* fromr/16by2- ofone
differs
percentofthevalueof r/16. Hencetheperiodofthe25thharmonic
ofmynon-
* See papercitedin theintroduction.
1900] OVER NON-UNIFORM ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS 271

uniformconductordiffersfromthat of the same harmonicon the corresponding

uniformwirebyless than 2- of one per cent. For lowerharmonicsthedifference
is smaller. The 25th harmonichad approximately 3,500 p. p. s. Hence up to
the 25th harmonic,that is up to 3,500 p. p. s., the non-uniform conductorem-
ployedby me had nearlythe same freeperiodsas its corresponding uniformcon-
ductor.
b. Similarity withrespecttoforced oscillations. The wave-length and the
attenuationconstantcorresponding to a givenfrequencyspeedp5 can be studied
by studyingtheangle 9 fromthefollowingequation:

2
-4 sin2 = -pLC + ip,RC= p2pC + ip,rC]
8~~~~~~
- 72,2 --n2 (a + ig8)2,

or
sin 8 (an(a + i8),

wherep, C, and r, are the inductance,capacity,and resistance,respectively,

per unit lengthof the corresponding uniformconductor;and P,, a,, and ,8.
have the same meaningsas in ? I.
Referringnow to equation(4), ? I, we shall findthat
a '3g.

la,/2nis sufficiently
If, therefore, small we can put

0 = n (a5 + i8) = -1g

When this substitution is made in (7) and (7a) theseequationswill transform

into (5) and (5a) of ? I, whichshowsthatundertheseconditionsthe non-uniform
conductorof the firsttypebecomes approximately equivalentto its correspond-
ing uniformconductor, thedegreeof approximationbeing the same as thatof
sin 90to 08
The physicalmeaningof thiscan readilybe made clear. If by X we denote
the wave-length on the correspondinguniformconductor,corresponding to the
frequencyspeedpa, thenaccordingto ? I,

27r 1 1 27r
S tsn n B

Let n5 be the numberof coils on the non-uniform conductorwhich covera

wave-length of frequencyspeedp*, and let 0, be theangulardistancecoveredby
a coil, then
2wr
n
272 M. I. PUPIN: WAVE PROPAGATION [July

Again
n n : 8 ,
or
27r
n:8-
:: 1: Xs.
Hence
1 27r 1
- =an8 _ -
nX 8

The substitutionmentionedabove will thereforebe permissiblewhen 2 4,

(that is, one-halfof the angular distance covered by a c.oil)is approximately
equal to sin fr/2. We have here the same rule as in the case of free oscilla-
tions. It will be shownin ? III thatthisrule is also applicableto non-uniform
conductorsof the secondtype,forwavesof bothforcedand freeperiods.

? III. WAVE PROPAGATION ALONG A NON-UNIFORM CONDUCTOR OF THE

SECOND TYPE.

A. Waves oJforcedperiods.
The conductoris representedin the diagramof Fig. 3. A longuniformwire
formsa loopL1 Lk+?2.
.. At equal intervalsare insertedin series2k + 2 equal

L2 L3 Lk +

LI Lk+2~~~~~~~~~~L+
L2 LA,L+,
FIG. 3

coils L1, L2, ..*. To makethediscussionmoregeneral,leteachcoil have a con-

denserof capacity COin serieswithit.
Let L, R, and C, representthe inductance,resistanceand capacity,respec-
tively,per unit length of the uniformwire. Let an e. m. f. of typeEelPtbe
impressedat L1. Employingthe usual notationwe shall have the following
equationof propagationat everypointof the uniformwire:

__ d la 2y
(1) Lds2t dt - C YsI

the same as in ? I, but here the integral has to satisfy2k + 2 boundarycon-

ditions,one at each coil. On account of the symmetry of the
of distribution
k
coils on the two sides of the loop thisnumberis reducedto + 2.
1900] OVER NON-UNIFORM ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS 273
To formulatetheseboundaryconditionsintroducethe followingnotation:
Let 21 be the lengthof the loop; 1/(k+ 1) will be the distancebetween two
consecutivecoils. Let Los Ro, and CO, be the inductance,resistance,anid
of each coil. Let Ymbe the currentat any pointof the
capacity,respectively,
interval betweenthe coils Lm and Lm+l? Denote the distanceof this point
fromcoil Lm by t.
The currentsin the coils will be denotedby x1 x2, Xk+l Xk+2* It is
, *.,

evidentthat
(Ym)t=0 = (Ym-1)t=il kl+i) Xm

The boundaryconditionsfor all coils except L1 and Lk+2 can now be stated.
They are:

(.Ym i) _(d =a-.C(

Y) p2XO+ ipRl) Xm= hAX
where
1
0 0 2C

There are k equationsof this form. The boundaryequationsfor the first

and the last coil are of the followingforms:

-2 (y& -ippCEeiPt -hx D -hx

forthe firstcoil, and

(
2 ) k2
4=I/(k+)
forthe last coil.
Equation (3) of ? I and equation (6a) of ? II suggest the followingtrial
solution:
(la) ym =Kc cos + ? KE sin 4zt,

wherep has the same value as in ? 1.

When - ? 0 Ymbecomes x and when Cn 1/(k+ 1), Ymbecomesxrn.+
Hence
= m+1
wn K,= K
xm= K, cosk+
ko+ 1; +EsinkPI
2
/+1.
k2it
Therefore
(2) Ym- sin H (k 1- + Xm+?sinp4

sin k + 1

the k + 2 constantsx1i x2
We have nowto determine .,
Xk+2 fromthe k + 2
boundaryequations.
274 M. I. PUPIN: WAVE PROPAGATION [July

Begin withthe boundaryequationat the coil L1:

dy F4{ XmCOS/h(k+l1 t) + Xm+iCOS 4t}

sin -

Therefore

2 Y -2 (x Cos ~lx2 /1=D -hx1.

(ds )t=0 ( k+ 1 2
sink +1
Let
1.41 . Ll

O =h sink+ k
-4 sin2 kk+lD; __ P D

the boundaryequationscan thenbe written:

(oT+t)x1-O x=9+2p a'

22?
= 0,
(o- + 2)X2 -X- --

(o + 2)x3- .- =0,

(3) (O+2)Xm Xmi-Xm+i=?

(o + 2)xk+ 1-x - xk?2 =0

(o- + l)Xk+2
-
Xk+1 -0 = -
Xk+2

This systemis of the same formas system(6) of ? II. Equation (7) of that
ectionenablesus to writedownthe solutionof (3).
Let
o + 2 = 2 cos 2*;

. Ymhave the respectivevaliues:

thenXm

D sin k+ 1 Cos 2 (k-m + 2)*

2,Asin 2+ sin 2 (k )

[cos 2(k- m + 2)* sin ( + -t) +cos2(k-mr+1)*sinF ]D

2, sin 2* sin 2(k + 1)+
1900] OVER NON-UNIFORM ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS 275

These statementsgive the completemathematicalrepresentation of waves of

forcedperiodon a conductorof this kind. The angles * and ,uare, of course,
complex; hence,in order to calculate fromthese equations in any particular
case the prinicipalquantitieswithwhichwe are concernedin wave propagation,
namely,the wave-length and the attenuationconstant,it would be necessaryto
studyseparatelythereal and theimaginarypartsof theseequations. This study
in its broadest aspect presentsconsiderablemathematicalcomplexity. It is,
however,somewhatremotefromthe principalaim of this paper which is to as-
certainthe conditionsunderwhicha non-uniform conductorof the second type
is approximately equivalent to its correspondinguniformconductor,that is, to
ascertain the frequenciesfor which the two will have approximatelythe same
wave-lengths and the same attenuationconstants.

Equivalence of a non-uniformconductorof the second type

to its correspondinguniformconduc'tor.
The solutionof this problemis obtainedby studyingthe followingequation:

- + + 2 cos+l= 2 cos 2*,,

or
h, sink i 1
4 sin 2 k- -
-4 sin2*,.

The subscripts denotes that the particular frequencyspeed p, is considered,

and
a,8+i a,-8

If Xs is the wave-length to p, on the uniformwirebeforethbintro-

corresponding
ductionof the reactancepoints,then

1 1 2w
k+la--k+1-x8
Let 9e be the angulardistancebetweentwo consecutivecoils forwave-length
X,:
then
27r:
e SSk + 1;

therefore
1 27r 1
s Ak th1 + 1 k
Trans. Am. Math. So--. 19
276 M. I. PUPIN: WAVE PROPAGATION [July

Hence if Se is so small that sin 90=9 verynearly,then

__+__ l-hs (g, t 1 2 4 sin2#8

or

(k $i1)2GVrC2(p + L) + ip(r+ R)} -4 sin2f,

per unit lengthof

wherep and r are the inductanceand resistance,respectively,
the insertedcoils, so thatp + L and r + R, are the inductanceand resistance
of the correspondinguniformconductor. This last equation can
respectively,
also be written:

12-+ I(< + i3) = sin .

In thiscase also a'
Let X be thewave-length
forfrequencyspeed p, on thecorresponding
uniform
conductor. Then
27r
s

' = laJl(k+ 1); then ' is the angulardistance between two ccnsecu-
Put
tive coils,the angulardistanceof X' being 27.
If,therefore, is so small thatsin -2-' = -c' verynearly,then

k + 1 (a + i3) -k + 1
verynearly.
Making this substitutionin (4) we obtainequation(5a) of ? I. The equation
of wave propagationfora non-uniform conductorof the second typeis, under
the same as that for its correspondinguniformconductor.
these conditiorns,
The two will have approximately the samewave-length and thesame attenuation
constantforthe frequencyspeedp, .
The degreeof approximationis the same as thatof sin #//2to *A/2.
A numericalexamplewill illustratethis pointmoreclearly.
Considera uiniform telegraphwirehaving the followingconstantsper mile:

L .004 Henry,
=
R= 7 Ohm,
=.01 x 10-6 Farads.
Introduceat each mile a coil having

L1= .036 Henry,

R = 1 Ohm.
1900] OVER NON-UNIFORM ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS 277
conductorthus obtainedwill have forits correspon'ding
The non-uniform uni-
formconductora uniformwirehaving,per mile,

L+Li= .04 Henry,

R+R1 -8 Ohm,
C= .01 x 10- Farads.

For a frequencyof 1500 p. p. s. we shall havep, = 27r x 1500.

The wave-length'X on thecorresponding uniformconductorforthis frequency
is verynearly
x= = 33 miles.

Hence, since the interposedcoils are one mile apart,we shall have

sin -l-' = sin 7.

233.

Now sin 7r,/33= 7r/33to within6 of one per cent of the value of 7r/33. Up
to this degreeof approximationthe non-uniform conductorjust describedwill
have the same wave-lengthand the same attenuationconstantas its corres-
ponding uniformconductor. For lowerfrequenciesthe degree of approxima-
tion will be muchhigher; henceforall frequencieswhichare of anyimportance
in the telephonictransmission
of speechthe two conductorsare equivalent.

B. WTavesof free period.

Equatioln(4) holds forall values of D; it should thereforehold good when
D = 0. In this case, however,all the currentswill vanish unless the denom-
inatorvanishes,that is, unless
(4a) sin 2* sin 2(k + 1), = 0.
This transcendental
equationtogetherwiththe equation:

(4b) sin k+l + 2cos /;> 1 2 cos 2*,

determinesthe freeperiodsand theircorresponding

dampingconstants.
Equation (4a) will be satisfiedwhen

2(k +1)'
whierer is any integerfrom0 to co.
When r = s(k + 1) we shall have not only sin 2(k + 1)* = 0, but also
sin 2* = 0.
278 M. I. PUPIN: WAVE PROPAGATION [July

These particularvalues of * give a set of free oscillationswhichforma dis-

tinctgroup,called furtherbelow the oscillationsof normalperiod.
Equation (4b) shouldtherefore be written:

h sin -r'
r I4
k?+1 r ___

(4c) ?2 COS -2COS

Pr k+ 1 k?+ I

This equationwill be referredto as theperiod equation.

It shouldbe observedthat

- = C(V2L + v7R), hr= C(72)XO

+ v7R0).

An inspectionof (5) showsthatthe completesolutionforwavesof freeperiod

can now be written:

Yn = A7 {cos (k-m + 2) kTsin P(+ - )

+ cos (k-rn ? )k sinpr;

or
E nrl
~~~~~~Yk
r=o

In the case of a uniformwirethe periodsand the wave-lengths of the simple

harmoniccomponentsql , 772 ** rv ... have in generala harmonic relatioil.
The introductionof thereactancepointsL1, L2, ... disturbsthisrelationin con-
sequenceof a displacementin thevalues of the normalperiodsand of the normal
dampingconstant. It is evidentfrom purelyphysicalconsiderations thatsince
the introductionof the reactancepointsincreases,in general,the inductanceper
unit length,the periodswill be lengthened.

a. Waves of normalperiod.
Accordingto equ$ion (7), ? I the wave-lengths
of free oscillationson a uni-
formloop are as follows:
21 21 21 21 21 21 21
1 ' 2 ' 3' ' k+1' k+2' ' 2(k+1)' 2(k+3)'
21 21
s (k + 1)' s(k+ 1) + i'

Divide this series into groups of (k + 1) memberseach. Consider now the

last memberof each group; call it the terminalmember.- The wave-lengthsof
the terminalmembersare
1900] OVER NON-UNIFORM ELECTRICAL CONDUCrORS 279

21 21 21
(k+l)' 2(k+1)' ' 8(k+ 1)'

These terminalmemberswill appear withnormalperiodsamongthefreeoscilla-

tionson the periodicallyloaded loop. To showthis considerthe componentsof
Y. oftypeia(k+1) wheres maybe anyinteger between 1 and o . Sincein the
case of thesecomponentsJ = s7r, the periodequationbecomes:

sin + 2 cos k 1 2 cos snr.

This equationwill be satisfiedby putting

(k + l)s7r
I

The freeperiodsof componentsof type i71-k+i)are now easily obtained:

v2LC + vRC=-.2 (k + 1)2s28r2

Therefore
1R 4 .I 1 (k?)+ j)2S27r2 __ 1
pJ -~ 2 tLC -- -12 - -42?itp.

From the expressionforYmwe deduce:

1l8(k+J)= Bi?l) sin(k+ i '

where
R
2L Cos
Bs(7?l)=B(k7l)e (p,t - E).

The wave-length
of this componentis 21/s(k + 1).
The wave-lengths
of thecomponent
of type77(k,+) are
21 21 21 21
k+1' 2(k+1)' 3(k+1)' 's(k+)'

From the wave-lengths and theircorrespondingperiodswe see that the oscil-

lationsof the type 78k+1) are identicalwiththe terminalmembersof the groups
into which the freeoscillationson a uniformloop were divided above. The
physicalreasonwhytheseperiods have not been disturbedby the introduction
of reactancepoints is easily seen; it is because theyhave their nodes at the
reactancepoints. The otherk membersof each grouphave been disturbedby
the presenceof the reactance points. The characterof this disturbancewill
now be discussed.
280 M. I. PUPIN: WAVE PROPAGATION [July

b. Wavesof displacedperiod.
Fromtheexpression
forYmwe deduce,byputting 0= 0,

A cos (k- m+ 2) i+l sintrk? 1

r~~~l k+ l

r=l
First, considerthe wave-lengths
of theseoscillations
of type{m r. Begin
withthefundamental:
A cos(k-mn+2) k+ I sn _-_
1
Brn, 1 ,qr -

sink +

As m increasesfrom1 to k + 2 the angle (k- m + 2)wr/(k + 1) dimiinishes

fromnrto 0 . In Fig. 4, thelineLIL1 representsthelengthof theloop,Lk+2
is themiddlepointof it. Points 1, 2, 3, **, k + 2 markthepositionofthe

FIG. 4

reactancepoints. At thesepointsmeasure offabscisste

equalto t1 1 {2, 3, 1
The extremities of theseabscissae
willbe on theharmonic curveI. Thiscurve
represents the fundamental oscillationof displacedperiod. Its wave-length
is 21, thesameas thewave-length of thefundamental oscillationbeforethein-
troductionofthereactance points.
The nextcomponent is
2w - l
A2cos (k-rnm+ 2) ? 1 sin u2 ?
ams
2 . 2r
sin-

As m increasesfromI tok + 2 theangle(k - m + 2)2v/(k+ 1) diminishes

from27rto 0 . It willtherefore
havefourmaximaand fourzeropointson the
loop. Its wave-length
is 1. Thiscomponentis represented
bycurveII inFig. 4.
1900] OVER NON-UNIFORM ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS 281

Take now the last componentbut one of the firstgroupof freeoscillationsof

displacedperiod. It is
A (7 k + 2) k sin Il
c m k?
k?17r
sin t
k

As m increasesfrom1 to k + 2, the angle (k - m + 2)kr'r/(k + 1) dinminishes

fromk7rto O. This componenthas therefore 2k maximaand 2k zero pointson
the loop. Its average wave-length is 21/k. The last componentof thisgroup
is the same as the lowestoscillationof normalperiod,thatis, tk1. -
The components ofthefirstgrouphavetherefore thesameaveragewave-lengths
as the componentsof the firstgroupof free oscillationson the loop beforethe
introduction of the reactancepoints.
It can nowbe easilyshownthatthisis trueforthecomponents of all the other
groupsand attentionshouldbe called here to the fact that the wave-lengths of
the free oscillationsof displaced periods can be considerablysmallerthan the
distancebetweentwo consecutivereactancepoints. The introduction of the re-
actance pointschanges,therefore,neitherthe numberof freeoscillationsnor
their average wave-length. Their periods,however,and their damping con-
stantswill be changedas will be shownpresently.

c. Displacementof'periods.
The periods and damping constantsof the oscillationsof displacedperiods
are determinedfromthe periodequation:

k sin Lr
r k+1l k+1
k+
- + + 2 cos k + l = 2 Cosk + 1

The unknownquantity vr, containedin hr and p,, is, of course,a complex

quantity,thatis, we can write
vr -' nr + iPr-

I am not as yet quite readyto discussfullythe generalpropertiesof the roots

of the periodequation. Besides,sucha discussionwouldgo considerably beyonld
the linits of this paper,the principalobject of whichis to determinethe condi-
tionsunderwhichthe non-uniform conductorof Fig. 3 is equivalentto a uni-
formloop. I shall l'imitmyself,therefdre, to a bIief statementof thoseproper-
ties,only,of this equationwhichbear directlyupon theseconditions.
First, since
osP [2s(k + 1) i r]7r
cos
k?1= cos k+1
282 M. I. PUPIN: WAVE PROPAGATION [July

it followsthat the periodsand the dampingconstantsof the wave-lengths

21 21 21 21
r' 2(k+1)4?r' 4(k+?1)?r' ' 2s(k+1)4 r'

are determinedfromone anid the same angle * = r'r/(k+ 1). This relation
betweenthesewave-lengths is illustratedgraphicallyin Fig. 5. The horizontal
top bar marked1, 2, *.,k?, *. ., 2k + 1, 2k + 2, 2k + 3, contains
a numericalrecordof all the possiblewave-lengths

21 21 21 21 21 21
1' 2' ' k+l'
+' 2k+1' ' 2k+2' 2k+3'

The firstverticalcolumnmarked 0, 1, 2, 3, *.k, k + 1, *** containsthe

recordof all possiblevalues of r. The meaningof the black dotsis now easily

ll-;l@4]$ig~~I - +eo_+ ++ I,+~-- + *+ + *++- H_t

2~~~~~ -d- -M 0 qowC

-2 0 S 0

_ ::*::
kt3
0.~~

- .t 9t-:
FIG. 5

explained. Take for instancethe rowof black dots in the horizontalbar 3.

These dots are in the columns 3, Sk - 1, 2k + 5, 4k + 1, 4k +7,
This meansthatif,in the periodequation:

h . ,ul ,Pl r7r

- sin k + 2 cos -----2 cos

we put r = 3, thenthe rootsof the equationwill give us the periods and the
dampingconstantsforthe wave-lengths

21 21 21
3 ' 2k-1' 2k+5'

For thisreasonthesemay be called the conconmitantwave-16ngths. An inspec-

tion of thistable showsthat the concomitant
wave-lengthsare symmetrically
ar-
rangedwithrespectto the wave-lengths of normalperiods
1900] OVER NON-UNIFORM ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS 283

21 21 21
k +1' 2(k + 1)' 4(k + 1)

Of a given seriesof concomitantwave-lengths thereis one in each of the groups

mentionedabove. The firstone of these groups contains the longest wave-
lengths; it may be called thefundamental group. The wave-lengthsof this
group togetherwiththeirconcomitantwave-lengthsgive all the possiblewave-
lengths. If, in the periodequation,the values 0, 1, 2, .., k + 1 are succes-
sivelygiven to r, the rootsof the resultingk + 2 equationswillgive theperiods
and dampingconstantsnot onlyforthe wave-lengthsof the fundamentalgroup
but also theirconcomitants, thatis, forall the wave-lengths.
It shouldbe observedthatthemorenearlycos r'n/(k+ 1) approachesthevalues
+ 1 or - 1, the morecloselywill the concomitant wave-lengthsapproach the
wave-lengths of normal period around which they are symmetrically grouped,
and therefore,the moreclosely will their periods approach the period of the
centralwave-length. For instance,the wave-lengths

21 21 21 21
2k +L 2k +3 4k+3' 4k+5'

are concomitantsof the wave-lengtlhs21/1. Their periodsare obtainedfrom

the periodequationby puttingr = 1 . This makescos r-7r/(k
+ 1) approachthe
value + I and tlherefore,
the periodsof wave-lengths

21 21 21 21
aCnd - and
4k +5
-
2k + 1 2k+3' 4k+3

willapproachtheperiodsofthewave-lengths
21 21
2(k + 1) ' 4(k + 1)'

whichhave been calculatedabove. When,therefore,

k is large,the rootsof the
periodequation:
h 1 y1
sin k + 1 + 2cos 2cos-

comeout in pairs of nearlyequal magnitudeforall values of r whichare small

in comparisonto k. This peculiar propertyof the roots of the period equa-
tion suggestsa strikingresemblancebetweenthe oscillationsof a periodically
loaded conductorand the luminousvibrationsof an incandescentgaseous sub-
stancewhich,in myopinion,deserves serious attention. I expect to discuss
thismattermorefullyon somiefutureoccasion.
284 M. I. PUPIN: WAVE PROPAGATION [July

d. Equivalence of a non-uniform of the secon'dtypeto its corres-

condluctor
pondlinguniformconductor.
Suppose that we now increase the niumberof reactance pointswithoutin-
creasingthe total reactanceand resistanceintroducedintothe line. In the ex-
pression:
h (V2p + vR),
put
lx' IR'
k+1 Rk+1;k
then

h_= --CQ'2X' + vR') 2-1h'.

As the numberof reactancepointsis increased,X' and R' are to be keptcon-

stant; henicep and R mustvaryiniverselyas k + 1 . When k becomesinfinite,
all the wave-lengthsdifferent
fromzero will be in the firstgroupof Fig. 5 be-
tween the coltumns 1 and k + 1 . The other columnsof this table lose their
physicalmeaning. To showwhat becomes of the period equationwhenk ap-
proachesthe limit oo, writethe periodequationin the followingformn:

IA' sin U
k?+ 1 h S k?+ 1 _ 4 sin1 1 =-4 sin'I--+-
FL Tk k+ 1
Since wave-lengthsdifferent
fromzero are to be considered,onlyfinitevalues
of r need be considered. Hence whenk oo the periodequationbecomes:

12(h'- P2) = r2w2

or
C {v2X + vR'+ v2L+ vR}= r-,
or
C{ V2(X'+ L) + v(R' + R)} = - -2

This equationis, as it oughtto be, the periodequationof a uniform

conductor
of inductanceX' + L, resistanceR' + 1?, and capacity C per unit length.
This conductoris the so-calledcorresponding uniformcoiiductorof the periodic-
ally loaded loop.
When k is large but not infinitethe same relationwill exist approximately,
and it is proposedto ascertainnow the degreeof this approximation.
We have seen thatll,'l(k+ 1) varieswithr as follows:

k
+ -S7r , where r-s(k + 1),
1900] OVER NON-UNIFORM ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS 285

s being any integerfrom0 to co. Thus when

117r
,i?-1 is 0 7r, 27r, 37r, 47r, ...

willbe 0, 7r, 2wr,37r, 47r

Since p1/(k+ 1) varies continuously with r it followsthatwhen r7r,

(k + 1) is
smiall,pl/(k+ 1) will also be small since bothvanishsimultaneously. It is well
to introduceherethephysicalmeaningof r/(k + 1). Let Xrbe the wave-length
of the wave forwhich -r7r/w2(k+ 1); then X,.= 21/r,and therefore

r7r 27r 1 1
_- - =- - 27r K

wherel is the distancebetweentwoconsecutivecoils. Let 27r be the angular

distanceof Xr. and Orthe angulardistanceof 11corresponding
to the periodof
X; then
1 0
; - 2w
Therefore

k+ 1 r

Since for small values of 27r/(k+ 1) the angle pi/(k+ 1) is nearlyequal to

r7r/(k+ 1) it followsthat withinthese limits 14/(k+ 1) is approximatelvequal
to the angle 0,. It followsthereforethat wave-lengthsfor which 0r is suf-
small,the periodequation:
ficiently
1 h'. /4
ll rwr
k sin
-- -4 sin2-- l- 4 sin2

can be written:

k(D-1--)h 1 -)/ + 1) (
_
or
C{V2(X' + L) + v"(R + R)} = -(jj+-1)

that is, the periodicallyloaded conductorhas approximatelythe same period,

damping constant,and, of course,the same wave-lengthas its corresponding
uniformconductor. The degreeof approximationis of the same orderas the
degreeofapproximation betweenone half of theangulardistanceseparatingtwo
consecutivecoils and the sine of that distance.
286 M. I. PUPIN: WAVE PROPAGATION

It shouldbe observedthatif the wholeloop is dividedintoa numberof equal

partsand the consecutivepartsare connectedto each otherby mutualinduction,
thenthe non-uniform conductorthus obtained will act in the same way as the
non-uniform conductorof Fig. 3 of this section. Anotherarrangement whichis
equivalent to the two arrangementsso far describedis obtained by placing
bridgesat periodicintervalsof the uniformloop, each bridgeconsistingofa coil
of properresistanceand inductance,and thedistancebetweenthe bridgesbeing
adjustedin accordancewiththe generalruleformulated here. The mathematical
analysisof thesetwo arrangements does not differessentiallyfromthe one given
hereand can be easilyworkedout.
A rule governingthe degreeof approximation betweena non-uniform conduc-
tor and its correspondinguniformconductorhas thus been established,and it
has been provedthatthe same rule is applicable to both typesof non-uniform
conductorsand also to both forcedand free oscillations. The principalobject
of thisinvestigationhas, therefore,been accomplished.
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY.